David Nguyen

Lori Bedell

CAS 137H

3 November 2019

The Effects of the Terrorist Attacks of 9/11

It is often surprising how one event can have massive historical consequences. How

the invasion of Poland can spark a second World War, how the Boston Massacre led to a

newly independent nation, how a woman refusing to give up her seat on a bus led to a

movement to bring equality to African Americans. Similarly, how a single terrorist attack can

lead to the longest war in American history, a drastic change in how the mainstream media

displays news, prolonged psychological effects, and a radical change in American domestic

policy. This essay will be offering a considered and balanced review on how the terrorist

event known as 9/11 had an extensive influence on the way mainstream media censors news

and increases stories about violence and terror, American psychological repercussions such as

increased stress and PTSD, an increase in segregation against minorities, a drastic

implementation American policy focusing on domestic security, and political changes.

On September 11th, 2001, al-Qaeda terrorists hijacked American Flight 11 and at 8:46

AM, crashed it into the World Trade Center in New York1. Seventeen minutes later, United

Flight 175 crashed into the South Tower, exploding upon impact2. Thirty-seven minutes later,

American flight 77 crashed into the Pentagon and five minutes later, for the first time in

1
​Pamela Engel, “What Happened on 9/11, 18 Years Ago,” Business Insider (Business Insider, September 10,
2019),
https://www.businessinsider.com/what-happened-on-911-why-2016-9#the-morning-of-september-11-2001-start
ed-off-like-any-other-the-twin-towers-stood-tall-in-the-financial-district-as-they-had-for-more-than-30-years-1)
2
​Ibid.

1
history, the Federal Aviation Administration ordered all aircraft to land at the nearest airport3.

These attacks took less than an hour yet 2,753 people died in the 9/11 attack, including first

responders and police officers4. That night, President Bush addressed the nation with a speech

that would lay out the key doctrine for the future of America’s future foreign policy, ​“We

will make no distinction between the terrorists who committed these acts and those who

harbour them.”, of which would eventually lead to the longest standing war of American

history5. The next day, the United Nations adopted a resolution officially condemning the

attacks and “Expresses its readiness to take all necessary steps to respond to the terrorist

attacks of 11 September 2001, and to combat all forms of terrorism”6. In 2002, the Homeland

Security Act was signed into law and marked the beginning of America’s emphasis on

intelligence and security7. Afterwards in the years to come, a variety of studies were

conducted on the American public to reveal the profound psychological effects that the

attacks has had in terms of stress, fear, and PTSD. In 2004, President Bush was reelected for

a second term primarily due to the attacks on 9/11/20018. To this day, the attacks on 9/11

remain a significant event in American history that maintains diverse effects on current

American psychology, media, politics, and policy.

The events of 9/11 showed the media how certain images and videos may be too

shocking for the public causing them to change their policies of censorship in addition to

inducing a competitiveness amongst the mainstream media to always “top” their last story by

3
​Ibid.
4
​Ibid.
5
​Peter L. Bergen, “The Attacks,” Encyclopædia Britannica (Encyclopædia Britannica, inc., October 24, 2019),
https://www.britannica.com/event/September-11-attacks/The-attacks)
6
​“United Nations Official Document,” United Nations (United Nations), accessed November 5, 2019,
https://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/RES/1368(2001))
7
​History.com Editors, “September 11 Attacks,” History.com (A&E Television Networks, February 17, 2010),
https://www.history.com/topics/21st-century/9-11-attacks)
8
​“Why Bush Won in 2004,” Why Bush won in 2004 | Stanford News Release, November 17, 2004,
https://news.stanford.edu/pr/2004/polls-1117.html)

2
consistently reporting crises. The attacks of 9/11 were so colossal and so impossible to

fathom that no matter what type of influencer someone was, big or small, reporter, writer,

author, etc, everyone was reporting on the event. These attacks were so horrific that it needed

no hyperbole. It didn’t need any exaggeration to gain viewers, everyone was already tuned in.

