St.

ANN’S COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY
UNIT - I
POLYMER TECHNOLOGY

Polymers are the backbone of four major industries viz. plastics, elastomers, fibres and paints
and varnishes. The word ‘polymer’ is coined from two Greek words: poly means many and mer means
unit or part.  The term polymer is defined as very large molecules having high molecular mass (10 3-
107u). “These are also referred to as macromolecules, which are formed by joining of repeating
structural units on a large scale”. The repeating structural units are derived from some simple and
reactive molecules known as monomers and are linked to each other by covalent bonds.

Polymerization: The process by which the monomer molecules are linked together to form a
polymer is called polymerization.
Degree of polymerization: - The number of repeating units in the chain is called degree of
polymerization. Polymers with high degree of polymerization are called high polymers and those
with low degree of polymerization are called Oligo polymers.
Functionality:- Number of reactive sites present in a monomer is referred as Functionality. Minimum
functionality for any substance to act as a monomer is 2.
Ex :- Functionality
NH2 – (CH2)6 – NH2 2

CH2 = CH2 2

CH2 – OH
|
CH – OH 3
|
CH2 – OH
CLASSIFICATION OF POLYMERS: Polymers are classified in a number of ways as
1) Based on the source:
a) Natural polymers: The polymers obtained from nature (plants and animals) are called Natural
polymers. Ex. Starch, cellulose, Natural rubbers, proteins, Nucleic acid
b) Synthetic Polymers: The polymers which are prepared in the laboratories are
called synthetic polymers
E.g. Poleythylene, polyvinylchloride (pvc), Nylon, Teflon, Backelite, Terylene etc.
Semi Synthetic Polymers
c) Semi synthetic polymers: Polymers obtained by making some modification in natural polymers
by artificial means, are known as semi synthetic polymers, e.g., cellulose acetate, Vulcanized rubber,
gun cotton
Based on the structure: polymers are classified as (a) linear polymer (b) Branched chain polymer
(c) cross–linked polymer
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a) Linear polymer : These are the polymers in which the monomer units are linked to one another to
form long linear chains. These linear chains are closely packed in space. The close packing results in
high densities, tensile strength and high melting and boiling points.
e.g., high density polyethene, nylon and polyesters are linear polymers.

b) Branched chain polymer: In such polymers, the monomer units are linked to form long chains
with some branched chains of different lengths with source. As a result of branching, these polymers
are not closely packed in space. Thus, they have low densities, low tensile strength as well as low
melting and boiling points. Some common examples of such polymers are low density polyethene,
starch, glycogen etc.

c) cross–linked polymer: In such polymers, the monomer units are linked together to form three
dimensional network. These are expected to be quite hard, rigid and brittle. Examples of cross linked
polymers are bakelite, glyptal, melamine-formaldehyde polymer etc.

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Based on the Thermal behaviour: polymers are classified as a) Thermoplastic b)Thermosetting c)
a) Thermoplastics: Thermoplastics are the polymers which soften on heating and harden on cooling
reversibly.
E.g. Polyethylene, polysterene, pvc, Teflon, Nylon, sealing wax.
b) Thermosetting: Thermosetting plastics are the polymers which undergo permanent change on
heating (irreversible)
E.g. Bakelite, Polyester, Polysiloxanes.
Based on intermolecular forces:
Elastomers : Elastomers are polymers in which the polymer chains are held by weakest
intermolecular forces. These forces permit the polymers to be stretched
E.g. Natural rubber
Fibres : Fibres are polymers in which the chains are held by strong intermolecular forces like H–
bond, Dipole–dipole interaction.
E.g. Nylon, poly Acrylonitrile
Based on the mode of synthesis: polymer are classified as
a) Addition polymers b) condensation polymers
a) Addition polymers: A polymer formed by direct addition of repeated monomer without the
elimination of by product molecules are called Addition polymer.
Ex: Poly ethylene, poly styrene

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b) Condensation polymers: A polymer formed by the condensation of two (or) more monomers with
the elimination of simple molecule like H2O, NH3, HCl, alcohol etc.are called condensation polymer.
E.g. Terylene, Bakelite, Alkyl Resin, Nylon 6, 6.
Stereo-specific polymers: polymers having definite tacticity are known as stereo-specific polymers
Tacticity: The orientation of monomeric units (or) functional groups in polymer molecule can take
place in a orderly (or) disorderly manner with respect to the main chain is known as tacticity
Atactic polymer: random arrangement of side chains with respect to a main chain are termed as
atactic polymer
Isotactic polymer: if the orientation of side chain is on the same side of the polymer chain they are
called as isotactic polymers.
Syndiotactic polymer: If the arrangement of side groups is in alternating fashion it is called a
‘syndiotactic’ polymer

