Business Horizons (2009) 52, 387—398

www.elsevier.com/locate/bushor

Embracing the whole individual: Advantages

of a dual-centric perspective of work and life
Kristina A. Bourne a,*, Fiona Wilson b, Scott W. Lester a, Jill Kickul c

a
College of Business, University of Wisconsin — Eau Claire, 105 Garfield Avenue, Eau Claire,
WI 54701, U.S.A.
b
School of Management, Simmons College, 409 Commonwealth Avenue, Boston, MA 02215, U.S.A.
c
Stern School of Business, New York University, 44 West 4th Street, Suite 7-97, New York, NY 10012, U.S.A.

KEYWORDS Abstract In today’s often complicated and fast-paced world, individuals are pulled
Work-life programs; in many different directions. Balancing work and personal roles–—including those of
Dual-centricity; parent, spouse, caregiver, volunteer, and so forth–—can be a daunting task. In the
Identity theory; literature, identity theory speaks to the multi-faceted existence employees face,
Role enrichment; beyond that of just ‘‘worker.’’ The differing roles individuals occupy have traditionally
Role accumulation been viewed as competing, implicitly suggesting that attention to one area of a
person’s life necessarily detracts from the others, and that juggling and managing
multiple roles causes stress and emotional strain. To explore the verity of this notion
we conducted a study, which is described herein. Of significance, 55% of our sample
indicated that they were dual-centric; that is, individuals who value both their work
and non-work roles equally. In this article, we build on extant research and find
support for the belief that dual-centrics experience more overall satisfaction, greater
work-life balance, and less emotional exhaustion. Given the seeming increase in
employees’ dual-centric focus, it is rational to suggest that one way in which
organizations can improve and enhance employee well-being is by embracing them
as whole individuals. This article explores that notion, and provides innovative
examples from Fortune magazine’s ‘‘100 Best Companies to Work For’’ list regarding
how this objective can be accomplished.
# 2009 Kelley School of Business, Indiana University. All rights reserved.

1. Dual-centricity: What is it?
Each year, Fortune magazine publishes a list of the
‘‘100 Best Companies to Work For’’ in America, and
* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: bourneka@uwec.edu (K.A. Bourne),
fiona.wilson@simmons.edu (F. Wilson), lestersw@uwec.edu
(S.W. Lester), jkickul@stern.nyu.edu (J. Kickul).
highlights some of the best practices that make each
a stellar employer. For example, Google–—an Inter-
net communications and technology company which
ranked #1 in both 2007 and 2008–—offers a takeout
food benefit for new parents, whereby they may be
reimbursed up to $500 during the first few months of
their baby’s life so that they needn’t experience
the additional time burden of preparing meals.
Timberland–—an outdoor apparel company–—grants

