Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Ridge Subduction PNAS
Ridge Subduction PNAS
Edited by W. G. Ernst, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, and approved October 11, 2016 (received for review June 20, 2016)
Where and how subduction zones initiate is a fundamental tectonic buoyant. Interestingly, some numerical models predict that despite
problem, yet there are few well-constrained geologic tests that the buoyancy of the plate and the ridge push force, the forces re-
address the tectonic settings and dynamics of the process. Numerical quired to initiate underthrusting within the young, thin lithosphere
modeling has shown that oceanic spreading centers are some of the of a spreading center are lower than within older, thicker litho-
weakest parts of the plate tectonic system [Gurnis M, Hall C, Lavier L sphere, which requires increasingly larger forces to cause down-
(2004) Geochem Geophys Geosys 5:Q07001], but previous studies bending of the stronger plate (1). Self-sustained subduction, driven
have not favored them for subduction initiation because of the pos- by a plate’s negative buoyancy, might eventually be achieved after
itive buoyancy of young lithosphere. Instead, other weak zones, initiation at a spreading center, if forced convergence is sustained
such as fracture zones, have been invoked. Because these models until older, denser lithosphere finally enters the trench.
differ in terms of the ages of crust that are juxtaposed at the site of Well-constrained geologic tests of the aforementioned models
subduction initiation, they can be tested by dating the protoliths of are necessary to carry the debate forward. Because transform faults,
metamorphosed oceanic crust that is formed by underthrusting at fracture zones, and continental margins juxtapose lithosphere of
the beginning of subduction and comparing that age with the age different ages, whereas plates of equal and approximately zero age
of the overlying lithosphere and the timing of subduction initiation are adjacent at spreading centers, determining where subduction
itself. In the western Philippines, we find that oceanic crust was less
has initiated may be possible by comparing the ages of the un-
EARTH, ATMOSPHERIC,
derthrust and overriding lithosphere at the time of subduction
onset of subduction in Palawan, Philippines, implying forced sub-
initiation, in relation to the time of subduction initiation itself.
duction initiation at a spreading center. This result shows that young
The timing of subduction initiation in some paleo-subduction
and positively buoyant, but weak, lithosphere was the preferred site
zones may be determined by constraining the timing of high tem-
for subduction nucleation despite the proximity of other potential
weak zones with older, denser lithosphere and that plate motion
perature metamorphism—associated with the initiation of sub-
rapidly changed from divergence to convergence.
duction—of the uppermost portions (i.e., the crust) of the initial
subducted plate. This metamorphic material may be transferred to
(or “welded”) and preserved underneath the mantle peridotite
subduction initiation | tectonics | geochronology | Philippines | ophiolite hanging wall of the nascent subduction zone forearc of the upper
plate as heat from the overlying mantle, and the resulting ductile
S ubduction is the major driver of plate motion (1), and pro-
cesses at subduction zones are largely responsible for the
growth and evolution of continents through accretion, collision,
shearing, progressively propagates down into the cold underthrust
initiation within very young lithosphere near a spreading center, This article contains supporting information online at www.pnas.org/lookup/suppl/doi:10.
however, can only be forced because the plate is still positively 1073/pnas.1609999113/-/DCSupplemental.
? ?
