Lecture One: Social Work

Social work is an academic discipline and profession that concerns itself with individuals, families, groups
and communities in an effort to enhance social functioning and overall well-being. Social functioning is the
way in which people perform their social roles, and the structural institutions that are provided to sustain
them.

Social work applies social sciences, such as sociology, psychology, political science, public health,
community development, law, and economics, to engage with client systems, conduct assessments, and
develop interventions to solve social and personal problems; and to bring about social change. Social work
practice is often divided into micro-work, which involves working directly with individuals or small groups;
and macro-work, which involves working with communities, and - within social policy - fostering change on
a larger scale.

The social work industry[4] developed in the 19th century, with some of its roots in voluntary philanthropy
and in grassroots organizing.[5] However, responses to social needs had existed long before then, primarily
from private charities and from religious organizations. The effects of the Industrial Revolution and of the
Great Depression of the 1930s placed pressure on social work to become a more defined discipline.

Definition

Social work is a broad profession that intersects with several disciplines. Social work organizations offer the
following definitions:

“Social work is a practice-based profession and an academic discipline that promotes social change and
development, social cohesion, and the empowerment and liberation of people. Principles of social justice,
human rights, collective responsibility and respect for diversities are central to social work. Underpinned by
theories of social work, social sciences, humanities and indigenous knowledge, social work engages people
and structures to address life challenges and enhance wellbeing." International Federation of Social Workers

"Social work is a profession concerned with helping individuals, families, groups and communities to
enhance their individual and collective well-being. It aims to help people develop their skills and their
ability to use their own resources and those of the community to resolve problems. Social work is concerned
with individual and personal problems but also with broader social issues such as poverty, unemployment,
and domestic violence." - Canadian Association of Social Workers

Social work practice consists of the professional application of social work values, principles, and
techniques to one or more of the following ends: helping people obtain tangible services; counseling and
psychotherapy with individuals, families, and groups; helping communities or groups provide or improve
social and health services; and participating in legislative processes. The practice of social work requires
knowledge of human development and behavior; of social and economic, and cultural institutions; and of the
interaction of all these factors."-[9] National Association of Social Workers

"Social workers work with individuals and families to help improve outcomes in their lives. This may be
helping to protect vulnerable people from harm or abuse or supporting people to live independently. Social
workers support people, act as advocates and direct people to the services they may require. Social workers
often work in multi-disciplinary teams alongside health and education professionals." - British Association
of Social Workers

History

The practice and profession of social work has a relatively modern and scientific origin, and is generally
considered to have developed out of three strands. The first was individual casework, a strategy pioneered
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by the Charity Organization Society in the mid-19th century, which was founded by Helen Bosanquet and
Octavia Hill in London, England. Most historians identify COS as the pioneering organization of the social
theory that led to the emergence of social work as a professional occupation. COS had its main focus on
individual casework. The second was social administration, which included various forms of poverty relief –
'relief of paupers'. Statewide poverty relief could be said to have its roots in the English Poor Laws of the
17th century, but was first systematized through the efforts of the Charity Organization Society. The third
consisted of social action – rather than engaging in the resolution of immediate individual requirements, the
emphasis was placed on political action working through the community and the group to improve their
social conditions and thereby alleviate poverty. This approach was developed originally by the Settlement
House Movement.

This was accompanied by a less easily defined movement; the development of institutions to deal with the
entire range of social problems. All had their most rapid growth during the nineteenth century, and laid the
foundation basis for modern social work, both in theory and in practice.

Professional social work originated in 19th century England, and had its roots in the social and economic
upheaval wrought by the Industrial Revolution, in particular the societal struggle to deal with the resultant
mass urban-based poverty and its related problems. Because poverty was the main focus of early social
work, it was intricately linked with the idea of charity work.