0007-6813/$ — see front matter # 2009 Kelley School of Business, Indiana University. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.bushor.2009.04.001
388
employees up to 40 hours per year of paid leave for
community service. Arnold & Porter–—a law firm–—
provides onsite childcare, such that employees may
visit their children during the work day. The Con-
tainer Store–—a storage and organization retailer–—
offers weekly onsite yoga classes for staff members.
What these best practices have in common is that
they are designed to enable and encourage employ-
ees to be ‘‘whole’’ individuals; the programs recog-
nize the totality of workers’ career, family,
personal, and community roles, their needs and
interests, and the inherently interconnected nature
of all these life facets.
This theme of the ‘‘whole person’’ acknowl-
edges that staff members are more than just
employees; they have interests and responsibili-
ties beyond their jobs. As part of a research study
we conducted regarding work-life balance (see
section 3), we discovered 95% of our survey re-
spondents rated their life outside of work as
equally important to or more important than their
jobs (see Figure 1). In 2003, Ellen Galinsky, Presi-
dent of the Families and Work Institute, intro-
duced the concept of dual-centricity. Simply
defined, dual-centric individuals are employees
who put equal priority on their work and non-work
roles (Galinsky, 2003). Interestingly, the majority
of our study participants–—55%–—described them-
selves as dual-centric.
The purpose of this article is to explore the
advantages of a dual-centric focus from the per-
spective of both employees and employers. Fur-
ther, we offer suggestions to organizations
regarding how they might embrace the whole in-
dividual at work; best practices utilized by some of
Fortune’s ‘‘100 Best Companies to Work For’’ in
America are used as examples. We begin with a
Figure 1. Importance of job and life outside of work
Key: Percent = ‘‘Choice that best describes me’’
K.A. Bourne et al.
discussion of identity theory, role accumulation,
and role enrichment.
2. Wearing multiple hats
How do individuals view and define themselves, and
what dictates this composite image? Identity theory
suggests that social roles (e.g., parent, spouse,
caregiver, volunteer, teacher) form the foundation
of a person’s sense of self, or–—in other words–—their
identity (Burke, 1991; Frone, Russell, & Cooper,
1995). As articulated by Desrochers, Andreassi,
and Thompson (2004, p. 61), an individual’s identity
can be characterized by their answers to the ques-
tion, ‘‘Who am I?’’ Within the management field,
organizational scholars have been interested in
what happens when individuals occupy several dif-
ferent roles simultaneously. For example, a person
may be both an accountant and a parent; a systems
analyst and a spouse; or a sales representative and
an environmentalist, to list but a few possible com-
binations.
Historically, research in this area has focused on
such topics as the conflict and strain that employ-
ees experience as a consequence of having to
juggle various demands on their time; it has often
been assumed that one sphere–—either work or
non-work–—must suffer in attention to the other.
In contrast, Sam D. Sieber (1974) and Stephen R.
Marks (1977) developed an expansionist argument
which suggests that individuals who participate in
multiple roles actually accumulate resources (role
accumulation), rather than draw from a finite set
until depleted. Other scholars concur, and suggest
that an individual’s resources of time and energy
can be shared, integrated, and expanded across
Embracing the whole individual: Advantages of a dual-centric perspective of work and life
the various domains of life (Ruderman, Ohlott,
Panzer, & King, 2002). Not only is this possible,
contend Greenhaus and Powell (2006), but partici-
pation in multiple roles can produce positive
outcomes for individuals in three distinct ways:
1. The accumulation of positive work and non-work
experiences can have additive effects on physi-
cal and psychological well-being. For example,
being happy in both roles can increase overall
quality of life.
2. Participation in multiple roles can help buffer
individuals from stress. For example, a strong
home life can provide a counterpoint when work
is hectic, and vice versa.
3. Experiences in one role can lead to positive out-
comes in another role, known as the process of
role enrichment. For example, feeling happy and
fulfilled at work can help individuals have better
relationships in their personal lives, and vice
versa.
If this notion is true and resources are accumulated
rather than exhausted, dual-centricity may benefit
both employees and employers. To analyze this
further, we set out to explore whether the cumula-
tive benefit of dual-weighted role identity exists.
Through a research study, we examined how dual-
centric individuals compared to their counterparts
(those who place more emphasis on either their
personal life or their work life) in terms of satisfac-
tion with different aspects of their life, as well as
their emotional and psychological well-being. Next,
we briefly explain the methods of our research,
followed by our findings.
3. The study
To investigate dual-centricity among a sample of
U.S. employees, research participants were drawn
from a large-scale quantitative study of 13 American
organizations. These firms varied in staff size, ge-
ography, and industry, and are listed in Table 1.
While respondents came from select organizations
which agreed to take part in this investigation, and
therefore cannot be classified as wholly representa-
tive of the U.S. population of working adults, the
final sample exhibited a balanced mix of employees
from different demographic backgrounds; this and
additional information pertaining to our sample is
illustrated in Table 2. A more detailed account of the
study, including variables and measures, is provided
in the Appendix located at the end of this article.
389
Table 1. Companies sampled
 Alston & Bird, LLP
 America Online
 Blue Cross Blue Shield of Massachusetts
 Boston Globe
 Bright Horizons Family Solutions
 Bristol-Myers Squibb
 Diversified Communications
 GlaxoSmithKline
 JFK Medical Center
 JohnsonDiversey
 JPMorgan Chase
 SEI Investments
 Telecare
4. The advantages of a dual-centric
view of work and life
Does having a dual-centric view positively affect
employees’ psychological and emotional well-be-
ing? In the context of our study, we were most
interested in the results that demonstrated statisti-
cally significant differences between the dual-cen-
tric group and their counterparts who were either
work-centric or non-work-centric. Based on the
survey responses of our sample, we identified three
major advantages for dual-centric employees: (1)
greater overall satisfaction, (2) higher work-life
balance satisfaction, and (3) less emotional exhaus-
tion. Next, we describe each of these dual-centric
advantages and provide a figure which visually con-
veys the results for each variable of interest. Finally,
at the conclusion of the results section, we provide a
table that summarizes the statistically significant
mean differences between the dual-centric group
and the other two groups.
4.1. Greater overall satisfaction
As illustrated in Figure 2, our findings show appreci-
able differences in how dual-centric individuals
identify satisfaction with their work life, personal
life, and overall life as compared to non-dual-cen-
tric individuals. Not surprisingly, those people iden-
tified as work-centric had significantly less
satisfaction with their personal life than dual-cen-
trics. Conversely, those individuals identified as non-
work-centric reported markedly less satisfaction
with their work as compared to dual-centrics.
In terms of overall satisfaction with their lives,
those who focus solely on work reported the lowest
390 K.A. Bourne et al.