Polymerization: is a chemical reaction that can unite two or more molecules of similar or different
types with or without the elimination of small molecules like water etc. resulting in the formation of
giant molecule. There are mainly three kinds of polymerization processes
a) Addition polymerization b) condensation polymerization
Difference between Addition and condensation polymerization
Addition polymerization Condensation polymerization
1) monomers having double bond can 1) monomers having polar groups can
participate in this type of reaction participate in this type of reaction
2) No side products are produced 2) side products like water, HCl etc are
produced
3) the molecular weight of polymer is 3) the molecular weight of polymer is not
exact multiple of the monomer an exact multiple of the monomer
4) the polymer has the same chemical 4) polymer and monomer has different
composition as that of monomer chemical composition
5) total mechanism is carried out in 3 5) it is not a 3 step mechanism
steps
6) mechanism is rapid 6) mechanism is slow
7) exothermic reaction 7) not an exothermic reaction

Polymerization Techniques:
Suspension Polymerization: Suspension polymerization is a type of radical polymerization in which
mechanical agitation is used. Here, the monomers should be in the liquid phase. There can be either
one monomer or several monomers present in the liquid mixture. When polymers are formed from

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this method, the polymer material exists as a sphere suspended in the liquid. It is also known as bead
or pearl polymerization.
The liquid phase is often water, but other suitable organic solvents can also be used. Almost all
the thermoplastic polymers are formed from this polymerization technique. Some of the polymer
materials produced by this method include PVC (polyvinyl chloride), styrene resins, PMMA
(polymethyl methacrylate), etc. The essential components of a suspension polymerization reaction
mixture are as follows.
 Dispersing medium
 Monomer or monomers
 Stabilizing agents
 Monomer soluble initiators
Suspension polymerization has many advantages over other polymerization methods: the liquid
phase act as an effective heat-transfer medium, it is highly economical and more environmentally
friendly. The temperature and viscosity of the medium can easily be controlled. In addition, the
purification and the further processing is also easy when compared to other polymerization
techniques.
Disadvantages: The method can be adopted only for water insoluble monomers. • It is difficult to
control polymer size. • Polymer purity is low due to the presence of suspending & stabilizing additives
that are difficult to remove completely. • Suspension polymerization reaction is highly agitation
sensitive.
Emulsion polymerization:
 The technique is used for the production of large number of commercial plastics & elastomers.
 The system consists of water insoluble monomer, dispersion medium & emulsifying agents or
surfactants (soaps and detergents) and a water soluble initiator (potassium persulphate /
H2O2, etc).
 The monomer is dispersed in the aqueous phase, not as discrete droplets, but as a uniform
emulsion. The size of monomer droplet is less than 10 -4 cm in diameter depending upon the
polymerization temperature & rate of agitation.
 The emulsion of monomer in water is stabilized by a surfactant. A surfactant has a hydrophilic
and hydrophobic end in its structure.
 When it is put into water, the surfactant molecules gather together into aggregates called
micelles. The hydrocarbon tails (hydrophobic) orient inwards & heads (hydrophilic) orient
outwards into water.
 The monomer molecules diffuse from monomer droplets to water & from water to the
hydrocarbon centre of micelles.
 After addition of initiator which is water soluble it polymerizes the monomers that get
dissolved in dispersion medium as well as monomer trapped in the core of micelles by entering
into the core region by means of diffusion
Advantages:
 High molecular weight polymers are obtained
 Fast polymerization rates
 Allow removal of heat from system
 The final product can be used as such doesn’t need to be altered or processed
Disadvantages:
 Removal of surfactants/ emulsifiers is difficult
 Can’t be used for ionic, condensation polymerization

Plastics: are high molecular weight organic materials which can be moulded into any desired shape
by the application of heat and pressure in the presence of a catalyst. A plastic is usually classified
depending upon type of resin used for its manufacture. “A resin is the major part of the plastics and
which actually undergo polymerization reaction during their moulding operation”. Plastics have the
advantage over metals and other materials due to improved properties like