Other important historical figures that shaped the growth of the social work profession are Jane Addams,
who founded the Hull House in Chicago and won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1931; Mary Ellen Richmond,
who wrote Social Diagnosis, one of the first social work books to incorporate law, medicine, psychiatry,
psychology, and history; and William Beveridge, who created the social welfare state, framing the debate on
social work within the context of social welfare prevision.

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 Lecture Two: Human Growth and Development

Human Growth

From early childhood until adolescence, or sometimes early adulthood, growth plates on the ends of long
bones, called epiphyseal plates, allow bones to grow. This occurs through osteoclasts and osteoblasts
breaking up old bone tissue and rebuilding new bone. It only happens during early human growth and will
stop after the epiphyseal plates close. As bone grows, so does tissue and muscle throughout your body.
While bone growth ceases early in life, muscles will continue to grow through strength training.

Time Frame

Several psychology and sociology theorists have coined theories of human development. One of the most
widely taught theories is Erik Erikson's psychosocial stages of development. Just as human growth takes
place continually at different rates for children and adolescents, developmental stages follow similar
patterns. For instance, children will grow throughout childhood, but one child may grow at a slower rate
than another.

Likewise, development will eventually take place in children and adolescents but these stages may come at
different rates for different children. A large difference between physical growth and development, however,
is that physical growth from bone largely stops at some point. Adults will likely lose and gain weight
through fat and muscle growth and loss but will not grow taller after growth plates close. Development
continues throughout life, from childhood, adolescence and adulthood, until death.

Developmentally Challenged

According to Erikson's theory, successful completion of each stage of development is necessary to move on
to the next stage of life development. Unfortunately, if a stage of development is never completed, that
individual may not complete a healthy life-long development.

For example, in early stages of life, a child learns competence sometime between the ages of six and 12. If
this child's competence is hindered for some reason, he may have difficulty graduating to the next
developmental stage, which is identity versus role confusion. This adolescent could grow into adulthood
feeling inferior and lacking competence, which is often crucial for successful, healthy living.

Physical, Cognitive & Psychosocial Development

Human development is a lifelong process beginning before birth and extending to death. At each moment in
life, every human being is in a state of personal evolution. Physical changes largely drive the process, as our
cognitive abilities advance and decline in response to the brain’s growth in childhood and reduced function
in old age. Psychosocial development is also significantly influenced by physical growth, as our changing
body and brain, together with our environment, shape our identity and our relationships with other people.

Physical Development

Although various scholars define physical development in slightly different ways, most generally break the
process down into eight stages that include infancy; early, mid and late childhood; adolescence; early
adulthood; middle age and old age. In recent years, as people have lived longer, some have added "very old
age" to this list. At each stage, specific physical changes occur that affect the individual’s cognitive and
psychosocial development.

Cognitive Development
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Cognitive development refers to the acquisition of the ability to reason and solve problems. The main theory
of cognitive development was developed by Jean Piaget, a Swiss developmental psychologist. Piaget broke
childhood cognitive development into four stages spanning from birth through adolescence. A child who
successfully passes through the stages progresses from simple sensorimotor responses to the ability to
classify and create series of objects and eventually to engage in hypothetical and deductive reasoning,
according to "The New Dictionary of Scientific Biography."

Piaget's Theory Differs From Others In Several Ways:

 It is concerned with children, rather than all learners.
 It focuses on development, rather than learning per se, so it does not address learning of information
or specific behaviors.

 It proposes discrete stages of development, marked by qualitative differences, rather than a gradual
increase in number and complexity of behaviors, concepts, ideas, etc.

Psychosocial Development

The primary theory of psychosocial development was created by Erik Erikson, a German developmental
psychologist. Erikson divided the process of psychological and social development into eight stages that
correspond to the stages of physical development. At each stage, according to Erikson, the individual faces a
psychological conflict that must be resolved in order to progress developmentally. Moving from infancy to
old age, these conflicts are trust versus mistrust, autonomy versus shame and doubt, initiative versus guilt,
industry versus inferiority, identity versus role diffusion, intimacy versus isolation, generativity—that is,
creativity and productivity—versus stagnation, and ego integrity versus despair.

Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development

Erikson maintained that personality develops in a predetermined order through eight stages of psychosocial
development, from infancy to adulthood. During each stage, the person experiences a psychosocial crisis
which could have a positive or negative outcome for personality development.

For Erikson (1958, 1963), these crises are of a psychosocial nature because they involve psychological
needs of the individual (i.e., psycho) conflicting with the needs of society (i.e., social).

According to the theory, successful completion of each stage results in a healthy personality and the
acquisition of basic virtues. Basic virtues are characteristic strengths which the ego can use to resolve
subsequent crises.

Failure to successfully complete a stage can result in a reduced ability to complete further stages and
therefore a more unhealthy personality and sense of self.  These stages, however, can be resolved
successfully at a later time.

Stage Psychosocial Crisis Basic Virtue Age

1. Trust vs. Mistrust Hope 0 - 1½
2. Autonomy vs. Shame Will 1½ - 3
3. Initiative vs. Guilt Purpose 3-5
4. Industry vs. Inferiority Competency 5 - 12
5. Identity vs. Role Confusion Fidelity 12 - 18
6. Intimacy vs. Isolation Love 18 - 40
7. Generativity vs. Stagnation Care 40 - 65
8. Ego Integrity vs. Despair Wisdom 65+

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 Lecture Three: Gender Analysis
What is gender analysis?

Gender analysis provides the necessary data and information to integrate a gender perspective into policies,
programmes and projects. As a starting point for gender mainstreaming, gender analysis identifies the
differences between and among women and men in terms of their relative position in society and the
distribution of resources, opportunities, constraints and power in a given context. In this way, conducting a
gender analysis allows for the development of interventions that address gender inequalities and meet the
different needs of women and men.

Why is gender analysis important?

Gender analysis provides information on the different roles of women and men at different levels in policies,
programmes and projects; their respective access to and control over resources, and the material and non-
material benefits of society; and their gender-specific needs, priorities and responsibilities.

A thorough gender analysis enables policymakers to understand gender inequalities in a given situation or
sector, as it not only describes the current state of contextual situations by gender, but also explores the
causes and effects of gender disparities on the target group. Looking at the underlying causes of gender
inequalities and discrimination can assist in setting relevant and targeted objectives and measures to
eliminate gender inequalities. In this way, gender analysis contributes to the improved gender
responsiveness of policies and legislation as it provides the basis for ensuring that the needs of all citizens —
women and men — are adequately addressed.

When focused on organisations and institutions, gender analysis is also important in determining how the
nature of their service delivery may affect women and men, or how institutions themselves are also
‘gendered’, for example, in the workplace in terms of recruitment practices, the gendered divisions of labour
and women’s access to decision-making positions.

How does gender analysis work?

As part of the broad category of socioeconomic analysis, gender analysis starts by identifying and explaining
gender inequalities in a specific context. This helps to build an understanding of different patterns of
participation, involvement, behaviours and activities that women and men have in economic, social and
legal structures, and the implications of these differences.

The following are three suggested steps to take when carrying out gender analysis.

1. Collecting available data.

The first step is to collect available data and information and to identify data gaps.

 Identify relevant data to provide a picture of the gender equality situation in a given context.
 Draw on existing qualitative and quantitative research findings as a basis for evidence-based data.
 Ensure that data is disaggregated by sex (and other intersecting forms of discrimination, such as age,
ethnicity and any other factors relevant to shedding light on intersectionality).
 Identify where further data is needed and generate additional data that captures gender issues.

2. Identifying gender differences and the underlying causes of gender inequalities.

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The second step is to uncover the underlying causes of gender inequalities and seek to examine and address
the cause of the problem in order to fully meet the different needs of women and men.

