E NG L IS H , WO R KS BY T H E SA M E AUT H O R .

I . T h e S c ienc e of H istory a nd th e H o pe of M ank ind .

( L O N G M AN S ,

GREE N Co L O ND O N , N e w Y O R K .
) Cr ow n 8 vo . v iii+ 76 . Pr ice 25 . 6 d net . .

CO N EN
—Pr o blem s o f H isto ry— Sco pe and F unctio n of H istor y— S cience o f L ife—W o r ld —
T TS
'
F or ces
in A
ncient and M ediea v al H isto r y— I nter natio n a l Pol itics a nd N a tional dvan cem ent s in Moder n T im es A
I nter national R elations a nd th e For m s o f G over nm en ta l Mach iner y— R el ativ ity o f R el ig io u s Mo v em en ts to
th e C o n u nctu r e o f C ir cu m stances— R eca p itu la t ion— W or l d s G r eatest Men—O u tl ook
j '
.

2 . I n t rodu ction to t h e S c ienc e of E d uc at ion .

( L O N G M AN S ) .

Tr ansl ated fro m l

B enga i by Ma o r B D BA S U , I M S j . . . . .
( R et ir ed) ,
E d itor , The
the H indu s S er ies C r own 8 v o P15 1 4 1 P r ice 3 s 6d
S a cr ed B ooks o f . . . . . . net.

C O N T E N T S — Meth ods of H um a n Science—D iv isions o f Pedago ics~ Th e I ndu ct i e M et ho d o f v

Teach ing—T h e S tu dy o f L angu ages— The S tu dy of H istor y— T he Study of eogr a phy— Th e S tu dy of M enta l
and Mora l
S ciences—T h e S tu dy of Ma them atics— Th e St u dy of N a tur a a nd T ech nica S ciences— G ener a l l l
R em arks o n t he I ndu cti e Meth od— F or ew or d to th e B ook—P ea fo r th e v
or k l W .

3 . S u k ra nit i ( H in d u E conomic s
-
a nd Pol itics ) . R end e red into
E ng lish fr om S ansk r it w ith I ntr o duction a nd N otes [The S a cr ed B ooks of the .

H indu s, PAN I N I O F F I C E ] Wit h an I nd ex b y N A R E N D R A N A T H L A W, .

MA . .
, B L . .
,
A u th or o f Stu d ies in A ncien t H indu Po ity l 8vo . Pp 3 6 + 27 o . .

Pr ice 73 . 6d .

CO N EN — Th e
D u ties of Pr in ces— Th e Fu nctions o f t h e C r ow n Pr ince and other State O fficia s
T TS l
G ener a R u es o f M o r a ity— Ch ar a ct er istics o f Fr ien ds— Tr easu r e— r ts a nd S ciences— Socia Cu stom s a nd
l l l A l
'
A
I nstitu tions—K ing s Fu nctions— For tr esses— r m y— Su em entary and M isce aneous ppl ll .

4 . T h e Positiv e B a c k g roun d of H in d u S oc iol ogy . B ook I . N on

Pol itical .
[The S a cr ed B ooks o f the H indu s, Vol . x v i. PAN I N I O F F I C E .
) W it h
Appendices b y Dr B R AJ E N D R A N A T H SE A L , M A
. . .
, Ph D . K ing G eo r g e V . Pr of esso r
losophy in the U niversity of Ca l cu t ta 8 0 0 Pp xxiii+ 3 66 P r ice 95 6d
of Phi . . . . . .

Ch pt L — Rel at iv it y
a er i Nit i S ast r H ind C l t nd S l gy in S kr nit L ndo a s. u u u re a ocio o u a i. a

k in th H i t y f H ind
m ar s e P lit l D v l p nt M l t n in th H to y f H nd P l t l
s or o u o ica e e o m e . i e-s o es e is r o i u o i ica
Sp l t n U n ty nd Div ity n I d n N t n l L f
ecu a io i a er s i n ia a io a i e.

Ch p t I I — I h e D ta of Ancient I nd ia n G eog aph y

'‘
a er . a r .

Ch p t III Th e D t
a er f Ancient I nd ian E t h n l ogy
.
-
a a o o .

Ch p t I V — Th e Dat a of Ancient I nd i n M ine l g y Th Synth tic Ph il phy f S k ‘

a er . a ra o . e e oso o u ri

c h a yy r S k nit i
a th u ra h t t n S in Th Pl c
as f Mn l gy in S l nitn H t y f
e
“
ar c i ec o ic c e ce. e a e o i era o u c
ra is o r o
H nd Min
i u l gy ( ) M t l ( b) G m T h Th y nd P tic g d ng M t ll gy n S k nit
er a o : a e a s, e s. e eo r a r ac e r e ar i ea ur i u ra i.
T h D ct n e f S
o n M t l
ri e o Th E n m ic M nev e l gy f An nt I nd Th P M t l d A ll y
e a s e co o i er a o o cie ia . e u re e a s an o s.
T h Th e y nd P eor ti g d ng G m
a n S k niti r acTh D ct in f N in G m
ce r e ar Th E c n m
i e s i u ra e o r e o e e s. e o o ic

M n l gy f Anci nt I nd
.

i er a o o T h M h a tn e ia
'
e a ra as .

C lm Pt V — Th e D ta of Ancient I ndi n B tany

er S l niti c a f B t ni l I nf m ti n a o . u rr a as a sou r e o o a ca or a o .

I d ntifi ti n
.

e f th S k
ca o Fl o G g by f th S ke Fl F
u t yra ( ) N nE nora ( b) eo r a o e u ra or a or es r : a o -
co o m ic,
E n m —U
co o icf Pl nt S sesd Fl in
o Pl nt in th I nd t
a ( ) Ad n t t n H t
s, acr e ora , es, a s o er u s r ies , c m i is r a io or i
Fl i A b i l t Ag c lt ( ) Ag l t l O c p ti n P p l t n nd T n ( b)I nC op Cb Thl
.

or r or -
cu ur e ri u ur e a r icu ur a cu a o o u a io a e u re, r s, er ea s ,

P l P li n y S
.
,

O il
u ses, d B ot ny
-
S in
see s y f H nd B t ny ( ) L in
a as of c e q y ( )ce. re m i ar u rv e o i u o a : a es u ir e

in Anc nt H nd B t ny
,

so- call d I nd n B t ny ( ) R
e ia h o a ,
"
c esea r c es ie i u o a .

Ch pt I V —T h e Dat o f Ancient I ndi n Z ol og y

a er Th S l S i nc f th H d a Th a o e ecu ar ce es o e in u s . e

All g d D cl n f H nd I t ll ct ThH Z l gi l L f th H nd ( ) B fFS nv yn f Znd lAgty n .

.

e e e i e o i u n e e e oo o ca or e o e i us : a r ie ur e o oo o i

p 6) V di F n ( ) F n in nd F lkl (d) Th S d F n— ( )
.
.

E ur o e, e c au a, c au
Hi sal h t (j)
a i u o or e, e a cr e au a, e au a i u r
V dh ar hi F n
am i Ay d F n ( h) F n in V te in y L it t ( ) Pal tkapny n) t
ra au a, ur v e ic au a, au a e r ar er a ur e i a a, ii i o ra
,

Ag lt l L i t
.

r icu ur a E n mi Z l gy Th Ani LC p H
v es oc ( ) Ex
co o l c y ( b) oo o e m a or s. or ses : a er a a om

g ( h) R l
. ,

M ttl e d W th ( c) O
e an n ( d ) B d ( ) T ning nd M n g m nt (f) G
or m e s, m ing ( g ) F r ee s, e rai a a a e e ro o ora e, u es

a b tE ou i ( ) A t f T n ng (1) St b l
xer c se , 1
,

nd T pping E l ph nt ( ) M ttl nd W th ( b) O m n
r o r ai i a es a ra s. e a
,

s: a e e a
,

or e s,
l d B ll Th An t y f th V t b t ( ) H d
, ,

( ) B d ( d ) T in ng nd M n g m nt C
c r ee s, ra i a a a e e am e s a n u s. e a om o e er e r a es : a in u

n An t
.

L t — O te l gy V ah m h ( b) T h S t fi
n H y N Sy t f th T nt
t
i er a ur e o um a a om erv o us s em o e a ras. s o o ar a i ir a, e cie n i c

f H nd An t m y ( c) P p g t n f An t l K n w l dg i An i nt I nd ( d) H u n A
,
V l a ue o i u a o ro a y
a io o a o m ica o e e n c e ia , m a na t om
n S l iti ( ) E x t n l An t m y f H n y D p
,

i u a au
-
. e (1) D nt t on and Ag
er a O g n ti f V t
a o o t o r ses , e i i e. r a isa on o e er i ar e ar

m ent in the S u kt a S tate.

 C h in ese R elig io n th ro u g h H in d u E yes : A S t u dy in t h e
5 .

T end encies of Asiatic M enta l ity . With an I ntro du ctio n by Dr . Wu Tw o .

L ate C hin ese M inister to S pain , et c R oya l 8 11 0 . . Ppxxx ii+

.

33 1 . Pr ice 65 .

Ch a ter I p .
— T h e H y pot h esis .

pt
I I — Th e C u l t o f
Cha er
-
W l
o r d - For ces in Pr o - C onf u cia n C h ina a nd Pr e S é k y a n I nd ia .
.

fi
— 7 00 B c (a) Y ajna ( S acr i ce) , ( b) Pitr is ( ncestor s) , ( c) S andta m sm ( E t er na O r der ) , (T he A l l l
l
p p l
p l l
O ne S u r em e B eing) , (e) P ur a ism in G od or e. (f) F o k R e ig io n , ( g ) I dea ism as a hase o f s ir itua ity, ( h )
'
-
l -

T h r ou gh N a t ur e u pto N a t ur e s G o d

p
Ch a t er I I I — C oniu ciu s t h e H ist or ian a nd S i k y as im h a t h e Ph il oso ph e r . Sect ion 1
A
.

lp
.

A u fk la r u ng in s ia— T h e A ge o f E ncy c o e dist s ( 7 th st"h C entu r y S e ct io n 2 C onfu cius a nd

A
-
.

sakya sim h a in C ont em or ar y sia ( a ) H ig h er C r iticism , p

( b ) T h e Peer s o f C onfu ciu s , ( c) Th e Peer s of
Séky asim h a S ectio n 3 lp
D ev e o m ent of T r aditiona So cio R e igio u s L ife : ( a ) R e a tiv ity of R e igion to l -
l l l
l l
. .

E nv ir onm ent , ( b) C h inese R e igion in th e Age o f C o nfu cm s, (c) I ndia n R e ig ion in th e Age of sakya Sim h a
A
.

Section 4 sia tic Po sitiv ism

p
Ch a ter I V — Th e Rel ig ion of E m pir e - B u il ding — N eu t r a ity a nd Bcl ecticis m ( g c 3 50 l .

l l p l
.

Section T T h e Po itica M zh eu ( a ) I m eria ism a nd L aisser F air s, ( b) H indu B u shid o and I nd ono
D a m ashu S ection 2 I nt er n atio na ism ( a) ester n A S ia and I ndia , ( b) C entr a sia a nd C hina l
S ection W lA .

l l l v p l l p
.

3 G en er a C u t ur e : ( a ) Physica a nd Po siti e Science s, ( b) Meta hysica Th ou gh t , ( c) I dea ism a nd Su er

l
.

natu r a ism in L it er a tu r e

Ch a t er V p - — I h e G od
’ ‘
o r e of C h ina a nd I nd ia u nd e r t h e Fir st E m p l
er or s 3 50
l l v l vlp
.

S ect ion 1 Pr ogr ess in H agio ogy a n d Myt h o og y : ( a ) I n ent‘ion of N ew Deities, ( b) S im u ta neou s D e e o
v
m ent o f D i er se G od o r es, ( c) D eifi ca t ion of Men as A va ta r as
-
l Section 2 I m ages as Sym b o s : ( a ) I n . . l
C h in a , ( b) I n I ndia .

p
Ch a ter VI — Th e Birth of B u ddh is m ( B c r so— r oo A D Sectio n 1 I ntr o du ct ion o f B u ddh a -

l
C u t into China ( a ) Ch inese R o m anticism , ( b) T h e R e igio n of L ov e S ectio n 2 E it Siky a , E n t er Bu ddh a l . x
a n d h is H o st l
( a ) The Psych o og y of R om antic R e ig io n , ( b) S ir itua E er ienc"e o f I r an an d I sra e , ( 67 l p l xp l
A
.

-
l
B u ddh a C u t and it s I n dia n C o gn at es S e ct ion 3 T he B a a nce o f cco u nt s in I nter na tio na Ph i o . l l l
p l l
s o h y : ( a) R iv a C a im s o f th e E a st and th e est , ( b) Pa r a e ism a n d O en Q u est ions S ection 4 The W ll l p .

l
Midd em en in I ndo Ch inese I nte r cour se ( a ) Th e T ar tar s in or d H istor y, ( b) The I ndo Scythian ( Tar tar )
-
. W l - -

K ushans, ( c) Gr ae k o Bu ddh ist I co nogr a hy -

p .

p
C h a ter V I L — A Per iod of so - cal ed nar ch y in C h ina ( 220 61 8 A n Section 1 C om ar ativ e l A -
p
l p v l vl p
.

Chr ono o gy and C om ar ati e H ist or y S ection 2 C h inese R e ig io u s D e e o m ent Section 3 C onfu
A
. . .
"
Cia nism , B u ddh ism , " B u ddh ist I ndia , " B u ddhist C h ina Se ction 4. Th e Pio neer s of siat ic U nity .

p
Ch a ter V I I I — I h e B e innin of H in d u C u t u r e a s
’ ‘
o r d Po w er ( 3 00 60 0 A Sectio n I l W l
Al p
-
.

pl W l l
.
'
I ndian N a o eon s exa ndr ian ar ch ectio n 2 o r d Sense a nd C o onising E nter r ise Section 3
p A A
-

l l v
.

A M e ting po t of R aces ( a ) C a a city fo r

-
ss im iat ion ( b) T ar tar isat io n o f
.
rya n ised D r a id ia ns, ( c) C aste
l W ll l l l
,

System and M i itar y H istor y Section 4 A e of Dev otiona E c ect icism — th e R e ig io n o f th e Pu r anas .

j
( a ) Paur an ic Synth esis, ( b) ainis m , ( c) Shaiv aism , ( d ) V a ishna ism , ( e) B u ddh ism m ixed u p w ith o ther ism s v
l
Section 5 Th e A ge of K a idasa : ( a ) R enaissance a nd t he N a va r a tna , ( b) K a idasa , th e S ir it of sia
. l p A .

Ch a ter I X I he p — ' ‘
A
u g u st a n A g e of C h ines e C u t u r e ( Goo 1 250 A D ) Section T T he G or io us l l
A
-

l xp
. . .

Midd e ges of A sia : ( a ) E nter l a pan and S ar acen , ( b) E ansion of ASl a Section 2 S a n g o ku ,
"

A
-

( a ) T he W or rd T o u r ists o f Medie v a A s1a , ( b) S ino I ndic, S ine I s a m ic, and Sino l l

.