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 1) light weight and high strength
2) high corrosion resistance
3) low maintenance cost
4) high chemical inertness
5) decorative glossy surface
6) transparency
7) good thermal & electrical insulation
Disadvantages:
1) recycling process of plastic is a costly matter
2) it takes long period to degrade
3) low heat resistant
4) it show deformation under load
Applications:
1) for making electrical goods
2) for making furniture
3) for making special types of paints
4) for heat & sound insulation in cold storages, refrigeration, theatres etc
5) for making household articles like combs, toys, trays etc
CLASSIFICATION OF PLASTICS: plastics or resins are classified into two kinds
1) Thermo Plastics: are generally prepared by addition polymerization. Thermoplastics are those
which can be softened on heating and becomes hard on cooling. Due to the action of heat the
intermolecular forces between polymer chains break and facilitate the easy movement of polymer
chains which makes them softened. On cooling the plastics the intermolecular forces reappear holding
the polymer chains in fixed positions which make them rigid and hard. The common examples of
thermoplastics are polyethylene, polyvinylchloride etc. few common applications of thermoplastics
are bottles, cable insulators, medical syringes, mugs etc
2) Thermosets or Thermosetting resins: are resins which during moulding process get hardened
and later can’t be softened by heating etc. Thermosetting resin possesses three dimensional cross
linked networks of polymer chains made of only covalent bonds. These strong covalent bonds
maintain the strength of polymer even under high temperatures. Some of the thermosetting resins are
Bakelite, urea etc. few applications of thermosets are handles of pans , dishes etc.

Differences between Thermo plastic & Thermosetting plastic

Thermo plastic Thermosetting plastic
1) These are prepared by addition 1) These are prepared by condensation
polymerization polymerization
2) They have either linear or branched 2) They have three dimensional cross linked
structure network structure
3) They become soft upon heating and hard
3) They don’t soften on heating
upon cooling
4) They can be reclaimed from waste 4) They can’t be reclaimed from waste
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 5) soluble in organic solvents 5) insoluble in organic solvents
6) They are soft, weak & less brittle 6) They are hard, strong and more brittle
7) Ex: poly ethylene, PVC, Teflon 7) Bakelite, urea- formaldehyde resin

Compounding of Plastic:Polymer in its pure form is called virgin polymer. Virgin polymer can’t be
processed or moulded without adding other ingradients. So the process of addition of other chemical
ingredients to improve the properties of polymer and make them convenient for moulding is known
as compounding of plastics. The product made from such a compound exhibits better performance,
low costs, ease of manufacturing and more attractive appearance. Based on the purpose of which
additives are used they are classified into
1) Binders
2) Fillers
3) Dyes and pigments
4) Plasticizers
5) Lubricants
6) Catalysts
7) Stabilizers (or) Anti oxidants
Binder or Resin: the main purpose of binder is to hold other constituents of plastic together. The
binder used also determines the type of treatment needed to mould the articles from the plastic
material. The binder used may be natural or synthetic. Depending upon the thermal behaviour resins
are 2 types 1) thermo plastic resins 2) thermosetting resins
Plasticizers: the important function of plasticizers in plastic is to improve plasticity and flexibility so
as to reduce the temperature and pressure required for moulding. These molecules distribute
themselves between polymer chains thereby decreasing attractive forces between them and impart
greater freedom of movement between the polymer chains. Most commonly used plasticizers are
vegetable oils, camphor, phosphates and esters of stearic acid etc
Fillers (or) Extenders: Filler material may be classified as either inert or active. Inert filler material
typically increases the volume of the material inexpensively without adding any beneficial features. Its
primary purpose is to reduce the cost of the material. Active filler, on the other hand, is added to
improve the physical properties of the material. If filler increases the tensile strength of the base
material, it may be referred to as reinforcement . For example quartz and mica are used to improve
hardness whereas asbestos added to improve heat resistance
Dyes and Pigments: these are meant for providing decorative colors to plastic

Name of the dye Colour

Carbon black Black
Zinc oxide White
Chromium trioxide Green

Lubricants: they help in easy moulding and glossy finish to final product. Lubricant will prevent the
plastic material from sticking to the fabrication equipment.
Ex: oils, waxes etc
Catalysts: are used incase of thermosetting plastics to accelerate the polymerization reaction to form
cross linked products
Ex: hydrogen peroxide, ammonia etc
Stabilizers: these are added to the plastics to improve thermal stability during moulding. Stabilizers
make the plastic capable of retaining its original properties for a long time. For example if stabilizers