Mantle upwelling
D E
Crust Igneous crystallization
ophiolite
Palawan
of ophiolite
34.1 ± 0.1 Ma
Mantle Cooling of the
Sole
metamorphic sole
through 550-400°C
34.2 ± 0.6 Ma
Metamorphic sole Igneous crystallization
protolith age similar to of sole protoliths
(or indistinguishable) or 35.25 ± 0.15 Ma
from the sole and the Subducting Plate
35.242 ± 0.062 Ma
ophiolite ages Ages are compatible 35.862 ± 0.048 Ma
with Model (D)
Fig. 1. Models of subduction initiation that explain similar ages between the formation of metamorphic soles and associated ophiolites (in cross-section and
map view). The high temperature metamorphic sole (shown as a thick, black line) is generated from the crust of the subducting plate during subduction
initiation. It may then be preserved at the base of the upper plate (future ophiolite, shown in cross-hatched pattern). Each model predicts a different age
relation between the initially subducted crust, the overlying ophiolite, and the time of subduction initiation. Plate ages are schematically shown with darker
shades representing older lithosphere. White arrows on subducting plate indicate relative plate motion. (A) Sinking of the subducting plate along a transform
fault (TF) or fracture zone (FZ) drives extension in the upper plate, generating the future ophiolite (10). (B) Subduction initiation of distinctly older lithosphere
near an active spreading center (27, 28). (C) Subduction initiation along an oceanic detachment fault near a spreading center (12). (D) Subduction initiation
very close to or at a spreading center axis (13). Hacker et al. (25) proposed a variant of this in which subduction initiates across a transform or fracture zone
with underthrusting directed parallel to an active spreading center axis. Both options are shown in map view. (E) Schematic of the Palawan ophiolite, its
Downloaded by guest on April 19, 2020
metamorphic sole, and the dated lensoid pods preserved within the sole. U-Pb zircon ages of the pods and ophiolite obtained from this study are displayed
along with the metamorphic cooling age of the sole (18).
Land
A 110° 120°
Palawan Ophiolite
B 118°00’
metamorphic sole
118°45’
China Taiwan 10°15’
submerged Eurasian (panel C)
continental crust Foliated flyschoid
oceanic crust of margin of metasediments; some
Ulugan Bay
marginal basins NPCT pillow basalts (L. Cretaceous
spreading axis to E. Eocene) Penacosa
20° NW limit of Palawan Point
thrust wedge Sediments (plagiogranite)
ch
Philippine (Miocene)
Luzon Alluvium/ River Deposits
South Sea
Red River- 9°45’ (Pliocene - Recent)
China Puerto
shear zone Reverse Fault
Princesa
Philip
EARTH, ATMOSPHERIC,
Indo- South Inferred Fault
pine
NPCT
Palawan
10° ?
Tre
NPCT Aborlan 15 km
e
nch
dg
N
Ri
Quezon
n
ya
Sulu
N
gh
ga
Central
Ca
Tr
Basin Palawan
n
Gabbro
wa
Ophiolite
la
Pa
Sulu Peridotite
Celebes
Borneo Sea Basin Sea
C 1- Epidote amphibolite D
2- Amphibolite gneiss
4 with hornblendite lenses PALAWAN
5 NPCT PALAWAN
3- Garnet amphibolite TROUGH
5 ophiolite
B 4- Hornblendite, quartzite,
kyanite schist peridotite
5- Mantle peridotite klippe OPHIOLITE
Inferred contact metamorphic (eroded)
Inferred fault sole
ULUGAN Location of photos clastic rocks
BAY in Figure 3
100 m 1 C 10 km
E,F Dalrymple Point
D Schematic NW-SE section across Ulugan Bay area (see panel “b”)
Fig. 2. (A) Present tectonic setting of Palawan island, Philippines (18, 29, 30). Rectangle outlines the area shown in B. (B) General geology of central Palawan
showing locations of sample sites. The general structure consists of an ∼34-Ma ophiolite (the Central Palawan ophiolite) thrust over deformed Cretaceous-
Eocene turbiditic sedimentary rocks of the NPCT. Remnants of the older Early Cretaceous proto-SCSB ophiolite are found as occasional pillow lavas in tectonic
windows in the younger Palawan ophiolite (geology from our field observations and refs. 18 and 31). (C) Geologic map of the metamorphic sole at Dalrymple
Downloaded by guest on April 19, 2020
Point. See B for location. Background image from Google Earth (Digital Globe, CNES/Astrium). Apparent metamorphic grade decreases away from the mantle
peridotite. (D) Schematic NW-SE cross section of Palawan in the Ulugan Bay area after ref. 32.