C oncer t o f sta
Jp
- -

a anese Sea b or ne T r ade Sect ion 3

-
T he G r ea t Pow er s of San g ok u Sectio n 4 I ndianisation o f . -

C onfucianism Sectio n 5 R ing ing G r o o es of C h ange in Asia

. . v .

C h a ter X — J ap p
a nese R e ig iou s C o ns c ou s ness .
i Section I l l
T o era tion a nd L iber ty o f C on
science Section 2 Sh into , th e so ca ed S w a desh i R e ig io n S ectio n 3 -
ll l Th e C u t of l
o r d F or ces in t he W l
l
. -

L and of K im ; S ect ion 4 T he T h reefo d B aS I S o f AsI at U nity .

p
Cha ter X I — Sino J a anese B u d d h is m and -
p N e o H ind u ism
-
Section I T he e dE t ‘ l tl All '

l gg f igg
. .

o f B u d h ism in I n d ia S ectio n 2
d T h e B o dh isattv a C u -
t in China , ] a pan , a nd I ndia : a Ti tsa
( ) , (b jz ' ;
p
-

Av al olritesw ara ( d ) M o o d s o f D iv init ies

.

S ect ion 3 T h e B u ddh ism o f Ch ina a nd a an eu hem ism fo r

J p
l
A
. .

Sha iv a cu m Sh akt aism

-
Section 4 N eo H ind uism in . Tr a ns H im a aya n s ia -
l
Sect io n 5 Moder n H indu .

ism

p
Cha ter X I I — E pil o g u e
. Th e S t u d y of A i ti
s a c S ociol og y .

L ect ure N ot es f or -
U niv ersity S tu d ent s z
(a ) E co no m ics (G en er a l and H istor ical )
( b) C onstitu tio ns o f Sev en Mo der n S tat es

(c) I ntr o du ct ion t o Po l itica l S cie nce

(d) H istory of A ncient E u r ope

(e) H isto r y of Mediaev a l E uro pe
(f ) H isto ry of E ng l sh i L iter atu re
7 . T h e Ped ag og y of t h e H in d u s and th e M ess ag e of I n dia . Pp .

48 . 6d .

v in fo cibl l q nt nd c n m ing l ng g th t th g d t f nci nt

"
Pro es r e, e o ue a o v c a ua e a e ra ua es o a e sem inar ies did
n t g
o
t n t d
e a f th e w ldl in
ex r a b t cq itt d th m
ose o lv o d t bly r w thy citior ess, u a u e e se es cr e i a as or z ens, m ak ing a
m
rk —n l l p f s i n w l k
a i a f l if
ro e s o nd d p tm nt f h m n ct vity
s, a nd t t th m
s o e, a e ar e s o u a a i a s a es e issio n o f N ew
h m d of cknow l dging th p f th p t nd h p
,
I nd ia w I nd
a ne w hich i no t ia nt g s as a e a e e ar e a e o e as a o es t o tr a nsm it
u nt n h d t
ar
.

pl ndid inh it n —Th V d M g in H dw I ndi

is e is s e er a ce.
”
e e ic a az e, ar ar , a.

To be ha d Messrs Longm ans Green d

f
o : 7 . London New York Cal cutt a Bom bay
.
, . , , ,

Madr as 2 Mar uz en . Tokyo, J apa n .8 Kelly Wal sh Shanghai China . .

, , .

4 Chucher uertty Chatterjee d

. Cal cutt a I ndia 5 Pdnini Ofi ice All aha bad . , . .
, ,

I ndia . 6 Luz a c d.
.
Lond on .

B E N G AL I W OR KS BY T H E S AM E AUTH OR .

1 . L e s so n s on S an s k r it (w ith ou t G ram m ar , acco r d in g to I ndu ct iv e

M et h o d) .
45 .

2. L e s so n s on E ng l ish (w ith o u t G ra m m ar , a cco r ding t o I n du ct i e v

M etho d) . 2 s.

3 . T h e S tu dy of L ang u ag e . 1 5. 4d .

4 . H is tory of E d uc atio n in A nc ient G reec e . 1 5. 4d .

5 . S ik sh fi S a m fil o ch a nfi . .
( Pr o bl em s in E du catio n) .

CO T T N EN
—Man Making— E m a nc a -
ip ti f I nt ll t— S i l S
on o i S h l e ec oc a erv ce as a c oo of l
Mor a Tr aining
— Fr o m Facts to r incipl es— The Mea n n o i g f N ti l E d ti — Th E d ti l Mi
a ona u ca on e u ca o na ssw nar y— An I dea l
l
E du ca tio na S chem e— The Content o f R e ous l igi E d t n Pp 6 + 49 u ca io 4d . . 1 1 . 1 s. .

6 . S t u d ies in H ist o ry .

N EN—
—T he H ind u V iew of H istor y—The Standp o ints o f H ellas a nd H indu stan— The
CO T TS N at u re
of a R evol u tion G r eat Men and the Peo pl e—S ikhism in I ndian N a tio nal L ife—T he l exandr ia n A Age in
Wor ld's C ultur e—The Science of H istory— Moder n I ndia — E ast and West Pp 1 20 rs 4d . . . . .

7 . S fidha né ( Miscel l a neo u s E ssays) . .

CO N— EN T TS —T h e N ew
L ear ning in Benga —The H ind u and the I s am ite Th e R ights o f th e l l -

l '
Pr o etar ia t I nfl u ence of Ph ysica S cience on L ife s ttitudes—A Pr ogr a m m e— L e a der sh i — T h e D istr ict o f
l A p
M a da in Moder n B engal—A Few Defects of Ou r C h ar acter— I dea ism — Meth od s o f T r u th I nv estigation—T he
l l
C once tio n of th e I nlinite a s an E em ent in R e igion ( Max Miil l er ) —T h e Q uestio n of U n i er sity E du ca tion
p l l v
o f I ndia n Stu dents thr ou gh t he Mo ther T o ng ues— A S ch em e fo r F oster ing th e V er na cu a r s of I ndia— T h e
- l
C o m ing W l
or d R enaissance thr ough H indu C u tu re
-
Pp . 200 r s 4d . l . . .

8 . T h e G reat L ead er th e N eg of ro R ac e . T ra n sl atio n of B ook er T .

Washingt on’s Au tobiogr apy Pp 27 6 . . . 25 .

 A
The Sw adesh i
A

Sw adeshi Andol ana 0 S am rak sh a na -

N iti Or
9
.
.

Le. O no s Ow n Cou nt ry
’
H om I ndu stry) Mov em ent Po icy o f Pro t eo
a nd th e l
( or e
-
- -

tion l
T rans atio n fr om th e H istorica l Sectio n o f F reder ick L ist s N a tiona l Sy s tem
’

f
o Pol itica l E conom y .

IO . V ar t am ana J ag a t (T h e M o dern W o rl d) . A Su r v ey of Pr esen t

Day T endencies in I ndu stry, E d u ca tion L iter atu r e, Ar t , a nd S o cia l Service , em

b odying th e im pr essions o f a Tou r r ou nd t h e Wor d ( 1 9 1 4 l S ix vo l u m es ,

2 50 0

pages .

V ol . I . T h e L an d of T omb s ( E G Y PT) .

CO— N EN TS
—
E u r ou te to E gyp t —Port Said—The Ma h om e tan C air o: The O ldest C ap ita l C ity o f
t he W l
or d ( Mem p hi ) —T h
T
C ity o f G o d m m on ( K ar n ak ) —E gy p t ia n A r t in H ill caves A
— T h e Sou ther n G ates -

of p
s e
E gy t— Th e G r anite H i s o f — ll
— A —
sso uan r m ids l
The N i e B ar r agef T he M i x ed C ou r ts Th e L ine of Py a
- p l
E gy t o o gy—The N ew E gy t— p Al exander th e G rea t a nd Mah om et A l i . Pp 2 1 0 . 23 .

V ol . II . T h e H om e -
L a nd of th e B i i h e rts r .

—
C O N T E N T s z T h e V oyage o t E n g an d — T h e M o d er n o r d
'
s C e ntr e o f Gl r a ity ( L ond o n) —T he W l v
S u r r ou ndings of C a m br idge— Second T im e in L o nd o n—Th e or d r eno w ned O for d— T h e R i a o f O fo r d W l -
x vl x
( C a m b r idg e) Th e K i
-
t h a n d K in o f R o b er t B r u ce ( T h e S cotch m en) — A R ising E du ca t io na C ent re of E ng a nd l l
( L ee ds ) — Th e P a r en t o f M o der n E n g a n d ( M a n ch e l
st er ) — T h e R eb e io u s B r o ther o f t h e E ng ish ( Th e I r ish ll l
m a n) — T he E v e o f th e G r ea t War 90 Sect ions Pp 600 3 5 4d . . . . .

V ol . III . T h e K uru k sh etr a (A rm ag edd on) -

of th e
T w en tieth C en t ury .

CO T N EN
T S —The N em esi s of t h e 1 9 th C entu ry— E nm ity den ned— F ina n cing a W ar — Th e Money
v
Mar ket— Th e Panic for H oar ding Pr o isions— Th e U nem o yed Qu estio n in War tim e— I nter natio na C o m pl l
— A
-

m er ce A City o n th e E v e o f War — C o m b ata nts and N o n com b a ta nts— T h e U nited Sta tes o f m er ica -

ll
— B r it ish Patr iot ism — The B e ig er ents and N e u tra s— L a w s o f W ar Z o ne— Pr eca u t io ns a a inst Fa m ine
g l -

l v — l —
Socia Ser ice and Phi anthr o y T he Q u est io n of Po an d L a b ou r Pro b e m p
Pp 1 2 5 r s l l . . . .

V ol . IV . Yank ee at h an or -

,
E u r O pe ‘
W rit L a rg e
’
.

N ENA b A p i
W
CO — C r ossing the tlantic— Th e City o f “ Sky scr a er s " N ew Y — N ia a a F a —A ll
M
T TS or k g
a ny) —H arvar d U niv er sity—
~
-

Sta te C a p l ( —l
ita Th e Fe d er al C a p it a l W a shiig ton — T he iddl i
z est
Ap p
-

W W W l xp )— x
,

F a r th er Theest ester nm ost C it y o f th e o r d ( Pana m a - Pa ci c E o sit io n endi to th e U nited

S t at es l
( H awaiian I s ands) 1 0 4 Sections. Pp 50 0 . . .

V ol V . . T h e P a r ent of N ew A s ia (JAPAN ) .

CO T TS — N EN
Ten D ays on a a a nese B oat— The C a ita of Free As s T O 0 Jp p l l
é
Ha f
w eek ( N ikk o t o S a o ro) — pp
The D e hi of the a anese ( Kyot o) —G r eater I nd ia in l d
l Jp
T h e Manchester o f the E ast ( O saka) — G r ea ter a an ( K orea an d Manchu r ia) 8 3 Sectio ns P Jp . .
p 50 0
. .

Vol V I T h e First Sw a raj ( R epu b lic ) of t h e O rien t A)

. .
(CH I N .

CO T N EN
T S —Th e M etr o o is o f a s ( Pek ing) — The r st B u ddh ist C t j tr p l
lx il n W ll fi
il g é iiiISi
I
gflA
-

— ang t se—The N ew: Y e c f Y g l g

‘
T h e Ch icago of the Chinese ( H an kow ) I r ip dow n th e
’
'
l r i Ii g
l —
C a ita o f the S u n E m peror s H angch ow) T h e AB C O f 510 0 10 8 37 T h ir d C h inese R e o u tio n vl i

63 S ect ions. pp .

ply to
Ap
(i) T he Panl nl O ffi ce ( A cadem y of
I ndian R e sear ch All
i ii
h b a d I ndia ( 2) T he G r ihasth a Pu t h
ing H ou se , C a l cu tta . I ndia ( 3 ) Th e
'
Student s L ibr ary , C al cu ta, I id a .
 THE FO L K E L E M E N T -

H I N D U C UL T UR E

CO NT R I BU T I O N T O SO C I O R E L I G I OU S ST U D I E S -

I N H I N D U FO L K I N ST I T U T I ON S -

B E NO Y K U M A R SA R K A R , MA
. .

Pr o fesso r , N at iona l C o u ncil of E d u cat io n , B enga ; l l

T r a n s ato r of S u km n itz

(H indu E conom ics and l

Po it ics) , and A u th or of The Positiv e B a ckg r ou nd

f
o H indu S ociol ogy Chinese R el ig ion thr ou g h H in du Ey es
L ov e in H ind u L iter a tu r e, etc .

A S S I ST E D BY

H E M E ND R A K . R A K SH I T , ( WI SCO N SI N )

L O N G MAN S ,
G R E E A N D CO .

39 PA T E R N O S T E R R O W, L ONDON

FO U RT H AV E N U E 8 3 0 ST R E E T N E W YO R K
1; 1 11 ,

BO M BAY CAL C U TTA AN D MAD R AS

, ,
 PR E F A C E

TH E present work is ba sed on a study of some o f

the folk a rt s folk tra dition s folk songs a nd folk festiv a l s
-
,
-
,
- -

of B e nga l I t is to a c erta in extent complementa ry to

.

’
the a uthor s Positiv e B a ckg r ou n d o f H indu Sociol og y ,

in which th e obj ect has b een to focu s the a ttention on

th e socio eco n omic a nd socio politic a l asp e ct s of H indu
- -

C ultur e .

I n t he recon struction of I ndia n hi story mod ern ,

s chol a r ship ha s to b e d e vot e d more a nd mor e to th e

e xposition of t h e i n flu en c e th a t t he m ass es of t he cou n try

h a v e ev er exe rt ed in the m a ki ng of its civili z ation I t .

is a S ign of the tim es th at with thi s has b ee n felt the

nee d of gr ea t e r recourse to verna cula r lit era ture as a n
importa nt sourc e of in forma tion .

D uring the la st d ec a d e or so con s id er a bl e r esea rch

has b een bestowe d on I ndian v e rn acula rs from the ,

philologic a l a nd the historica l point s of vie w M a rathi .

,

H indi T a mil and B enga li schola r s h a v e b een abl e thus

,
.

to throw new light on politic al lingui stic socia l a nd , ,

r eligious d ev elopm ent s A sy stematic work utili z ing

.

these v erna cul a r evid e nc es has yet to b e a tt empte d .

I t has not b ee n the aim of the pr es ent write r to

compil e such a comprehensiv e trea ti se H is scope on . ,

the contra ry is quit e limit ed,

The F ol k E l em ent in
.
-

H ind u C u l tu r e is ma inly a study of the r el ation s

viii PR E FAC E

b etween S ha iva cum Shakta ism a nd Buddhism bot h de

- -
,

s criptiv e a nd historica l obt a ining a mong t he B engali ,

sp ea king popul ation of E a st e rn I ndia H e has in .

cont e mpla tion to bring out la t er a pa ra llel monograph

on the folk institution s and folk minstrels of the Va isnav a
- -

C ult .

T he evid enc es h a v e been d eriv ed from a fir st h a nd -

e xplor a tion of or a l tra dition a n d folk lor e as w ell a s -

from m edi ae va l B enga li lit e ra ture e sp eci a lly from old ,

MSS T he a uthor is ind e bt ed to the wo rk of the

.

folk lo r ists a s sociat ed with the lit e ra ry a ca d emie s of

-

B enga l e g the Ba ngiya Sfihitya Par isat of C alcutt a

,
. . ,

Sahitya Pa r isat of R a ngpur Séh itya Par isat of D a cc a , ,

a nd the lik e .

