Ministry of Higher Education & Scientific Research

Middle Technical University

Technical College – Baghdad /Materials, Welding, Dies & Tools Eng. Dept.
Manufacturing Processes I
2016 - 2017
Lecturer: Mohanad Kadhim & Isam Tariq

Manufacturing Process I
Lecture No. 8

Furnaces

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 1) Blast Furnace
The Chinese in the 5th century BC were the first to use blast furnace and later the technique
spread to all over the world. Over the ages the production capacity of the furnace has gone
up from 1 ton to 13300 ton per day. Coal which was used as fuel was replaced by coke only
in the 15th Century. 
To produce iron, a charge of ore, coke, and limestone are dropped into the top of a blast
furnace. A blast furnace is a refractory-lined chamber with a diameter of about 9 to 11 m
at its widest and a height of 40 m, in which hot gases are forced into the lower part of the
chamber at high rates to accomplish combustion and reduction of the iron. A typical blast
furnace and some of its technical details are illustrated in Figures below. The charge slowly
descends from the top of the furnace toward the base and is heated to temperatures around
1650°C. The charge mixture is melted in a reaction at 1650°C, with the air preheated to
about 1100°C and blasted into the furnace (hence the term “blast furnace”) through nozzles
(called tuyeres). Preheating the incoming air is necessary because the burning coke alone
does not produce sufficiently high temperatures for these reactions to occur. Burning of the
coke is accomplished by the hot gases (CO, H2, CO2, H2O, N2, O2, and fuels) as they
pass upward through the layers of charge material. The carbon monoxide is supplied as hot
gas, and it is also formed from combustion of coke. The CO gas has a reducing effect on
the iron ore; the reaction (simplified) can be written as follows (using hematite as the
starting ore):

Fe2O3 + CO → 2FeO + CO2

Carbon dioxide reacts with coke to form more carbon monoxide:
CO2 + C (coke) → 2CO
which then accomplishes the final reduction of FeO to iron:
FeO + CO → Fe + CO2
The molten iron drips downward, collecting at the base of the blast furnace. This is
periodically tapped into hot iron ladle cars for transfer to subsequent steelmaking
operations. The role played by limestone can be summarized as follows. First the limestone
is reduced to lime (CaO) by heating, as follows:
CaCO3 → CaO + CO2
The lime combines with impurities such as silica (SiO2), sulfur (S), and alumina (Al2O3) in
reactions that produce a molten slag that floats on top of the iron. It is instructive to note that
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approximately 7 tons of raw materials are required to produce 1 ton of iron. The ingredients
are proportioned about as follows: 2 tons of iron ore, 1 ton of coke, 0.5 ton of limestone,
and (here’s the amazing statistic) 3.5 tons of gases. A significant proportion of the
byproducts are recycled. The iron tapped from the base of the blast furnace (called pig
iron) contains more than 4% C, plus other impurities: 0.3–1.3% Si, 0.5–2.0% Mn, 0.1–1.0%
P, and 0.02–0.08% S. Further refinement of the metal is required for both cast iron and
steel.
A blast furnace can continuously run for four to ten years with only short stops for
maintenance.

Iron Ores and Other Raw Materials

The principal ore used in the production of iron and steel is hematite (Fe2O3). Other iron
ores include magnetite (Fe3O4), siderite (FeCO3), and limonite (Fe2O3-xH2O, in which x is
typically around 1.5). Iron ores contain from 50% to around 70% iron, depending on grade
(hematite is almost 70% iron). In addition, scrap iron and steel are widely used today as raw
materials in iron- and steelmaking. Other raw materials needed to reduce iron from the ores
are coke and limestone. Coke is a high carbon fuel produced by heating bituminous coal in
a limited oxygen atmosphere for several hours, followed by water spraying in special
quenching towers. Coke serves two functions in the reduction process:
1) It is a fuel that supplies heat for the chemical reactions.
2) It produces carbon monoxide (CO) (a reducing gas, meaning that it removes
oxygen), which is then used to reduce iron oxide to iron.
Limestone is a rock containing high proportions of calcium carbonate (CaCO3). The
limestone is used in the process as a flux to react with and remove impurities in the molten
iron as slag. The function of limestone (calcium carbonate) is to remove impurities from the
molten iron. The limestone reacts chemically with impurities, acting like a flux (meaning to
flow as a fluid) that causes the impurities to melt at a low temperature. The limestone
combines with the impurities and forms a slag (Which is light), floats over the molten metal,
and, subsequently, is removed.

