There is no life without water.

[6] It has been described as the universal

solvent for its ability to dissolve many substances,[7][8] and as the solvent of
life.[9] Water is the only common substance to exist as a solid, liquid,
andgas under conditions normal to life on Earth.[10] The Nobel
Prize winnerAlbert Szent-Györgyi referred to water as the mater und matrix:
the mother and womb of life.[11]

The abundance of surface water on Earth is a unique feature in the Solar

System. Earth's hydrosphere consists chiefly of the oceans, but technically
includes all water surfaces in the world, including inland seas, lakes, rivers, and
underground waters down to a depth of 2,000 metres (6,600 ft) The deepest
underwater location is Challenger Deep of the Mariana Trench in the Pacific
Ocean, having a depth of 10,900 metres (6.8 mi).[note 1][12]

Conventionally the planet is divided into five separate oceans, but these oceans
all connect into a single world ocean. The mass of this world ocean is
1.35×1018 metric tons, or about 1/4400 of Earth's total mass. The world ocean
covers an area of3.618×108 km2 with a mean depth of 3682 m, resulting in an
estimated volume of 1.332×109 km3.[13] If all of Earth's crustal surface was at the
same elevation as a smooth sphere, the depth of the resulting world ocean
would be about 2.7 kilometres (1.7 mi).[14][15]

The Earth's water cycle

About 97.5% of the water on Earth is saline; the remaining 2.5% is fresh water.
Most fresh water – about 69% – is present as ice in ice caps and glaciers.
[16]
 The average salinity of Earth's oceans is about 35 grams (1.2 oz) of salt per
kilogram of seawater (3.5% salt).[17] Most of the salt in the ocean comes from the
weathering and erosion of rocks on land.[18] Some salts are released
from volcanic activity or extracted from cooligneous rocks.[19]

The oceans are also a reservoir of dissolved atmospheric gases, which are
essential for the survival of many aquatic life forms.[20] Sea water has an
important influence on the world's climate, with the oceans acting as a
large heat reservoir.[21] Shifts in the oceanic temperature distribution can cause
significant weather shifts, such as the El Niño-Southern Oscillation.[22]
Jupiter's moon Europamay have an underground ocean which supports life.

Altogether the ocean occupies 71 percent of the world surface, [1] averaging

nearly 3.7 kilometres (2.3 mi) in depth.[23] By volume, the ocean provides about
90 percent of the living space on the planet.[1] The science fiction writer Arthur
C. Clarke has pointed out it would be more appropriate to refer to planet Earth
as planet Ocean.[24][25]

However water is found elsewhere in the solar system. Europa, one of the

moons orbiting Jupiter, is slightly smaller than the Earth's moon. There is a
strong possibility a large saltwater ocean exists beneath its ice surface. [26] It has
been estimated the outer crust of solid ice is about 10–30 km (6–19 mi) thick
and the liquid ocean underneath is about 100 km (60 mi) deep.[27] This would
make Europa's ocean over twice the volume of the Earth's ocean. There has
been speculation Europa's ocean could support life,[28][29] and could be capable of
supporting multicellular microorganisms if hydrothermal vents are active on
the ocean floor.[30] Enceladus, a small icy moon of Saturn, also has what appears
to be an underground ocean which actively vents warm water from the moon's
surface.[31]

Evolution[edit]
Life timeline
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Ice Ages
(million years ago)

(See also:  Human timeline, and  Nature timeline.)

Further information:  Evolutionary history of life  and  Timeline of evolutionary

history of life

The Earth is about 4.54 billion years old.[32][33][34] The earliest undisputed evidence

of life on Earth dates from at least 3.5 billion years ago,[35][36]during
the Eoarchean Era after a geological crust started to solidify following the
earlier molten Hadean Eon. Microbial mat fossils have been found in 3.48
billion-year-old sandstone in Western Australia.[37][38] Other early physical
evidence of a biogenic substance is graphite in 3.7 billion-year-
oldmetasedimentary rocks discovered in Western Greenland[39] as well as
"remains of biotic life" found in 4.1 billion-year-old rocks in Western Australia.[40]
[41]
 According to one of the researchers, "If life arose relatively quickly on Earth
… then it could be common in the universe."[40]