T he a uthor is fortuna te in h a ving secured the a ssi st

a nc e of Mr H a r idfis Palit of the D istrict C ouncil of
.
,

N a tion al E duca tion Ma lda who for ov e r a qu a rt e r

, ,

of a c e ntury has bee n coll ect ing information as to

popula r life fa ith a rt s cra fts songs c eremon i es etc
, , , , , , .
,

in R adh a a nd V ar ed r a n th e W e st e r n a nd N orth ern ,

di stricts of B enga l— those region s especia lly which had

b een the c entres of politic a l and cultura l greatn ess in
m edi e v a l times M r Palit is now in po ssession of
. .

se v era l hundr ed old M SS in the B enga li O o r iya a nd .

, ,

Sa n skrit l a ngu ag es and he ha s writt en out not es of h is

,

studi es which now a mount to sev e ra l volum es of con

si d er a b le siz e T h es e volum es of not es m ay b e looke d

.

upon as pa rts of a hi story of B enga l a s spoken by the

v il l a e
g f al lé S inc e in th em a r e r e cord ed fa ithfully the
,

tra dition s a nd s entim ent s of the p eopl e about th e m

se lv es th e ir loc a liti es th e ir n e ighbour s a nd th e ir p ast
, , .

A portion of Mr Pal it s not es ha s b ee n publi sh ed in t he

’
.

form of a rticl e s in B enga li r e v i e ws a nd a l so as a book ,

which has been liberally dra wn upo n for thi s work .

 PR E FA C E ix
In
his presidential ddr e ss to the Folklore Society
a

of L ondon Prof R , .R Ma re tt r ead a p aper entitled

. .

F ol hl or e a na’ Psychol ogy in which he rem arked : T o ,

be a folklorist worthy of the n a m e you must first ha ve

undergone in iti ation a mongst the folk must h av e b e ,
”
come one of them inwa rdly and in the spirit I n the .

introduction to his historica l work A ayer G a m hhzr a

’
, ,

Mr Palit gives an a ccou nt of his folklorist ca reer a nd

.

methods from which it would a pp ea r th at he has had

,

tha initiation a mongst the folk of which Dr Ma rett .

spea k s Says M r Palit

. .

I t was in the month of V a ishakha ( A pril May) th a t

"

I first entered Ma lda S hortly afte r my a rriv al her e

.
,

the G am bhira fe stiviti es w er e st a rt ed on the BarO iyari -

tal a (a pl a ce set a pa rt for public a mus ement at public

cost) of M okdu m pu r I witn ess ed th em and felt m y
.

self quite charm ed by the gra nd id eas und erlying thes e

fe stivities .

“
I t w as the str ea m of nov el id ea s a nd s entiments
started w ithin me by witn essing the G am b hira th a t
prompt e d m e to collect ma t e rials for writing the history
of Malda A nd it w as whil e e ngaged in this ta sk th a t
.

the glorious pictures of old G a uda a nd Pundra Var

dhan a were conjured up before a nd daz z l ed my m enta l
e yes . T he more t he G a m bhir a has unfolded itself befor e
me the more have I e njoy ed the music of the legends
,

a nd stori e s of thes e pla c e s a nd fe lt myself irresistibly,

inclined to look for its ga mut T his s ea rch has put m e .

in possession of ma ny M S S .

“
For a bout twenty long y ea r s however my sol e , ,

enjo ym ent was confin ed to tracing the riv ers and tra v
er S ing the woods tra v elling a bout the l ake like ta nk s
,
-

a nd seeing the
( O ld dil a pida t e d
) forts list enin g to ,

legends and stories from the lips of illitera t e villager s

x PR E FA C E

and collecting the v aried ma t erials of history D uring .

this p e riod never did I ch erish the hope nor did I ev e r

ent e rta in the wish th a t I should ever ent er the lit era ry
world as a writer I t was to sa tisfy my own curiosity
.

that I thus looked for m ateri a ls of history and it w a s to ,

”
refresh my own memory that I jotted down notes .

The a uthor of the pr esent brochure b a se d m a inly ,

on M r Palit s notes and writings regards this sma ll

.
’

volume as a result of prelimin a ry sp ad ework in the Da ta

of H indu S ociology H e has therefore a voide d com
. , ,

pa risons and interpretation s exc epting in a few pla c es

only to elucida te the topic s dea lt w ith T he following .

ob serva tions however m ay b e recorded h ere

, ,

I T he m ass es and the folk h a v e contribut ed to the

.

ma king of H indu C ulture in a ll its ph ases no l ess th a n

the court a nd the cla sse s .

2 Secula r ma t eri a l and socia l interest s a s con

.
, ,

tr asted with the oth er worldly a nd spiritu a l id ea l s h a ve

-

had con sider able influ e nce in m oulding H indu life a nd

thought .

3 T he c ast e system has n ev e r been a di sintegra ti n g

-
.

fa ctor in H indu communa l e xi s t enc e a nd is most prob ,

a bly a v e ry recent institution .

4 H induism is a n ecl e ctic a nd ever exp a n sive

-
.

socio r eligious syst em built up through t he a ssimil a tion

-

of div erse ethn ic n atura l a nd spiritual forc es during the

,

succ essive ages of I ndia n hi story .

5 T h ere has ever b een a n attempt to gov e rn the

.

folk cu stoms popula r fa ith im a ge worship a n d public

-

, ,
-

festiv a ls by the tr an sc endental conception s of the

D ivinity of Man and the T r a n s itorin ess of this World .

T he folklore of the H indus is nothing but the a d a p

ta t io n of their met aphy sic a l culture lore to the in stincts -

a nd a ptitud es of the m an in the stre et or obv e rsely , ,

 PR E F AC E

the interp en etration of the gross er sy st em s of thought

a nd a cti v ity with t h e conc eption s of a high e r syst e m of

L ife v alu es a nd L i fe a ttitud es

- -
.

6 T he religio u s b eli e fs pra ctic es a nd cu stom s of th e

.
,

p eopl e ar e funda m ent ally the sa m e in S an g ahu ( or the

thr ee countri e s v iz I ndi a C hin a a nd J ap an ) Wha t
, .
, .

p ass for B uddhism in the lands of C onfucius a nd the

ShintO C ult ar e but v a rie ti es of the s a m e faith tha t is
known as T a ntric a nd Puranic H indui sm in the la nd
of Buddha T he reason s ar e not only to b e fou nd in
. x

the int ercourse b etw ee n t h e three countri es both by

la nd a nd sea during the T ang Sung p eriod of C hin ese -

hi story the A ugust a n ag e of culture in the M iddl e

,

K ingdom ( 7 th 1 3 th c en t ) synchronou s with the V ar

-

dh ana Pala C hol a epoch of I ndia n history a nd the N ara

- -

K am akura epoch of J a p a n ese but a lso proba bly in the ,

common m e nt ality th a t ch a ra cteriz es the A si a tic peoples .

T o m a inta in t he ch a ra ct er of this work as a contri

b u tio n to gen e ral S ociology it ha s b ee n thought nu
,

d esirabl e to giv e c0 pio u s d eta ils and da tes of I ndi a n

politica l hi story I t n eed b e rem a rk ed howev e r th at
.
, ,

the chronology a nd ide ntity of mo st of th e m edi a eva l

work s and a uthors ar e yet a nything but fin a lly settl ed .

With rega rd to the authoriti es con sulted the following

rules h a v e b een obs erv ed
1 T o giv e the compl et e tra nsl ation s of extra cts
.

from M SS in the body of the book

. .

2 T o r efe r to a nd quot e from only such work s

.

publish ed in Benga li as are easily a ccessibl e .

3 T o refra in from giving ch apt er a nd v erse in the

.

c ase of st a nda rd a uthoriti es especia lly in inst a nc es,

whe re the historica l facts ar e v e ry w ell known .

T he a uthor has gl eaned facts a nd id ea s from the

following
x ii PR E FA CE

D r R ajendralal Mitra A ntiq u ities f O r issa and

’
1 . . s o

I ndo—
A ry a ns .

2 writings of Ma ham ahopadhyaya H araprasad

. T he
Sastri in “
T he J ourn a l of the A sia tic S oci ety of
,

B enga l (Ca lcutta ) a nd of Dr W a dd ell in the .

( L ondon ) .

3 Mr V inc ent S mith s E a r ly H istory of I ndia

’
. . .

C
’

4 R a i .B a h a dur Sa r a t h andr a D ass I ndian

P u ndits in the L a nd of Snow

“

5 Mr B eng a l i
’
D inescha ndr a Sen s
. . H istory f
o

L a ng u age a nd L iter atu r e .

Mr
’

6 . . N agendra nath V a su s Vishzoa hosa En

cyclop aedi a I ndica in B e nga li ) M oder n B u ddhism a nd ,

A r cha ol og ica l S u r v ey of M ay u r hha n] .

7 T he works or a rticl es of D r
. R adhak u m u d .

Moo k erji a uthor of I ndia n Ship

, ping Dr A K , . . .

C o o m arasw am y t he ar t hi stori a n a nd ar t critic ; Pro f

,
- -
.

R akhaldas B an erji of the I ndi a n M useum C a lcutt a ; , ,

M r N a rendra N ath L aw M A B L
. Prof R a b indra , . .
, . . .

naraya n G ho sh of the Da wn Socie ty Ca lcutt a ; a nd Mr

, , .

Ma no m o ha n C h akrava rti M A B L of the Provincia l ,

. .
,
. .
,

C ivil Servic e B enga l , .

8 T he contribu tio ns of M essrs A ksha y K um ar

. .

Ma itra B L a nd R a m apr asad C ha nda B A of the

, . .
, , . .
,

V ar end ra R esea rch S oci ety R aj sh a hi ; M r N a linir a nja n , .

Pa ndit of N a di a ; M r Y oge nd ra nath G upta a uthor of

, .
,

Vihr a m ap ura ; Mr K u m u d nath L ahiri of M o o rshida .

,

b a d ; M r N a lini K ant a Bha ttasali M A of the D a cca

.
, . .
,

M useum Da cca ; M r B inod B eh ari R a i of R aj sh a hi ;

, .
,

t he l a t e R ad h es C h a ndra Seth B L a nd Pa ndit s R a , . .

,

ja nikanta Ch a kra v a rti a nd Vidhu Sekha r Sastri of ,

M a lda ; a nd of oth e r student s of Be ngalee C ulture ,

publi h d in v rnacul a r monthli es e g

s e e
“
Ba ng adar , . .

“ ” “ ”
Man asi
”
sharia , sahitya Pra v asi G rih a sth a , ,
“
,
”
,
xiv PR E FACE

sma ll as it is w as conceived in I ndia in 1 9 1 3 a nd

, ,

writt en out partly in E ngland in 1 9 1 4 a nd p a rtly in

A merica in 1 9 1 5 D uring t he l ast few y ea r s th er e h a v e
.

b een sev e ra l publica tion s on a lli ed subj e cts of which ,

the most importa nt ar e

1. Vaisnav ism Shaiv a ism and M inor R el igiou s ,

System s by Sir R G Bhand ar kar ( T h e E ncyclop e di a

“
. .
,
”
of I ndo A ry a n R esearch S tra ssburg
-

, ,

2. The B odhisattv a Titsdng (j iz a) in China a nd

j ap a n by
, M W D e V iss er in
.
“
Th e O sta siatisch e
.

Z eit schrift ( J uly 1 9 1 3 — D ec ember 1 9 1 4 B e rlin )

, , ,
.

3 The Gods qf N or ther n B u ddhism by M rs A

’
. .
. ,

G etty ( C lare ndon Pr ess O xford , ,

4 K ashm ir Shaiv a ism by J C C h a tt erji ( Srin a ga r

.
,
. .
,

K a shmir I ndi a , ,

5 The Ta ntr a of the G r eat L iber ation and 6

.
,
.

H y m ns to the G oddess by A v a lon ( L u z a c Co , .

,

L ondon ,

Sé str is contributions on Me di e v al
’

7 H
. P . .

“ ”
Buddhism to the B enga li monthly T he N araya na

A mong rch e ologica l work s m ay b e mention ed the

a
’
third edition of V inc ent S mith s E a r ly H istory of I ndia
( C l a r endon Press O xford in which the a uthor has
, ,

dra wn promin ent a tt ention to the a chi ev e m ent s of the

Pal a E mp erors and th eir succ es sor s the S en as in m aking
“
B e nga l a gr ea t power in I ndia ( A D 8 0 0 1 2 0 0 ) and . .
-

The Pdl as of B eng a l ( Me moir of th e A sia tic S ociety of

‘
B enga l , a nd B dn dl d r I tihasa
g ( Ca lcutta 1 9 1 5) ,

“
or H i story of B e nga l —A D writt e n in Ben ”
. .

gali language both by R akhaldas B a n erji who ha s

, ,

thrown a flood of light on the intern ationa l relations of

the Bengalees with the oth e r p eopl es of I ndia during a
period which will r ema in obscure for a con sid e ra bl e time
 PR E F A C E xv

yet . T he
ra c e int ermixture a nd socio religiou s tran s
- -

formation effect e d by m ilita ry politica l revolution s in -

E ast ern I ndia can b e easily d educ ed from the in scription s

a nd oth er e vid enc es on which th ese three works ar e

b ased .

T he following thr ee hi storic a l nov el s in B enga li

publish ed at C a lcutta during 1 9 1 5 also furni sh sidelight s
o n the subj e ct —m att er d ealt with in the present volum e
1 .S hashdm ha— b y R akhaldas B an erji dea ling with ,

life a nd thought in B enga l in the 7th c entury A D . .

D ha r m apal a — b y R D Ba nje r i d ealing with life

‘
2 . . .
,

a nd thought in B eng a l i n the 9 th c e ntury A D . .

Ch dn d l i— b H i
d as Palit dea ling with life a nd
3 . e
y ar ,

thought in B enga l in the 1 2 th c entury A D . .

T o tho se who a r e unfamili a r with the n a m es of the

gods a nd goddesses of the p eopl e of I ndi a The My ths ,

of th e H ind u s a nd B u d dhi (
sts H arra p L ondon , ,

by S i ste r N iv ed ita a nd D r C o o m arasw am y with illustra

.
,

tion s by p a i nt ers O f the N a tion a li st S chool of I ndi a n A r t ,

m ay b e r e comm end e d .

The t erm s H induism Brahm a ni sm Buddhism e tc

, , ,
.
,

ar e v e ry a mbiguou s a nd more or l ess mi sn om er s T h ese .

ha v e b een di scuss ed in the a uthor s la t est work Chinese ’

R el i ion th r ou h H indu E yes : A Stu dy in the Tenden

g g
sia ticM enta l i y( S h nghai 1 9 T he follow
cies of A t a ,

ing is a n e xtra ct from it

Buddhism th a t ca me into the la nd of Confuciu s
T he
w as thus only o ne O f the e xpr es s ion s of the co m pre he n

sive cult of L ov e a nd R oma nticism which ma nifested

its elf a t the sa m e tim e in t he promulgation of the worship
of V i snu K risna S hiv a etc A nd the sam e r eligious
, , ,
.

e motion a lism w as being e xploit ed by sculptor s to e nrich

th eir Buddhist or Sha iva a rt s .