 Reveal and examine differences and inequalities in women’s and men’s lives. Without this step,
‘unexpected’ consequences of policies, programmes and projects can arise, which may prompt the
failure of the intervention or lead to further inequalities and discrimination. Where inequalities
between women and men are found, they must be analysed in order to establish both their causes and
their effects.
 Include and integrate relevant gender issues, gaps and inequalities into the full problem analysis. In
particular:
o assess how the gender division of labour and patterns of decision-making affect the policy,
programme or project;
o assess who has access to and control over resources, assets and benefits, including
programme or project benefits;
o assess the barriers and constraints on women and men participating in and benefiting equally
from the policy, programme or project.
 Explore the representation and participation of women and men in different policy sectors and at
different levels. Specifically:
o define in what way your policy aims to respond to the needs of women and men;
o describe how the policy will affect the everyday lives of women and men or specific groups
of women and men, taking intersectional inequalities into account (i.e. relating it to age,
bodily ability, ethnicity, migration status, income, etc.);
o define the differences between women and men in the policy area (with regard to rights,
participation and representation, access to and use of resources and social norms that affect
gender roles and relations);
o identify gender gaps among professionals (e.g. in pay and access to senior and leadership
positions) in the main institutions in the sector;
o identify the role of women in management at the local and national levels in the sector;
o where relevant, consider the governance of the institution through a gender lens, by assessing
whether and how selection, appraisal, promotion and evaluation practices reflect gender
stereotypes that disadvantage female employees and managers.

Gender analysis frameworks

There are a number of different frameworks for undertaking gender analysis. They represent step-by-step
tools for carrying out gender analysis, which assist in raising questions, analysing information and
developing strategies to increase women’s and men’s representation and participation in policies, projects
and programmes.

The Harvard Analytical Framework, also called the Gender Roles Framework, was one of the first
frameworks developed to identify and understand the differences between men and women in their
participation in the economy. It is used to collect information from the community and from households.
The Harvard Analytical Framework describes who does each activity, who has access to and control of
resources and the influence on gender roles. To do this, the framework is made up of four interrelated
components:

 The ‘activity’ profile answers the question of ‘Who does what?’ for all relevant productive and
reproductive tasks.
 The ‘access’ and ‘control’ profiles identify the resources used in the identified tasks; define by
gender who has access to these resources and control over their use; and define the benefits that
result from each activity and those who have access to and control over these benefits.

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  The final section – ‘influencing factors’ – identifies factors that cause the differences in the gender
roles identified in the three aforementioned profiles. Although this framework acknowledges and
distinguishes women’s roles and work, it does not aim to challenge existing gender inequalities.

The capacities and vulnerabilities approach (CVA) was developed to tackle humanitarian and disaster-
preparedness issues and mainly addresses questions of organisational change. The core idea behind this
approach is that people have capabilities and vulnerabilities that will determine the effect that a
humanitarian crisis will have on them and how they will respond to it. This framework asserts that in
planning a policy, programme or project in this area, three main dimensions should also be investigated
using a gender lens, namely: physical/material capacities and vulnerabilities; social/organisational capacities
and vulnerabilities; and motivational/attitudinal capacities and vulnerabilities.

The social relations approach was developed by Naila Kabeer, and has been used by various government
departments and non-governmental organisations as a planning framework. The approach is centred on the
interchange between patriarchy and social relations. Unlike the Harvard framework, it does not focus on
roles, resources and activities, but instead focuses on the relations between the state, market, community and
family.

The 4R method provides a picture of the gender patterns that exist in organisations, their impact and a plan
for remedying shortcomings. The 4R method is articulated in four steps:

 Representation – surveying gender representation in an organisation that is implementing an

intervention to provide a picture of the gender distribution at all levels of the decision-making
process;
 Resources – examining the allocation of resources — money, time, information, among others —
between women and men;
 Realia – analysing conditions to understand the reasons for the gender distribution of representation
and resource allocation;
 Realisation – formulating new objectives and measures to achieve gender equality.