A B C D E F
G H I J K L
Fig. 3. Photographs of outcrops from the central Palawan ophiolite (A) and its metamorphic sole (B–F) and cathodoluminescence images of extracted zircons
from selected samples (G–L). (A) Magma-mingling structures exhibited by light-colored tonalite (plagiogranite) and diorite-gabbro (darker) at Penacosa Point.
The tonalite yielded zircons with a crystallization age of 34 Ma. Pencil for scale. (B) Layered chert/quartzite and amphibolite showing sheath folds.
(C) Amphibolite gneiss with hornblendite domains exhibiting isoclinal folding. (D) Foliated and lineated epidote amphibolite, looking ∼west; mountains
across Ulugan Bay are mantle harzburgite of the Palawan ophiolite structurally overlying metamorphic sole rocks; strike and dip symbol indicates foliation.
(E) Smaller, foliation-parallel, light-colored lensoid pods of amphibolite (sample PL-14-07). (F) Competent, light-colored pod of epidote amphibolite (with
cumulate gabbro-like REE signatures; sample PL-14-05) enclosed within the strongly foliated amphibolite. These pods yielded zircons with crystallization ages
Downloaded by guest on April 19, 2020
of 35.242 Ma. Hammer for scale. (G and H, I and J, and K and L) Cathodoluminescence images of zircons, showing magmatic oscillatory zoning (samples PL-14-
05, PL-14-06, and PL-14-07, respectively).
(Fig. 1, Table S2, and Fig. S1) were obtained from the smaller pod.
The age of the youngest zircon, 35.25 ± 0.15 Ma, is taken as the
best estimate of the final crystallization age of the protolith of this
PL-14-07 sample. The small spread in ages seen in this sample is similar to
10 (35.25 Ma) those revealed by high precision U-Pb geochronology in the
Samail ophiolite (44) and may be due to prolonged zircon crys-
PL-14-06 tallization in a replenished magma chamber or assimilation of
(35.862 Ma) slightly older wall rock.
Establishing that these zircons are igneous, and not meta-
PL-14-05
(35.242 Ma) morphic, is critical because the age of metamorphic zircons would
merely represent the age of metamorphic sole formation (sub-
1 duction initiation) instead of the crystallization age of the meta-
La Ce Pr Nd Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu morphic sole protoliths. Although metamorphic zircon growth has
been shown to occur under amphibolite facies conditions (45),
Ti / 50 Ti / 50 cathodoluminescence imaging shows no evidence of metamorphic
B C overgrowths in these zircons. Instead, they are euhedral, prismatic,
- Metamorphic Sole and have distinct, fine, oscillatory zoning, a feature that is char-
- Palawan ophiolite acteristic and unique to magmatic zircons (46) (Fig. 3). Even
OIB though Th/U ratios are not completely reliable indicators of
magmatic vs. metamorphic zircon, we note that the Th/U ratios in
OIB these zircons (>0.1) are consistent with many magmatic zircons
MORB
MO (47). We are therefore confident that these zircons are igneous and
RB that their ages reflect the original igneous crystallization age of the
IAB IAB
oceanic crust that was underthrust, and then metamorphosed, at
50 * Sm V V 5 * Sc the onset of subduction.
EARTH, ATMOSPHERIC,
and its metamorphic sole. Palawan ophiolite samples plotted in A–C include
As discussed earlier, a critical test to constrain the tectonic setting
pillow lavas, mafic dikes, gabbroic intrusions, and (A) felsic intrusions (pla-
giogranite). Metamorphic sole samples plotted in A–C include amphibolites,
of subduction initiation is a comparison of the igneous ages of the
epidote amphibolites, and garnet amphibolites. (A) Chondrite normalized underthrust and overriding lithosphere in relation to the time of
REE concentrations in the samples. Samples that were selected for U-Pb subduction initiation. A positive test for subduction initiation at an
zircon geochronology are symbolized by diamonds and their ages are in- active spreading center is to find all three events very close in age.
dicated next to the data. The majority of samples have REE patterns re- We find that the age differences between the upper plate (the
sembling MORB and possible differentiates of MORB. Two samples (PL-14-06 Palawan ophiolite), the subducting plate (protoliths of the sole),
and PL-14-05) display positive Eu anomalies indicating cumulate plagioclase and metamorphism of the sole are less than ∼1 My (Fig. 1). The
in the samples. The geochemistry of the plagiogranite (PW-00-18) is consis- very small age difference between formation of the sole protolith
tent with simple fractional crystallization from the MORB-like basaltic
and its metamorphism during subduction initiation leads us to re-
magmas. (B) Ti-V-Sm and (C) Ti-V-Sc tectonic discrimination diagrams (38).