Table 2. Demographics of sample Figure 2. Overall satisfaction

Total sample: 2,013
Dual-centric * 1,107
Non-work-centric * 805
Work-centric * 101
Gender
Female 71%
Male 29%
Age a
30 and under 34%
31 — 45 45%
45 and over 21%
Age mean by type
Dual-centric * 36
Non-work-centric * 35
Work-centric * 37
Ethnicity
People of Color 21%
White/Caucasian 79%
were curious to find out if possessing a dual-centric
Household status perspective would help an employee feel balanced
Married/Partnered 78% in their multiple roles. As shown in Figure 3, we
Single 32%
discovered that dual-centric individuals reported
Child(ren) in household significantly higher levels of satisfaction with their
No 65% work-life balance as compared to work-centrics and
Yes 35% non-work-centrics. This finding suggests that those
Median (gross) salary who place greater importance on one role or anoth-
$45,000 er may feel more conflicted when attempting to fill
Employment and education both roles. In contrast, dual-centric individuals may
Exempt-level positions 38% feel that neither their work nor their personal lives
Bachelor’s or higher 67% consume the other, because they feel less tension
*
Self-identified
between their various role responsibilities.
a
Range: 18-73, mean age 36
Note: All participating organizations were clients of Bright 4.3. Less emotional exhaustion
Horizons Family Solutions; this may not represent typical U.S.
employer programs. While most participants were married, Of course, it is possible that there are limits beyond
the low ratio of those with children alleviated concerns
regarding potential bias. Some groups were over-represented
which multiple roles become too stressful or bur-
in our sample, which may have skewed the results. densome. Previous work-related findings have re-
vealed that as conflict between work and non-work
roles increases, job burnout also increases (Kinnu-
satisfaction as compared to their counterparts. nen & Mauno, 1998). While burnout is an example of
While dual-centric individuals reported a slightly a psychological strain, one of the first signs of such
higher level of overall life satisfaction than those strain is a feeling of being emotionally exhausted by
who place greater importance on their personal life the multiple expectations stemming from both work
outside of work, this difference was not significant. and personal/family roles. Emotionally exhausted
This finding implies that life outside of work plays a individuals possess low energy and suffer from de-
substantial role in how people feel about their pleted emotional resources. We wanted to deter-
overall well-being. mine if individuals who place equal priority on their
various roles might experience less emotional drain.
4.2. Greater work-life balance As shown in Figure 4, our study found that dual-
satisfaction centric individuals reported notably lower levels of
emotional exhaustion.
In 1991, Juliet Schor’s popular book, The Over- In summary, dual-centric individuals expressed
worked American, launched the issue of work-life higher satisfaction levels in most cases. Further-
balance into boardroom discussions. With so much more, they reported the most satisfaction with their
emphasis often placed on all-consuming careers, we ability to balance multiple roles, and the lowest
Embracing the whole individual: Advantages of a dual-centric perspective of work and life 391

Figure 3. Work-life balance satisfaction a key strategic focus of all organizations. To be

Figure 4. Emotional exhaustion
levels of emotional exhaustion. Table 3 illustrates
group means across all the variables of interest and
highlights those mean differences that are statisti-
cally significant.
5. Why should organizations embrace
dual-centricity?
As discussed, individuals who embrace a dual-cen-
tric view of their personal and work lives experience
many benefits. Beyond that, dual-centricity also has
important implications for employer organizations.
This is especially true in the current labor market,
due to an impending dramatic change in the work-
force. Federal statistics suggest an estimated 76
million baby boomers–—those born between 1946
and 1964–—will soon be retiring. However, only 48
million workers under age 40–—those in Generations
X and Y–—will be waiting in the wings to replace them
(Lewis, 2004). This shortage will have significant
implications for organizations, specifically regard-
ing the attraction and retention of good talent.
Navigating this sea of change is likely to become
successful, companies will need to continue to find
ways to better understand, engage, and motivate
their current and potential staff.
Studies have shown that balance between work
and life is increasingly important to those in Gener-
ation X and Generation Y. For example, one study
found that almost one-third of those born between
1964 and 1975 (Generation X) who plan to leave
their organization in less than 3 years feel their
expectations regarding work-life balance were not
met (Catalyst Research, 2001). Another study of
1,200 adults aged 20 to 40 revealed that nearly 7
out of 10 respondents reported their career deci-
sions are primarily driven by a quest for work-life
balance (CMI and Burke Inc., 2008). Interestingly,
79% of our sample is under 45 years of age.
Our study provides compelling support that many
individuals, especially those who are younger, un-
derstand their lives more holistically to include work
and non-work roles as mutually reinforcing, rather
than competing. If they wish to attract and retain
the most capable and motivated employees, organ-
izations will need to appreciate the dual-centric
perspective of their employees, and help and sup-
port these individuals as they engage in both work
and non-work roles. The first step in doing so entails
finding out how staff answer the question, ‘‘Who am
I?’’ If firms gain a better understanding of the roles
with which their employees identify, they can begin
to imagine how employees might design their own
jobs to better fit within the context of their whole
lives. Furthermore, this data may inform companies
about human resource practices that are likely to
facilitate individuals’ efforts to be successful in
these multiple roles.
6. What hats do people desire to
wear?
Given that identity theory suggests individuals en-
gage in multiple roles concurrently, and the fact
that role balance is increasingly important to peo-
ple, we were interested in how a job could embrace
this notion of the whole individual. Toward this end,