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 2) Basic Oxygen Furnace (BOF)
a – (BOF) process uses raw material pig iron (65 – 80 %) from a blast furnace
with (30 %) scrap.
b – Primary fuel: Oxygen.
C – Predominant metal charge: molten pig iron, scrap.
d – Product: Steel.
The BOF is an adaptation of the Bessemer converter. Whereas the Bessemer process used
air blown up through the molten pig iron to burn off impurities, the basic oxygen process uses
pure oxygen to produce carbon and alloy steels. A diagram of the conventional BOF during the
middle of a heat is illustrated in the figure below. The typical BOF vessel is about 5 m inside
diameter and can process 150 to 200 tons in a heat. The BOF steelmaking sequence is shown
in Figure below. Integrated steel mills transfer the molten pig iron from the blast furnace to the
BOF in railway cars called hot-iron ladle cars. In modern practice, steel scrap is added to the
pig iron, accounting for about 30% of a typical BOF charge. Lime (CaO) is also added. After
charging, the lance is inserted into the vessel so that its tip is about 1.5 m above the surface of
the molten iron. Pure O2 is blown at high velocity through the lance, causing combustion and
heating at the surface of the molten pool. Carbon dissolved in the iron and other impurities
such as silicon, manganese, and phosphorus are oxidized. The reactions are:
2C + O2 → 2CO (CO2 is also produced)
Si + O2 → SiO2
2Mn + O2 → 2MnO
4P + 5O2 → 2P2O5
The CO and CO2 gases produced in the first reaction escape through the mouth of the BOF
vessel and are collected by the fume hood; the products of the other three reactions are
removed as slag, using the lime as a fluxing agent. The C content in the iron decreases
almost linearly with time during the process, thus permitting fairly predictable control over
carbon levels in the steel. After refining to desired level, the molten steel is tapped; alloying
ingredients and other additives are poured into the heat; then the slag is poured. A 200-ton
heat of steel can be processed in about 20 min, although the entire cycle time (tap-to-tap
time) takes about 45 min. Recent advances in the technology of the basic oxygen process
include the use of nozzles in the bottom of the vessel through which oxygen is injected into
the molten iron. This allows better mixing than the conventional BOF lance, resulting in
shorter processing times (a reduction of about 3 min), lower carbon contents, and higher
yields.
The basic-oxygen furnace (BOF) is the fastest and by far the most common steelmaking
furnace. Pure oxygen is then blown into the furnace for about 20 minutes through a water-
cooled lance (a long tube), under a pressure of about 1250 kPa, as shown in Figure below.
Fluxing agents (such as lime) are added through a chute. The vigorous agitation of the
oxygen refines the molten metal by an oxidation process in which iron oxide is produced. The
oxide reacts with the carbon in the molten metal, producing carbon monoxide and carbon
dioxide. The lance is then retracted, and the furnace is tapped by tilting it. The slag is
removed by tilting the furnace in the opposite direction. Most BOF steels, which have low
impurity levels and are of better quality than open-hearth furnace.