However, because of the horrific nature of the attacks, the mainstream media began making

decisions which still influences how the media covers stories to this day. In the days directly

following the attack, ​David Westin, the president of ABC News, ordered that the videos of

the attack, particularly of the jets hitting the World Trade Center, not to be repeated in the

news as to not disturb viewers, particularly children9. To put this into perspective, the videos

of both the Space Shuttle Challenger explosion which killed seven crew members and the

assassination of John F. Kennedy were both released and displayed to the American public by

the mainstream media10. This is when we see an apparent shift starts to take hold, from

exploiting any form of good video for public consumption to a re-examination of violent

video and a move towards censorship, a concern not present before 9/11. Today, news outlets

are re-examining coverage of violent videos, such as mass shootings, and are deciding that

sometimes, despite the ability to use a video, it would be better to censor or not show it.

However, despite the shift towards displaying less violent videos, the mainstream media has

shifted towards covering more violent news. The attacks of 9/11 have resulted in a drastic

increase of coverage concerning terrorism and a tendency to focus on rarer, more violent

crimes such as rape and homicide. According to ADT research, in the years of 2002 - 2005,

there has been a 135% increase in coverage about terrorism in comparison to 1997-200011.

9
​Glenn Halbrooks, “How News Coverage Has Changed Since the 9/11 Attacks,” The Balance Careers (The
Balance Careers, June 25, 2019),
https://www.thebalancecareers.com/how-news-coverage-has-changed-since-the-9-11-attacks-2315201)
10
​Ibid.
11
​Pew Research Center, “How 9-11 Changed the Evening News,” Pew Research Center's Journalism Project,
October 10, 2013, https://www.journalism.org/2006/09/11/how-9-11-changed-the-evening-news/)

3
Additionally, there was a 69% increase in coverage about armed conflict and a 50% decrease

in topics such as space and technology12. Here we see an apparent shift in media coverage

about certain topics, specifically a shift towards reporting violence and events analogous to

the attacks of 9/11 and a shift away from other news. Studies done by Johnston et al., Paulsen

2003, Sorenson et al., and Weiss & Chermak further support the claim that there is a

discernible shift in the mainstream media to report on more violent news13. The media has

shifted thier focus to lead to a frame that overemphasizes violent crimes such as homicide

and equally overemphasizes terrorism, leading to a false understanding about the rarity of

such events14. This false understanding of violent events created due to the shift in media

coverage succeeding 9/11 in turn causes the beginning of many shifts shown in the American

public following the attacks.

The attacks of 9/11 delivered profound psychological repercussions to the American

public including but not limited to stress, risk perceptions, and PTSD. As aforementioned, the

shift in media coverage created a false understanding of the rarity of violent events, which is

precipitated by “media memory”, which is exclusively present for 9/11. Most Americans can

remember the events and details of 9/11 clearly, despite a small percentage of the population

actually experiencing the event15. This was due to “media memory”, which psychologist

William Hirst, PhD, a memory researcher at the New School for Social Research, explains

was present from the media’s coverage of 9/11. ‘"To the extent that the media continues to

talk about 9/11, the more our memories of the attacks are solidified," says Hirst. "We as a

society came to believe that we have to talk about this all the time. We decided that this will

12
​Ibid.
13
​Zachary S. Mitnik, “Post-9/11 Media Coverage of Terrorism,” CUNY Academic Works,
https://academicworks.cuny.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1013&context=jj_etds
14
​Ibid.
15
​Monitor on Psychology (American Psychological Association), accessed November 6, 2019,
https://www.apa.org/monitor/2011/09/media-memory)

4
be important, with an accompanying memory-strengthening effect."’16 By itself, the

information for this “media memory” is not initially important, but it quickly becomes

relevant when the connection is made at how this singular traumatic event is now ingrained in

the minds of millions of Americans and will lead to negative psychological externalities. In a

study done by Silver et al, repeated media coverage of 9/11 and terrorist attacks led to a

majority of the subjects reporting an increased likelihood of high 9/11-related acute stress17.