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are not added, vinyl chloride has the tendency to decompose and discoloration in moulding
temperature.
Ex: Lead, Cadmium
Fabrication of plastics or Moulding of plastics into articles
Shaping of an article from a plastic material by the application of heat and pressure in a closed
chamber is called moulding. The methods used for fabricating the plastic depend upon the type of
resins used, i.e., whether thermosetting or thermoplastic.
1) Compression moulding: is a method used for both thermosetting and thermoplastic materials.
The mould is made up of two halves, the upper and lower. The lower half usually contains a cavity and
upper half has a projection which fits into cavity. A pre weighed quantity of polymer material mixed
with several additives is placed in cavity of lower mould. The raw material is usually preheated prior
to placement into the mould. The upper half of the mould moves downwards pressing the polymer
and forcing it to fill the cavity. The mould is equipped with heating system provides curing of the
polymer. Mould is opened and the part is removed from it by means of ejector pin. If thermosetting
resin is moulded the mould may be open in hot state. If thermoplastic is moulded, the mould must be
cooled down before opening.
2) Injection moulding: is applicable only to thermoplastic resins. Polymer material in the form of
pellets is fed through hopper into horizontal cylinder from where it is injected into tightly locked
mould by means of screw arrangement. A heater heats up the horizontal cylinder and reaches a high
temperature. A motor turns screw arrangement which pushes the granules along the heater section
which melts into a liquid. Now the liquid is forced into the mould which is kept at cold condition and
turns into desired shape. Now the article is removed from the mould by ejector pins.
3) Blow moulding: most of the hollow plastic articles are produced by blow moulding technique.
Containers and soft drink bottles etc are produced by this process. A hot softened plastic tube usually
called “Parison” is vertically placed between two halves of the mould. When two halves of the mould
get closed one end of the tube closes and a blowing pin is enclosed at other end. The parison is now
blown by passing compressed air through blowing pin. The hot parison is expanded like a balloon and
goes on expanding until it comes in contact with relatively cold interior surface of the hollow mould
and it takes the shape of mould cavity.
4) Extrusion moulding: is used mainly for continuous moulding of thermoplastic materials into
articles of uniform cross section like tubes, rods, sheets and films etc. The thermoplastic ingredients
are heated to plastic condition and then pushed by means of a screw conveyer into a die, having the
required outer shape of article to be manufactured. Here the plastic mass gets cooled, due to
atmospheric exposure. A long conveyor carries away continuously the cooled product

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Preparation, Properties and Engineering uses
1) Polyvinylchloride (PVC): Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) is a tough, strong thermoplastic material which
has an excellent combination of physical and electrical properties. Polyvinylchloride is a very unique
polymer compared to other widely used thermoplastics, due to its superior fire performance.
Preparation: The basic raw materials for PVC are derived from salt and oil. Chlorine is manufactured
by the electrolysis of sodium chloride, salt. The electrolysis of salt water produces chlorine. The
chlorine is then combined with ethylene that has been obtained from oil. The resulting element is
ethylene dichloride, which is converted at very high temperatures to vinyl chloride monomer. These
monomer molecules are polymerized forming polyvinyl chloride resin.

Properties:
1) It is flexible, light weight, transparent, tough and safe. 

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 2)  PVC, having the molecular structure where the chlorine atom is bound to every other carbon
chain, is highly resistant to oxidative reactions, and maintains its performance for a long time
3) Ease of blending and processing
4) PVC has superior fire retarding properties due to its chlorine content. For example, the ignition
temperature of PVC is as high as 455°C,
5) Excellent electrical insulator
6) PVC is resistant to acid, alkali and almost all inorganic chemicals
7) waterproof
Applications
 Due to PVC properties, as described above, around 50% of PVC (or vinyl) manufactured is used
in construction replacing other materials such as wood or glass
 PVC's inherent flame retardant and excellent electrical insulation properties make it ideal for
cabling applications.
 The toughness and durability of PVC make it an excellent material to make bags and luggage. 
 Medical products made from PVC are usable inside the body, easy to sterilize and simple to
assemble into products that do not crack or leak
 PVC is the most common material for credit, debit and phone cards. As a thermoplastic, numbers
can easily be imprinted on the cards with the application of heat.
 PVC used for packaging because of its excellent organoleptic properties (does not affect the taste
of the packaged food)
Bakelite: is an important thermoset resin which is prepared by polymerization of phenol with
formaldehyde in presence of acid as a catalyst. The polymerization takes place in 3 stages.
I stage: phenol is made to react with formaldehyde in presence of acid catalyst gives mono, di, tri
methylol phenols depending upon phenol formaldehyde ratio (P/F ratio)

II stage: In the presence of acid catalyst and with mole ratio of phenol to formaldehyde greater than
one (P/F>1) methylol derivatives condense with phenol to form dihydroxy diphenyl methane. This on
further condensation gives low molecular weight linear polymer known Novolac.

