Solid State Ionics 152 – 153 (2002) 383 – 392

www.elsevier.com/locate/ssi

SOFC system and technology

Masayuki Dokiya *
Graduate School of Environment and Information Sciences, Yokohama National University, 79-7 Tokiwadai, Hodogaya-ku,
Yokohama 240-8501, Japan
Accepted 15 March 2002

Abstract

Compact size solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs), which will be operated at reduced temperature, are becoming a frontier of R
and D. These compact size SOFCs will fit well with intermittent loads, of which share in energy system is increasing today,
whereas the ‘‘conventional SOFCs’’ will be effectively operated with stationary mode. For such compact size SOFCs, throttle
down operation following intermittent loads will be profitable because low current density gives higher efficiency. SOFCs are
not suitable for quick start up. It was estimated that the hot standby mode would be more acceptable than cold start mode from
the viewpoint of heat loss. The merit of internal reforming will also be lost for the reduced operation temperature. In order to
overcome this problem, an electrochemical oxidation of deposited carbon was tested and a new direct internal reforming
concept using this carbon deposition was proposed. In order to develop cheap compact size, reduced temperature SOFCs, the
feasibility of anode supported SOFCs was investigated on Zr(Sc)O2, Zr(Y)O2, Ce(rare earth)O2, (La,Sr)(Ga,Mg)O2 electrolytes,
examining applicability of wet co-fire process and electrode activity. The feasibility was confirmed with zirconia, not yet with
ceria due to its fragility, and pessimistic with (La,Sr)(Ga,Mg)O2 due to Ni diffusion during co-firing.
D 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

PACS: Electrochemical energy conversion (84.60.D); Fuel cell (84.60.D)

Keywords: Solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs); Combined cycle SOFCs; Reduced temperature SOFCs; Compact SOFCs; Vehicle SOFCs

1. Introduction Recently, there appeared another direction, which

Solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) are at a crossroads.
After long years of effort, Siemens – Westinghouse’s
tubular cell is now being tested for commercialization
at several field sites [1]. There are undoubtedly only
three keywords: ‘‘cost, cost, cost.’’ Several cells, such
as Mitsubishi Heavy Industry’s [2,3] and Toto’s cells
[4], will follow after Siemens – Westinghouse’s cells.
The latter cells are promoting cheap mass production
by wet processes.
* Tel.: +81-45-339-4365; fax: +81-45-339-4374.
E-mail address: dokiya@ynu.ac.jp (M. Dokiya).
orients small size SOFCs for automobile or home/
office/store co-generation. The keywords of such
‘‘compact’’ size SOFCs are ‘‘reduced temperature’’
and ‘‘cheap mass production.’’ The core module con-
cept of the Solid State Energy Conversion Alliance
(SECA, USA) is a typical example of this trend [5].
This article will discuss the feasibility of reduced
temperature SOFCs for small-scale co-generations and
automobiles. Firstly, the background problems in mod-
ern energy systems will be briefly discussed. Then,
how to make efficient use of SOFCs in the energy
system will be discussed, putting attention upon the
characteristics of SOFCs, such as internal reforming,