Additionally, the study also found that exposure to 9/11 coverage led to an association with

post-traumatic stress symptoms at even two to three years after the event18. Finally, the study

revealed that the media exposure of 9/11 led upwards to a 33% increase in physical health

reports two to three years after the event19. It is obvious how this singular event of 9/11 was

able to shift the psyche of American citizens to a traumatized, stressful citizen with physical

ailments through simple exposure to the event whether personal or media. The attacks also

shifted the American public’s risk perception to danger, especially in terms of terrorist attacks

and flying. Studies done by Fischhoff et al. 2003, Huddy et al. 2005, and Lerner et al. 2003

all point to the same idea: that the 9/11 attacks elevated personal risk perceptions, especially

those linked to terrorism and invoked a persistant heightened sense of negative emotions such

as anxiety, sadness, anger, and fear20. After the event, Americans live in an elevated state of

fear and anxiety which leads to a shift to Americans judging the possibility of a future attack

16
​Ibid.
17
​ oxane Cohen Silver et al., “Mental- and Physical-Health Effects of Acute Exposure to Media Images of the
R
September 11, 2001, Attacks and the Iraq War - Roxane Cohen Silver, E. Alison Holman, Judith Pizarro
Andersen, Michael Poulin, Daniel N. McIntosh, Virginia Gil-Rivas, 2013,” SAGE Journals, accessed November
6, 2019, https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/0956797612460406)
18
​Ibid.
19
​Ibid.
20
​“Obo,” Effects of the 9/11 Terrorist Attacks on American Public Opinion and Behavior - Political Science -
Oxford Bibliographies, October 23, 2019,
https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780199756223/obo-9780199756223-0270.xml#ob
o-9780199756223-0270-bibItem-0003)

5
to be much higher and having a higher sensitivity to threats21. These psychological shifts in

the public led to physical shifts, such as residents of Queens and Long Island felt more likely

to be victimized by a terrorist attack after 9/11 and were more likely to stop using public

transportation and travelled less by air22. This shift is also not limited to inhabitants living in

the nearby vicinity of the attack, the nation is general had clear shifts in how they travelled

due to the attacks, especially in terms of air travel. Americans felt a deep reluctance and even

fear of flying after the events of 9/1123. They thought that they could be the victims of the

next attack, the next hijacked plane, the next major terrorist event, and as a result, they feared

air travel, which is due to the shift in increased stress and risk perception mentioned earlier.

According to the Bureau of Transportation Statistics, airline passenger travel dropped

drastically after the attacks of 9/11 and even remained low in the subsequent months24. It took

nearly three years, until July 2004, for the airline industry finally match the amount of airline

passengers preceding 9/1125. It is clearly seen how 9/11 created a shift in risk perception,

especially in airline travel that led to a shift through a reduction of passenger travel on

airplanes for nearly three years. This shows the lasting and considerable effect that one event

can have that can shift the behaviour and psyche of an entire nation for years. It can be clearly

seen how the events of 9/11 ​shifted the public’s psyche to one of increased risk perceptions,

stress, and PTSD.

21
​“Framing Terrorism,” Google Books (Google), accessed November 6, 2019,
https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=gvRgFCvR-wcC&oi=fnd&pg=PA255&dq=9/11+psychological
+effects&ots=16GHl5jrfm&sig=FlSeqyD4BSBtwc-Ju3lU3kQzWC4#v=onepage&q=9/11 psychological
effects&f=false)
22
​Ibid.
23
​Ibid.
24
​“Legacy Publication,” Airline Travel Since 9/11 | Bureau of Transportation Statistics, accessed November 6,
2019,
https://www.bts.gov/archive/publications/special_reports_and_issue_briefs/issue_briefs/number_13/entire)
25
​Ibid.

6
 Not only has 9/11 shifted the American public towards or more destructive psyche,

but it has also shifted their outlook on minorities and outsiders backwards. The attacks of

9/11 shifted the American nation to backtrack on their move towards equality for all and shift

back to segregation and racist tendencies. According to the ​FBI's Uniform Crime Reporting

(UCR) Program, a statistically significant increase of nearly 17% in anti-Islamic hate crimes

occurred directly following 9/1126. Muslims and people of colour once again were

discriminated by guilt by association with unfavourable opinions about Muslims and Islam

drastically increasing. Every Muslim started to be regarded by the average American citizen

as a terrorist27. Even today, the shift still remains present with negativity against Muslims and

Islam remaining high in the polls28. Because of how as forms of social identity, patriotism and

nationalism increase as a response to outside threats, the 9/11 attacks resulted in immediate

visible expressions of patriotism and nationalism, which included shutting out outsiders29.

