First Law of Thermodyamics

U = Q + W
where U is the increase in internal energy of the
system, Q is the heat supplied to the system and
W is the work done on the system.
We can rewrite this by introducing two physical
concepts, entropy and enthalpy.
Entropy, S , is a measure of disorder in the system.
Enthalpy, H , is the quantity U + pV , as this
combination of terms frequently appears in ther-
modynamic equations.
so we can rewrite the rst law in terms of entropy
and enthalpy by considering conditions of constant
pressure or constant volume:
U = TS , pV
H = TS + V p
For a simplyfying assumption we consider only
reversible changes so that
Q = TS ; W = pV
Specic Heats
At constant volume:
 dq
cv = ( dt )
which becomes
du
cv = ( dt ) ! U = cvT
for an ideal gas (pV = RT ).
Therefore,
H = cvT + RT = T (cv + R) = cpT ! H = cpT
where cp is the specic heat at constant pressure.
We can then solve for TS
TS = H , V p
eliminating V yields
RT
TS = cpT , ( p )p
Dividing by T yields a convenient form:
T p
S = cp( T ) , R( p ) (A)
and integrating over all the  's yields
S = cp(lnT ) , R(lnp)+ So ! S = cp(ln(Tp,))+ So
where   cRp
 For a diatomic gas,  is approximately 2/7.
Now let's consider an adiabatic process, one in
which there is no heat transfer. This means Q =
0 which, by our denition means S = 0.
To fullll this condition means
T p
cp( T ) = R( p )
if the system goes from T to a nal temperature
Tf and from p to po then when we integrate the
lefthand side from T to Tf and the righthand side
from p to po we get
T p
cp(ln( T )) = R(ln( po ))
f

or
p
Tf = T ( p)o

The quantity Tf is usually referred to as  and is

known as the potential temperature. For reference,
po is usually taken to be 1000 millibars.
Parcels of Air and Lapse Rates
We assume that a parcel of air is like our idealized
cylinder. The parcel is in pressure equilibrium with
respect to the environment but may have diering
temperature and density. Of course, there is no such
thing as a parcel as real air mixes fast.
 For an adiabatic parcel, the potential tempera-
ture and entropy are constant as heigh changes so
we can write:
 d dS ]
dz ] parcel = [ dz parcel = 0
or from equation A
cp  dT ] , R  dp
] = 0
T dz parcel p dz parcel
or rearranging terms
 dT RT  dp
] =
dz cpp dz ] ( B )
Now we remember hydrostatic equilibrium
dp = ,gp
dz RT
to yield
 dT g
dz ] = , cp
or more conveniently
 dT g
, dz ] = c
p
This species the rate of temperature decrease
with height (z) that would be expected for an adi-
abatic parcel of air. So this is called the adiabatic
lapse rate. In its simplest form when applied to a
mass of dry air its value is 9.8 K/km.
The introduction of this concept now allows for
us to physically dene a stability criterion.
We consider a parcel of air with parameters T,p,
and z which adiabatically rises to a height z. At
this new height z = z + z. The new temparature
will be:
1

 dT
T = T + dz ]parcel
z
1

or
T = T , cg z
1
p
The environmetal temperature, at height z will
be dierent than T put the parcel is assumed to be
1

in pressure equilibrium so that

1

 dp
p = p + dz ]env
z
1

Using the ideal gas law

parcel = RT p p
; env = RT
1 1

parcel env
stability occurs whenever parcel is greater than
env; the displaced parcel can't continue to rise and
will fall back down, Instability occurs if the rising
parcel nds its density to be less than the density
of the environment.
Hence the concept of buoyancy now comes into
play. The buoyancy force occurs because the eec-
tive mass is dierent at height z than it is at z as we
assume constant volume for the parcel of air (there
1

are no pressure dierences to cause expansion or

contraction). The mass dierence is
V (e , pl)
1

where e refers to environment and pl refers to

parcel.
Now we apply newtons second law:
F = mx
Now the notation gets a little cumbersome but:
Force = gV (e , pl) = plV
dt
2
d ( z )
1 1
2

d (z) = g[ e , 1]) = g[ Tpl , 1]

2

dt 2
pl Te
now we use our previous expressions for Te and
Tpl and dene
dt
,a = dz dt
; , = dz
parcel env
to get
d (z) = g[ (T , ,az) , 1)
2

dt 2
(T , ,z)
 or
d (z) = , g (, , ,)z
2

dt 2
T a
This reduces to an equation of the form:
d (z) + N (z) = 0
2
2

dt 2

where
g g dT
N = T (,a , ,) = T ( dz + c )
2
g
p
where T in this case is environmental temper-
ature. If N > 0 then this is the equation of motion
2

for a harmonic oscillator where N is the frequency

(called buoyancy frequency).
We can return to our previous equation:
p
 = T ( po )
or
ln = lnT , lnp
dierentiating yields
d = dT ,  dp
 T p
now we diereniate both sidez by dz
 1 d = 1 dT ,  dp
 dz T dz p dz
dz = ,g
remember that dp
so
1 d = 1 dT + g
 dz T dz p
now since  = cRp and the ideal gas law we get
1 d = 1 dT + g
 dz T dz cpT
so that
N =  dz
2
g d 
as the stability criteria.