When to carry out gender analysis

Gender analysis can be applied to different ‘objects’ such as single projects, entire programmes, legislation
and/or policy frameworks, along with specific intervention measures within these.

Gender analysis can be carried out at any time and at any stage of the policy cycle, although there are
situations that present more opportune moments, such as:

 during the initial design of a policy/programme/project;

 before the implementation of a policy/programme/ project;
 during the monitoring and evaluation of a policy/ programme/project to make it possible to
understand whether data and information collected is meaningful in terms of gender and responds to
the different needs of women and men.

Regardless of the stage at which gender analysis is carried out, it is most useful when it is applied routinely
to all aspects of policy, programme and project planning, implementation and review (rather than as an
afterthought or add-on).

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 Lecture Four: Society: Structure, Culture and Change
Socio-cultural change:

Sociocultural evolution is an umbrella term for theories of cultural and social evolution, describing how
cultures and societies have changed over time. Socio-cultural change refers to any significant alteration over
time in behavior patterns and cultural values and norms.

Social structures consist of social relationships, as well as any social institutions within a society. One
example of a social structure is social class (upper-class, middle-class, and poor). The different social classes
vary in the fact that they do not have access to the same resources that society has to offer.

Social change is the transformation of the social order in the community by making adjustments and
variations to social institutions, behavior, and relations. It involves social evolution where the society makes
amendments to traditional societal norms leading to the necessary change.

How do societies change?

Social change can evolve from a number of different sources, including contact with other societies
(diffusion), changes in the ecosystem (which can cause the loss of natural resources or widespread disease),
technological change (epitomized by the Industrial Revolution, which created a new social group, the urban
proletariat), and population growth and other demographic variables. Social change is also spurred by
ideological, economic, and political movements.

The changing social order

Social change in the broadest sense is any change in social relations. Viewed this way, social change is an
ever-present phenomenon in any society. A distinction is sometimes made then between processes of change
within the social structure, which serve in part to maintain the structure, and processes that modify the
structure (societal change).

The specific meaning of social change depends first on the social entity considered. Changes in a small
group may be important on the level of that group itself but negligible on the level of the larger society.
Similarly, the observation of social change depends on the time span studied; most short-term changes are
negligible when examined in the long run. Small-scale and short-term changes are characteristic of human
societies, because customs and norms change, new techniques and technologies are invented, environmental
changes spur new adaptations, and conflicts result in redistributions of power.

Patterns of social change

Theories of social change, both old and new, commonly assume that the course of social change is not
arbitrary but is, to a certain degree, regular or patterned. The three traditional ideas of social change—
decline, cyclic change, and progress—have unquestionably influenced modern theories.

Cyclic change

Much of ordinary social life is organized in cyclic changes: those of the day, the week, and the year. These
short-term cyclic changes may be regarded as conditions necessary for structural stability. Other changes
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that have a more or less cyclic pattern are less predictable. One example is the business cycle, a recurrent
phenomenon of capitalism, which seems somewhat patterned yet is hard to predict. A prominent theory of
the business cycle is that of the Soviet economist Nikolay D. Kondratyev, who tried to show the recurrence
of long waves of economic boom and recession on an international scale. He charted the waves from the end
of the 18th century, with each complete wave comprising a period of about 50 years. Subsequent research
has shown, however, that the patterns in different countries have been far from identical.

Long-term cyclic changes are addressed in theories on the birth, growth, flourishing, decline, and death of
civilizations. Toynbee conceived world history in this way in the first volumes of A Study of History (1934–
61), as did Spengler in his Decline of the West (1918–22). These theories have been criticized for conceiving
of civilizations as natural entities with sharp boundaries, thinking that neglects the interrelations between
civilizations.

One-directional change

This type of change continues more or less in the same direction. Such change is usually cumulative and
implies growth or increase, such as that of population density, the size of organizations, or the level of
production. The direction of the change could, however, be one of decrease or a combination of growth and
decrease. An example of this last process is what American cultural anthropologist Clifford Geertz has
called “involution,” found in some agrarian societies when population growth is coupled with a decrease in
per capita wealth. Yet another change may be a shift from one pole to the other of a continuum—from
religious to secular ways of thinking, for example. Such a change may be defined as either growth (of
scientific knowledge) or decline (of religion).