All organisms on Earth are descended from a common ancestor or

ancestralgene pool.[42][43] Highly energetic chemistry is thought to have produced
a self-replicating molecule around 4 billion years ago, and half a billion years
later the last common ancestor of all life existed.[44] The current scientific
consensus is that the complex biochemistry that makes up life came from
simpler chemical reactions.[45] The beginning of life may have included self-
replicating molecules such as RNA[46] and the assembly of simple cells.[47]In 2016
scientists reported a set of 355 genes from the last universal common
ancestor (LUCA) of all life, including microorganisms, living onEarth.[48]

Current species are a stage in the process of evolution, with their diversity the
product of a long series of speciation and extinction events.[49] The common
descent of organisms was first deduced from four simple facts about organisms:
First, they have geographic distributions that cannot be explained by local
adaptation. Second, the diversity of life is not a set of completely unique
organisms, but organisms that share morphological similarities. Third, vestigial
traits with no clear purpose resemble functional ancestral traits and finally, that
organisms can be classified using these similarities into a hierarchy of nested
groups—similar to a family tree.[50] However, modern research has suggested
that, due to horizontal gene transfer, this "tree of life" may be more complicated
than a simple branching tree since some genes have spread independently
between distantly related species.[51][52]

Past species have also left records of their evolutionary history. Fossils, along
with the comparative anatomy of present-day organisms, constitute the
morphological, or anatomical, record.[53] By comparing the anatomies of both
modern and extinct species, paleontologists can infer the lineages of those
species. However, this approach is most successful for organisms that had hard
body parts, such as shells, bones or teeth. Further, as prokaryotes such as
bacteria and archaea share a limited set of common morphologies, their fossils
do not provide information on their ancestry.
Evolutionary tree showing the divergence of modern species from their common
ancestor in the centre.[54] The three domains are coloured,
with bacteria blue, archaeagreen and eukaryotes red.

More recently, evidence for common descent has come from the study of
biochemical similarities between organisms. For example, all living cells use the
same basic set of nucleotides and amino acids.[55] The development
of molecular genetics has revealed the record of evolution left in organisms'
genomes: dating when species diverged through themolecular clock produced
by mutations.[56] For example, these DNA sequence comparisons have revealed
that humans and chimpanzees share 98% of their genomes and analysing the
few areas where they differ helps shed light on when the common ancestor of
these species existed.[57]

Prokaryotes inhabited the Earth from approximately 3–4 billion years ago. [58][59] No
obvious changes in morphology or cellular organisation occurred in these
organisms over the next few billion years.[60] The eukaryotic cells emerged
between 1.6–2.7 billion years ago. The next major change in cell structure came
when bacteria were engulfed by eukaryotic cells, in a cooperative association
called endosymbiosis.[61][62] The engulfed bacteria and the host cell then
underwent coevolution, with the bacteria evolving into either mitochondria
or hydrogenosomes.[63] Another engulfment ofcyanobacterial-like organisms led
to the formation of chloroplasts in algae and plants.[64]
Phylogenetic and symbiogenetic tree of living organisms, showing a view of the origins of
eukaryotes and prokaryotes

The history of life was that of the unicellular eukaryotes, prokaryotes and

archaea until about 610 million years ago when multicellular organisms began to
appear in the oceans in the Ediacaran period.[58][65] The evolution of
multicellularity occurred in multiple independent events, in organisms as
diverse as sponges, brown algae, cyanobacteria, slime
moulds andmyxobacteria.[66] In 2016 scientists reported that, about 800 million
years ago, a minor genetic change in a single molecule called GK-PID may have
allowed organisms to go from a single cell organism to one of many cells. [67]

Soon after the emergence of these first multicellular organisms, a remarkable

amount of biological diversity appeared over a span of about 10 million years, in
an event called the Cambrian explosion. Here, the majority of types of modern
animals appeared in the fossil record, as well as unique lineages that
subsequently became extinct.[68] Various triggers for the Cambrian explosion
have been proposed, including the accumulation ofoxygen in
the atmosphere from photosynthesis.[69]