This was not only limited to the segregation of Muslims but this included shutting out all

outsiders. Directly following the attacks, the​ U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement

(ICE) saw a massive increase in deportations and greatly changed the course of the country’s

discussion on immigration30. Suddenly, securing the U.S.-Mexican border shifted to

becoming a national priority and that shift is still seen to this day, remaining a heavily

26
​“The Impact of the Terrorist Attacks of 9/11 on Anti-Islamic Hate Crime,” Taylor & Francis, accessed
November 7, 2019, https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1300/j222v05n01_03)
27
​Amad Shaikh, “Remembering 9/11 as a Muslim American,” Qatar | Al Jazeera (Al Jazeera, September 11,
2019), https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/2011/09/20119893039787215.html)
28
​Ibid.
29
​Li, Qiong, and Marilynn B. Brewer. "What Does It Mean to Be an American? Patriotism, Nationalism, and
American Identity after 9/11." ​Political Psychology​ 25, no. 5 (2004): 727-39.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/3792341.
30
​Matthew Green, “How 9/11 Changed America: Four Major Lasting Impacts (with Lesson Plan),” KQED,
September 11, 2019, https://www.kqed.org/lowdown/14066/13-years-later-four-major-lasting-impacts-of-911)

7
debated topic of discussion31. Here, it is seen how the singular terrorist event of 9/11 had

shifted an entire nation to revert to segregation and nationalistic ideals.

Following the events of 9/11, there was rapid implementation of domestic policy

regarding security. Specifically, the perspective of our domestic law enforcement and

intelligence agencies shifted to realize that they were unable to stop such an attack by

themselves and needed to change their policies and adopt agencies that can specially deal

with such risks to national security. After the attacks, Congress promptly authorized new

powers for the federal government to prevent any further attacks32. The first of these powers

included the signing of the USA Patriot Act less than six weeks after the attacks33. This

legislation grants additional wire-tapping and surveillance authority to federal law

enforcement34. This legislature shows a shift from the value of the right of privacy to the

value of national security and how America has shifted to prioritize national security. Leaked

classified documents from former government contractor Edward Snowden detail an

enormous surveillance state which have violated thousands of privacy rights a year35. Further

legislation regarding a shift from policy to national security is the Foreign Intelligence

Surveillance Act, which lowered the legal bar for the government to engage in wiretapping

and other surveillance practices36. Additionally, the Patriot Act removes barriers between

American law enforcement and intelligence agencies corroborating which shows a shift

31
​Ted Hesson, “Five Ways Immigration System Changed After 9/11,” ABC News (ABC News Network,
September 11, 2012),
https://abcnews.go.com/ABC_Univision/News/ways-immigration-system-changed-911/story?id=17231590)
32
​Redirecting..., accessed November 8, 2019,
https://heinonline.org/HOL/Page?collection=journals&handle=hein.journals/hjl39&id=441&men_tab=srchresult
s)
33
​Ibid.
34
​Ibid.
35
​Matthew Green, “How 9/11 Changed America: Four Major Lasting Impacts (with Lesson Plan),” KQED,
September 11, 2019, https://www.kqed.org/lowdown/14066/13-years-later-four-major-lasting-impacts-of-911)
36
​“Five Laws and Regulations That Emerged from 9/11: Events & News,” Ballard Spahr LLP, accessed
November 8, 2019,
https://www.ballardspahr.com/eventsnews/mediacoverage/2016-09-09-five-laws-and-regulations-that-emerged-f
rom-9-11)

8
amongst the American departments to collaborate under a common goal rather than be

isolationist37. Congress ​also passed the Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention and

Act of 2004, which “created a Director of National Intelligence to coordinate the work of 15

federal intelligence agencies and established a National Counter Terrorism Center to analyze

intelligence information”38. These newly adopted policies illustrates how 9/11 revealed to the

federal intelligence agencies that individually they were not able to prevent such a horrific

event, but by using their resources together and shifting away from isolationism and towards

corroboration, then future events of such a nature can be prevented. Further legislature was

passed immediately after the attacks showing a shift in domestic policy regarding security.