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 3) Electric Arc Furnace (EAF)
a– Ingots and castings of stainless steel, heat resistance steel, tool steel and
many general purposes alloy steels are produced from this furnace.
b – Primary fuel: Electricity.
C – Predominant metal charge: Scrap iron and scrap steel.
d – Special atmosphere available: Vacuum or inert gas.
e – Product: Steel, gray iron.
Scrap iron and scrap steel are the primary raw materials. These furnaces have removable
roofs for charging from above; tapping is accomplished by tilting the entire furnace. Scrap iron
and steel selected for their compositions, together with alloying ingredients and limestone
(flux), are charged into the furnace and heated by an electric arc that flows between large
electrodes and the charge metal. Complete melting requires about 2 hours; tap-to-tap time is 4
hours. Capacities of electric furnaces commonly range between 25 and 100 tons per heat.
Electric arc furnaces are noted for better quality steel but higher cost per ton , compared
with the BOF. The electric arc furnace is generally associated with production of alloy steels,
tool steels, and stainless steels.
The source of heat in this furnace is a continuous electric arc that is formed between the
electrodes and the charged metal Temperatures as high as 1925°C are generated in this type
of furnace. There are usually three graphite electrodes, and they can be as large as 750 mm in
diameter and 1.5 to 2.5 m in length; their height in the furnace can be adjusted in response to
the amount of metal present and the amount of wear of the electrodes. Steel scrap and a small
amount of carbon and limestone first are dropped into the electric furnace through the open
roof. The roof then is closed and the electrodes are lowered. The power is then turned on,
and within a period of about two hours, temperatures increase sufficiently to melt the metal.
The current then is shut off, the electrodes are raised, the furnace is tilted, and the molten
metal is poured into a ladle, which is a receptacle used for transferring and pouring molten
metal. The quality of steel produced is better than that from either the open-hearth or the
basic-oxygen process.

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 4) Induction Furnace
A – The electric inductions furnace use an induced current to melt the charge.
B – The high – frequency current, about 1000 hz.
C – Primary fuel: electricity.
D – Predominant metal charge: select scrap.
E – Special atmosphere available: vacuum or inert gas
F - Product: steel.
An induction furnace uses alternating current passing through a coil to develop a magnetic
field in the metal, and the resulting induced current causes rapid heating and melting of the
metal. The electromagnetic force field causes a mixing action to occur in the liquid metal.
induction furnaces are especially useful in smaller foundries and produce smaller
Composition-controlled melts. induction furnace consists of a Crucible completely
surrounded with a water-Cooled copper coil through which a high-frequency current passes.
Because there is a strong electromagnetic stirring action during induction heating, this type
of furnace has excellent mixing characteristics for alloying and adding a new charge of
metal. Also, since the metal does not come in direct contact with the heating elements, the
environment in which melting takes place can be closely controlled. All of this results in
molten metals of high quality and purity, and induction furnaces are used for nearly any
casting alloy when these requirements are important. Melting steel, cast iron, and aluminum
alloys are common applications in foundry work. The metal is placed in a Crucible-a large
pot made of refractory material and surrounded with a copper coil through which alternating
current is passed. The induced current in the charge generates heat and melts the metal.
These furnaces also are used for remelting metal for casting.
Induction heating relies on the unique characteristics of radio frequency (RF) energy –
that portion of the electromagnetic spectrum below infrared and microwave energy. Since
heat is transferred to the product via electromagnetic waves, the part never comes into
direct contact with any flame, the inductor itself does not get hot and there is no product
contamination. Induction heating is a rapid, clean, non-polluting heating.
The induction coil is cool to the touch; the heat that builds up in the coil is constantly cooled
with circulating water.
The crucible in which the metal is placed is made of stronger materials that can resist the
required heat, and the electric coil itself cooled by a water system so that it does not
overheat
or melt.
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 5) Cupola Furnace
a– Iron casting are made by remelting scrap along with pig iron in this furnace.
b – Primary fuel: Coke.
c – Predominant metal charge: Solid pig iron and scrap.
d – Product: Gray cast iron and nodular iron.
A cupola is a vertical cylindrical furnace equipped with a tapping spout near its base . cupola
can be made almost any practical size. The size of a cupola is expressed in diameters and can
range from (0.5 to 4.0 m). The overall shape is cylindrical and the equipment is arranged
vertically, usually supported by four legs. The bottom of the cylinder is fitted with doors which
swing down and out to 'drop bottom'. The top where gases escape can be open or fitted with a
cap to prevent rain from entering the cupola. Cupolas are used only for melting cast irons,
and although other furnaces are also used, the largest tonnage of cast iron is melted in
cupolas. General construction and operating features of the cupola are illustrated in Figure
below. It consists of a large shell of steel plate lined with refractory. The “charge,” consisting
of iron, coke, flux, and possible alloying elements, is loaded through a charging door located
less than halfway up the height of the cupola. The iron is usually a mixture of pig iron and
scrap (including risers, runners, and sprues left over from previous castings). Coke is the fuel
used to heat the furnace. Forced air is introduced through openings near the bottom of the
shell for combustion of the coke. The flux is a basic compound such as limestone that reacts
with coke ash and other impurities to form slag. The slag serves to cover the melt, protecting it
from reaction with the environment inside the cupola and reducing heat loss. As the mixture is
heated and melting of the iron occurs, the furnace is periodically tapped to provide liquid metal
for the pour.