-
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III stage: Further heating of novolac in the presence of hexamethylene tetramine as curing agent
produces three dimensional network polymer known as Bakelite.

Properties:
1) It is usually pink coloured substance
2) Bakelite is hard, rigid, and strong
3) It has excellent heat and moisture resistant
4) It has good chemical resistance & electrical insulation character
5) Corrosion resistant
Uses:
1) for making electrical insulator parts like switches, switch boards etc
2) for making moulded articles like telephone parts, cabinets for radio etc
3) used in diverse products such as kitchen ware, jewellery and children toys
4) in paints and varnishes

PolyCarbonates: This material is formed by a condensation polymerization resulting in a carbon that

is bonded to three oxygens. Lexan is a registered trademark for polycarbonate resin thermoplastic. 
Polycarbonate polymer is produced by reacting bisphenol A with phosgene in the presence of base
NaOH.

Properties:
1. Protection from UV Radiations – Polycarbonates can be designed to block ultraviolet radiation and
provide 100% protection from the sun's harmful UV rays. 
2. Toughness and High Impact Strength – Polycarbonate has high strength that makes it resistant to
impact and fracture and hence provides safety and comfort in application demanding high reliability
& performance. They are virtually unbreakable.
3. Transmittance – PC is an extremely clear plastic and can transmit over 90% of light as good as
glass. PC sheets are available in a wide range of shades which can be customized depending on the
end-user application.
4. Lightweight –This property allows increased efficiency, makes installation process easier and
reduces overall transportation costs.

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Applications:
1. Used in production of DVDs & CDs
2. Many sunglasses manufacturers choose polycarbonate because it can be easily shaped without
cracking or splitting
3. Many cell phones & laptops also use clear & opaque polycarbonate in their casings
4. Used in safety helmets, bullet-proof glass, car headlamp lenses, baby feeding bottles, roofing etc.

Recycling of e-waste:
 E-waste refers to electronic waste. 
 E-waste recycling is the reuse and reprocessing of electrical and electronic equipment of any type
that has been discarded
 Some of the common E-wastes include: home appliances such as televisions, air conditioners, fans,
DVDs, Radios , information technology equipments such as computers, mobile phones, laptops,
batteries, circuit boards, hard disks, and monitors

Step-by Step Process of E-waste Recycling

The e-waste recycling process is highly labor intensive and goes through several steps. Below is the step-by-
step process of how e-waste is recycled,
Picking Shed: When the e-waste items arrive at the recycling plants, the first step involves sorting all the
items manually. Batteries are removed for quality check.
Disassembly: After sorting by hand, the second step involves the process of manual dismantling. The
dismantled items are then separated into various categories into parts that can be re-used or still continue the
recycling processes.
First size reduction process: Here, items that cannot be dismantled efficiently are shredded together with
the other dismantled parts to pieces less than 2 inches in diameter. It is done in preparation for further
categorization of the finer e-waste pieces.
Second size reduction process: The finer e-waste particles are then evenly spread out through an automated
shaking process on a conveyor belt. The well spread out e-waste pieces are then broken down further. At this
stage, any dust is extracted and discarded in a way that does not degrade the environmentally.
Over-band Magnet: At this step, over-band magnet is used to remove all the magnetic materials including
steel and iron from the e-waste debris.
Non-metallic and metallic components separation.: The sixth step is the separation of metals and non-
metallic components. Copper, aluminum, and brass are separated from the debris to only leave behind non-
metallic materials. The metals are either sold as raw materials or re-used for fresh manufacture.
Water Separation: As the last step, plastic content is separated from glass by use of water. One separated,
all the materials retrieved can then be resold as raw materials for re-use. The products sold include plastic,
glass, copper, iron, steel, shredded circuit boards, and valuable metal mix.

COMPOSITE MATERIALS
Conducting Polymers: A polymer is first and foremost insulator. In fact, these materials are
commonly used for surrounding copper wires and manufacturing the outer structures of electrical
appliances that prevent humans from coming in direct contact with electricity.
 Conducting polymers are unique as a substitute for metallic conductors and semiconductors
 Conducting polymers having good conduction mechanism and good environmental stability in
presence of oxygen and water
 These polymers could be highly promising for many technological uses because of their
chemical versatility, stability, processability and low cost
Approximately three decades ago, scientists discovered that a type of conjugated polymer called
‘polyacetylene’ could become highly electrically conductive after undergoing a structural modification
process called doping.
Classification of conducting polymers:
1) Intrinsically conducting polymers
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 a. Conjugated conducting polymers
b. Doped conducting polymer
i. N- type
ii. P- type
2) Extrinsically conducting polymers
a. Conducting element filled polymers
b. Blended conducting polymers