Table 3. Group means on the satisfaction and emotional exhaustion variables

Dual-centric Non-work-centric Work-centric
Personal satisfaction 3.94 3.99 3.54 *
Work satisfaction 3.68 3.17 * 3.53
Overall satisfaction 3.86 3.77 3.48 *
Balance satisfaction 3.56 3.24 * 3.13 *
Emotional exhaustion 2.60 2.82 * 2.89 *
*
Significant mean difference from the dual-centric group at the p<.05 level
392
Table 4. Group means for each of the ideal job characteristics
Having time for. . . Dual-centric
Family 3.85
Health and wellness 3.79
Time away 3.77
Courses/School 3.37
Volunteerism 3.22
*
Significant mean difference from the dual-centric group at the p<.05 level
we asked our sample the following question: ‘‘If you
could design your ideal job, how important would
each of the following factors be to you?’’ Proposed
factors included having time for family, having time
for health and wellness, having time away for va-
cations and/or travel, having time for school or
courses, and having time for volunteerism. As illus-
trated by Table 4, more than their work-centric
counterparts, dual-centrics and non-work-centrics
both report higher levels of desire for time devoted
to family, health and wellness, and time away from
work. Dual-centrics report more interest in time for
furthering their education than non-work-centrics.
They also desire more time to volunteer than both
non-work- and work-centric individuals. All of these
differences were statistically significant.
In light of these results, then, how can organiza-
tions embrace the whole individual? The next sec-
tions of this article focus on two key topics. First, by
providing examples of best practices utilized by
industry leaders, we examine ways in which firms
may respond to employees’ multiple role demands.
Second, we demonstrate why these practices are
beneficial to both the employee and the organiza-
tion. Naturally, it is important that executives un-
derstand how programs which benefit the whole
individual also benefit the organization.
7. How ‘‘best’’ companies embrace
the whole individual
Many stellar practices can be culled from organiza-
tions featured on Fortune magazine’s ‘‘100 Best
Companies to Work For’’ list; as such, we turned
to this elite group in search of innovative and cut-
ting-edge practices at both large and medium-sized
firms which embrace balancing work and non-work
roles. Next, we provide numerous examples of best
practices that organizations have created to em-
brace the ‘‘whole person’’ in each employee. We
group these innovative approaches into the five
categories our study identified as being considered
desirable to dual-centrics in their ideal job: organi-
zational efforts to provide (1) support for family
responsibilities, (2) opportunities geared toward
K.A. Bourne et al.
Non-work-centric Work-centric
3.88 3.71 *
3.79 3.65 *
3.81 3.65 *
3.23 * 3.26
3.07 * 2.88 *
improving employee health, (3) time away from
work, (4) the ability to pursue further education
and training, and (5) support for volunteer efforts.
7.1. Support for family responsibilities
According to our study, having time for family is the
number one issue for employees, regardless of
whether they are dual-, non-work-, or work-centric.
In other words, individuals identified having more
time for family as a pivotal component of their
‘‘ideal job.’’ Corporate support of parent-employ-
ees has traditionally taken the form of childcare
referral services or childcare reimbursement pro-
grams. However, what many employees desire more
is additional time with their children. Organizations
which embrace the whole individual realize the
importance of family-friendly employment practi-
ces. Consider the following field leaders:
 SAS–—a predictive analytics software company–—is
often considered a model family-friendly organi-
zation; not only does the firm employ a standard
35 hour work week, it has four subsidized onsite
daycare programs for 850 children. These pro-
grams can potentially benefit the corporation via
reduced absenteeism and greater employee re-
tention, of course, but the company’s practices
also display a genuine respect for the importance
of quality family time. Onsite childcare allows
parent-employees to interact with their children
during the workday. The family-friendly culture of
this organization is on display daily at noon in the
cafeteria, where a pianist plays music and em-
ployees and their kids eat lunch together (Leung,
2003). Notably, one-third of Fortune’s ‘‘100 Best
Companies to Work For’’ in 2007 offered onsite
childcare as a means of helping employees bal-
ance their work and family responsibilities.
 Principal Financial Group–—a financial services
company–—offers a program entitled Working
Caregiver Leave. Under this practice, employees
have the ability to work part-time for up to 12
weeks per year, while maintaining full benefits and
guaranteed job security. One human resources
Embracing the whole individual: Advantages of a dual-centric perspective of work and life
manager took advantage of this option following
maternity leave, in order to provide extended care
for her prematurely-born son (Nayyar, 2006). As
noted by Ellen Lamale, the company’s chief actu-
ary who was promoted to vice president while
working part-time, ‘‘employees aren’t forced to
choose between flexibility and furthering their
careers’’ (Hempel, 2008).
 Baptist Health South Florida–—a not-for-profit
healthcare organization–—is listed not only by
Fortune as one of the ‘‘100 Best Companies to
Work For,’’ but is also recognized by Working
Mother magazine as a Hall of Fame recipient.
Ana Lopez-Blazquez, an employee of 20 years
and current chief strategic officer, says the best
benefit for her has been the option of working a
reduced schedule for a prolonged period, in order
to care for her child who has a significant lan-
guage delay. This delay required fairly intensive
therapy, upwards of two and a half hours, three
times a week for a year and a half. According to
Lopez-Blazquez, ‘‘The president of the organiza-