The simplest type of one-directional change is linear, occurring when the degree of social change is constant
over time. Another type of social change is that of exponential growth, in which the percentage of growth is
constant over time and the change accelerates correspondingly. Population growth and production growth
are known to follow this pattern over certain time frames.

Combined patterns of change

Cyclic and one-directional changes may be observed simultaneously. This occurs in part because short-term
change tends to be cyclic while long-term change tends to follow one direction. For example, production
rates of industrializing countries exhibit the pattern of short-term business cycles occurring within long-term
economic development.

Explanations of social change: what follows are some of the processes thought to contribute to social
change.

 Natural environment

Changes in the natural environment may result from climatic variations, natural disasters, or the spread of
disease. For example, both worsening of climatic conditions and the Black Death epidemics are thought to
have contributed to the crisis of feudalism in 14th-century Europe. Changes in the natural environment may
be either independent of human social activities or caused by them. Deforestation, erosion, and air pollution
belong to the latter category, and they in turn may have far-reaching social consequences.

 Demographic processes

Population growth and increasing population density represent demographic forms of social change.
Population growth may lead to geographic expansion of a society, military conflicts, and the intermingling
of cultures. Increasing population density may stimulate technological innovations, which in turn may
increase the division of labour, social differentiation, commercialization, and urbanization. This sort of
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process occurred in western Europe from the 11th to the 13th century and in England in the 18th century,
where population growth spurred the Industrial Revolution. On the other hand, population growth may
contribute to economic stagnation and increasing poverty, as may be witnessed in several Third World
countries today.

 Technological innovations

Several theories of social evolution identify technological innovations as the most important determinants of
societal change. Such technological breakthroughs as the smelting of iron, the introduction of the plow in
agriculture, the invention of the steam engine, and the development of the computer have had lasting social
consequences.

 Economic processes

Technological changes are often considered in conjunction with economic processes. These include the
formation and extension of markets, modifications of property relations (such as the change from feudal
lord-peasant relations to contractual proprietor-tenant relations), and changes in the organization of labour
(such as the change from independent craftsmen to factories). Historical materialism, as developed by Marx
and Engels, is one of the more prominent theories that gives priority to economic processes, but it is not the
only one. Indeed, materialist theories have even been developed in opposition to Marxism. One of these
theories, the “logic of industrialization” thesis by American scholar Clark Kerr and his colleagues, states that
industrialization everywhere has similar consequences, whether the property relations are called capitalist or
communist.

 Ideas

Other theories have stressed the significance of ideas as causes of social change. Comte’s law of three stages
is such a theory. Weber regarded religious ideas as important contributors to economic development or
stagnation; according to his controversial thesis, the individualistic ethic of Christianity, and in particular
Calvinism, partially explains the rise of the capitalist spirit, which led to economic dynamism in the West.

 Social movements

A change in collective ideas is not merely an intellectual process; it is often connected to the formation of
new social movements. This in itself might be regarded as a potential cause of social change. Weber called
attention to this factor in conjunction with his concept of “charismatic leadership.” The charismatic leader,
by virtue of the extraordinary personal qualities attributed to him, is able to create a group of followers who
are willing to break established rules. Examples include Jesus, Napoleon, and Hitler. Recently, however, the
concept of charisma has been trivialized to refer to almost any popular figure.

 Political processes

Changes in the regulation of violence, in the organization of the state, and in international relations may also
contribute to social change. For example, German sociologist Norbert Elias interpreted the formation of
states in western Europe as a relatively autonomous process that led to increasing control of violence and,
ultimately, to rising standards of self-control. According to other theories of political revolution, such as
those proposed by American historical sociologist Charles Tilly, the functioning of the state apparatus itself
and the nature of interstate relations are of decisive importance in the outbreak of a revolution: it is only
when the state is not able to fulfill its basic functions of maintaining law and order and defending territorial
integrity that revolutionary groups have any chance of success.