Basaltic samples from the ophiolite and sole are similar and plot as MORB or
ject outright the models shown in Fig. 1 A and B. Furthermore, the
transitional MORB-IAB. model shown in Fig. 1C is rejected for subduction initiation at
detachment faults that are far from the spreading center. We
therefore conclude that subduction must have initiated in very
rocks (gabbros, based on major element chemistry) of the mid- close proximity to, or at, a spreading center (Fig. 1D). Our age data
lower crust. One of the smaller pods of amphibolite displays a do not differentiate between the ridge parallel and ridge normal
negative Eu anomaly and is slightly more enriched than the larger subduction initiation scenarios in Fig. 1D in cases where the ridge-
epidote amphibolite pods. This sample may have crystallized from transform fault segments in the right-hand scenario are very short.
a magma following the extraction of plagioclase. The rocks of the The similarity in the geochemistry of the sole and overlying
sole are therefore not geochemically unlike the overlying ophiolite ophiolite also supports subduction initiation close to a spreading
and probably formed in a similar petro-tectonic setting. center, where the eventual upper plate and lower plate (meta-
Based on their geochemistry and geologic context within the morphic sole) are not expected to be geochemically different.
Our data show that oceanic crust was formed at 35.24 Ma and
high temperature sole, we interpret the more competent pods to
was then underthrust/subducted almost immediately, reaching
be middle- to lower-level crustal rocks of the leading edge of the
∼27 km depth, metamorphosed to amphibolite, and subsequently
subducted plate. During the period of underthrusting to sub- cooled to ∼400 °C by 34.25 Ma, a remarkably short interval be-
duction, the underthrust crust was sheared, thinned, and ductiley tween crust formation and subduction. Assuming a slab dip con-
folded, resulting in the transposition of middle to lower crustal trolled by an ∼30° dipping lithosphere–asthenosphere boundary,
gabbroic rocks with upper crustal basaltic rocks, both of which this underthrusting would require a convergence rate on the order
were subject to the high temperature and high pressure meta- of 5 cm/y.
morphism that formed the metamorphic sole (Fig. 1). In cases where the detachment fault (Fig. 1C) is located very
Zircons from two of the larger pods (PL-14-05 and PL-14-06) close to, or at the spreading center, the models shown in Fig. 1 C
and one smaller pod (PL-14-07) from the high temperature and D become indistinguishable using age data alone. The weak-
metamorphic sole were extracted for U-Pb CA-ID-TIMS geo- ness at which subduction initiated could have been a detachment
chronology. The four analyzed zircons from sample PL-14-05 fault very near the spreading center axis or at the spreading center
Downloaded by guest on April 19, 2020
yielded internally and externally concordant ages with an error- axis itself. Although the exact nature of the weak zone could be
weighted mean age of 35.242 ± 0.062. Three of five analyzed debated, the high-precision age data from our sample site tightly
A Break-up rifting.