Specifically, both the Department of Homeland Security and th​e Transportation Security

Administration were created39. The implementation of such policy clearly shows how the

events of 9/11 shifted American domestic policy to focus more on national security. Before

the attacks, national security was not at the forefront of American policy and legislature but

9/11 shifted that viewpoint to turn national security to be the priority of policy and

legislature.

Finally, the events of 9/11 created a profound political effect, leading a nation to war

and influencing political elections. 9/11 became an event which people could base their vote

on. Because of the attack, terrorism shifted to become a political factor for people to elect the

right candidate. Initially, this shift can be seen in effect with President Bush’s rise in

37
Redirecting..., accessed November 8, 2019,
https://heinonline.org/HOL/Page?collection=journals&handle=hein.journals/hjl39&id=441&men_tab=srchresult
s)
38
​“Home Security & Governmental Affairs,” 9-11 Commission, Homeland Security, and Intelligence Reform |
Issues | Homeland Security & Governmental Affairs Committee, accessed November 8, 2019,
https://www.hsgac.senate.gov/issues/9-11-commission)
39
​“Five Laws and Regulations That Emerged from 9/11: Events & News,” Ballard Spahr LLP, accessed
November 8, 2019,
https://www.ballardspahr.com/eventsnews/mediacoverage/2016-09-09-five-laws-and-regulations-that-emerged-f
rom-9-11)

9
popularity rating after the attack. Specifically, after visiting the rubble of the World Trade

Center and addressing the rescue workers three days after the attack, Bush delivered a

powerful response to the attacks stating “I can hear you. The rest of the world hears you. And

the people who knocked these buildings down will hear from all of us soon”40. After hearing

a strong response to the attacks, Bush’s approval rating rose from 55% to 90%, the highest

ever recorded in American history41. Additionally, this shift can be seen to last for years, with

the first question of the first presidential debate of 2004 being “​‘Do you believe you could do

a better job than President Bush in preventing another 9/11-type terrorist attack on the United

States?”’42 The shift can be seen in even further elections, with the war in Iraq coming up in

both the 2008 and 2012 elections43. This war shows another shift, and that shift is a shift

towards a demand for war. The shift for a demand for war against terrorism was shown with

how Bush was reelected. In contrast to how the American public attempted to vote for a

president that would keep them out of war during World War II, the American public now

shifted to vote for a president that would sustain a war44. That shift wasn’t limited to the

United States. The United Nations also supported the war and retaliation against terrorism,

even providing troops to support it45. The attacks of 9/11 has caused a shift in both politics

domestically within the United States, interfering with elections, as well as internationally,

leading the United States and the United Nations to war.

40
​Peter L. Bergen, “The Attacks,” Encyclopædia Britannica (Encyclopædia Britannica, inc., October 24, 2019),
https://www.britannica.com/event/September-11-attacks/The-attacks)
41
​Ibid.
42
​Joshua Keating, “We Still Can't Move Past 9/11 Politics,” Slate Magazine (Slate, September 11, 2019),
https://slate.com/news-and-politics/2019/09/september-11-politics-terrorism.html)
43
Ibid.
44
​History.com Editors, “A Timeline of the U.S.-Led War on Terror,” History.com (A&E Television Networks,
February 1, 2019), https://www.history.com/topics/21st-century/war-on-terror-timeline)
45
​“S/RES/1368 (2001) | Counter-Terrorism Implementation Task Force,” United Nations (United Nations),
accessed November 8, 2019, https://www.un.org/counterterrorism/ctitf/en/sres1368-2001)

10
 It is difficult to imagine how one event can cause a ripple effect that can not only

affect an entire nation, but affect nations internationally for years to come. As clearly shown

by policies and institutions such as the Department of Homeland Security still being in place,

the shift caused by 9/11 is still present in American society. Not only has ​the terrorist event

known as 9/11 had an extensive influence on the implementation of American policy

focusing on domestic security, but it also was able to shift the way mainstream media censors

news and increases stories about violence and terror, psychological repercussions such as

increased stress and PTSD, an increase in segregation against minorities, and political

changes in terms of elections and going to war.

11