0167-2738/02/$ - see front matter D 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 1 6 7 - 2 7 3 8 ( 0 2 ) 0 0 3 4 5 - 4
384 M. Dokiya / Solid State Ionics 152 – 153 (2002) 383–392
high efficiency at throttle down, and the difficulty of
quick start up. In order to clarify the technological
aspects of the problems, some of our experimental
results will be introduced about the reduced temper-
ature SOFCs. Finally, a new concept of internal
reforming will be proposed in view of how to manage
quick start up and/or intermittent operation mode.
2. Background problems in energy system
Supply of electricity and transport of goods/person
are the basis of modern life. These two sectors are
deeply related to mass consumption of energy. The
transport sector is well-known for its low energy
efficiency. An urgent and continuing problem in the
21st century will be how to conserve energy resources
and how to decrease the emission of CO2. This
problem can be translated as how to eliminate the
mass consumption of energy in developed countries
and how to build the most advanced/efficient energy
system in the developing countries. This requirement
can be summarized as ‘‘highly efficient technology in
electricity generation and transportation sector.’’
2.1. Electricity system
When we inspect the present status of power
generation technology, the advanced combined cycle
(ACC), which is a cascading system of gas and steam
turbines, can produce electricity by more than 50%
efficiency. As a future technology, SOFCs will offer
the highest electricity generation efficiency from fossil
fuels, as high as 65– 70%, when they are combined to
gas turbines and are operated stationary. The high
efficiency of ACC or combined SOFCs is, however,
inevitably accompanied by rigidity of system. In other
words, these combined systems cannot follow varia-
ble intermittent load flexibly, because it is based on
the combination of two independent plants.
In order to follow peak loads, the pumping up
hydraulic power plant is adopted to store electricity,
and the introduction of a secondary battery is con-
ceived as a future technology. The storage of elec-
tricity is not wise way, because they solely consume
electricity in vain. Of course, their raison d’être as a
buffer in electricity distribution system is not denied.
Instead of storage of electricity, the intermittent oper-
ation of power plants is also adopted. The daily stop
and start (DSS) operation mode is currently adopted
even for large-scale steam power stations. It is also
cost-consuming to stop large-scale power turbine.
How to meet the requirement of intermittent load is
an inevitable problem of modern systems. At the end
use of energy, requirements are not stationary, espe-
cially in home, office, store, etc., and transport usage.
If there are small-scale but highly efficient generators,
it will be well fit to variable load requirements. The
co-generation of electricity and heat is widely recom-
mended to improve energy efficiency in this meaning.
SOFCs are expected to offer higher efficiency both for
power stations and co-generation than current system.
If the downsizing can be as small as a few kilowatts,
such a generator can be applied for an enormous
number of users such as home, store, office, small
factory, etc. Thus, the combination of ACC and/or
SOFC-gas turbines for base load and intermittently
operable dispersed small SOFCs for peak load will
become preferable and one of the key energy systems
for the 21st century.
2.2. Transportation system
Similarly, we should improve the extremely low
energy efficiency in the transportation sector. This
problem is also deeply connected to the elimination of
hazardous polluting substances, such as SOx, NOx,
and suspended particle matter (SPM).
SOFCs will be advantageous to improve efficiency
and to eliminate pollutants, but not convenient for
quick start required for automobiles. The secondary
battery is one strong candidate, since it can store off-
peak electricity and does not emit pollutants. As is well
reported, the polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells
(PEMFC) attracts much attention because it will be able
to reduce the demerits of the secondary battery car,
especially for recharging time loss, too heavy weight,
and expensive cost. However, PEMFC also has serous
demerits. The problem is how to reform fuels on
automobiles. PEMFC can only be driven by H2. If we
use methanol as fuel because of easy reforming, we will
lose much of the potential energy of natural gas and/or