About 500 million years ago, plants and fungi started colonising the land.
Evidence for the appearance of the first land plants occurs in the Ordovician,
around 450 million years ago, in the form of fossil spores.[70] Land plants began
to diversify in the Late Silurian, from around430 million years ago.[71] The
colonisation of the land by plants was soon followed by arthropods and other
animals.[72] Insectswere particularly successful and even today make up the
majority of animal species.[73] Amphibians first appeared around 364 million
years ago, followed by early amniotes and birds around 155 million years ago
(both from "reptile"-like lineages),mammals around 129 million years
ago, homininae around 10 million years ago and modern humans around
250,000 years ago.[74][75][76] However, despite the evolution of these large animals,
smaller organisms similar to the types that evolved early in this process
continue to be highly successful and dominate the Earth, with the majority of
both biomass and species being prokaryotes.[77]
Estimates on the number of Earth's current species range from 10 million to 14
million,[78] of which about 1.2 million have been documented and over 86 percent
have not yet been described.[79]

Microorganisms[edit]
microbial mats

Microbial mats are the earliest form of life on Earth for which there is
goodfossil evidence. The image shows acyanobacterial-algal mat.

Stromatolites are formed from microbial mats as microbes slowly move upwards to avoid
being smothered by sediment.
Main article:  Marine microorganism
See also:  Evolution of cells

Microorganisms make up about 70% of the marine biomass.

[80]
 A microorganism, or microbe, is amicroscopic organism too small to be
recognised with the naked eye. It can be single-celled[81] ormulticellular.
Microorganisms are diverse and include all bacteria and archaea,
most protozoasuch as algae, fungi and certain microscopic animals such
as rotifers.

Many macroscopic animals and plants have microscopic juvenile stages.

Some microbiologists also classify viruses (and viroids) as microorganisms, but
others consider these as nonliving.[82][83]

Microorganisms are crucial to nutrient recycling in ecosystems as they act

as decomposers. Some microorganisms arepathogenic, causing disease and
even death in plants and animals.[84] As inhabitants of the largest environment on
Earth, microbial marine systems drive changes in every global system. Microbes
are responsible for virtually all the photosynthesis that occurs in the ocean, as
well as the cycling of carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, other nutrients and trace
elements.[85]
The range of sizes shown by prokaryotes(bacteria and archaea) and viruses relative to
those of other organisms and biomolecules
Marine microorganis  
ms     
 
Viruses 
 Prokaryotes   
   

Bacteria 
 
 
Archaea     
Eukaryotes  
   

Protists 
 
 
Microfungi   
 
Microanimals   
 
 Marine microbial loop

Microscopic life undersea is diverse and still poorly understood, such as for the
role ofviruses in marine ecosystems.[86] Most marine viruses
are bacteriophages, which are harmless to plants and animals, but are essential
to the regulation of saltwater and freshwater ecosystems. [87] They infect and
destroy bacteria in aquatic microbial communities, and are the most important
mechanism of recycling carbon in the marine environment. The organic
molecules released from the dead bacterial cells stimulate fresh bacterial and
algal growth.[88] Viral activity may also contribute to the biological pump, the
process whereby carbon is sequestered in the deep ocean.[89]

Sea spray containing marine microorganisms can be swept high into the atmosphere and
may travel the globe before falling back to earth.

Under a magnifier, a splash of seawater teems with life

A stream of airborne microorganisms circles the planet above weather systems

but below commercial air lanes.[90] Some peripatetic microorganisms are swept
up from terrestrial dust storms, but most originate from marine microorganisms
in sea spray. In 2018, scientists reported that hundreds of millions of viruses
and tens of millions of bacteria are deposited daily on every square meter around
the planet.[91][92]

Microscopic organisms live throughout the biosphere. The mass

of prokaryotemicroorganisms — which includes bacteria and archaea, but not
the nucleatedeukaryote microorganisms — may be as much as 0.8 trillion tons
of carbon (of the total biosphere mass, estimated at between 1 and 4 trillion
tons).[93] Single-celled barophilicmarine microbes have been found at a depth of
10,900 m (35,800 ft) in the Mariana Trench, the deepest spot in the Earth's
oceans.[94][95] Microorganisms live inside rocks 580 m (1,900 ft) below the sea
floor under 2,590 m (8,500 ft) of ocean off the coast of the northwestern United
States,[94][96] as well as 2,400 m (7,900 ft; 1.5 mi) beneath the seabed off Japan.
[97]
 The greatest known temperature at which microbial life can exist is 122 °C
(252 °F) (Methanopyrus kandleri).[98] In 2014, scientists confirmed the existence
of microorganisms living 800 m (2,600 ft) below the ice of Antarctica.[99]
[100]
 According to one researcher, "You can find microbes everywhere — they're
extremely adaptable to conditions, and survive wherever they are." [94]