Indochina Seafloor spreading starts in
South China Sea at 32-30 Ma
CT
Eurasian NP
continental
lithosphere
sp
Pa ing
re
e
us er
ad
law ce
ceo sph )
an nte
eta tho SB
Cr ic li -SC
n
ea oto
oc (pr
r
Continent-
lite
ocean hio
boundary op
n
la wa A’
Pa
Detachment of Palawan ophiolite
at the spreading center and forced
initiation of subduction (~35-34 Ma)
due to extrusion of Indochina
Palawan
B Rifting Extinct fault or Spreading Center
Passive margin ‘intrusive’ boundary
A A’
Fig. 5. Subduction initiation (∼34–35 Ma) at the spreading center that generated the Palawan ophiolite. (A) Schematic map view of the area showing the
timing of initial strike-slip movement on the Red River shear zone (48), seafloor spreading in the South China Sea (30), and initiation of subduction at the
Palawan ophiolite spreading center. Palawan ophiolite (yet to be obducted onto the rifted continental crust) shown in cross-hatched pattern. (B) Cross-
Downloaded by guest on April 19, 2020
sectional schematic view of the area along A-A′ during the onset of subduction. Weak zones where subduction had the potential to initiate, but did not, are
also shown.
EARTH, ATMOSPHERIC,
1. Forsyth D, Uyeda S (1975) On the relative importance of the driving forces of plate 19. Wakabayashi J, Dilek Y (2003) What constitutes ‘emplacement’ of an ophiolite?:
motion. Geophys J R Astron Soc 43(1):163–200. Mechanisms and relationship to subduction initiation and formation of metamorphic
2. Gurnis M, Hall C, Lavier L (2004) Evolving force balance during incipient subduction. soles. Geol Soc Lond Spec Publ 218:427–447.
Geochem Geophys Geosyst 5(7):Q07001. 20. Dilek Y, Furnes H (2014) Ophiolites and their origins. Elements 10(2):93–100.
3. McKenzie DP (1977) The initiation of trenches: A finite amplitude instability. Island 21. Stern RJ (2004) Subduction initiation: Spontaneous and induced. Earth Planet Sci Lett
Arcs, Deep Sea Trenches and Back-Arc Basins, Maurice Ewing Series, eds Talwani M, 226(3–4):275–292.
Pitman WC IIII (American Geophysical Union, Washington, DC), Vol 1, pp 57–61. 22. Jamieson RA (1986) P-T paths from high temperature shear zones beneath ophiolites.
4. Mueller S, Phillips RJ (1991) On the initiation of subduction. J Geophys Res 96(B1): J Metamorph Geol 4(1):3–22.
23. Wakabayashi J, Dilek Y (2000) Spatial and temporal relations between ophiolites and
651–665.
their metamorphic soles: A test of models of forearc ophiolite genesis. Ophiolites and
5. Toth J, Gurnis M (1998) Dynamics of subduction initiation at preexisting fault zones.
Oceanic Crust: New Insights From Field Studies and the Ocean Drilling Program, eds
J Geophys Res 103(B8):18053–18067.
Dilek Y, Moores EM, Elthon D, Nicolas A (Geological Society of America, Boulder, CO),
6. Regenauer-Lieb K, Yuen DA, Branlund J (2001) The initiation of subduction: Criticality
GSA Special Papers 349, pp 33–64.
by addition of water? Science 294(5542):578–580.
24. Peacock SM (1988) Inverted metamorphic gradients in the westernmost Cordillera.
7. Ueda K, Gerya T, Sobolev SV (2008) Subduction initiation by thermal-chemical plumes:
Metamorphism and Crustal Evolution of the Western United States, ed Ernst WG
Numerical studies. Phys Earth Planet Inter 171(1–4):296–312. (Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ), Vol 7, pp 954–975.
8. Leng W, Gurnis M (2011) Dynamics of subduction initiation with different evolu- 25. Hacker BR, Mosenfelder JL, Gnos E (1996) Rapid emplacement of the Oman ophiolite:
tionary pathways. Geochem Geophys Geosys 12(12):Q12018. Thermal and geochronologic constraints. Tectonics 15(6):1230–1247.
9. Leng W, Gurnis M (2015) Subduction initiation at relic arcs. Geophys Res Lett 42(17): 26. Spray JG (1984) Possible causes and consequences of upper mantle decoupling and
7014–7021. ophiolite displacement. Geol Soc Lond Spec Publ 13:255–268.