petroleum through the methanol synthesis step. In
addition, we should build a methanol distribution infra-
structure. These demerits will be more serious in the
case of so-called ‘‘hydrogen fueled car.’’ Note that in
 M. Dokiya / Solid State Ionics 152 – 153 (2002) 383–392
the case of coal primary energy system, methanol or di-
methyl-ether (DME) could be accepted as liquid fuel
from the viewpoint of pollution. The coal gasification is
indispensable to eliminate pollutants from coal, and
methanol and DME are adequate liquid fuel to be
converted from coal gas.
If we focus our attention upon efficiency, diesel
engines will offer higher efficiency than PEMFC. The
demerit of diesel engines is considered to be the
emission of pollutants, NOx and SPM. It is expected
that highly oxidative burning will be able to decrease
the formation of SPM, and NOx produced at oxidative
atmosphere can be killed by the addition of urea. If
diesel engines can clear the pollutant regulation, only
SOFCs will have a chance to be competitive with
diesel engines in the viewpoint of efficiency.
3. Merits of fuel cell and SOFC systems
3.1. Internal reforming
3.1.1. Simplicity of SOFCs as a system
Fig. 1 compares schematically SOFCs and the
other fuel cells. The key point of the fuel cell system
is that it needs a fuel-reforming system. This necessity
makes the fuel cell plant complicated, and brings
about a demerit both for lowering cost and downsiz-
ing. SOFCs have an advantage in that they can
contain the fuel reformer within themselves as an
internal reformer and that they can be of a simple
constitution. Other fuel cells require an external fuel
reformer and shift converter because the fuel cells can
generate electricity only when using H2 as fuel,
whereas SOFCs can use CO as fuel also.
3.1.2. High efficiency of SOFCs in a combined cycle
In Fig. 1, SOFCs produce electricity, residual fuel,
and high temperature waste heat, whereas the other
fuel cells produce electricity and low temperature
waste heat. The residual fuel and high temperature
waste heat can be used in bottoming cycles such as
gas turbine. This difference originates from the inter-
nal reforming and high temperature operation of
SOFCs. The internal reforming recovers irreversible
heat loss in SOFCs as heat source for endothermic
reforming reaction. SOFCs save fuel, which is
required for the heat source of external reforming of
385
the other fuel cells: it amounts up to 25% of fuel.
Thus, as a total system, SOFCs can produce higher
efficiency than the other fuel cells.
3.1.3. Do SOFCs have high efficiency even as single
devices?
From the viewpoint of efficiency, it is considered
that the external fuel reforming process decreases
efficiency remarkably. However, theoretically the sit-
uation is fairly complicated. Because the reforming
reaction is an endothermic process, the 25% fuel spent
at reforming can be recovered in produced CO and H2
as shown in Fig. 1. This relation raises one question:
‘‘Does the external reforming reduce efficiency?’’
The efficiency of fuel cells is mainly governed by
fuel utilization rate (Uf) and output voltage (Vout).
Textbooks say that the Vout decrease according to the
decrease of partial pressure of oxygen (PO2) of fuel,
which decreases according to Uf and the Vout drops
drastically when Uf exceeds 95%. In actual cases, the
internal resistance of cell influences Vout remarkably,
especially by those of electrodes. The activity of
electrodes is usually governed by the PO2 of fuel,
which is Uf again. Thus, we cannot simply conclude
that the reforming will reduce the efficiency of fuel
cells, since
1. High Uf, usually 85– 90%, of SOFCs is advanta-
geous, but disadvantageous for anode activity.
2. Low Uf of the other fuel cells works contra-
riwise, and the spent 25% fuel can be recovered
in CO and H2.
In summary, SOFCs can offer high efficiency
because of high Uf, high electrode activity at high
temperature, heat recovery by internal reforming, and
bottoming cycles using remaining fuel and high
temperature wastes heat. How to keep these merits
of SOFCs, even when they are not combined with
bottoming cycle, will be one key technology for the
compact size and reduced temperature SOFCs.
3.1.4. Thermodynamics of fuel cells at reduced
temperature
The above discussion shows that the high efficiency
of SOFCs is mainly originated from the application of
bottoming cycle. For the case of compact reduced
temperature SOFCs, it will be better to re-examine
386 M. Dokiya / Solid State Ionics 152 – 153 (2002) 383–392