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 6) Crucible Furnaces
A – Is the oldest process for making steel casting, but it used little today except
in nonferrous foundries.
B – Crucibles are usually made of a mixture of graphite and clay.
C – Primary fuel: Gas, coke, oil.
D – Predominant metal change: Select scrap.
E – Product: Small quantities of steel and cast irons.
These furnaces melt the metal without direct contact with a burning fuel mixture. For this
reason, they are sometimes called indirect fuel-fired furnaces. Three types of crucible
furnaces are used in foundries according to their configuration:
(a) lift-out type.
(b) stationary.
(c) tilting.
illustrated in Figure below. They all utilize a container (the crucible) made out of a suitable
refractory material (e.g., a clay–graphite mixture) or high-temperature steel alloy to hold the
charge. In the lift-out crucible furnace, the crucible is placed in a furnace and heated
sufficiently to melt the metal charge. Oil, gas, or powdered coal are typical fuels for these
furnaces. When the metal is melted, the crucible is lifted out of the furnace and used as a
pouring ladle. The other two types, sometimes referred to as stationary pot furnaces, have
the heating furnace and container as one integral unit. In the stationary pot furnace, the
furnace is stationary and the molten metal is ladled out of the container. In the tilting-pot
furnace, the entire assembly can be tilted for pouring. Crucible furnaces are used for
nonferrous metals such as bronze, brass, and alloys of zinc and aluminum. Furnace
capacities are generally limited to several hundred pounds.

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There are two main types of crucible furnace according to the source of heat:  
a- electricity resistance furnaces,
b- gas (oil) fired furnaces.
In the gas fired furnaces heat is provided by a burner directed to the crucible. In the
resistance furnaces electric heating elements are used as a source of heat. 