“
T his common origin it is which makes it oft en so
it
6
x vi PR E FA CE

di fficult to di stingui sh betw een the im ages of the gods a nd

goddesses belonging to the Buddhistic and non Bud -

d histic p antheon s of H induism T hi s is why C hin es e . ,

K or ea n a nd J ap a n es e form s of Buddhism look so S imil a r

to t he m a ny va ri e ti es of pres e nt day I ndia n re ligion in -

spit e of modifica tion s und er t he tra n s H im ala y a n soil a nd -

ra ce cha ra ct eristics T hi s is why in spit e of the d isap

-
.
,

pea ra nce of Buddha a s a god from I ndia n con sciousn ess ,

Buddhism m ay b e sa id to live in and through the oth e r

cult s of modern H indui sm e g V a i sn avi sm S ha iv aism , . .
, ,

”
J a ini sm etc , .

I t has also b een point ed out in th at work th a t each

of th es e medi e v a l a nd mode rn ism s of I ndi a China a nd ,

J a pa n a r e the joint product s of the following three

fa ctors
1 T he C ult of World F orces common to t he
.
-

V edi sts ( R ita ist ) pre C onfuci a n C hin es e ( Tdoist ) a nd

,
-

‘
t he worshippers of K am i ( S hintoist ) .

2 T he R eligion of L ov e and R om a nticism which

.

grew out of the first T hi s w as born a lmo st simulta n .

eo u sl y i n I ndi a a n d C hin a a s t he worship of sa ints a v a ,

td r as h ero es N a tur e Pow ers etc

, , with t he he lp of -

, .
,

images a nd tra n sfe rred to the L and of the K dm i in the

er y first st age of its history wh e r e it found a mo st con ,

ge nia l soil a nd wh e re the ra c e consciou sn ess might h av e

,
-

d ev elop ed it ind ep end ently .

3 T he R eligion of t he F olk which w as the p a rent

.

of the first two has ev er b een a ctiv e in crea ting a da pt ,

ing a nd r e int erpreting loca l a nd ra cia l myths of the

-

”
three countries down to present day .

B . K . S .

N O R TH C H I N A ,

M a r ch 9 ,
1 916 .
 CO N T E N T S
PAG B

PR E FACE

C H A PTE R I .

A F ESTI V AL O F TH E PEO PLE .

Section 1 . Th eo r y of th e institu tion

II . G eogr aph y of th e institu tion
III . H istor y of the institu tio n

(a ) I n th e M a lu iblzdr a ta
( 6) I n th e Vedas

( a) A s d escr ib ed b y H inen T h sang

IV . Th e institu tio n as an instr u m ent o f nationa l l
cu tur e

(a ) I nflu ence on B enga l i l iter atu re

(6) The G am b h ir a a nd th e fo l k -
ar ts

( c) Th e institu tion as a sch o o l o f m or al tr aini

ng

(d ) T he institu tion as a sch o ol of pu b l ic l ife

C H A PTE R I I .

T H E BE N G AL I F OL K PO E SY O F SH AI V A I SM
-
.

I . I m por tance of v ernacu lar s

II . Sal utation Songs in Bengal i M SS
-
.

III . Specim en 1

IV .

V .

VI .

C H A PT E R I I I .

T H E G AMBH IRA : A PO PUL AR F O R M O F SH AI VA C ULT

A
E STE R N I N D IA .

Section I . T he sever al parts o f G am b hir a festiv ities

II . C entres for G am bh ir a festivities
III . Popu l ar d ecor ations
IV . T he system of adm inistr atio n
V . T he nam e of the institu tion
x viii CO N T E NTS

CH A PT E R I V .

P5 0 8

T H E GA J AN : A POPU L AR F O R M O F SH AI VA CU LT IN

A
E STE R N I N DI A

C H A PT E R V .

F O L K FEST I VI TI ES I N N O R TH BE N G L AN D O R I SS
-
A A .

Section I . Gam bhir a

II . Séhiyatr a

C H A PT E R VI .

PO PU L AR BUDDH I SM IN H I ND U B E N G AL

CH APT E R V I I .

A
PH YSI C L A UST ER I TI E S PR CT I SE D A BY TH E PE OPL E .

I . T he v ana fo da
II . H istor y o f th e practice of V inafoda

C H A PTE R V I I I .

F OL K D
-
AN CE S IN R E L I G I O U S FE ST I V L S A .

Section I . T he m ask

II . The dance

C H A PTE R I X .

SOC I AL I Z ATI O N AN D SECUL AR I Z ATI ON O F H I NDU L I FE .

Section I . Pr ocessio ns
II . Music and d ance
III . Social gather ings

CH A PT E R X .

BUDDH I ST AN D J AI N A E L E M E N T S IN MOD E R N H I ND U I SM .

Section I . H inayana School of Bu ddh ism

II .
Jaina fe stiv ities
III . Mahayfina Schoo l of Bu dd hism
 CO N TE N T S xix

CH A PT E R X I .

PAG E
N AT I O N AL A
F E STI V L S O F T H E SE V E N T H C E N T U R Y A D
. .

Section I . T he l
age o f r e ig io u s ec ecticism l
II T w o festiv ities w itnessed b y H inen T h san
g
.

( a ) T he Special B ud d h ist F estiv al at K anauj

( 5) T he Q u inq uennial G ift -
Festiv a l at A llah ab ad

CH A PT E R X I I .

So cio R E L I GI O US
-
L I FE o r TH E PE O PLE O F B E NG L U N D E R A
TH E PAL As .

Sectio n I T h e Pal a Ch o l a per iod of H ind u I m peria l ism

( ninth to
-
.

th ir teenth centu r y A D ) . .

II . Su b m er gence o f Bu ddhism
III . E stab l ishm ent o f Sh aiv aism

CH A PT E R XI I I .

T H E TA N T R I c L OR E O F M E DI E V L A B U DD H I SM .

Section I . M ahfiyé nic m yth ol o g y

II . Th e com m on fa ctor in n ee - H i
nd u ism and neo -
Buddh ism
(a) Bo dh isa ttv as

( 6) T ar a
III . D r am a and T antr ism (c . A D . . 60 0 8 0 0 )-

C H A PT E R X I V .

R AM AI P AN DI T , A FO L K -
M I N STR E L OF A
D E C D E N T BUD D H I SM .

Section I T antrism of A tisb a, th e Benga l ee Bu ddhist m issionar y in

T ib et ( el e v enth centu r y ) .

II . H ind u E l em ent s I n R a m ai’s Bu d dh ism

III Th e w ork of R am a i as preach er ( twel fth
. centu ry )
IV . T h e Cr eation in S izzm y a P u m gza
-
St0 r y

V . F ina l H ind u iz ing of M ediae va l Bu ddhism

C H APT E R X V .

PE O PL E ’S L I FE IN BE N G L O N A TH E E VE O F MOSLE M A
I N V SI O NS .

Section I . Br ah m anism estab l ished ( e lev enth centur y )

II . F olk tr aditio n
-
ab ou t ca stes and cr eeds .

III . H al ayu dha th e Sociol ogist and o ther m en o f l etter s

( twel fth centu r y )
IV . S [wk/z S i mb/zaday fl— a pictu r e o f m or a l d egener ation
V . Beginning of Mosl em ru e l (6 . A .D . 1 20 0 )
xx C O NTE NT S

CH A PT E R X VI .

FA G ]:

A
I SL M IN PO PU L AR H I ND UI SM .

Section F or m v forces in I nd ian cu l tur e histor y

ati e

A ggr essiv e I sl am in E astern I nd ia

H indu deities in Mohamm eda n Beng a l
M oh am m ed an e l em ents in m ediaev al Bu ddhism
T r iu m ph o f Shiv a
Pr opagation of Sha iv a cum Shak taism - -

C H A PT E R XV I I .

S ANSK R I T TE XTS o r SH AI VA FOL K -

LO R E .

Section I . S k im : P u r fiqza

(a) Th e L im ga, or Ph al l u s

( b) F estiv ities

( c) Conv entional cerem o nies

(d ) Sanction for the m onth s o f w or shi

p
H a n v a m slza v anafo da ( ph ysical
'

II . on au ster iti
es )
(a ) D isco m fitur e of v ana th e Sh iv aite
Sh iv a hoons to V ina
’
( 6) s

( 0) F aith of m oder n Sh aiv as in VAna -

l egend
III . D fiar m a S a m /am? R efer ences to m ask s

(a ) D isg uises of Shiva s attendants

’

( b) T h e com edy of error s

( c) M ask s and com ed y of errors in m odern Sh aiv a

C H A PTE R XV I I I .

I N VEN TI O N OF G OD S AND G ODDE SSE S By TH E PE O PLE

I N DE X
I . Su bjects
II . Proper nam e s and Literar y r efer en ces
2 T H E FO L K EL E ME N T I N H I N D U C U L T U R E
-

m ents or at any rat e a nything but tentativ e and

, , ,

provi sional or hypothetica l rema rks on any of the in ,

sti t u tio ns that h a v e O bt a ined curre ncy in t he p ast or a r e

influencing life and thought in the pr es e nt T he sa m e .

t entative provision a l or hypothetical cha ra ct e r should

,

a l so r ea lly perta in to the conclusions O f wh a t in E urop e

a nd A m eric a ha v e b een p ass n for the sci enc e of

sociology I t b esp eak s a n un sci entific or prepos se s sed
.

turn of mind to sp ea k of a c ert ain p eopl e as the chos e n

ra c e of G o d or to a sse rt that c erta in m a nly virtu es a r e
the monopoly of a c e rta in coloured p eopl e on the strength
of socia l studies confin ed within c ert a in bound a ri es of
th e W est e rn world T he inte re st s of huma nity a nd
.

compara tiv e lit era tur e philo sophy a r t a nd sociology

, ,

r equire the inhibition of pre conceived notions about

colour ra c e or clim at e
, .

A study of the d ata of I ndi a n sociology would supply

a pa ra ll a x to corr e ct the one sid ed or bi as ed id eas a bout
-

the truth s of t he hum a n world T he m a t e ria ls thu s

.

furni sh ed would not only pla c e I ndi a n socia l life in

its prop e r p ersp ecti v e but al so prep a r e the w a y for the
,

univ e rsa l sociology of m an a ccording to the principl es

of the inductiv e hi storic a l m ethod
-
.

I t is the obj e ct O f thi s ch a pt e r to place som e of the

past a nd pres ent fa ct s a nd th eori es in con ne xion with the
worship of S hiv a T he d ev elopm ent of the Sha iva cum
.
-

S h akta cult has ha d a v a ri ed cours e in I ndia n history ,

ha ving its sp ecia l fea tures imprint ed on it a ccording a s

it h as prev a iled a mong the A ndhra s C holas Ma ra tha s , , ,

R ajputs Punj abis K ashmiris a nd Bengal ees

, , I t is with .

t h e Be nga l ee ph ase of thi s a l l I ndi a in stitution th a t-

w e ar e conc ern ed h ere T he Benga lee socio —r eligiou s

.

festiva l of mod er n tim es ( ca ll e d G a m b hir a in ce rt a in

districts of N orth Benga l or G aj a n in R adha or Western
,

B enga l or N ila in E a st B enga l ) tha t a ttends the worship

,
 A FE ST I VA L O F T H E PE O PL E 3

of the gods of Sh a iv a panth eon is being treated unde r,

the following h ea ds : ( 1 ) T h e ory or philo sophy of the

socio re ligious in stitution ( 2 ) G e ography or ethnography
-

of the in stitution ; ( 3 ) H istory of the institution ; a nd

( 4) T he institution as an instrum ent of n ation al cultur e .

S E CTI O N I .
—T H EO R Y O F TH E I N ST I T UTI O N .

A ll the a ffa
irs of the H indu ar e directly or indirectly
connected with religion H e feels no int er est a nd can
.

not induc e hims elf to join in a ny work tha t does not see m
to him to posse s s any religious merit I t is gen era lly .

see n how e v e r th a t p eopl e a r e not dispos ed to und e rt a k e

, ,

an religiou s work pur ely for t h e sa k e of t he work it self

y
without any refe renc e to p ersona l ga in or lo ss V e ry .

ra re is the ca se wh ere a p erson will b e found to pra ctise

religious O bse rva nc es di sint erestedly and equa lly ra r e is ,

t he case wh e r e t he pur s uit of r eligion will b e found to

h a v e a pla c e a mong the inviola ble duti es of m an With .

m a n self inte r est i

,
-
s t he m a in spring O f a ction a nd no ,

w ork which will not app ea r to serv e it will b e a bl e to

kindle his interest or ea rn estn ess I t is for this th a t .

a lthough the G a m b hir a is a re ligiou s institution i ts

orga ni z ers a re foun d to pay grea t att ention to th e ir
se cula r inte rests .

T he d evotion to S hiv a a nd his wor ship is bro a d

ba sed upon t he hea rts of the p eopl e Some how or oth er .

it has com e to b e gen era lly b e li eve d that O f all gods

Shiv a is the most ea sily propitiat e d a nd pl ea s e d to grant
the d esires of his devotees T hi s will be clea rly born e
.

out by a study of the popula r story conc erning Shiva

a nd how he is pl ea sed th at is r ecit ed a nd list en e d to

with rapt att ention in the night ( ca lled Shiv a r atr i) O f the
1
fourteenth day of the da rk h alf of the month of Phalgo o n .

1
Feb r u ar y M arch
-
.

T
I
4 TH E FO L K E L E ME N T I N H I N D U C U L T U R E
-

T he Shiv ar ata ( now ma de in honour of S hiva as nar ,

rated ih the legend concerning Van a) is a bright record

of the bl essings tha t o ne will O bta in for his devotion to
S hiva and it has vouchs a fe d to his d e vot ees h appin es s
,

in thi s world and sa lva tion in the n e xt T h ese a r e .

fou nd to b e the chief inc e ntiv es for t he worship of this

god .

T he G am b hir a is thu s included in the worship th at

is O ffe red with a vi ew to the r eali z a tion of c ert a in O bj ect s
or the a tta inm e nt O f pa rticul a r blessings ie it is wh at , . .

is c all e d sa k am a ( as oppos ed to niskam a th a t is pra c

t ised for its own sa k e ) . I t is b eli eved tha t as a r esult
O f O bs e rving the c e re moni es m a king up the G a m b hir a

worship as Bha kta or Sa nnyasin the obse rv er is r e

,

wa rd e d with a soun d a nd h ea lthy body through the

gra c e of Shiva H e nc e it is that the B h akta s ar e found
.

to put on m any di ffe r ent ma sks a nd thus pla y v ariou s

pa rts in the G am b hir a with t he O bj ect a nd hop e of
se curing th er eby t he pl eas ur e a n d gr a c e of the god .

T hose who join the G a m b hir a fe stivities a ft er h a ving ,

the mselv es menta lly vowe d to th em hope th ereby for ,

the r ea li z ation of som e p a rticul a r O bj ect but do not in

the l eas t look forwa rd to m o ksa ( ie fina l e m a ncip a tion )
. . .