tion was extremely supportive. It was an emo-
tional time, and once I broke down in tears. He
started crying with me. The message was always
clear: ‘You have invested in us; we are investing in
you’’’ (Pallarito, 2007).
7.2. Improving employee health
For many people, health and wellness are of growing
interest and importance. Unfortunately, with busy
work and personal lives, employees may find it
difficult to incorporate healthy lifestyle behaviors
into their daily activities. Employee mental and
physical health is also a major concern for employ-
ers. Health insurance costs have skyrocketed in the
past decade. Furthermore, when employees must
spend time getting treated for illnesses, this in-
creases absenteeism rates. Recognizing the impor-
tance of wellness, some companies encourage
healthy behaviors and lifestyles for their employ-
ees, and offer opportunities that help support this
goal. The finest of these initiatives extend beyond a
desire to decrease costs and increase productivity,
and also honor the whole person and the importance
of health. For example:
 Eileen Fisher–—a designing and retail firm of wom-
en’s fashion–—explicitly includes the ‘‘nourish-
ment of mind, body, and spirit’’ in its mission
statement. Standing behind this notion, the com-
pany offers complimentary onsite yoga, foot re-
flexology, and massage to all employees. Further,
it provides frequent programs which expose
393
employees to other wellness options they may wish
to pursue on their own, such as Pilates and nutri-
tional education. Significantly, the company reim-
burses all employees $1,000 per year for wellness-
related expenses. Staff members have used this
stipend for gym memberships, acupuncture ap-
pointments, and home exercise equipment. Eileen
Fisher’s Employee Wellness Program is born of the
founder’s belief that a person can only be fully
present at work if they first take care of them-
selves. The corporate culture heartily encourages
employees ‘‘to stop, to stretch, [and] to breathe.’’
This powerfully suggests that the company places a
high priority on its employees as individual human
beings, and does not focus on business success at
the expense of employee health and well-being
(Eileen Fisher, 2008).
 Quad/Graphics–—a printing company–—has of-
fered onsite medical clinics since 1990, to great
success. Fully 80% of the company’s employees
use the onsite clinics as their main source of
primary care, as well as specialty care including
internal medicine, pediatrics, obstetrics, gyne-
cology, and optometry. This creates a win-win
situation. The company reports that it spends
about 40% more on primary care than comparable
companies, but 50% less on specialty care, saving
money in the long run. Furthermore, employees
gain access to needed care in a timely manner
(Wilson, 2005).
 SRA International–—a provider of information
technology services and solutions–—created the
Get F.I.T. Program to address problems caused
by obesity, and other health issues such as hyper-
tension, diabetes, and heart disease. Employees
who participate are grouped into teams of five
and compete over a 17-week period for prizes
including a 3-day vacation to a resort, a $200
health/fitness gift certificate, and other incen-
tives for meeting personal goals. In 2004, 190 GET
F.I.T. participants lost about 800 pounds, walked
more than 50,000 miles, and enjoyed healthier
habits including biking to work and smoking ces-
sation (Elswick, 2004).
7.3. Time away from work
When employers provide time away from work, it
allows employees to pursue personal interests, trav-
el, and ‘‘recharge their batteries.’’ Staff members
returning to work after time away are likely to feel a
renewed energy and focus, enabling them to create
and share new and refreshed perspectives. Of
Fortune’s ‘‘100 Best Companies to Work For,’’
394
one-fifth offered fully-paid sabbaticals in 2007. A
representative for the Society of Human Resource
Management (SHRM) notes, ‘‘It’s a way to give
stressed, burned-out employees time to rest and
relax, and return to work with a newly charged
attitude’’ (Donaldson-Evans, 2001). Following are
a variety of company-specific illustrations:
 Whole Foods Market–—a natural and organic su-
permarket–—offers a program whereby, for every
2 weeks they work, employees accrue hours that
can be used for paid time off. One employee with
a tenure of 20 years used the accrued time to
travel around the world on a 6-month sabbatical
(Carr, 2006). As stated by the Whole Foods vice
president of HR, ‘‘We want people to feel like
they can pursue other interests. We value our
team members so greatly, we’d feel badly to lose
them because they wanted to take a break’’
(Donaldson-Evans, 2001).
 Since the 1970s, Intel Corporation–—a technology
developer and microchip manufacturer–—has of-
fered its employees 2 fully-paid months off every
7 years with job security. This sabbatical program
is mandatory, unless granted a special exemption,
and staff members choose to use it in very unique
ways. One 31-year-old marketing manager spent
her sabbatical building a computer lab in the
Lebanese orphanage where her father grew up.
Another Intel worker travelled to Alaska to track
ducks with the Alaska Fish and Game Department.
An engineer organized a Jerusalem ceremony
honoring the man who sheltered his mother dur-
ing the Holocaust (Donaldson-Evans, 2001).
 After 6 months of employment, Four Seasons
Hotels–—operator of luxury hotels and resorts–—
offers all its employees, including those in ser-
vice-related jobs, the opportunity to stay 3 nights
free at any Four Seasons property. After a year of
employment, the number of free nights increases
to 6, and so on with tenure. When staff members
stay in the free rooms, they are treated as guests
and not employees, acknowledging the fact that
outside of work they are ‘‘somebody.’’ For its
part, Four Seasons believes the guest experience
allows employees not only time to relax and
vacation with their families, but also to under-