Marine viruses[edit]
See also:  Marine bacteriophage  and  Viral evolution

Viruses are small infectious agents that do not have their

own metabolism and can replicate only inside the living cells of
otherorganisms.[101] Viruses can infect all types of life forms,
from animals and plants to microorganisms, including bacteria andarchaea.
[102]
 The linear size of the average virus is about one one-hundredth that of the
average bacterium. Most viruses cannot be seen with an optical
microscope so electron microscopes are used instead.[103]

Viruses are found wherever there is life and have probably existed since living
cells first evolved.[104] The origin of viruses is unclear because they do not form
fossils, so molecular techniques have been used to compare the DNA or RNA of
viruses and are a useful means of investigating how they arise. [105]

Viruses are now recognised as ancient and as having origins that pre-date the
divergence of life into the three domains.[106] But the origins of viruses in
the evolutionary history of life are unclear: some may
have evolved from plasmids—pieces of DNA that can move between cells—
while others may have evolved from bacteria. In evolution, viruses are an
important means ofhorizontal gene transfer, which increases genetic diversity.
[107]

Bacteriophages (phages)

Multiple phages attached to a bacterial cell wall at 200,000x magnification

Diagram of a typical tailed phage

 These are cyanophages, viruses that infect cyanobacteria (scale bars indicate 100 nm)

Opinions differ on whether viruses are a form of life or organic structures that
interact with living organisms.[108] They are considered by some to be a life form,
because they carry genetic material, reproduce by creating multiple copies of
themselves through self-assembly, and evolve through natural selection.
However they lack key characteristics such as a cellular structure generally
considered necessary to count as life. Because they possess some but not all
such qualities, viruses have been described as replicators[109] and as "organisms
at the edge of life".[110]

In terms of individual counts, tailed phage are the most abundant biological entities in

the sea.

Bacteriophages, often just called phages, are viruses that parasitebacteria and

archaea. Marine phages parasite marine bacteria and archaea, such
as cyanobacteria.[111] They are a common and diverse group of viruses and are
the most abundant biological entity in marine environments, because their hosts,
bacteria, are typically the numerically dominant cellular life in the sea. Generally
there are about 1 million to 10 million viruses in each mL of seawater, or about
ten times more double-stranded DNA viruses than there are cellular organisms,
[112][113]
 although estimates of viral abundance in seawater can vary over a wide
range.[114][115] Tailed bacteriophagesappear to dominate marine ecosystems in
number and diversity of organisms.[111] Bacteriophages belonging to the
familiesCorticoviridae,[116] Inoviridae[117] and Microviridae[118] are also known to
infect diverse marine bacteria.

Microorganisms make up about 70% of the marine biomass.[80] It is estimated

viruses kill 20% of this biomass each day and that there are 15 times as many
viruses in the oceans as there are bacteria and archaea. Viruses are the main
agents responsible for the rapid destruction of harmful algal blooms,[119] which
often kill other marine life.[120] The number of viruses in the oceans decreases
further offshore and deeper into the water, where there are fewer host
organisms.[89]

There are also archaean viruses which replicate within archaea: these are
double-stranded DNA viruses with unusual and sometimes unique shapes.[121]
[122]
 These viruses have been studied in most detail in the thermophilic archaea,
particularly the orders Sulfolobales and Thermoproteales.[123]

Viruses are an important natural means of transferring genes between different

species, which increases genetic diversity and drives evolution.[107] It is thought
that viruses played a central role in the early evolution, before the diversification
of bacteria, archaea and eukaryotes, at the time of the last universal common
ancestor of life on Earth.[124] Viruses are still one of the largest reservoirs of
unexplored genetic diversity on Earth.[89]

Marine bacteria[edit]

Vibrio vulnificus, a virulent bacterium found in estuaries and along coastal areas

Pelagibacter ubique, the most abundant bacteria in the ocean, plays a major role in the
global carbon cycle
See also:  Bacterioplankton

Bacteria constitute a large domain of prokaryotic microorganisms. Typically a

fewmicrometres in length, bacteria have a number of shapes, ranging from
spheres to rods and spirals. Bacteria were among the first life forms to appear
on Earth, and are present in most of its habitats. Bacteria inhabit soil,
water, acidic hot springs, radioactive waste,[125] and the deep portions
of Earth's crust. Bacteria also live in symbiotic andparasitic relationships with
plants and animals.