L ittl e boy s and girl s ar e m a d e to d a nc e b efor e t he im a ge

of S hiv a in the G am b hir a te mpl e T h eir pa rent s a llow
.

this in the h appy b elief th a t th ey will thereby secure the

gra ce O f the god in the sha p e O f hea lth and longevity O f
life T h ere is a noth e r cla ss of Bha kt as or Sa nny asis who
.

danc e a nd sing in the G am b hir a not from a ny religious

motive but S imply for the sa k e of the a sthetic or vulgar
pl easure T hes e belong to the class of T am asik a ( ignor
.

a nt or following the gros s principl e worshippers

) .

S hiva enjoys the G am b hir a festivities with his wife

a nd t he other m e mb ers of his fa mily O ther gods
.

a l so gra c e the G a m b hira on this oc ca sion with th eir

 A F E ST I VA L O F T H E PEO PL E 5

prese nce a nd on the ev e of th e ir d eparture from th e re

, ,

confer their bl essings on the Bhakta s O n all the da ys .

of these festiviti es especia lly on the l a st day wh en the

,

Ahara worship ta k e s pl ac e and as is popul arly b eli ev ed , , ,

when a l l the gods numb ering thirty three crores com e -

the re to a ttend the fa re we ll dinn er it is strictly forbidde n ,

to cross the G a m b hir a courtya rd with on e s shoes on ’

’
or with on e s umbrella Sprea d over on e s h ea d ’
.

S E C TI O N I I .
-
G EO GR A PH Y O F TH E I N STI T UT I O N .

F e stiva ls like these in which da nc e mu sic and songs , , ,

as w e ll as fe a sts proc e ssions a nd soci a l ga therings pl ay

,

a prominent p a rt a r e h eld in a lmost e very di strict of

,

Benga l .

T he n a m e however is not the sa me in a ll the c entr es

, ,
.

T he G a m b hir a of Mald a is found to ha v e b een tran s

form ed into the G aj a n of R adha or W est B enga l .

A ga in the G aj a n is found to ha v e b een split in two

D h a rm a s G aj a n and S hiva s G aj an
’ ’
E v en in the .

R adha country a nd not v e ry long ago the n a m e G am

, ,

bhira connot ed a ll the festivities th a t the G aja n now

does E v en now in o ne of the G aj a n songs w e ha ve
.

Bhola Ma heshw ara is in the gam b hir a

T he G aj a n festiviti es ar e still h eld in Malda R a ng ,

pur D inajpur R ajsha hi Pabn a Faridpur Moorshida

, , , , ,

b ad B a nkura Birbhum Burdwan H u ghli N adi a the

, , , , , ,

24 Pa rga n a s a nd in m a ny oth e r di strict s .

2
T he C ha itra fe stivities of O rissa under the n a m e
Sahiyatr a a r e but a noth er e dition of the G am b hir a
festiviti es T hese festiviti es are a lso held in the M idna
.

pore district .

I t is cl ea r tha t the G am b hira is not restricted to any

1
T en m ill ions I cr ore .
2
Mar ch A pr il
-
.
6 TH E FO L K E L E ME NT I N H I N D U C U L T U R E
-

particul a r district but b elongs to the whol e of B e nga l

,

and O ri ss a .

N ay w e m ay go fa rth er and say th a t it extends even

,

to A ssa m a nd Burm a the mod ern Buddhist fe stiviti es

,

of th ese region s bearing a close r es embl a nc e to thos e of

‘
the G a m b hir a .

like thos e of the G a m b hira

I n Bhut a n a l so festiviti es
ar e obse rv ed a ft er e xpiry of t he s umm er sea son H er e .

for o ne full fortnight mu sic a nd d a nc e a r e p e rform ed ,

templ es light ed a nd feast s giv e n on the occasion

,
.

A l so wh e n the follow ers of the L am a of T ib e t per

,

form da nc e song a nd music putting on m a sks of a nima ls

, , ,

o ne is n a tura lly led to think th a t the G a m b hir a a t o n e

time ext end ed its sw ay in a ll direction s north and south , ,

ea st a nd w est .

T his will b e furth er born e out by the fa ct tha t a tim e

w as wh e n festiviti es simil a r to thos e of t he G a m b hir a
w ere ext en siv e ly held far b eyond the limits of I ndia
in the isl a nds of the I ndia n O cea n E v en so far b a ck .

a s the tim e of the Sk u n a P u r ina w e find R am ai Pa ndit

y
“
to hav e sung L ord D ha rma w as highly rev ere d in
”
C eylo n T he Va n a Patha and the Par itta festiviti es
.

of thi s i sl a nd see m to b e clo se ly a lli ed to the G am b hir a .

So also if w e ca r efully study the simil a r festiviti es of fa r

off countri es w e a r e rea son a bly led to infer tha t a na
lognes and duplica t es of the G a m b hir a crossed t he
limits of A si a a nd b eca me establish ed in E urop e a nd
A frica .

T hus gr ea t festivities w e re h eld in old G r eec e in

,

1
honour of t he G o d B a cchus T he vota ries of th es e
.

1
R efer ence is m ad e to th i in M ilto n s Cam u s
’
s

“
Meanwh ile w el co m e joy an d feast ,

M idnight shou t and r ev el ry ,

T ipsy dance and j ol l ity

Al th ough the poet has fou nd in th is an i
ndex o f th e d egenerated
 A F E ST I V A L O F T H E PE O PL E 7

festiviti es besm ea red th eir bodi es with ink a nd putting

on la mb skin da nc e d fa nta stica lly to suita bl e songs and
music S imila r festiviti es w ere also h eld in honour of
.

th e S o n of B a cchus O n these occa sions embl em a tica l

.

image s w er e s tatio ned a long the ro a d s T hese festivi .

ti es were clo sely s imila r to tho se of the G a m b hir a I n .

B a bylon a lso th ey we re observ ed with grea t pomp a nd

gra ndeur .

G o d O siri s of E gypt resembl es our Shiv a in n a ture

a nd lik es a n d di slikes a lthough in form h e i s lik e t he
,

im a ge of M ahak ala H is wife seem s to b e no oth er .

th a n our Sha kti T h ey rid e A pi s as our Shiva rid es

.

the bull O siris is a l so decora t ed with s nak es and cl a d

.

in S kin I n that country a l so festiviti es w ere held in his

.

honour a nd these ha v e been describ ed in Moha mmeda n

b ook s a s simil a r to the I d festivities S imila r c er emoni es .

w e re a lso observed in honour of ma ny other gr eat er and

lesse r gods .

S ECT I O N I I I .
— H I ST O R Y OF TH E I N STI T UT I O N .

I t would b e i nt er esting to not e som e of the precursors

of the pr esent day socio r eligiou s festiv a l in B enga l We
- -
.

giv e h e re thr ee pictur es of thi s institution or its a n a logue

in thr ee di ffer ent a ges .

m ind , yet su ch d ances and songs wer e v ery po pu l ar in those days of

the distant past, and p u tti
ng o n m ask s p eo p l e appeared o n the stage
“
to p er for m th ese Th eir wild and fantastic dance o f m idnight b e
.

ca m e a v ery ser iou s aff air T h e natu r e o f this dance is well expressed
.

in the fol l owing l ines

C o m e, k nit hand s, and b eat the gr ou nd
I n a l igh t fantastic r ou nd
T his k nitting h and s, th is b eating th e grou nd , this l ight fan
of

tastic r ou nd rem ind on e cl earl y of so m e o f th e wil d dances o f the

G am b hira
’
.

T he u nd er lying r el igio u s idea is fou nd in th e fol l owing co u plet

Co m e, l et u s o u r rites b egin
”
T is onl y d ayl igh t th at m ak es sin — Com u s .
8 T H E F O L K E L E ME N T I N H I N D U C U L T U R E
-

( ) a Tfie I nstitu tion in t/ze M a/zdbfid m tu .

In the M d é déé dm
find v ery r ea li stic sc en es
tu w e
about the fa mily of t he god S hiv a a nd w e recogni z e ,

him as the sa m e jolly lov er of fea sts a nd festiviti es .

Shiv a has b een pa int ed ther e absorb ed in worldly

a ffa irs We find him in the tim e of Y u dhisthira ( the
.
,

e ld est of the fiv e Panda v as of who se exploits we rea d ,

so much in t he M u ddék d m tu ) a m a n of t he fa mily a nd ,

a tt end ed by a host of ghost s a nd goblins I n his e ffort s .

to obta i n the Pashu pata ( lit belonging to Pa shu pati ie .

, . .

Shiva ) w eapon A rjun a ( the third Pandav a ) had to fight

,

with Shiva disgui sed as a mounta in eer S hiv a w as no .

longer a simpl e F ire god tha t he had b een in the Vedus

-
,

but h ere w e find him as a m a n I n the H im ala ya s w a s .

his home ; Parva ti w as his wife a nd he w as the hea d ,

of a fa mily con sisting of his w ife son s a nd da ught ers ,

.

I n a nci ent V edic rit es S hiv a and his en ergy had

plac es assigned to th em on the sa crificia l ground I t is .

in the epic s howev er tha t form w as a ttributed to him

, ,
.

I n the R dm dyu u u S hiv a is found to h a v e serv ed as

port er a t the gat e of the pal ace of R avan a ; a nd in the
course of the K u r u k setra w a r a lso w e find him en
gaged in gua rding the entra nce to som e t ent s T h ese .

fa ct s l ead us to suppose tha t it w a s about thi s tim e tha t

his im age first b ega n to b e con structed ; a nd it w as
proba bly at the n e xt ag e if not at thi s th at sa crifices , ,

were first p erformed with the image of Shiv a .

T he ch ara ct er of sa crific es w as gr a du a lly b ecoming

mor e and more complex I t w as out of the qu estion .

for Y u dhisthir a to think of p erforming his A shw am ed ha

( ie in which is o ffered the fl esh of the horse ) sa crific e
. .

with soma rasa (juice of the soma pla nt ) only or with

-
1

t he live s of two or thr ee bea sts H is sa crificia l ground .

yet id entifi ed
1
Som a : a cel ebrated V ed ic pl ant n ot .
Io TH E F O L K E L E ME NT I N H I N D U CUL T U R E
-

instruments A ll the peopl e worshipped a nd held festi

.
,

vities in honour of this great god with d a nc e song and

, ,

music etc
, .

( 5) Tue I nstitu ti
on in th e Vedas .

The pr e minently modern ch aracter of S ha iva cum

-
e
-

S hakta cult th a t w e find in the E pics has howev er , ,

been the growth of ages T he precedi ng V edic litera .

ture furni sh es important stages in the e volution of

Shaiv aism . We can vividly rea li z e the processes by
which the complex in stitution of the prese nt day with
its p arapherna lia of image templ es vota ri es tortures , , , ,

songs ,
rev e lries etc seems to have evolved out of the
, .
,

simple primitiv e sa crificial fe stiv e rites .

F rom tim e immemoria l pe ople ar e found to h av e

gathered to o ffer up prayers to gods and to hold re
lig iou s festiviti es with mu sic song and d a nc e W e get ,
.

s u fficient glimp ses into tho se festivities and the a ncient ,

litera ture bea rs a clea r t estimony to the fa ct th at fes

t iv i
t ies lik e the G aj a n are not a ltogeth er new .

A t h a rv est time festiviti es were h eld in honour of

the gods with feasts da nce and music Pe ople wor , .

shipped the Su n god and the Fire god a nd offered to

- -
,

them the produce of th eir fields a thrilling draught ,

of the juic e of the soma pla nt known as soma ra sa -

a nd the fl esh of bea sts A t the conclusion of thes e

.

sa crific es
, the villagers a s sembled and pa rtook of the
offerings .

Peopl e of the Vedic age O ffered worship a nd hymn s

to Va runa I ndra M itra ( the Su n god ) the twin S on s
, ,
-
,

of Su ryya ( who were physicia ns to the gods) and the

R ibhus (a ho st of spirits ra ised by Bhr igu from the
fire kindled at the s a crific e of Dak sa) T hey o ffer e d .

to these deiti es the delicious beverage known as soma

 A FE ST I VA L O F T H E PE O PL E I I

ras a a nd then th ey rega led themselves with this o ffere d

,

drink ; m en and women join ed togeth e r in da ncing a nd

singing songs s ele cted from the S dn m u edu e tc in , .
,

honour of th ese gods and thus pa ss ed the day in gr ea t

m e rr im e nt .

T h en a s the soci ety b ec a m e mor e a dv a nc e d in cul

ture and grew more populou s these V edic fe stiviti es ,

a lso ca m e to a cquir e gr ea ter pomp a nd gra nd eur E a ch .

festivity w as a tt ended by a much la rge r concour se of

p eopl e a nd da nce song music a nd oth e r amu se m ent s
, , ,

we r e provided on a la rger scal e a nd the soma ra sa w as -

consum ed in a much la rge r qua ntity .

T he old festiviti es b ec a m e mor e a nd mor e compl ex ,

a nd the in sa tia bl e im agin a tion w e nt on inventing n ew e r

on es to k eep up the craz e for a mu sem ent s .

T h e G od of F ir e ca me to b e ima gin ed in m any dif

fer ent forms and compl e x sa crificia l festiviti es w er e in
,

stituted on l a rge sca l es I n th ese how ever A gni ( the

.
, ,

F ir e god ) w as not the only r ecipi ent of worship A ngira

-

a n d S u tr at m a as V irat a
( one of the first o ffsprings of

B ra hma) a l so c a m e in for th eir sha r es T h eir son s a l so . ,

a s d esc enda nt s of A gni we re allowed a sha re in the

,

sa crifici a l o fferings b esid es ha ving a lta rs set apart for th e ir

s eats T hu s with his sons daughte rs and th eir progeny
.
, ,

t he lin e of A gni b ec a m e a v ery long o ne a n d A chi s ,

mati H av ism a ti a nd Maham ati receiv ed worship as dif

,

fer e nt forms of A gni .

N ay hum a n im agin ation w ent a step fa rth e r and

,

cr eat e d wiv e s for the F ire gods W ith th em on their -

.

l eft sid es th ey sa t to r ec e iv e worship With T ara wife . ,

of the F ire god n a m ed V r ihaspati th e great sacrific es of

-
,

D arsh a and Pau r nam asa b ega n to be c e l ebr ated with

gr ea t pomp .

With the fe eling of n ec essity for m eat w as i ntro

d u ced the horse sacr ifice We com e a cro ss the Sha nyu
-
.
I 2 T H E FO LK E L E ME NT I N H I N D U C U L T U R E
-

A gni first in conn exion with the C hAt u r m ASya ( e xt e n d

ing over four months) hors e sacrific e H is s e cond son .

Bharatagni w as o ffer ed pitch erfuls of cl a rifi ed butte r ;

a nd o ne of his de sc e nda nts v i z S iddhi A gni c a m e to
,
.
-

b e the presiding d eity of the A gni da iv a ta sacrifice -

.

V i snu Panchaja nya and A gni w e re worshipp ed in

,

the D a rs ha ( t he n ew moon ) a n d Pau r na m asa ( the full

moon ) sa crifices Shiv agu i who w as d evoted to the
.

worship of Sha kti ( divin e e nergy p e rsonifi ed ) w a s a lso ,

worshipped at th ese sa crific es a nd befor e him beasts we re

sa crific ed H ence this fir e c a me to b e regarded as a
.

form of the d estructiv e en ergy .