stand from a client’s view the service experience
they help provide when at work (Hempel, 2008).
7.4. Pursuing education and training
Many employees desire the opportunity for profes-
sional growth and development; however, cost and
K.A. Bourne et al.
time commitments can make it difficult for workers
to pursue educational prospects. When employing
firms encourage staff members to take advantage of
such growth opportunities, it not only enables the
individual to satisfy their desire to grow, but also
provides them with up-to-date knowledge that is job
applicable. Consider the manner in which these
featured companies address employees’ intellectu-
al growth needs:
 A.G. Edwards–—a financial services holding com-
pany–—offers a cutting-edge educational opportu-
nity. The firm allows employees the ability to earn
up to 29 hours of undergraduate college credit for
job-related classes, which are held onsite through
the internal training department. In 2004, nearly
800 A.G. Edwards staff members were enrolled in
these undergraduate classes. The company facili-
tated this program such that undergraduate edu-
cation could become a real option for many
employees who previously would simply not have
been able to consider this path. In doing so, it
enhances the future prospects of the employee
(‘‘A.G. Edwards,’’ 2005).
 MITRE–—a not-for-profit company that provides
systems engineering, research and development,
and information technology support to the gov-
ernment–—offers a generous higher education tu-
ition reimbursement of up to $20,000 per year for
its employees (Fisher, 2008). MITRE also facili-
tates an Accelerated Graduate Degree Program,
which allows staff members time off to pursue
advanced degrees, and covers tuition, books, and
fees in full. The Advanced Degree Award Program
offers a monetary bonus for those staff members
who complete their degree (‘‘Benefits,’’ 2008).
 Google–—an Internet services company which hap-
pens to have ranked first on Fortune’s ‘‘Best
Companies to Work For’’ list 2 years in a row–—
offers support for continuous professional growth
and development. The firm will reimburse, up to
$8,000 a year, employees who undertake work-
related courses via external training providers or
academic institutions. Furthermore, through
Google’s Global Education Leave Program, work-
ers can take up to 5 years’ leave to further their
education and be reimbursed up to $150,000 for
educational expenses (‘‘Why Is Google So Great?’’
2008).
7.5. Supporting volunteerism
In addition to being employees, individuals also
fulfill roles as members of their communities and
Embracing the whole individual: Advantages of a dual-centric perspective of work and life
citizens of the world. Many people are committed to
making their towns better places to live, and work
toward this goal through the act of volunteerism.
Skill-based volunteering is a recent trend whereby
corporate volunteers donate their professional
skills, often on company time, to not-for-profit
organizations. Corporate volunteering allows em-
ployees the opportunity to feel like they are making
a difference while maintaining their professional
skills and talents. One study found that 62% of
Generation Y respondents said they would prefer
to work for companies which offer skill-based vol-
unteer outlets (‘‘Nonprofits to Benefit,’’ 2007). Here
are just a few profiles of innovative corporate vol-
unteer programs:
 America Online Inc.–—an Internet services and
media company–—launched AOL Tech Corps, a
group of America Online volunteers who assist
nonprofit organizations with technology-related
projects, such as upgrading their computer sys-
tems. For example, AOL Tech Corps members
helped build a computer lab for the Higher
Achievement Program, an after-school initiative
aimed at middle school students in Washington,
D.C. The AOL employees set up a network to
connect the computers, provided access to the
Internet, and installed the appropriate soft-
ware. This program allowed AOL employees a
chance to keep their technology skills up-to-
date, saving AOL money on training, while also
serving their community (‘‘Working Together,’’
2008).
 Ernst and Young–—an accounting firm–—put into
practice the Corporate Social Responsibility Fel-
lows Program, through which employees help
organizations in developing countries where
Ernst and Young has offices. Under this frame-
work, not only do recipient businesses benefit,
but Ernst and Young through its actions culti-
vates positive public relations in these emerging
markets. For example, one of the company’s
auditors was deployed for several months to
work on a pro-bono basis with a coffee coopera-
tive in El Salvador, to help the cooperative learn
accounting software and improve product pric-
ing (Carr, 2006). Too, a fraud investigation man-
ager volunteered his time working with
Argentina’s only distributor of generic medicines
(Murray, 2008).
 Deloitte and Touche–—an accounting and finan-
cial firm–—provides its employees with many
opportunities to donate their professional skills
to organizations about which they care. For
395
example, a team of human capital consultants
created a leadership and management workshop
for Chicago public school principals. In the
Silicon Valley, Deloitte volunteers provided
job-hunting, résumé-writing, and financial liter-
acy training to the homeless, and at-risk fami-
lies and individuals (‘‘Nonprofits to Benefit,’’
2007).
8. What about organizational results?
Earlier, we showed that a dual-centric perspective
was related to positive individual outcomes such as
higher overall satisfaction and lower emotional ex-
haustion. We then asked what dual-centrics desire
in an ideal job and presented examples of some of
the best practices that address these desires. As
noted, all of the examples proffered come from
companies which have been listed at least once
on Fortune’s ‘‘100 Best Companies to Work For’’
roster; however, most have been featured yearly
since 2000. It is fair to ask, especially in challenging