Fig. 1. Internal reforming in SOFCs and the other fuel cells.

the thermochemical relation of fuel cells. Fig. 2 shows Case C CH4 þ H2 O ! CO þ 3H2 ð4Þ
three possible cases for electrochemical oxidation (fuel
cell oxidation) of reformed hydrocarbon.
CO þ 3H2 þ 3=2O2 ! CO2 þ 2H2 O ð5Þ

Case A CH4 þ 2O2 ! CO2 þ 2H2 O ð1Þ Case A is advantageous at high temperature but not
yet confirmed [6]. Case B was not studied well
Case B CH4 ! C þ 2H2 ð2Þ because of the obstruction by deposited carbon [7,8]:
we will discuss later how to utilize case B progres-
C þ 2H2 þ 2O2 ! CO2 þ 2H2 O ð3Þ sively in order to develop SOFCs, which can start
 M. Dokiya / Solid State Ionics 152 – 153 (2002) 383–392
Fig. 2. Thermochemical system of reforming, thermal decomposi-
tion, and fuel cell generation.
up quickly. Case C becomes advantageous below
650 jC, whereas the steam reforming becomes
disadvantageous below this temperature as shown
in the upper part of Fig. 2. When fuel becomes
higher hydrocarbon, the decomposition reaction (case
B) becomes dominant, whereas the reforming still
requires high temperature. The combination of
high temperature reforming and low temperature fuel
cells is a good choice for the external reforming
system.
The ideal case will be that the internal reforming
recovers the heat, and Uf is high, preferably near 95%
without decreasing electrode activity, and fuel cell
generation (case C) at reduced temperature. The key
technology is highly active electrodes and internal
reforming at reduced temperature for such a case.
3.2. High efficiency at throttle down—suitability for
variable load operation
Fuel cells give higher conversion efficiency at
lower current density. So they are usually operated
387
at lower power output point than their maximum
power output. In the case of conventional SOFCs,
the stationary load operation is assumed in order to
keep high efficiency and effective cost performance.
However, as discussed before, generators applicable
for peak load will become more and more important in
the future. In this aspect, the high efficiency at low
load is a big merit of not only SOFCs but also of fuel
cells in general for future electricity system. Imagine a
case when we furnish a 3 kW SOFC at home, the
device can be operated at 300 W base load for
appliances such as a refrigerator with very high
efficiency, and can output 3 kW at intermittent peak
load with enough high efficiency. In such a case, the
‘‘hot start’’ operation will be possible and the difficult
quick ‘‘cold start’’ problem can be eliminated.
3.3. How to start quickly—hot standby or cold standby
If we assume that there is a cell stack, which has 1
kW/l power output, 5 kg of weight, and 1 J/g K of
specific heat. Then this cell requires (1 J g  1
K 1)  (5000 g)  (700 K) = 3.5  106J 1 kWh to
warm up to 700 jC. The heat loss by conduction
can be estimated as follows. The cell is cube of 1
l = 10  10  10 cm, with a 1-cm-thick heat insulator
having thermal conductivity of 5  10 2 Wm 1 K 1.
It will exhaust heat at a rate of (5  10 2 Wm 1
K 1)  (6  10 2 m2)  (1  10 2 m 1)  (700 K)
= 210 W at 700 jC. Vacuum container can largely
reduce this heat loss as the case of Na –S battery or
SOFC of Sulzer. This rough estimation suggests that
the heat loss by heating up a cell will be larger than
holding the cell at high temperature. The hot standby
will become more advantageous when the scale of
SOFCs becomes larger, since specific surface per
volume will decrease. Now we can come to one
tentative conclusion. In order to manage quick start
up and response, it will be advantageous to adopt hot
standby system for SOFCs. Based on this estimation,
we can conceive the following cases.
(1) In the case of house use, there is about 200 –
300 W stationary demands for a refrigerator. Thus, we
can operate a compact size SOFC at throttled mode
with high efficiency. The situation is similar for stores,
offices, etc.
(2) In the case of automobile, the situation will be
not advantageous as the case of home use. The
388 M. Dokiya / Solid State Ionics 152 – 153 (2002) 383–392

electricity produced during hot standby can be stored Table 1

in the auxiliary battery or connected to the grid Candidate electrolyte (V cm 2)
network, if possible. However, this may be only 550 jC 600 jC 700 jC 800 jC 900 jC
adaptable for buses, tracks, and taxis and not suitable 100 Am YSZ – 2.2 0.77 0.31 0.15
for private cars, which are operated only on week- 100 Am SSZ – 0.90 0.26 0.099 0.046
100 Am CGO – (0.59) 0.26 0.13 0.071
ends.
100 Am LSGM 0.71 0.37 0.15 0.074 –
YSZ: Zr(Y)O2, SSZ: Zr(Sc)O2, LSGM: La0.8Sr0.2Ga0.85Mg0.15 [10],
CGO: Ce0.8Gd0.2O2 [9], (0.59); Ce0.9Gd0.1O2 [9], CRO: Ce(rare
4. Technological problems earth)O2.