Conjugated conducting polymers: The polymer is called a ‘conjugated polymer’ when it have
alternating single and double bonds in the polymer chain. Due to the special conjugation in their
chains, it enables the electrons to de-localize throughout the whole system and thus many atoms may
share them. The de-localized electrons may move around the whole system and become the charge
carriers to make them conductive
Ex: polyacetylene, polypyrrole, polyaniline, polythiophene
Doped conducting polymers: Intrinsically conducting polymers possess low conductivity but these
possess low ionization potential and high electron affinities so these can be easily oxidized or reduced.
Consequently the conductivity of intrinsically conducting polymers can be increased by creating
either positive or negative charge on the polymer backbone by oxidation or reduction. This technique
is called doping is two types:
p – doping: involves treating an intrinsically conducting polymers with a lewis acid thereby oxidation
takes place and + ve charge is created on polymer backbone. Examples for p-dopant used are I 2, Br2 etc
n – doping: involves treating an intrinsically conducting polymers with a lewis base thereby
reduction takes place and - ve charge is created on polymer backbone. Examples for n-dopant used
are Li, Na etc
Extrinsically conducting polymers: are those polymers whose conductivity is due to the presence of
externally added ingredients in them. These are of the following types
Conductive element filled polymer: is a polymer filled with conducting elements such as carbon
black, metallic fibres etc. In this polymer acts as the binder to hold the conducting elements together
in solid entity.
Blended conducting polymer: is obtained by blending a conventional polymer with a conducting
polymer either by physical or chemical change. Such polymers can be easily processed and possess
better physical, chemical and mechanical properties.
Applications of conducting polymers: some of the important applications of conducting polymers
are
 In rechargeable light weight batteries
 In telecommunication systems
 In optically display devices
 In solar cells
 In transistors and diodes

Biodegradable Polymers (BP): plastics are usually disposed of in one of three ways: discarded,
combusted, or recycled. Of the three options, recycling is least implemented. Since their creation,
plastics have been an essential ingredient in consumer lifestyles. Plastic materials are convenient and
inexpensive, but their disposal poses an environmental pollution. The problem with plastic material in
landfills, besides the space they occupy, they contribute toxic chemicals to the fluids that drain and
percolate through the landfill (known as leachate). Toxic chemicals that are derived from plastics (for

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example, phthalates) have been found in ground water due to leachate penetration, posing a great
concern to human and wildlife health .
Engineering new materials like biodegradable polymers can be a long-term solution for
eliminating plastics from landfills. Biodegradable polymers, as the name suggests, are meant to
degrade upon disposal with the help of microorganisms. (Or) These are polymers that can be broken
into small segments by enzyme-catalysed reactions. The required enzymes are produced by
microorganism. It is a known fact that the carbon-carbon bonds of chain growth polymers are inert to
enzyme-catalysed reactions, and hence they are non biodegradable. To make such polymers
biodegradable we have to insert certain bonds in the chains so that these can be easily broken by the
enzymes. Now when such polymers are buried as waste, microorganisms present in the ground can
degrade the polymer.
Biodegradable polymers, or BPs, can be made from a number of materials such as starch,
cellulose, and polyesters. Starch and cellulose, called biopolymers because they are produced by
plants, are extracted and blended with synthetic polymers to produce biodegradable polymers.  By
varying the amount of starch, cellulose, and synthetic polymers in the mixture, different plastic
properties can be achieved. Upon reaching the municipal waste center they can be sent to bio-waste
collection or compost sites where they can be properly degraded by microorganisms to form carbon
dioxide, water, biomass, all of which serve as nutrients for plant life. With the addition of sunlight,
plants can grow and produce another batch of biodegradable polymers, repeating the cycle.
Biodegradable polymers provide a long-term solution for replacing hazardous non-degradable
plastics in landfills that potentially release toxic compounds and adversely affect human and wildlife
health
Ex:
1) Poly lactic acid: this polymer break down in the environment back to lactic acid. It has found
commericial applications in medical field such as sutures, drug delivery system etc.
2) Poly -hydroxybutrate: it is used in manufacture of shampoo bottles