economic times, how investment in these types of
employee programs translates to organizational
performance in terms of profitability, growth, and
other success measures. Next, we highlight tangible
ways in which these programs positively impact an
organization’s bottom line.
First, research shows that companies featured on
Fortune’s ‘‘100 Best’’ list consistently outperform
the S&P 500, with a 3-year total annualized stock
market return of 37% versus 25%, a 5-year return of
34% versus 25%, and a 10-year return of 21% versus
17% (Levering, Moskowitz, Garcia, & Vell-Zarb,
2000). Simon and DeVaro (2006) also found that
companies on Fortune’s list earn significantly higher
customer satisfaction ratings than firms not on the
list. Perhaps the greatest impact of these best
practices arises from the ability of ‘‘100 Best’’
companies to more effectively recruit and retain
top talent.
Using comparative data from the Bureau of Labor
Statistics, the Great Place to Work Institute exam-
ined how turnover rates of the ‘‘100 Best Companies
to Work For’’ compared to industry averages (Reed &
Clark, 2004). These data showed that, across multi-
ple industries (high-tech, construction, financial
services, hospitals, hotels, manufacturing, retail,
and transportation), ‘‘100 Best’’ companies had
turnover rates that were on average 10%-15% lower
than their industry averages. Furthermore, the
same report revealed that ‘‘100 Best’’ companies
experience ‘‘half the voluntary turnover rate of
companies [which] are not on the list’’ (2004, p.
27). These lower turnover rates translate into dollar
396
savings and a much-improved bottom line. When
calculating the overall costs of turnover, it is com-
mon practice to take into account:
 Separation costs (e.g., COBRA benefits continua-
tion, exit interviews);
 Replacement costs (e.g., pre-employment test-
ing, advertising);
 Training costs (e.g., labor costs for those provid-
ing the training (external trainers, supervisors, or
co-workers)); and
 Productivity costs (e.g., lower production, in-
creased error rates).
Previous research has found the average cost of
replacing an exempt employee (e.g., administra-
tive, professional) to be one-and-a-half times their
annual salary, and the cost of replacing a non-
exempt employee (e.g., hourly) to be three-quar-
ters of their annual wages (Phillips & Reisman,
1992).
Obviously, turnover costs will vary some by in-
dustry. For example, a recent study found that the
cost of replacing a registered nurse would be ap-
proximately $65,000 dollars (Jones & Gates, 2008).
Regardless of industry, however, turnover costs are
substantial, and improvement in retention rates
presents an important opportunity to improve an
organization’s bottom line. ‘‘100 Best’’ companies
which experience lower turnover rates than their
competitors are, in most cases, saving hundreds of
thousands of dollars. In addition, there may be
many other, more intangible benefits to having
satisfied and committed employees. For example,
more satisfied employees may lead to higher levels
of customer satisfaction and retention. These
benefits are beyond the scope of this article,
but offer food for future thought. Overall, results
suggest that a dual-centric view of work and life
offers advantages to both the employer and the
employee.
9. Management take-aways
When managers are engaged in the process of
considering the implications of organizational pol-
icies and practices, we contend it would be advan-
tageous for them to take into account how these
influence employees’ ability to openly and com-
fortably engage in multiple interests, especially
K.A. Bourne et al.
the ability to pursue non-work activities. The no-
tions of role accumulation and role enrichment
suggest that success in one sphere can energize
successes in other areas, as well. Thus, managers
would be wise to concentrate on creating work
environments in which success on the job reinfor-
ces or facilitates successes outside of the office,
and vice versa.
Our study indicates that many employees are
ready to incorporate a dual-centric view into their
work experiences and that organizations may bene-
fit from embracing an expansionist view, which
recognizes that work and non-work roles can be
mutually reinforcing. Further, our research shows
that embracing the whole individual–—as an employ-
ee and as an independent human being with multi-
ple interests–—positively affects both psychological
and emotional well-being. Employers would do well
to search for opportunities whereby they may dem-
onstrate commitment to their employees as whole
people, building a work environment that actively
encourages staff members to take advantage of
these programs without any fear that it will hinder
career progress.
Companies should illustrate the ‘‘bridge’’ be-
tween employees’ work and non-work roles,
whether that entails supporting caregiving respon-
sibilities, encouraging volunteer efforts, offering
time away from work, supporting health and well-
ness, or any other dual-centric program. The
more obvious the connection, the more likely an
employee will be able to move toward or maintain
a dual-centric view. This progression should
lead to higher levels of overall satisfaction, feel-
ings of work-life balance, and lower levels of
emotional exhaustion, thereby increasing an em-
ployee’s ability to succeed on the job. These
heightened perceptions of satisfaction, balance,
meaningfulness, and success are also likely to
garner an even greater outcome for the organiza-
tion: better retention of its greatest resource–—its
people.
Acknowledgment
We gratefully acknowledge Bright Horizons Family
Solutions for its financial support of the original
research study from which data for this article is
drawn. We also gratefully acknowledge the work of
Dr. Diana Stork, the principal investigator for the
original study, and her work in creating the survey
instrument.
Embracing the whole individual: Advantages of a dual-centric perspective of work and life 397