In order to reduce the operation temperature, there

are several fundamental problems:
(1) Are there any electrolytes that have enough high
ionic conductivity?
(2) Are there any electrodes that show enough high
activity?
(3) How to fabricate cells by cheap manufacturing
process?
(4) Is it possible to execute internal reforming even at
these reduced temperatures?
(5) How to make quick start up and/or quick response
to variation of load?
There is one consensus to meet the above require-
ments: it is that the cell is preferably built upon Ni
anode substrate and is fabricated by wet process,
especially co-fire process. This is because,
(1) The usage of many amounts of metal components
is preferable to reduce material cost and to
respond quickly to temperature swing because of
high thermal conductivity. The Ni anode substrate
fits well with this requirement.
(2) The co-fire process is suitable for mass pro-
duction and to fabricate very thin electrolyte
films, which can reduce the material cost and
ionic resistance.
4.1. Feasibility of co-fire process
4.1.1. Electrolytes
Table 1 summarizes the ionic conductivity of can-
didate electrolyte, yttria stabilized zirconia (YSZ),
scandia stabilized zirconia (SSZ), rare earth doped ceria
(CRO), and lanthanum strontium magnesium galate
perovskite (LSGM) measured by us. How much ionic
conductivity will be required for electrolyte? If we set 1
V/cm2 as internal resistance for a target cell, preferably
less than 0.3 V/cm2 can be allowed for the electrolyte.
According to Table 1, for the operation at 600 jC, 15
Am for YSZ, 30 Am for SSZ, 50 Am for CRO, and 80
Am for LSGM will be the allowable limit of electrolyte
thickness. These values are not so unrealistic. In the
case of CRO electrolytes, we should pay attention to its
electronic conduction at reducing atmosphere. Kato et
al. [11] estimated that the CRO electrolyte cells would
have higher conversion efficiency at 600 jC than 700
jC due to electronic conduction.
4.1.2. Electrodes
Table 2 summarizes results we obtained. The
interfacial resistances of electrode/electrolyte at open
circuit voltage (OCV) state are shown. As anode, Ni-
CSO showed acceptable activity on CGO electrolyte
at 600 jC [12,13]. The effectiveness of Ni-SSZ or
YSZ anode is not yet confirmed at 600 jC. As
cathode, Pt-SSZ [14] and Pt-Ag-SSZ [14] or LSC-
Ag-CGO [12,15] (here, LSC represents (La, Sr)
CoO3) showed fairly high activity on YSZ, SSZ or
CGO electrolyte, respectively. The demerit of Pt-Ag-
SSZ cathode is that it requires 20 mg/cm2 to show the
optimum activity shown in Table 2.
It should be noted that CRO cermet electrodes
showed fairly high activity on CRO electrolytes,
whereas the activity degrades remarkably on SSZ
and YSZ electrolytes. This is apparently because of
the reaction between zirconia and LSC or CRO
[16,17]. Matsuzaki et al. [18,19] successfully mounted
CRO cermet electrodes on YSZ electrolyte forming a
protective thin CRO layer on YSZ using organo-metal
reagents. We have tried to form similar thin (2 Am)
CGO layer on SSZ by EPD and co-fire process
instead of using costly organo-metal reagents. The
reaction between LSC and zirconia seemed likely to
 M. Dokiya / Solid State Ionics 152 – 153 (2002) 383–392 389