7) Open hearth furnace

A- Is, one the most popular process of making steels.
B – Primary fuel: natural gas, coke oven gas, pulverized, coal, oil.
C – Predominant metal charge: molten pig iron.
D – Product: steel
Open hearth furnace is the oldest method of melting pig iron to produce steel. excess
carbon and other impurities are burnt out of pig iron to produce steel. Since steel is difficult
to manufacture due to its high melting point, normal fuels and furnaces were insufficient and
the open hearth furnace was developed to overcome this difficulty. Open hearth furnace
was first developed by German-born engineer Carl Wilhelm Siemens. In 1865, the French
engineer Pierre-Émile Martin took out a license from Siemens and first applied his
regenerative furnace for making steel. Their process was known as the Siemens-Martin
process, and the furnace as an "open-hearth" furnace . Most open hearth furnaces were
closed by the early 1990s, not least because of their slow operation, being replaced by
the basic oxygen furnace or electric arc furnace. A well-known and widely used process
Siemen Regenerative Furnace was developed around 1850 by Sir Wilhelm Siemens.
Operating at high temperature this process can save nearly 80% of the fuel by using
regenerative preheating for fuel. However, the process failed because the lining of the
furnace also melted. Later a French father and son engineers Pierre-Emille Martin took out
a license from Siemens. They modified it and named the process regenerative process and
the furnace as an “open-hearth” furnace. Martins developed a furnace with wall lining that
were heat resistant. The process which is known as siemen-martins process began in 1864.
For 100 years, siemens-martin process and open hearth furnace ruled the steel making
industry.
The open hearth process is a batch process and a batch is called a "heat". The
furnace is first inspected for possible damage. Once it is ready or repaired, it is charged with
light scrap, such as sheet metal, shredded vehicles or waste metal. The furnace is heated
using burning gas. Once it has melted, heavy scrap, such as building, construction or steel
milling scrap is added, together with pig iron from blast furnaces. Once all the steel has
melted, slag forming agents, such as limestone, are added. The oxygen in iron oxide and
other impurities decarburize the pig iron by burning excess carbon away, forming steel. To
increase the oxygen contents of the heat, iron ore can be added to the heat. Preparing a
heat usually takes 8 h to 8 h 30 min to complete into steel. As the process is slow, it is not
necessary to burn all the carbon away as in Bessemer process, but the process can be
terminated at given point when desired carbon contents has been achieved. The furnace is
tapped the same way a blast furnace is tapped; a hole is drilled on the side of the hearth
and the raw steel flows out. Once all the steel has been tapped, the slag is skimmed away.
This furnace operates at a high temperature by using regenerative preheating of fuel and air
for combustion. In regenerative preheating, the exhaust gases from the furnace are pumped
into a chamber containing bricks, where heat is transferred from the gases to the bricks.
The flow of the furnace is then reversed so that fuel and air pass through the chamber and
are heated by the bricks. Through this method, an open-hearth furnace can reach
temperatures high enough to melt steel.
The regenerators are the distinctive feature of the furnace and consist of fire-brick flues
filled with bricks set on edge and arranged in such a way as to have a great number of small
passages between them. The bricks absorb most of the heat from the outgoing waste gases
and return it later to the incoming cold gases for combustion.

Open Hearth Melting Process (Siemens Process): The Siemens-Martin open hearth

furnace consists of upper and lower furnace. The top furnace is to melt the metal and the
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lower furnace is the regenerative chamber where the combustion air and the generator gas
are preheated. In this process, exhaust gases from the furnace are pumped into a chamber
containing bricks, where heat is transferred from the gases to the bricks. The flow of the
furnace is then reversed so that fuel and air pass through the chamber and are heated by
the bricks. Through this process the temperature reaches up to 1800°C, which is high
enough to melt steel.  It is a slow process and thus easy to control. It also permits the
melting and refining of large amounts of scrap steel, further lowering steel production costs
and recycling an otherwise troublesome waste material. Its worst drawback is the fact that
melting and refining a charge takes several hours. This was an advantage in the early 20th
century, as it gave plant chemists time to analyze the steel and decide how much longer to
refine it. But by about 1975, electronic instruments such as atomic absorption
spectrophotometers had made analysis of the steel much easier and faster. The work
environment around an open hearth furnace is said to be extremely dangerous. The last
open hearth furnace in the former East Germany was stopped in 1993. In the USA, steel
production using the open hearth furnaces had stopped by 1992. In Romania, the last 420-
tonne capacity open hearth furnace was shut down in 1999, demolished and scrapped
between 2001 and 2003. The last open hearth shop in China was shut down in 2001. The
nation with the highest share of steel produced with open hearth furnaces (almost 50%) is
Ukraine. The process is still in use in both India and Russia.
Advantages of Open Hearth Furnace:
1) This process is economical because by using regenerative firing heat is
produced with less fuel consumption. 
2) Temperature of the furnace can be increased up to 1800°C and nearly 600 tons
of steel can be produced per charge.
3) easy to control.
4) steel production costs are lowered.
5) recycling of waste material.

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