Once regarded as plants constituting the class Schizomycetes, bacteria are

now classified as prokaryotes. Unlike cells of animals and other eukaryotes,
bacterial cells do not contain a nucleus and rarely harbour membrane-
bound organelles. Although the term bacteria traditionally included all
prokaryotes, the scientific classification changed after the discovery in the
1990s that prokaryotes consist of two very different groups of organisms
that evolved from an ancient common ancestor. These evolutionary
domainsare called Bacteria and Archaea.[126]

The ancestors of modern bacteria were unicellular microorganisms that were

the first forms of life to appear on Earth, about 4 billion years ago. For about 3
billion years, most organisms were microscopic, and bacteria and archaea were
the dominant forms of life.[127][128] Although bacterial fossils exist, such
as stromatolites, their lack of distinctive morphology prevents them from being
used to examine the history of bacterial evolution, or to date the time of origin of
a particular bacterial species. However, gene sequences can be used to
reconstruct the bacterial phylogeny, and these studies indicate that bacteria
diverged first from the archaeal/eukaryotic lineage.[129] Bacteria were also
involved in the second great evolutionary divergence, that of the archaea and
eukaryotes. Here, eukaryotes resulted from the entering of ancient bacteria
into endosymbioticassociations with the ancestors of eukaryotic cells, which
were themselves possibly related to the Archaea.[62][130] This involved the
engulfment by proto-eukaryotic cells of alphaproteobacterial symbionts to form
either mitochondria or hydrogenosomes, which are still found in all known
Eukarya. Later on, some eukaryotes that already contained mitochondria also
engulfed cyanobacterial-like organisms. This led to the formation
of chloroplasts in algae and plants. There are also some algae that originated
from even later endosymbiotic events. Here, eukaryotes engulfed a eukaryotic
algae that developed into a "second-generation" plastid.[131][132] This is known
as secondary endosymbiosis.


The marineThiomargarita namibiensis, largest known bacterium

 


Cyanobacteria blooms can contain lethal cyanotoxins

 

 The chloroplasts ofglaucophytes have apeptidoglycan layer, evidence
[133]
suggesting theirendosymbiotic origin fromcyanobacteria.

 


Bacteria can be beneficial. This Pompeii worm, an extremophilefound only

athydrothermal vents, has a protective cover of bacteria.

The largest known bacterium, the marine Thiomargarita namibiensis, can be

visible to the naked eye and sometimes attains 0.75 mm (750 μm).[134][135]

Marine archaea[edit]

Archaea were initially viewed asextremophiles living in harsh environments, such as the

yellow archaea pictured here in a hot spring, but they have since been found in a much
broader range of habitats.[136]

The archaea (Greek for ancient[137]) constitute

a domain and kingdom of single-celledmicroorganisms. These microbes
are prokaryotes, meaning they have no cell nucleus or any other membrane-
bound organelles in their cells.

Archaea were initially classified as bacteria, but this classification is outdated.

[138]
Archaeal cells have unique properties separating them from the other two
domains of life, Bacteria and Eukaryota. The Archaea are further divided into
multiple recognizedphyla. Classification is difficult because the majority have
not been isolated in the laboratory and have only been detected by analysis of
their nucleic acids in samples from their environment.

Archaea and bacteria are generally similar in size and shape, although a few
archaea have very strange shapes, such as the flat and square-shaped cells
of Haloquadratum walsbyi.[139] Despite this morphological similarity to bacteria,
archaea possess genesand several metabolic pathways that are more closely
related to those of eukaryotes, notably the enzymes involved
in transcription and translation. Other aspects of archaeal biochemistry are
unique, such as their reliance on ether lipids in their cell membranes, such
as archaeols. Archaea use more energy sources than eukaryotes: these range
from organic compounds, such as sugars, to ammonia, metal ions or
evenhydrogen gas. Salt-tolerant archaea (the Haloarchaea) use sunlight as an
energy source, and other species of archaea fix carbon; however, unlike plants
and cyanobacteria, no known species of archaea does both. Archaea reproduce
asexually bybinary fission, fragmentation, or budding; unlike bacteria and
eukaryotes, no known species forms spores.