The first follow e rs of the V ed a s thinking the s etting ,

su n to b e tir ed o ffer e d worship to him und e r the n a m e

,

of Pr ashantag ni ( ie Pa cified F ir e ) K ratu ( Sa cri

. . .

fice Per sonified ) r ec eiv e d worship a s N iyat agni ( ie . .

Pe rm a n ent F ire ) F ir es n a m ed S hiv a V i snu K r a tu

.
, , ,

etc . a nd A gni
, ( ir e god ) hims elf w ere regard ed as
F -

luminou s fires Sacrifices we r e p e rform e d with win e

.
,

meat a nd oth e r a rticl es of food and drink a nd a lso with

mu sic song and da nc e
, .

I t m ay b e safely infe rr e d th at a lthough in thos e d a y s

image worship w as no t proba bly in vogu e yet it w a s
-

the id ea of t hese va riou s F ire gods with th eir wives a s -

im a gin ed for s acrifici a l purpo ses tha t w as the r ea l origin ,

of the ima ge worship introduc ed at a l at e r age T he

-
.

germ of image worship la y hidd en in the im agina tion

-

which influ enc ed huma n n ature to think of the nec e ssity

of a wife for the F ire god -
.

( c) Tue I nstitu tion (is D escr ibed éy H iu en Tfisu n

g .

F rom
wh at m a y b e ca lle d the form ativ e stage s of
th e institution w e com e to the bro a d d a ylight of hi story .

A nd w e find tha t in t he d ays of H ar sa v ardhana in the ,

se v enth century of the C hristi an er a which enjoy ed a s ,

 A F E STI V A L O F T H E PE O PL E I 3

a herit age the rich b equest of V ikram adityan culture ,

something like the pr e s ent da y processions street

-

songs and soci a l ga th erings w ere religiously a ttended

,

by both the E mp eror a nd the dependent Princes

themselves to the e ntire sa tisfa ction of the H indu
,

and Buddhist subjects I n the I mperi a l socio religious

.
-

ceremony that w as witn ess e d by H inen T hsang the ,

C hinese Master of L a w w e ca n see the counterpart of

,

the existing institution of the p eopl e with the m odifi

cations due to th a t epoch of toleration and religious
m p
fi r ac/
zem ent .

B right tra ces of the festiviti es that were noticed by

the C hinese tra v e ll ers Fa H i e n and H iu en T hsang ,

h ave been l eft in th eir litera tur e T he C h ariot fes

.

tivities held in honour of Buddh a the install ation of

,

the Buddhist T rinity in the t e mple the dance song , ,

a nd music th at att e nded a l l th ese fe stiviti es the flocking

,

—
of the country folk from far a nd n ea r to towns on these
occ a sions and their passing sl eepless nights in revelri e s
— all these seem to b e but a n outcome of the V edic
and E pic festiviti es or ra th e r a r ep etition of them in

newer forms .

F rom the report of H iu en T hsang it is evident

that during his sta y in this country the E mperor o f
N orthern I ndi a cel ebra ted a grea t Buddhist festiva l at
his capital K an auj in conn e xion with which wonderful
,

festivities were held and gra nd e nt e rtainments provided .

E mperor H a rsa hims e lf pla y ed the pa rt of I ndra and his ,

friend Bhaska ra Va rm a ( K u m arad ev a ) lord of A ssam

, , ,

appea red disguised as B ra hm a T his t aking pa rt in

.

the Buddhist festiviti es by K ings in the guise of non

B uddhist gods seems to indica t e tha t old Buddhism had
been losing its b o ld and w a s becoming identified with
neo H induism
-
.

A nother festiv a l w as h eld a t A llahabad Worship .

I 4 T H E FO L K E L E ME N T I N H I N D U C U L T U R E
-

w as o ffered on the first day of th ese festiviti es to the

image of Buddha on the s econd day to tha t of the
,

S u n god a nd on the third to tha t of S hiv a ; a nd in

-

conn exion with th ese t he a bov e c eremoni es we re o h

se rv e d a nd e nt e rt a inm ents giv en I t is not unlik ely th a t
.

in the n eighbouring t erritori es a lso S imil a r festiviti es

w ere h eld .

I n course of tim e th ese festiviti es b ec a m e pre v a l e nt

throughout the country a nd it beca m e a cu stom to en
ter ta in th e im age s of Buddha the S u n god a nd Shiva
,
-

by putting on the guises of H indu god s and godd esses .

A nd ev entu a lly the B uddhist s r epla c e d t he H in du

S hiva a nd Parv a ti by Bodhi sattv a Manju shr i and his
p ersonifi e d energy or wife A rya T ara resp e ctively .

T h ere is good reason to suppo se th at the B uddhi st s

resorte d to thi s method of modifying th eir r eligion
to suit the t astes of the p eopl e only with a vi e w ,

to r epla cing H indui sm a ltogeth er I n m a ny pla c es

.

ston e im ag es of th e ir Bodhi sa ttva were con struct ed a nd

in sta ll ed .

S E C TI O N I V — T H E I N ST I T UT I O N A S AN I N ST R UM E N T
.

O F N A T I O N A L C UL T U R E .

T he G a m b hir a in stitution is a potent fa ctor of m ass

e duc ation T he e ducat iv e i n flu enc e of such agenci es
.

a s po ul a r festiv a l s i
s v ery w e ll illu stra t e d by th e ir e ffe ct s
p
upon the lite ra ture a rt s industri es mora ls a nd public
, , ,

Spirit of the p e opl e who ta k e p a rt in thi s socio r e ligious -

c e re mony in conn e xion wi th t he worship of S hiva .

(a ) I nfl u ence on B eng a l i L iter atu r e

.

I mprov e d ton e a nd h ea lthy

development a lwa ys com e
to a la ngua ge through the ch ann el of religion L itera .

tur e has large ly flouri shed a nd ga in e d in str e ngth b ea uty ,

a nd sw eetn ess a s the h a ndm a id of re ligion in our

 A FE ST I V A L O F T H E PE O PL E 1 5

country as e l sewh ere T h e litera tur e of I ndia rea ched

.

a high d evelopm e nt und e r t he influ enc e of Buddhism

in the la nd T he Puran as a nd the lit e rary works ba sed

.

on them owed th eir ton e a nd styl e to religiou s culture .

The growth a nd exp a n sion of B enga li lit era tur e w ent

h a nd in ha nd with t he prop a gation of the V a isnav a
fa ith by C h a ita ny a . T he mu sica l powers of the
country po ets h a v e a l so di spl a y e d them selv es through
-

the Sh a iva cult as fost e r e d by t he G a m b hir a festiviti es .

T h e songs of the G a m b hir a have flow e d from t he

h ea rts of the villag e po et s and ha v e ca rri ed current s
of d evotion lov e a nd poetry to the hearts of t he mas s
, .

A nd as r esults of this th er e h a v e b een a continuous

strea m of n ation a l po etry a nd births of m innesing er s ,

u ol ésdi
‘
eliter s a nd Zittem teu ns Ma ny R am aprasadas and
.

ma ny C handid asas ( t he form e r w as a sa intly po et of the

e ight ee nth c e ntury a nd th e l a tter a po et of con sid e r

a bl e pa rt s in t h e fourt ee nth ) ha v e thu s ow ed th e ir origin

to the G a m b hir a T he sw eet a nd melodious po ems of

.

thes e born po ets h av e di ffu sed far and wid e like S w eet
, ,

flow e rs the rich fragra nce of th eir music T he growth

, .

a nd d e velopm e nt o f rur a l lit e rature a n d folk po esy in -

B e nga l a r e sol e ly du e to the en ergy tha t in stitutions like

the G a m b hira h a v e ev e r c a ll ed into e xi st e nc e .

T he a rtful diction th e rich styl e a nd the high S en

,

t im e nts of Bhar a ta cha nd ra C ha ndidasa a nd Ja ya d ev a

,

a r e e v e n now m e t with in the songs compo sed for the

G am b hir a E v en in the L ays qf Visa /za r i ( song s re l at

.

ing to the G odde ss of S n a k es) th ere a r e m a ny proofs of

the au thors thoughtfuln ess a nd d eep r e ligiou s fervour
’
.

“
I n his song b eginning w ith T hou know est quit e w e ll
”
the a r t of w ea ving O L ord !
, po e t H ar im ohana of
S eihapu r ( vill age in Ma ld a) has di spl ay ed the sa m e lofty
’

chara cter of a Sédhaka the sa m e spirit of d evotion a nd

,

the s a m e thoughtfuln ess a s t h e r e nown ed R am ap r asada .

I 6 T H E FO L K E L E ME N T I N H I N D U C U L T U R E
-

T he G a m b hira festivities thu s do not only provid e three

’
days a musem ents fo r the p eople of a few V illages of a
c e rta in district of B enga l but ha v e a far r eaching con
,
-

s equ enc e T hey promot e la rgely the n a tion a l spirit of

.

th e Be ng alee p eopl e T o enrich the B enga li la ngu ag e

.

a nd lit e ratur e to improv e the ton e of thought of the

,

Bengalees to ra ise high e r th eir sta nd a rd o f cultur e to

,
-

crea t e a lofty n ation al id ea l for th e m — w e h av e the

G a m b hir a of Ma lda as a n effe ctiv e m ea ns .

T he distinguish e d po et Baradacha r ana Mitra w as

present at the sitting of the N orth Benga l L it erary
C onfer ence at Ma ld a T he following a r e his r e
.

m a rks a bout the songs o f the G am b hir a h eld on the

occ a sion
“
F rom t he repr esentation of to day I h a v e com e to -

l ea rn tha t h er ein lie hidde n the ge rms of progress for the

dra ma of educa t ed B enga l I t is beautiful in all its parts
.

a nd w e h a v e much to know and lea rn from it I n the .

G am b hir a r epresentation w e h a v e nothing of the a rti

ficia l ities of the y atr a or the th eatr e h e re w e h a v e ,

S inc e re a nd n a tura l outbursts of t he unsophi s tic a t ed life

of the villager I ha v e hea rd th ese songs to day with

.
-

a n in expr essibl e pl easur e I n th es e n a tura l word s of

.

the h ea rt d enud ed of a ll lingui stic flouri sh is to b e found

, ,

a p e re nni a l sourc e of d eep h a ppin ess .

“
M a ny of our promin e nt poets and a uthors ar e
present h ere to day and ha v e th em selv e s exp e ri enc e d
-

the eff ect of n a tura ln ess in lite ra tur e I b eli e v e th a t if

.

th ey will h ereaft er striv e to introduce in th e ir works

this ele ment of artl ess sincerity th e ir productions will ,

a cquir e a r ea l forc e in our life .

We Should all of u s do our b est to see tha t a ncient

, ,

festiviti es of B enga l like those of the G a m b hir a do not

die out .

T he following r em a rks about G am bhir a litera ture

I 8 T H E FO L K E L E M E N T I N H I N D U C U L T U R E
-

spirit of exc elling in d ecora tion n a tura lly t a k es po sses sion

of the hea rts of the lea d e rs of the sev e ra l G a m b hir apa rti es
a n d as a r esult of thi s th ere spring s up a k ee n comp eti

tion a nd no pa ins ar e spa red to ma ke the decoration of

,

each p andal as nic e as pos sibl e .

T he spirit of comp etition express es its e lf in two

wa ys F irst with referenc e to th e construction of the
.
,

im ages of gods a nd goddesses T hes e hav e to be m ade.

in a ccorda nce with the d escriptions found in legends

or in S /n lpa Sndstr as ( treatises on a rts a nd crafts ) but at
'

th e sa m e time th ere ha ve to be introduced the e l e m e nts

of nov elty a nd diversity T he image o f S hiva is m ade
.

"
in accorda nce with Puranic d escriptions bu t the p a inters ,

dra w on their ca nva s es v a rious a rtful pictures a nd these

ar e u se d to add to the d ecora tion of the G a m b hir a

hou se A s th ere is scope for novelty a nd va riety the

.
,

pa int ers ar e a ctua t ed by a feeling of e mula tion a nd

striv e to ma k e th e se pictures as e xquisite as th ey can .

O wing to the spirit of comp etition growing k ee n e r and

k een e r the pictures of r e cent times h a ve shown much
,

improvem e nt upon th eir pred ece ssors a nd the pa inters ,

ha v e l ea rnt to produce from imagin ation more a nd

mor e b ea utiful piec e s .

Secondly with refe r enc e to the v a rious it ems of de

,

co r at ion I mit a tion fruit s a nd flow e r s m a d e of cla y

.
,

I ndia n cork and w ax h a v e b een l argely us ed in the

decora tion of the G am b hira panda ls and thus h a v e ,

h elp e d to create a t aste for improved fine a rts I n .

m edie va l tim es Ma lda w as specia lly noted for such

works of ar t .

T h e cornices etc of the G am b hir a pa nd a l ar e nic ely

, .
,

ma de with pap er Bea utiful fringes ar e ma d e a lso with

.

the same m at erial v a riously perforat ed with sm a ll files

, .

T hes e ar e very pretty to look a t T her e ar e m any

.

p eople who ca n m a ke really exquisit e things out of

 A FE ST I VA L O F T H E PE O PL E 19

p ap e r T hi s is an O ld a r t
. T he a rtist s e xhibit ed
.

their skill by making flags a nd bann ers lotuses a nd ,

oth er flowers with pa per a nd the competition tha t w as

,

c alled into e xist ence in this fi eld h elped not a littl e in

m aking the ar t a tta in a gra du a lly high er sta nd ard .

T he alipa na is a ch a r a cte ristic product of t he I ndia n

ar t of p a inting I t consi sts in v a riously p a inting the
.

flo ors a nd walls of a hous e or its courtya rd with the

pa ste of ric e powder on festiv e o cca sion s I t w a s pro
-
.

bably first invented by the fair sex T his ha s also b een .

a n item in the d e cora tion of G am b hir a t empl es E ven .

h ere competition w as rife a nd the fema l e pa inte rs of

,

the severa l G am b hir a p a rtie s tri ed to S how th e ir utmo st

S kill .I n this w ay ev e n such a thing a s the S impl e
al ipan a has conside rably improved .

T he G am b hir a has supplied a S timulus a lso to th e a r t

of wea ving O n such festiv e occasions V arious kinds of
.

fi ne cloth hav e b ee n l a rge ly in d e m a nd and the loc al ,

w ea v ers comp ete d with o ne a noth er not only in supply

ing th e m but a lso in improving the ar t .

H ence it will b e s ee n th a t t he G am b hira do es not

merely provid e amusement for the pe ople with da nce ,

song a nd mu sic but it la rgely h elps in a wa kening in the

,

mind s of m e n those Springs of a ction that ar e the ma in

ca u ses of the improv e m ent of lit erature and the fine
a rts
.

( )
5 T b e I nstitu tion a s a Senaat o
f M or a l Tm inin
g .

While on the o ne hand the G am b hir a festival e d u

, ,

cates the tastes a nd a rtisti c sen se of the peopl e by in

flu encing the folk po esy a nd ha ndicra fts it is on t he
-
, ,

oth e r a powerful school of moral education a nd politica l

,

train ing .