Appendix. Data collection/Survey measures

For the thirteen organizations which participated in this study, Human Resource Information System (HRIS)
data was used to identify employees who were hired in either 1997 or 2002 and were still employed by their
organizations in 2004. E-mail invitations were then sent to eligible individuals, with an online survey used
where possible. A paper survey was substituted in those organizations where online access for employees
was an issue. A total of 11,064 were invited to complete the survey and 2,013 actually did; this equated to
a response rate of 18%. Respondents completed a survey instrument that included measures of dual-
centricity, emotional exhaustion, ideal job characteristics, and four types of satisfaction.
Dual-centricity was measured with a self-report of individual perceptions of domain importance.
Respondents were asked to choose one of three phrases that best described them at this point in their
life (i.e., 1 = my job is more important; 2 = my job and life outside are equally important; and, 3 = my life
outside of work is more important). Those who answered that their job and life outside are equally
important are considered dual-centric. Overall Life Satisfaction, Work Satisfaction, Personal/Family
Satisfaction, and Work/Life Balance Satisfaction were each measured with a single item and using a five-
point Likert scale, ranging from 1 = very dissatisfied to 5 = very satisfied. Emotional Exhaustion was
measured using six items. Responses were given on a five-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 = never true to
5 = always true. Sample items from the emotional exhaustion scale included ‘‘I feel tired at home’’ and ‘‘I
feel tired at work.’’ Cronbach’s alpha for the emotional exhaustion scale was .83, indicating that it had
good internal consistency.
It is possible that the results would be impacted by variables other than dual-centricity. Thus, we included
the following demographic characteristics as control variables: gender, race, age, salary (as a proxy for
positional level in the organization), marital status, number of children, and level of education.
Ideal Job Characteristics was measured by asking respondents to indicate how important each of the
following was to having an ideal job: (a) having time for family, (b) having time for health and wellness
activities, (c) having time off work, (d) having time to take courses/further education, and (e) having time
to pursue volunteer interests. Participants rated the importance of these five characteristics using a four-
point scale, ranging from 1 = definitely not important to 4 = definitely important.

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