Table 2 rolled tube. The skeleton was used as green state

Interfacial resistance of new electrodes by ac impedance at OCV or after pre-fired at 900 jC.
(V/cm2)
(2) The similar process of step (1) prepared the
Materials Electrolyte 600 jC 700 jC
electrolyte slurry. However, the recipe was changed
Cathode Pt-SSZ YSZ 1.25 0.14 case by case.
Cathode Pt-Ag-SSZ YSZ 0.67 0.083
(3) The electrolyte slurry was coated on the skeleton
Cathode (Sm0.6Sr0.4)CoO3-CYO-Ag SSZ 7.1 0.90
Cathode (La0.2Sr0.2)CoO3-CGO-Ag CGO 0.83 0.19 pellet or tube by dipping, brushing, spraying, or
Anode Ni-CSO SSZ 8.9 1.16 doctor blade.
Anode Ni-CSO CGO 0.25 0.10 (4) The electrophoretic deposition (EPD) of electro-
CYO: Ce0.8Y0.2O2, CGO: Ce0.8Gd0.2O2, CSO: Ce0.8Sm0.2O2. lyte film was also examined.

The results can be summarized as follows:

be retarded. However, the formation of solid solution (1) The co-fire process for CRO was not so easy
between zirconia and ceria seemed likely to be not compared to the case of SSZ or YSZ due to the
stopped because of high co-firing temperature of 1300 fragility and ill-sinterability of CRO.
jC. The utilization of CRO electrodes on YSZ or SSZ (2) In the case of LSGM, the co-fire was not yet
electrolyte is one of technological problems to be succeeded, because Ni in substrate diffused vigorously
solved in future. through electrolyte film to cathode side during co-
firing. Lowering of co-fire temperature was not effec-
4.1.3. Feasibility of co-firing process and perform- tive to stop this diffusion. Taiheyo-cement (Japan)
ance of SSZ cells developed LSGM powders, which can be sintered at
Wet co-fire process is considered to be a more cost- 1300 jC. By this powder, however, Ni still diffused
efficient process than dry processes because of low through the LSGM electrolyte layer to cathode.
cost of manufacturing device, high efficiency of The SSZ cells thus prepared were tested with
material utilization, adaptability of mass production. humidified hydrogen fuel and air. The cell perform-
Thus, we have examined the adaptability of co-firing ance is shown in Figs. 3 and 4. The EPD cell had 20
processes for candidate electrolytes, SSZ or YSZ, Am SSZ electrolyte, whereas slurry coated cell had
CRO, and LSGM [10,20,21]. The target cell consti- 70-Am-thick electrolyte film. The performance at 600
tution is jC was far from satisfactory compared to that at 700
Ni-substrate/Ni-electrolyte anode/electrolyte/cath-
ode
Electrolyte = YSZ, SSZ, CRO, or LSGM, sub-
strate = 3 mol% YSZ or MgAl2O4, etc.
Ni-3 mol% YSZ is used as the main substrate in
order to reduce material cost and to increase the
mechanical strength. In this viewpoint, more cheap
materials such as MgAl2O4 should be examined in the
future. Here, the cathode is pasted and fired after co-
firing electrolyte on Ni-substrate.
The outline of standard process is as follows. NiO
and YSZ, SSZ, CRO are ball milled using binder
(poly-vinyl-butyral), plasticizer (di-n-butyl phthalate),
surfactant (triton-X), peptizer (fish oil), solvents (tol-
uene and iso-propanol), and pore former (poly-
methyl-meta-acrylate).

(1) The slurry was impregnated in paper or cloth. This Fig. 3. Performance of slurry coat/co-fire cell at 700 jC (o .) and
‘‘skeleton’’ of paper or cloth was used as pellet or 800 jC (5 n) l: Pt-SSZ/SSZ (70 Am)/Ni-SSZ.
390 M. Dokiya / Solid State Ionics 152 – 153 (2002) 383–392

jC. As can be seen in Figs. 3 and 4, the electrodes

occupied large portion of cell resistance compared to
that of bulk = electrolyte + substrate. Since the slurry
coat cell had thicker electrolyte film and the anode
was common, the cathode was improved in the case of
slurry coat cell. We can expect further improvement if
we use the improved cathode shown in Table 1, since
at the test experiments, the optimum preparation
condition of cathode was not yet known.