T he G am b hir é has be en a r eform er of socia l de fect s

a nd evils People learn from it an e a rnestn e ss a nd a
.

2
20 TH E FO L K E L E MEN T I N H I N D U C U L T U R E
-

capa city to work in a body fo r their common good .

T he truth th a t a lthough ind ep en de nt in th e ir individua l

a ffa irs the m emb e rs of a soci ety a r e but pa rt s of the
,

sa m e unit is well t au ght through th e ir joint work for

,

t he G a m b hir a .

B esid es the singers of the G a m b hir a publi sh , as it

,

w e re in a nd through th eir songs , an a nnua l r epo rt of

,

the soci a l life a nd thu s l a rgely h elp in improving its

,

ton e T he hidd en o ffences and s ecret vic es of indi

.

vid u als a r e e xpo se d by them and thus very v a lu abl e ,

service s are r end ered to mora ls .

T h e r e is a tradition with t he G a m b hir a m innesing er s

1
th a t sinn ers Should confess the ir own sin s to b e absolv ed
from th em V ery fe w person s a r e howev e r found now
.
, ,

a da y s to conform to th i
-
s rule But the G a m b hir a is .

not prepar ed to let the m o ff so easily Wh e n o ne p erson .

commits an o ffence and tri es to conceal it some other

person m akes a dra ma tic repr esentation of the whol e
ca se in the G am b hir a b efor e a l a rge a udi enc e T hi s .

s erv es a s a double b arrell ed gun I t ma ke s not only the

-
.

o ffend e r asha med of himself but has a d eterrent e ffect

a l so upon the a udi ence T h ey da re not r ep ea t it
.

ove rtly or cov ertly for fea r of this t erribl e exposure .

J udged from the socia l st andpoint the G a m b hir a will ,

thus app ear to b e at once the guid e prot ector a nd t e ,

forme r of society .

( )
’
Th
a e I nstitu tion as a Seliool o
f P u olie L ife .

Politic s a l so has a pl a ce in the G a m b hir a The .

p rinciple tha t works h er e is a v e ry simpl e a nd a nci ent

o ne . The G am b hir a festiviti es equip the peopl e with
the strength of unity a nd creat e in th em a since re desire
to combine in the rea liz ation of a common c a use .

F urther to regul ate this Str ength a nd en ergy h eroes

, ,

1
Vide pp 3 5 6
. 1 -
.
 A F E ST I V A L O F T H E PE O PL E 21

grow up from a mong themselves each of whom volu m ,

ta r ily t ake s upon hims e lf the re spon sibility of a dep a rt

ment U nd e r ea ch leader aga in th ere a r e s evera l
.
, ,

li eut e n an ts who a va il themselv es of his guid a nc e a nd

,

thus l ea rn how to work in a methodica l way T he .

G a m b hira w ill th u s b e found to be a healthy orga niz a

tion A nd it is thi s which ha s brought into forc e the
.

sys tem of a dmin istration by the Ma ndala or H ea dm a n ,

a nd it m a y a lso b e t a k e n to h a v e h elp e d in th e growth

of the Pa ncha yet sy st em ( lit gov ernment by fiv e ie

.
, . .

ma n a gem ent of V illage a ffa irs by a body of compet ent

m en ) .

T h e Mandalika sy stem works exa ctly as a politic a l

orga niz a tion Wh en discu ssing a subject a ffe cting a ll
.

h is p eopl e or wh en he sit s in judgm e nt u pon socia l o f

fenc es o f sm all m agnitud e the Ma nda la does not sit
,
”
a lon e but has t he V arik a or Par am anik a to help
him as his mini st er A ll his p eople ar e invit ed to
.

a tte nd a t the time of the tri a l T here are speci a l

.

messeng ers for summoning the p eopl e on this occa

sion A ll th ese o ffic ers a r e honora ry public s ervants
. .

T hi s practic e has b een in vogue from very ea rly

tim es . I t is with the help of the Ma nda la th at
village a dministration is c a rri ed on I t will thus b e seen
.

tha t the a s se mbly presid ed ov e r by the Ma nda la is really

but a minia ture form of the R oya l C ourt O n ent ering .

the a ss embly the m embers h av e to low er th eir h ea d s

“
in honour of the five“
T his fiv e r epresents the
Whole body of m e mbers or ra th er th eir unit ed str ength .

“
T h en meditating on the fiv e N ar aya na s a nd ima gin

ing themselv es to ha v e a ss embl ed before the en e rgy of

N ar ay a na ( G o d V i snu ) the m e mbers comm ence the
,

work of the a ssembly N o sympathy is seen to b e fe lt

.

with the o ffende r nor does a ny m ember v enture to show

, ,

even if he feel s a t hea rt a ny sympa thy with him T he

,
.
22 T H E F O L K E L E ME N T I N H I N D U C U L T U R E
-

punishm ent inflicte d is of two kinds a fine m ay b e im

posed upon the O ffender or he m ay be ordered to pro
,

ceed to holy pla ces to expi at e his o ffence T he fine . ,

wh e n rea liz ed is depo sited with the Manda la to be

,

spent th e reaft e r on some common good and not for the

ben efit of any one individual A ga in the budget of the
.
,

G am bhir a is p assed a nd a ll other a ffa irs rel ating to it ar e

settl ed with common con sent I t is evident from this .

that sound political principle s are at work in the G am

bhira orga ni z ation F urther it need be noted th a t the
.
,

rev erentia l a ttitude towa rds the C ouncil of the F ive a s

if it we re an assembly of fiv e gods in dicates the d emo
cratic spirit as expressed in the formula o ox popu l i oox ,

deii S tudents of world s m edi e v a l po litical institutions

’
.

ar e w ell a w a re through the re s ea rches of Ma in e E lphin ,

ston e B aden Powell and oth ers that the I ndia n V illage
,
-

C ommunities ( the an alogu es of R ussia n M ins) w e re

1

indigenous republican orga ni z ations of self gov ernm ent -

self legi slation and loc a l self taxation for loc a l purposes
-
,
-
.

See al so the accou nt

'
1
D utt s E conom ic H istory of I ndia
’ ’
Vza e .

o f C h ola A dm inistration ( tenth el ev enth centu ry) in A i angar s

’
y
-

A ncient I ndia .
 C H A PT E R II .

T H E BE NG A L I FO L K PO E SY O F SH AI V A I SM -
.

S E CT I O N I .
-
I M PO R T A NCE OF V E R N A C UL A R S .

W I TH t he a a
n lysi s of the univ e rse t aught by the san
khya a nd t he disciplin es of the Yoga says Princip a l ,

P T Shr iniv as I yenga r in the introduction to his tra n s

. .

'

la tion of the S /iio a Su tr a Vim a r sini of K sem ar'Ija in t he

-
c

“ “ ” 1
I ndia n T hought S eri es w ere w elded in the V ai s
,

n a v a a nd Sha iv a school s a lso the lov e of a p erson a l G o d Th In t

,
e e a

fizitiiifi
a nd th e b eli e f th at G od s gra c e is a n e c essa ry a nt e c e d e nt g
’ s

of individu al sa lv ation T hi s provi sion for d evotion to

.

a di stinct p e rson a l G o d en a bl ed th ese cults to oust th eir

riv a ls th e Bau dd ha and the J a in a a nd to continue to

, ,

our da ys to b e the living religions of I ndia in spite of ,

”
the supposed superiority of the V eda nta .

T he a bov e e xtra ct put s in a nutshell the whol e

history a nd philosophy of I ndia n Sh a iva cum Shak taism - -
.

O ne or oth er of the forms of this cult h av e comm a nd ed

for c enturies and do still comm a nd the devotion of
, ,

thou sand s of m e n a nd wom e n in a ll pa rts of I ndia

a mong t he K a shmiri s Punj a bis R ajputs Ma rath a s
, , , ,

S outh ern ers A ndhra s and Benga lees

,
I n spit e of the .

rigidity a nd infl exibility of custom s and socia l life

brought a bout by codification of la ws in rec ent tim e s ,

a nd notwithst a nding the n a rrow provinci a l spirit of the

E d ited b y D r G anganath Jh a and D r T h ibau t

1
. Vide Sir . .

Bhandarkar s Va isna vism , S/ia im km a nd [Minor R el igiou s System s,

’

and a l so Chatterjis K aslunir Slca ioaism

’
.

23
24 T H E F O L K E L E ME N T I N H I N D U C U L T U R E
-

modern educated I ndia ns du e to the growth of habit s,

a n d sentim e nts in wa t e rtight a dmini stra tive comp a rt

m ents the soul of I ndi a is rea lly o ne I t would be
,
.

int eresting to study how in the a bsence of railwa ys a nd

t elegraphs and printing pr ess es in a nci ent a nd m edie v a l
tim es o ne touch of N a tur e m a d e as it w e re t he whol e
”
“
, ,

I t is a t thi s age di ffi cult to con

”
I ndia n world kin
“
.

cei v e t h e m a nifold proc es ses of soci a l int e rmixtur e a nd

cultura l r ap s tha t m a d e possibl e t h e filtra tion

pr o c/ie m en t -

of idea s both hori z ont a lly a nd v ertica lly T he kaleido .

sc0 p ic politic a l ch a nges which shifted the V ita l c entres

of gravity from p eople to pe ople provinc e to provinc e , ,

a nd district t o di strict a nd n e c es sa rily conv e rt ed the

,

borderla nds or buffer Stat es of o ne epoch into promin e nt

-

sea t s of politic a l a nd cultura l life o f the n ext a nd o c ,

casi o na l l
y div e rt e d t h e str ea m of civili z ation from a

sometim e stronghold of p a ra mount i deas a lo ng new and '

untrodde n ch a nn el s are ha rdly vi sible to u s to day b e

,
-

c ause o f the p aucity of historic a l details bea ring on th em .

O n the other h a nd the tra nsl ation of higher culture

,

into the tongu es of t he peopl e of the v a rious p arts from

the common stor ehous e of Sa nskrit the l ing u a f z anca ,
'

of e ducat ed I ndia throug h the age s and the n e c essa ry ,

modifications or a daptations ha ve imparted a loca l colour

ing a nd distinctiv e ton e to the a ll I ndi a H indu tr a dition s
-
,

sentim ent s a nd custom s in t he se v e ra l p a rt s of the

country Socia l a nd re ligious life of the p eople of I ndia

.

has thus b een for ages gov erned not simply by the t e xts
of the S h astras in Sa nskrit ( which by the by a lso could , ,

not esc ape the n atura l a daptation to the condition s of

time and pla ce) but al so really a nd to a pow erful e xtent
,

by the v ast m ass of v e rn acular lit era ture both secula r ,

a nd r eligiou s tha t gr ew u p S ide by s ide with a nd

'

ev entua lly r epl a ced the origin a l storehous e T u lsidasa .

,

K r ittiv asa and T u kar fim a ar e a few of t he num e rous

26 TH E F O L K E L E ME N T I N H I N D U C U L T U R E
-

tion the future histori a n would h a v e to depend more

and more on T a mil
1
B engali Marathi and H ind i
, ,
.

SECTI ON I l .
— S AL UT AT I O N SO N G S -
IN B E NGAL I
MAN USCR I PT S .

Before proceeding to d escribe th e va rious parts of

the G am bhira festivities w e giv e some of the Bengali
folk hymns that ar e re cite d by the d evotees before th eir
-

god S hiva on the festiva l days T he Vandancis or .

Salut ation songs are in m a nuscript

- T hese ar e the .

compositions of vill age poets and po et a sters and give ,

a n a ccount of the v a riou s m e thods a dopted by the

Bhakt as or votari es to purify in mind and thought

both themselves as well as the t emple pandal cot , ,

tages the four quarters a nd all the p a raphern alia of

, ,

the festiv a l The cosmogony a dopte d in th ese rustic

.

songs indic ates the p eculi a r ch a nn e l through which the

popu l ar mind has grown in th ese pa rts of E astern
I ndia and would b e interesting to schol ars who h ave
,

d evoted themselves to the study of I ndi an sociology .

To a certain ext ent the litera ture of the G am b hira

,

cycles m ay be aptly compa red with the mysteries and

2
m ira cle pla ys in O ld E nglish
-
a nd the N o pl ays of -

J apan .

O n the days of the C hhota T am as a a nd the B ada

’

‘
T fim asa the Bha kta s ga ther together at dusk in the
G am b hir a hou se T he Ma nda l a of the G am b hira or
.

the chief vota ry sta nds up ca ne in hand like the village , ,

schoolm aster a nd ma kes the othe r votaries st and in a

,

row b e for e him T h en th ey b egin S imult aneously to

.

1
Mr S K rishnaswam i A iyangar has in his
. . sch ola r ly
histo rical
work , A ncient I ndia , de m onstrated th e val u e of Tam i
l in the con
str u ction of South I ndian h isto ry .

2
Vide TIn M diceoa l Stage by C ham b ers
, .

3
L esser festivities .
4
Greater festivities .
 T H E BE N GAL I FO L K PO E SY O F S H A I VA I SM -
27

sing a loud the hymn in front of the im a ge of Shiva und er ,

the tutoring of the chi ef vota ry who sings first D uring , .

the o ffering of the hymns t ill the commencement of

Ara ti ( the presenta tion of lights the smoke of burnt ,

inc ens es a nd of the sounding b ell to a god jointly ,

ca lle d w a v e offering) th e vota ri e s h av e to sta nd on o ne

-
,

leg only and with the compl etion of ea ch p a rt of s ev er a l

,

hymns they hav e to a dv ance two pa c es on o ne foot only

a nd th en to r eturn in the s a m e w ay to th e ir form e r

pl a c es Comp aring the G a m b hira hymns of di fferent

.

villa ges o ne will no doubt find som e di fferenc es a mong

, , ,

th e m but the underlying idea will app ear to b e the sa m e

,

in a ll .

S E CT I O N I I I — S PE C I M E N
. I .

1
T he first sp ecim en of Sa luta tion song is giv en b elow -
.

I Whence do you come O L ord and whe re is

.
, v,
I n oca

your hom e ? ( you ar e a my st e rious b e ing ) you com e ,

ev ery d ay but n ev er ( w e ob serv e with wond er ) do you

t a ke any food or drink Wh en th e r e is no l and or.

wate r but only an imm ens e void you do rest on ( such a ,

V olatil e thing as ) c a mphor a nd liv e upon a i r only .

O h wh a t a G o d of G ods is our Shiv anath a L ord

, ,

S hiv a !
2 .T h e r e w a s n either l a nd nor w a ter nor the region Dh m ar a as
v ‘d Th ° e
of god s ( only ) D ha rma ma n aged somehow to abide as hi t y f th s or
‘

o e

V o id . The cr a b w as sent by him und er the ea rth a nd t f th crea io n o e

it fetch ed a lump of ea rth as big a s a dot T o thi s w as Hills. iii

r ’
h
. :s s
l t “ pp “ as m
a dd e d a noth e r as big a s a s esa mum s ee d a nd to thi s ye t
, ,

a nother as big a s a m a rm elos fruit ( V e l a ) a nd thu s w as

the world cre ated ( a nd pla c e d ) on t he ba ck of t he tor

toise T hus do I na rr a te b efore this a s sembly the
.

history of the world s crea tion as told by my L ord

’

1 I t is in the ossession of
p Bab u Gadadhar a Das of D hantala,
Malda .
 28 TH E F O L K E L E ME NT I N H I N D U C U L T U R E
-

a vour of Sa r aswa ti
( spiritu a l ) preceptor through the f
( the G oddess of K nowledge ) .