FIBRE REINFORCED PLASTIC (FRP): FRP materials are usually referred as Composite materials.
Composite materials are defined as materials created by combination of two or more chemically
distinct materials to form a new and useful material with enhanced properties that are superior to
those of individual materials. Composites are combination of two materials in which one of the
material is called the reinforcing phase, is in the form of fibers, sheets, or particles, and is embedded in
the other material called the matrix phase. The matrix may be polymer, ceramic or metal. The matrix
is the binder of the FRP and plays many important roles. Some of the more critical functions played
by the matrix are:
• To bind the fibres together;
• To protect the fibres from abrasion and environmental degradation;
•To separate and disperse fibres within the composite;
• To transfer the load between the individual fibres; and
An FRP is a polymer (plastic) that is reinforced with fibre. The primary function of fibre
reinforcement is to carry load along the length of the fibre and to provide strength, stiffness in one
direction. FRP composites are directional means that best mechanical properties are the direction of
fibre placement. Common fibres used are glass, graphite, Aramid (aromatic polyamide) while the
polymer is usually epoxy, vinyl ester or polyester.
Properties:
 Light weight
 High strength to weight ratio
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  Directional strength
 Corrosion resistance
 Weather resistance
 Chemical resistance
 Non magnetic
 Low maintenance
 Long term durability
 High impact strength
 Poor electrical conductivity
 Water proof
 Low density
 High Tensile strength
 High dimensional stability
Applications:
Application area examples
Aerospace Satellite antenna, high pressure fuel tanks
Aircraft Access doors, entire wings, helicopter blades, interior
panels
Chemical Pipes, tanks, valves, pumps
Construction Bridges, cables, frames
Domestic Chairs, tables, water tubs, ladder
Electrical Panels, switches, insulators
Leisure Tennis rackets , golf clubs, protective helmets, fishing rods,
bicycle frames
Marine Ship hulls, decks(floor of a ship),
Medical Wheel chairs, medical equipment
Transportation Body panels, dashboard, spoilers, bumpers

Types of Fibre Reinforced plastic:

Glass Fibre Reinforced Plastic (GFRP): Fiberglass is a common name of Polymer Matrix Composite
materials reinforced by fine glass fibers. Glass fibers are manufactured from molten glass.
Carbon Fibre Reinforced Plastic (CFRP):  Carbon Fiber Reinforced Plastic is actually a light fiber
reinforced polymer which is incredibly strong, composed of carbon fibers. Polyepoxide is the polymer
matrix used most of the time.
Aramid Fibre Reinforced Polymer (Bullet Proof Plastic): Aramid is the short form for Aromatic
polyamide. Aramids are family of nylons including Nomex and Kevlar. Here the polymer matrix such
as epoxies, vinyl ester etc reinforced with fibres made from aromatic polyamide.
ELASTOMERS
Natural Rubber: Rubbers are high polymers having elastic character. It expands atleast 2 to 3 times
to its original length up on stress and regains its shape when stress is released. In 1770 Pristley
discovered that it could rub pencil marks and hence it named rubber. In 1826 scientist Faraday
obtained a hydrocarbon (Isoprene) by distilling rubber so chemically speaking rubber is a polymer of
Isoprene (2- methyl 1,3 butadiene)
CH3
Distillation
Rubber ------------ > H2C = C – CH = CH2

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 Isoprene
These isoprene molecules polymerize to form long coiled chains of cis – polyisoprene known as
natural rubber

CH3 CH3 CH3

nCH2=C–CH=CH2 ----> CH2-C=CH-CH2----> CH2-C=CH-CH2

n
Isoprene cis – poly isoprene
Structure of cis- poly isoprene (natural rubber):

Drawbacks of Natural Rubber:

1) Raw rubber becomes soft and sticky in hot summer, becomes rigid and brittle in cold weather
2) less durable
3) tensile strength is only 200 kg/cm2
4) it has large water absorption capacity
5) It perishes due to oxidation in air. Atmospheric oxygen attacks the rubber and produces epoxide
which gives bad smell and sticky nature to rubber
6) non resistant to almost all polar and non polar solvents
7) it can be used in the temperature range of 10 to 600 C
8) when stretched to greater extent it suffers permanent deformation

Vulcanization: This process is discovered by Charles Good Year in the year 1839. To improve the
properties of rubber, it is compounded with some chemicals like sulphur, hydrogen sulphide, benzoyl
chloride, zinc oxide and nitro compounds etc. Most important addition is sulphur. Percentage of
sulphur added is in the range of 0.5 to 35. For example the rubber used for making tyres containing 3
to 5% of sulphur and for making battery case the rubber contains 30% sulphur. The process consists
of heating the raw rubber with sulphur at 100 -140o C. The reaction between rubber and sulphur are
not fully understood, but in the product, the sulphur is not simply dissolved or dispersed in the
rubber; it is chemically combined, mostly in the form of cross-links, or bridges, between the long-
chain molecules. The amount of sulphur added determines the extent of stiffness of vulcanized rubber.