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 Lecture Five: Social Movements

Social movements are broad alliances of people connected through a shared interest in either stopping or
instigating social change.

 There are both a number of different kinds of social movements, as well as various stages that a
social movement can undergo in the course of its development.
 Several theories have been proposed to explain the creation of social movements. Each of these
theories highlights a different aspect of society (e.g. deprivation, marginalization, culture, etc. ) as
being key to the formation of these movements.
 Social movements are distinct from social movement organizations (SMOs). An SMO is a formally
organized component of a social movement, and as such it may represent only one facet of an entire
movement.
 According to Anthony Giddens, the four domains of modern society in which social movements are
active include the political sphere, the workplace, the environment, and the issue of peace.
 Social movements often give rise to counter movements aimed at stopping whatever change the
initial social movement is advocating.

Key Terms

 social movements: Social movements are a type of group action. They are large informal groupings
of individuals or organizations that focus on specific political or social issues. In other words, they
carry out, resist or undo a social change.
 social change: an alteration in the structures, institutions and/or practices of a society
 counter movements: Counter-hegemony refers to attempts to critique or dismantle hegemonic
power. In other words, it is a confrontation and/or opposition to the existing status quo and the
legitimacy of that status quo in politics. This can also be observed in various other spheres of life,
such as history, media, music, etc.
 social movement organizations: A social movement organization is an organized component of a
social movement. Social movement organizations usually have coordinating roles in social
movements, but do not actually employ or direct most of the participants, who are part of a wider
social movement community.

Social movements are broad alliances of people who are connected through their shared interest in social
change. Social movements can advocate for a particular social change, but they can also organize to oppose
a social change that is being advocated by another entity. These movements do not have to be formally
organized to be considered social movements. Different alliances can work separately for common causes
and still be considered a social movement.

Modern social movements became possible through the wide dissemination of literature and the increased
mobility of labor, both of which have been caused by the industrialization of societies. Anthony Giddens, a
renowned sociologist, has identified four areas in which social movements operate in modern societies:

 democratic movements that work for political rights

 labor movements that work for control of the workplace
 ecological movements that are concerned with the environment
 peace movements that work toward peace

It is interesting to note that social movements can spawn counter movements. For instance, the women’s
movement of the 1960s and 1970s resulted in a number of counter movements that attempted to block the
goals of the women’s movement. In large part, these oppositional groups formed because the women’s
movement advocated for reform in conservative religions.
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Types of Social Movements

Social movements occur when large groups of individuals or organizations work for or against change in
social and/or political matters.

 revolutionary social movements: Revolutionary movement is a specific type of social movement

dedicated to carrying out revolutionary reforms and gain some control of the state. If they do not aim
for an exclusive control, they are not revolutionary.
 reformative social movements: A reformative social movement advocates for minor changes
instead of radical changes. For example revolutionary movements can scale down their demands and
agree to share powers with others, becoming a political party.
 redemptive social movements: A redemptive social movement is radical in scope but focused on
the individual.

Social movements are a specific type of group action in which large informal groups of individuals or
organizations work for or against change in specific political or social issues.

Other categories have been used to distinguish between types of social movements.

 Scope: A movement can be either reform or radical. A reform movement advocates changing some
norms or laws while a radical movement is dedicated to changing value systems in some
fundamental way. A reform movement might be a trade union seeking to increase workers’ rights
while the American Civil Rights movement was a radical movement.
 Type of Change: A movement might seek change that is either innovative or conservative. An
innovative movement wants to introduce or change norms and values while a conservative
movement seeks to preserve existing norms and values.
 Targets: Group-focused movements focus on influencing groups or society in general; for example,
attempting to change the political system from a monarchy to a democracy. An individual-focused
movement seeks to affect individuals.
 Methods of Work: Peaceful movements utilize techniques such as nonviolent resistance and civil
disobedience. Violent movements resort to violence when seeking social change.
 Range: Global movements, such as Communism in the early 20th century, have transnational
objectives. Local movements are focused on local or regional objectives such as preserving an
historic building or protecting a natural habitat.