10. Stern RJ, Bloomer SH (1992) Subduction zone infancy: Examples from the Eocene Izu- 27. Hacker BR (1994) Rapid emplacement of young oceanic lithosphere: Argon geo-
Bonin-Mariana and Jurassic California arcs. Geol Soc Am Bull 104(12):1621–1636. chronology of the oman ophiolite. Science 265(5178):1563–1565.
11. Erickson SG (1993) Sedimentary loading, lithospheric flexure, and subduction initia- 28. Searle M, Cox J (1999) Tectonic setting, origin, and obduction of the Oman ophiolite.
tion at passive margins. Geology 21(2):125–128. Geol Soc Am Bull 111(1):104–122.
12. Maffione M, et al. (2015) Dynamics of intraoceanic subduction initiation: 1. Oceanic 29. Holloway NH (1982) North Palawan Block, Philippines—Its relation to Asian mainland
detachment fault inversion and the formation of supra-subduction zone ophiolites. and role in the evolution of South China Sea. Am Assoc Pet Geol Bull 66(1):1355–1383.
Geochem Geophys Geosyst 16(6):1753–1770. 30. Briais A, Patriat P, Tapponnier P (1993) Updated Interpretation of Magnetic Anom-
13. Spray JG (1983) Lithosphere-asthenosphere decoupling at spreading centres and alies and Seafloor Spreading Stages in the South China Sea: Implications for the
initiation of obduction. Nature 304(5923):253–255. Tertiary Tectonics of Southeast Asia. J Geophys Res 98(B4):6299–6328.
14. Turcotte DL, Haxby WF, Ockendon JR (1977) Lithospheric instabilities. Island Arcs, 31. Raschka H, Nacario E, Rammlmair D, Samonte G, Steiner L (1985) Geology of the
Deep Sea Trenches and Back-Arc Basins, Maurice Ewing Series, eds Talwani M, Pitman WC ophiolite of Central Palawan Island, Philippines. Ofioliti 10(1):375–390.
32. Mitchell AHG, Hernandez F, Dela Cruz AP (1986) Cenozoic evolution of the Philippine
IIII (American Geophysical Union, Washington, DC), Vol 1, pp 63–69.
Archipelago. J Southeast Asian Earth Sci 1(1):3–22.
15. Hall CE, Gurnis M, Sdrolias M, Lavier LL, Dietmar Müller R (2003) Catastrophic initi-
33. Rangin EA, Silver EA (1991) Neogene tectonic evolution of the Celebes and Sulu
ation of subduction following forced convergence across fracture zones. Earth Planet
Basins: New insights from Leg 124 drilling. Proceedings of ODP Scientific Results, eds
Sci Lett 212:15–30.
Silver EA, Fisk M, Rangin C, von Breymann MT (Ocean Drilling Program, College
16. Cloos M (1993) Lithospheric buoyancy and collisional orogenesis: Subduction of
Station, TX) Vol 124, pp 51–63.
oceanic plateaus, continental margins, island arcs, spreading ridges, and seamounts. 34. Hamilton W (1979) Tectonics of the Indonesian region. US Geol Surv Prof Pap 1078
Geol Soc Am Bull 105(6):715–737. (US Government Printing Office, Washington, DC), pp 197–201.
17. Hacker BR (1991) The role of deformation in the formation of metamorphic gradi- 35. Hinz K, Schluter HU (1985) Geology of the dangerous grounds, South China Sea, and
ents: Ridge subduction beneath the Oman ophiolite. Tectonics 10(2):455–473. the continental margin off southeast Palawan: Results of Sonne Cruises SO-23 and SO-
18. Encarnación JP, Essene EJ, Mukasa SB, Hall CH (1995) High-Pressure and –Temperature 27. Energy 10(3–4):297–315.
Downloaded by guest on April 19, 2020
Subophiolitic Kyanite-Garnet Amphibolites Generated during Initiation of Mid-Ter- 36. Letouzey J, Sage L (1988) Geological and Structural Map of Eastern Asia (American
tiary Subduction, Palawan, Philippines. J Petrol 36(6):1481–1503. Association of Petroleum Geologists, Tulsa, OK).