Advantages of Vulcanization: Vulcanized rubber

1) has good tensile strength 2000 kg/cm2
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2) has higher resistance to oxidation
3) resistant to organic solvents
4) possesses low water absorption tendency
5) act as a better electrical insulator
6) can be used in the temperature range of -40o C to 100o C
7) possess good impact resistance

Differences between natural rubber and vulcanized rubber:

Natural rubber Vulcanized rubber
(1) Natural rubber is soft and sticky Vulcanized rubber is hard and non-sticky.
(2) It has low tensile strength. It has high tensile strength.
(3) It has low elasticity. It has high elasticity.
(4) It can be used over a narrow range of It can be used over a wide range of
temperature (from 10° to 60°C). temperature (–40° to 100°C).
(5) It has low wear and tear resistance. It has high wear and tear resistance.
(6) It is soluble in solvents like ether, It is insoluble in all the common solvents.
carbon, tetrachloride, petrol, etc.
1) SBR (Styrene Butadiene Rubber or GR-S or Buna –S) : GRS stands for Government Rubber
styrene. BUNA -S means: BU stands for Butadiene (monomer1) NA stands for Sodium (catalyst)
S stands for Styrene (monomer2). Styrene butadiene rubber (SBR) is prepared by the
copolymerization of butadiene (75%) and styrene (25%) in an emulsion system at 50°C in the
presences of catalyst.

Properties:
 Styrene rubber resembles natural rubber
 SBR has a high resistance to abrasion, meaning it can stand up to a lot of wear and tear compared
with other rubbers
 It possesses high load bearing capacity
 It is a good electrical insulator
 SBR has superior water resistance, heat resistance, low-temperature flexibility, and heat aging
properties (i.e., in excess heat SBR hardens and becomes brittle instead of softening like natural
rubber does)
Limitations:
SBR has poor resistance to oils, fuels, hydraulic fluids, strong acids, greases, fat, and most
hydrocarbons. Without special additives, SBR is vulnerable to ozone, oxygen and sunlight
Applications:
 major application of styrene rubber is in the manufacture of tyres
 it is used in the footwear industry for making shoe soles and footwear components
 it is used for making wires and cable insulations
 it is used for tank linings in chemical industries and as an adhesives
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Polysulphide rubber or Thiokol or GR – P: is made by the reaction between sodium sulphide and
ethylene dichloride

Cl-CH2 – CH2-Cl + Na2S2 ---- > --- CH2 - CH2 – S – S -------

1,2 dichloro ethane sodiumpolysulphide Thiokol rubber

Properties:
1) Polysulphide rubber possesses extremely good resistance to mineral oils, fuels, solvents, and
sunlight.
2) It also impermeable to air and other gases
3) It can’t be vulcanized so doesn’t form hard rubber.
4) It has abrasion resistance
5) It is a good electrical insulator
Uses: mainly used as solid propellant fuel for rocket. It is also used for making gaskets, cable linings
and also used for making cycle tyres and automobile tubes. It is also used as an insulator for high
voltage wires and cables
Polyurethane: Polyurethane (PUR and PU) is a polymer composed of a chain of organic units joined
by carbamate links. While most Polyurethane are thermosetting polymers that do not melt when
heated. Polyurethane polymers are formed by reacting an isocynates and polyols . Polyurethane
products often are simply called “urethanes”.

Properties:
 Good Impact Resistance
 Good Abrasion Resistance
 flexibility and biostability
 electrical insulation, toughness, resistance to oils
 thermal insulation, more durable
Applications:
 Cushioning
 shoe soles
 building panels
 artificial heart valves
 electrical equipment

TUTORIAL & ASSIGNMENT QUESTIONS

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1) Write about biodegradable polymers?

2) What are FRP materials? Explain their properties and uses?

3) What the drawbacks of natural rubbers?

4) What is vulcanization? Explain the advantages of vulcanized rubber over natural rubber?

5) Write about any one fabrication technique with a neat sketch?

6) Write the mechanical and physical properties of polymers?

7) Explain various steps involved in recycling of e-waste?

8) Write preparation, properties and uses of Bakelite?

9) Write about conducting polymers briefly?

10) Write preparation, properties and uses of Polyurethane?

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