4.2. Internal reforming and carbon deposition—new

concept of carbon fueled SOFCs

Internal reforming is one of the merits of SOFCs

Fig. 4. Performance of EPD/co-fire cell: Pt-SSZ/SSZ (20 Am)/Ni-
SSZ (1 mm).
over the other fuel cells. However, this advantage will
be uncertain when the operation temperature is low-
ered. As discussed before, the equilibrium is not
favorable for steam reforming (Fig. 2). However, the
steam reforming can be ‘‘conjugated’’ with the electro-
chemical oxidation (fuel cell reactions) of CO and H2.
If the produced CO and H2 are consumed quickly, the

Fig. 5. Dry CH4 and deposited carbon fueled SOFC (FeO – CGO/YSZ (1.5 mm)/LSMO at 1000 jC.
 M. Dokiya / Solid State Ionics 152 – 153 (2002) 383–392
equilibrium can be shifted. A serious problem is that
this temperature is the region of carbon deposition as
can be seen in Fig. 2. Fig. 2 shows that when fuel
becomes higher hydrocarbon, the thermal decomposi-
tion temperature goes down, whereas the steam reform-
ing still requires high temperatures. Much addition of
steam is effective to retard the deposition of carbon.
Undoubtedly, however, much steam recycle is not a
favorable choice to obtain high efficiency.
The key issue is the deposition of carbon. If we can
accept the carbon deposition, there can be a new
internal reforming system. Let us assume that a SOFC
cell is at hot standby, hydrocarbon fuels are introduced
directly, and then they will decompose to carbon and
H2. Hydrogen will be consumed immediately in a
following SOFC or even in PEMFC. Questions are:
(1) can steam or carbon dioxide reform the deposited
carbon? and (2) can the carbon be electrochemically
oxidized? In order to answer this question, we tried to
examine the feasibility of direct carbon fueled SOFCs
[22,23]. Using commercially available YSZ tubes (10
mm outer diameter with 1.5 mm thickness), we con-
sisted SOFCs with Fe –O anode. In Fig. 5, dry CH4 was
passed at shunt current state, then at open circuit state.
After that, dry Ar was passed at shunt current state. The
current at shunt current state under dry CH4 and Ar
flow indicated that the deposited carbon could be
electrochemically oxidized by a SOFC cell. Ni anode
lost activity quickly. Reforming by steam or CO2
proceeded but not so smoothly on Fe– O anode. The
experiments were done only at 1000 jC, so too many
questions remain for future works.
Such SOFCs will be fairly convenient for quick
start up from hot standby state, since H2 can be
produced quickly. The deposited carbon will serve
as the fuel stock in SOFC itself and consumed during
hot standby, in other words, as carbon battery.
5. Summary
The applicability of compact size SOFCs, which
will be operated at reduced temperatures, was dis-
cussed for small co-generation at homes, offices,
stores and automobiles. High efficiency of SOFCs at
throttle down operation will be profitable for inter-
mittent loads. For difficulty of quick start up, hot
standby mode was recommended from a viewpoint of
391
heat loss. In order to develop cheap compact size,
reduced temperature SOFCs, the feasibility of anode
supported SOFCs was investigated on SSZ, YSZ,
CRO, and LSGM electrolytes examining the applic-
ability of wet co-fire processes and electrode activity.
The feasibility is confirmed with zirconia, not yet with
ceria due to its fragility, and pessimistic with LSGM
due to Ni diffusion during co-firing. In order to
manage the quick start up and usage of various fuels,
an electrochemical oxidation of deposited carbon was
tested. A new direct internal reforming concept was
proposed using this carbon fueled SOFC. Experimen-
tal results are not yet enough to show the feasibility of
this carbon fueled SOFC and internal reforming at
reduced temperature.
Acknowledgements
This research was supported by the proposal-based
new industry creative project of New Energy and
Industrial Development Organization (NEDO) of
Japan. The author expresses deep thanks to NEDO
and also to Dr. T. Kato and Dr. S. Wang, Electro-
technical Laboratory, and Dr. N.T. Lan, Yokohama
National University, for their collaboration both in the
experiments and discussion.
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