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 Lecture Six: Sustainable development

Environmental governance advocates sustainability as the supreme consideration in managing all human
activities – political, social and economic. The concept of sustainability relies on sustainable development.
Sustainable development can be explained in various ways, but the most widely recognised definition was
phrased by the Brundtland Commission in 1987:“Sustainable development is development that meets the
needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.”

While the modern concept of sustainable development is derived mostly from the 1987 Brundtland Report, it
is also rooted in earlier ideas about sustainable forest management and twentieth century environmental
concerns. As the concept developed, it has shifted to focus more on economic development, social
development and environmental protection for future generations. It has been suggested that "the term
'sustainability' should be viewed as humanity's target goal of human-ecosystem equilibrium (homeostasis),
while 'sustainable development' refers to the holistic approach and temporal processes that lead us to the end
point of sustainability". Modern economies are endeavouring to reconcile ambitious economic development
and obligations of preserving natural resources and ecosystems, as the two are usually seen as of conflicting
nature. Instead of holding climate change commitments and other sustainability measures as a drug to
economic development, turning and leveraging them into market opportunities will do greater good. The
economic development brought by such organized principles and practices in an economy is called Managed
Sustainable Development (MSD).

The concept of sustainable development has been—and still is—subject to criticism, including the question
of what is to be sustained in sustainable development. It has been argued that there is no such thing as a
sustainable use of a non-renewable resource, since any positive rate of exploitation will eventually lead to
the exhaustion of earth's finite stock; this perspective renders the Industrial Revolution as a whole
unsustainable. It has also been argued that the meaning of the concept has opportunistically been stretched
from 'conservation management' to 'economic development', and that the Brundtland Report promoted
nothing but a business as usual strategy for world development, with an ambiguous and insubstantial
concept attached as a public relations slogan

Sustainable development is based on the three pillars of sustainability: economic, environmental and social
sustainability. It is only achieved when there is balance or a trade-off between these three aspects (see figure
below).

However, some authors have expanded this approach and added a fourth pillar (for example cultural,
political or institutional), it is most important to understand that sustainable development is a holistic,

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integrated approach, meaning that in order to achieve sustainable development, there needs to be a balance
bteween diffenent spheres of life.

At the United Nations Sustainable Development Summit in 2015, world leaders adopted the 2030 Agenda
for Sustainable Development, which includes a set of 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) aimed at
ending poverty, fighting inequality and injustice and tackling climate change by 2030. These 17 goals, listed
below, are all accompanied by specific targets – 169 in total.

Sustainable Development Goals

1. End poverty in all its forms everywhere

2. End hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition and promote sustainable agriculture
3. Ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all ages
4. Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all
5. Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls
6. Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all
7. Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all
8. Promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full and productive employment and
decent work for all
9. Build resilient infrastructure, promote inclusive and sustainable industrialization and foster
innovation
10. Reduce inequality within and among countries
11. Make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable
12. Ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns
13. Take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts
14. Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources for sustainable development
15. Protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably manage forests,
combat desertification, and halt and reverse land degradation and halt biodiversity loss
16. Promote peaceful and inclusive societies for sustainable development, provide access to justice for
all and build effective, accountable and inclusive institutions at all levels
17. Strengthen the means of implementation and revitalize the global partnership for sustainable
development

In addition, a global indicator framework has been developed by the Inter-Agency and Expert Group on
SDG Indicators (IAEG-SDGs). The global indicator framework was adopted by the General Assembly on 6
July 2017. The list includes 232 indicators on which general agreement has been reached

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