Archaea are particularly numerous in the oceans, and the archaea

in plankton may be one of the most abundant groups of organisms on the
planet. Archaea are a major part of Earth's life and may play roles in both
the carbon cycle and the nitrogen cycle.


Halobacteria, found in water near saturated with salt, are now recognised as
archaea.

 


Flat, square-shaped cells of the archaea Haloquadratum walsbyi

 


Methanosarcina barkeri, a marine archaea that producesmethane

  


Thermophiles, such asPyrolobus fumarii, survive well over 100 °C



Drawing of another marine thermophile, Pyrococcus furiosus

Marine protists[edit]
Protists are eukaryotes that cannot be classified as plants, fungi or animals.
They are usually single-celled and microscopic. Life originated as single-celled
prokaryotes (bacteria and archaea) and later evolved into more complex
eukaryotes. Eukaryotes are the more developed life forms known as plants,
animals, fungi and protists. The term protist came into use historically as a
term of convenience for eukaryotes that cannot be strictly classified as plants,
animals or fungi. They are not a part of modern cladistics, because they
are paraphyletic (lacking a common ancestor). Protists can be broadly divided
into four groups depending on whether their nutrition is plant-like, animal-like,
fungus-like,[140] or a mixture of these.[141]

Protists according to how they get food

Type of
Description Example Other examples
protist

Plant- Algae Autotrophic proti Red Green algae, brown

like (see sts that make algae,Cyan algae, diatoms an
belo their own food idium sp. d
w) without needing somedinoflagellate
to consume other s. Plant-like protists
organisms, are important
usually by using components of
 phytoplankton disc
photosynthesis
ussed below.

Heterotrophic pr Foraminiferans, and

Radiolarian
Anim Proto otists that get some
protist as
al- zoan their food marine amoebae,ci
drawn
like s consuming other liates and flagellat
by Haeckel
organisms es.

Marine sli
me
Saprotrophic pro
netsform
Slime tists that get
labyrinthin
moul their food from
Fung e networks
ds the remains of
us- of tubes in Marine lichen
and organisms that
like which
slime have broken
amoeba
nets down and
without
decayed
pseudopod
s can travel

Many marine
Mixotrophic ando mixotropes are
Euglena
smotrophic proti found among
mutabilis, a
Mixot Vario sts that get their protists, including
photosynth
ropes us food from a among
eticflagella
combination of ciliates, Rhizaria a
te
the above nd
dinoflagellates [142]

micrograph

cell schematic
 Choanoflagellates, unicellular "collared" flagellateprotists, are thought to be the
closest living relatives of the animals.[143]

Protists are highly diverse organisms currently organised into 18 phyla, but are
not easy to classify.[144][145] Studies have shown high protist diversity exists in
oceans, deep sea-vents and river sediments, suggesting a large number of
eukaryotic microbial communities have yet to be discovered.[146][147] There has
been little research on mixotrophic protists, but recent studies in marine
environments found mixotrophic protests contribute a significant part of the
protist biomass.[142]

 Single-celled and microscopic protists



Diatoms are a major algae group generating about 20% of world oxygen

[148]
production.

 


[149]
Diatoms have glass like cell walls made of silica and called frustules.

 


Fossil diatom frustule from 32-40 mya

 

Radiolarian

 


Single-celled alga,Gephyrocapsa oceanica

 


Two dinoflagellates

 
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Zooxanthellae is a photosynthetic algae that lives inside hosts like coral

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A single-celled ciliate with greenzoochlorellae living insideendosymbiotically

 
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Euglenoid

 
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This ciliate is digesting cyanobacteria. The cytostome or mouth is at the

bottom right.

Video of a ciliate ingesting a diatom

In contrast to the cells of prokaryotes, the cells of eukaryotes are highly

organised. Plants, animals and fungi are usually multi-celled and are
typically macroscopic. Most protists are single-celled and microscopic. But
there are exceptions. Some single-celled marine protists are macroscopic. Some
marine slime molds have unique life cycles that involve switching between
unicellular, colonial, and multicellular forms.[150] Other marine protist are neither
single-celled nor microscopic, such as seaweed.