O h wh a t a G od of G ods is our Shiv anAtha !

,

P ifi ti n
ur ca o T her i the L a l ir i hill with D a rsa n a as its door
of th th
e m ou
3 e s.
g
and th w hol but I w as not born on th at
e e ( Th e line is obscure u n
. ,

b dyo .
less it mean s tha t I w a s not born in the usua l w ay ) .

a r e pure my fee t a r e pure a nd pure

( H ence ) my h a n ds ,

a r e the words of my fiv e mouth s ( S hiv a or Ma hadev a

b eing represented as h a ving fiv e mouth s) although I ,

h ave not worshipped Bh a v an i the first d eity (represent

ing entire divin e energy ) I know my body is pur e .
,

sta nding before the door of Shiva who is older tha n the
d
,

A g a m a ( the esoteric scripture of the H indus ) and the

O h, wh a t a G o d of G ods is our Shiv anatha !

4 The U llu ka (gibbon ) s ays it is the G uru ( spiritu a l
.
,

prec eptor ) who is the ca use of this U nd e r his orders .

the four corn ers of the temple h a ve become purifi ed .

H e re sits the G uru , the L ord of G ods in the templ e

with his mind ( concentrated ) H is words h ave purified .

my vot aries .

O h wh a t a G od of G ods is our S hiv anatha !

,

5 U nder orders of K am akhy a (a noth er n a m e of

.

C h a ndi) K ala ( the n a m e of a bl acksmith) sh aped a bill

,

hook Brahm a ( the creator ) sits in the front V i snu

.
,

( the protector ) in the rea r a nd Shiv a ( the d estroyer ) in

,

the middl e R ememb ering the na m e of S hiva b eings

.
,

h a v e fa ll en i nto the mouth this day ( ie h a ve come into . .

exi st e nc e ) 1
.

O h what a G o d of G ods is our Bho lanatha (anoth er

,

n am e of Shiva) or Shiv a natha !

The d escent 6 K apil a ( th e cow m ention ed in the Purana s as
.

of K apil a
posse ssing divin e powers ) of h ea ve n cam e down to the
.

H er b irth

robab l y efers to the story that Brahm a created the Bra

1
It p r h
m aria fr o m his m o u th .
 T H E B E N GA L I F O L K PO E SY O F SH A I VA I S M -
29

ea rth a nd Vishw eshw ar a ( lit the lord of the univ e rse .

,

)
a n a m e of S hiv a mount e d hi
(
s bull a nd a lso c a m e down
) .

She supports the world of m e n a nd her udd er which , ,

gives milk curds gh e e a nd butt e rmilk purifi es the

, , ,

ea rth. I do tell the story of the birth of K a pil a b efor e

thi s gath ering a s I hea rd it from the lips of my L ord
, ,

th e ( spiritu a l ) pr e c eptor through the gr a c e of Sa ra swa ti .

O h wh a t a G o d etc
, , .

7 A l a s ! M ah ad ev a ( Shiv a) wh at ar e you doing Ch i g

.
, ur n n of

(thus ) sitting ( so idly ) ! T he oth er gods ca me down gfi

,

in a body a nd th ey h ave churn e d the ocea n ( O f the di t ibpti .

s r on of
th p e m es
pri z e s thu s obta in e d ) I ndra ( the K ing of gods) has ta ke n
’

the U chcha israv a hors e a nd N ar ayana ( a noth er na m e of

,

V isnu) has poss ess ed him self of L ak smi ( the G oddes s of

F ortun e ) ; a nd the other god s h av e di stributed the rest
a mong thems elves B e ing la st ( to cla im your sh a re)
.

you ar e only to b e d eceiv ed ( A t thi s) M ah adeva cri ed .

out in a nger Wha t a m I to do now ?

,

Oh w h at a G o d etc
, , .

8 M a ke your sa lut a tion to la nd wa t er a nd to the S l t ti

.
,
a u a on to

G am b hir a of V ud a ( old est m eaning the F irst ,

S hiv a a nd a l so to the songs ( hymn s in pra i se ) of Sa ra

,

s wa ti t he G oddess of K nowl edge

,
We bow low at the .

feet of S hiva who rides a n ox .

O h wh a t a G o d of G ods is our D at amatha ( L ord of I v ti

,
n o ca on of
th gm e
the givers of boons ; anoth er n a me of Shiv a ) or Shiv a -
“

nath a .

9 ( Ma k e your sa lut a tion etc )

. L et u s bow low a t , .

the feet of G a n e sh a (the b estower of succ ess ) who has

come riding a mou se .

O h wh at a etc
, , .

10
( M
. a k e your s alut a tion et c
) L et u s h o w low ,
.

a t the feet of K artika ( t he G o d of Wa r ) w ho rid es a

pea cock .

O h wha t a etc
, ,
.
 30 T H E F O L K E L E ME N T I N H I N D U C U L T U R E
-

1 1 .
( Ma lutation e tc ) L et u s ho w low
ke your sa , .

a t the feet of L ak smi who ha s com e riding a n owl .

O h what a e tc
, , .

1 2
( M
. a k e your s a lut a tion et c ) L et u s bow low
, .

a t the fe et of G a mga the pres iding d eity of the G a nges

(
-
wife of S hiva) who has come riding a ma k a ra ( a fabu
lous m arine creature som ething lik e the sea l ) .

O h wh at a e tc
, , .

I 3
( M
. a ke your s a lut a tion etc ) L et u s bow low
, .

a t t he fe et of D urga a n a m e of C ha ndi represented as

( ,

h aving t en ha nds ) who has come riding a lion .

O h wha t a etc
, , .

14 ( Make you r s alut ation etc ) L et us bow low

.
, .

D ea th ) who has come

a t the feet of Y a m a
( L ord of
riding a buffa lo .

15
( Make your sa luta tion etc ) L et us bow low
.
, .

a t the fe et of B ra hm a the cr eator who has come riding

,

a sw a n .

O h wh a t a etc
, , .

16
( Ma k e your sa lutation etc ) L et u s bow low
.
, .

at the feet of the thirty crore s

(three hundr ed millions)
of gods who ha v e come on the b a cks of gibbons .

O h what a etc
, , .

17
( M ake your s a lutation etc ) L et us ho w lo w at
.
, .

the feet of thos e ( gods ) whos e n a mes w e do not know

, .

O h wha t a et c
, , .

18 T he horse is white a nd th e p al an a ( ca p a ri son )

.

is m a d e of the rich cloth known as ne t Bl essed be .

( the na m e of) J aga nn ath a ( L ord of the U niv ers e a l so ,

a n a m e of the crea tor

) the watchm a n ( K otala ) A s
, .

ordered by him let m e out through the south ern ga t e

, .

The sout h er n O ver the south ern gate presides t he bles sed J aga n
Sa ‘
e
n atha I n his puri ( th er e is here a pun T he word Puri
. .

m ean s a to wn there is a lso a town of this n a me in O rissa ,

wh er e the im age of J aga nn atha is worshipped ) peopl e

 TH E BE NGAL I FO L K PO E SY O F S H A I V A I SM -

31

purch a se cooked ric e for their food and in the a bs ence of ,

wa t er in the K a m andalu ( a wa t e r pot more gen era lly -

us ed by a sc etic s) they rub th eir ( uncl ea n ) hands 1 ov er

,

the ir h ead s ( m ea ning tha t through the influ enc e of the

god th e re is observed here no c aste distinction nor a ny
di ffe renti ation b etween physica l purity and impurity ,

ev erything b e ing pur e in the holy atmospher e of thi s

sacred pla c e) .

O h what a et c
, , .

19 T he hors e is white a nd the cap arison is m ade of Th w

. e ester n

g t a e‘
the rich cloth known as net B l e sse d be (the n a me of) .

J aga nn ath a the watchma n A S ord ered by him now

, .
,

let m e out through the w est e rn ga te .

O v er the w estern ga t e presides the el ev enth Bhim a

( a n a me of Mah adeva or Shiv a mea ning the a wful) I , .

bow down a t his feet .

O h wha t a etc
, ,
.

20 T he hor se is whit e etc

. A t the north ern gat e Th
, . e nor th er n

k eeps wa tch Bh anu Bh ask a ra R aya ( m ea ning proba bly g a t e'

the glorious S u n god Bh anu and Bhask a ra both r e

-
.
,

fer to the Su n R ay a m ea ns of the roya l lin e honour

.
, ,

a ble . H enc e it m ay b e ta k e n to m ea n glorious ) .

O h wh a t a etc
, ,
.

21 .T h e hor se is whit e etc A t K am arupa ( a town T h

, . e easter n

“
in A ssa m ) which is the ea st ern gat e ke eps watch und er
,
3
, ,
1

orders of C h a ndi ( represe nted her e a s) the da ught er of

,

a H andi ( b elonging to the lowest cla s s of H indu s ) the ,

godd es s ) K am akhy a ( the s a m e godd e s s in a nother form

(
a nd und er a di ffe rent n a m e) I b ow low at her feet . .

O h wh at a etc
, , .

S ECT I ON l V — S PEC I ME N
. 2 .

A comparatively l a rge account is to be found in

an old m a nuscript which is in the possession of B abu
is to wash the hands cl ean with water after
T he rul e generally
1

m eal s.
 32 TH E FO L K E L E ME N T I N H I N D U C U L T U R E
-

K iso r im oha n D as of R adh an aga r in M a lda . We quote

t he hymn s b elow
Cr eation
. I . We nxious to know O L ord how you
ar e a , ,

ma n aged to abide in the form O f the V oid at the tim e of

the univ ersa l d eluge .

H e ( the L ord ) ord ered th e cra b of gold en hu e a nd ,

born in the lin e of cha riot ee rs ( Su tayoni) to fetch ea rth , .

T he crab fetch ed a lump of earth in the shap e of a n

e g
g .
( nd) the egg burst into two
A .

( T hi s is
) how t h e world w a s cr ea t ed by t he L ord

( Bhagav an) .

O h wha t a etc
, , .

2 E a rth E a rth , E arth — By whom w as it

.
,
creat ed ?
B rahm a, V isnu a nd Maheshw ara, the three together
produc e d it .

K al a the expert black smith sh ap ed out the bill hook

, ,
-
.

( T h ey ) a scerta ining well its ( prob ably mea ning the egg)
hea d middle a nd e nd appli e d the bill hook to it
, ,
-
.

( O f the three pa rt s thus ma d e) B ra hm a tak e s his

seat on the h ead V i snu on the end a nd Shiva on the, ,

middl e L et the crea tur es t a k e their s eats on the place

.

where dwells the twelfth Shiva .

O h wh a t a G o d etc
, , .

E a rth E a rth E a rth — By whom w a s it creat ed

, ,

snu and Maheshw ara the three togethe r

— Bra hm a V i
, ,

produc ed it .

( H ea ring this ) the pott er K al a cri ed out

“
Y es ,

O G o sain ( L ord ) n o w h a v e I rem e mb ered ( al l this)

,

3 T hi s K al a pott er had o ne or two broth e r s

. T h ey .

pr epared clay a nd depo sit ed it in sev era l pla c es .

A ft er the cl ay w as pr epa r ed th ey put it on t he wheel ,

a nd th en by two and a h a lf turns of the whee l th ey

, ,

turn ed out the Da nk er patila (an ea rth en v essel with a

mirror in it pla c ed in front of the image ) and G hat a
,

e r) and D hu v chi ( vessel for burning inc ense in

( pitch ) .
34 TH E FO L K E L E ME N T I N H I N D U CU L T U R E
-

O p en your doors of sa nda l wood so th a t they m ay

giv e you milk and w ater of the G a nges ( the y have
and l oo ked u pon the H indu s and the M o ham m edans with ou t dis
ti
nctio n . With h im caste had no m ean ing . T he foll ower s of this

sect l ook u p to him a s an inca rnatio n of Go d . A cco rd ing to them

K risna chand ra ( K risna ofN adia) , G au ra chandra ( Chaitanya o f
N adia) and Au l a ch andra are b u t one and the sam e, b ei
ng o ne in

three and th r ee in o ne . T h ey say th at it was the Mah apr ab hu

(C haitanya) him sel f who after his disappearance fro m Puru sotta m a
,

(Pu ri) r eappeared I n the guise of Au l a Mahaprab hu (lit the great

,
.

L ord) H e had m any nam es su ch as Phakir Th ak u r Sain G osain

.
, , , , .

Prob ab l y the nam e Au l a was giv en him by his Moham m ed an fol lo wers
or a dm ir er s, fro m th e Persian wor d A u l ia, m eani
ng one possessing
d iv ine power s H e is said to ha v e perfor m ed m any m iracl es, one
.

a m ong t hem b eing h is cr ossing th e G anges with sandal s on Wise .

m en o f this sect say th at thei gion consists in worshipping the

r rel i

Mak er al one, al thou gh idol wo rship is al so in Vogu e am ong them

-
.

T h e G u r u s, spir itu al preceptor s o f this sect, ar e styl ed M ahashayas

‘
(ie Sir es) I n Sinna Va nda na w e hav e pu rifi ed b y
’

. . . Th e seat was
D haram agu r u M ah ashaya ( ie Sir e . . and a l so the follo wing
l ine
We all th e peopl e assem b l ed in the Gam bhira are d ev otees of
V isnu BhaiAu l a
’
.

The G am b hir a is pu r ifi ed, as we ar e dev otees of V isnu Bhai

Au la .

T he m eaning of V isnu B h ai h ere I s no t at all cl ear . Prob abl y it

wa s th e d ev o tees of Au l a fo ll o wing th e
his disciple V isnu l ead of

D asa that thu s in v oked their preceptor ’s b enediction, o r the co m

poser s o f the ab o v e hym n m ight b e d irect fo l l o wer s o f Sir e V isnu
Th e Au la sect com m ences r evel r ies at th e dead of ni ht
D asa .
g
and p asses th e rest o f it in r eli i
g ou s em otion, expressing itsel f in
terrifi c r oars and grinnings I t wou l d th us b e cl ear why the
.

Gam b hira fest iv ities shou ld cl aim th e attention o f the d ev otees o f

Au l a .

We q u ote b el ow a song of th is Au la sect

“
A ll gl ory to our preceptor , to o u r L o r d, m ad afterG od and
l ost in h is m editation O h, ho w char m ing are . his v irtues l w e are
ev en pr e ared t o di e rather than su ffer th em to b e im air ed in an
p p y
way H is v irtu es hav e no end o wing to h is d eeprel i iou s fervou r
g
.

his b ody is b esm eared with ash es instead o f with sandal wo od

paste
-
 TH E BE N G A L I FO L K PO E SY O F S H A I V AI S M -

35

brought as presents ) T we lve times do they bow at .

your fe e t .

O h what a G o d etc
, , .

6 H ere h a v e w e com e to see you with buoy a nt V i it w ith

. s
Sh ’v a '
hearts Be pl eas ed O L ord to a pp ea r b efore u s and to
.
, ,

look at us with gold en ( ie gra cious) ey es . . .

We the followers of Aula do tend er twelv e bows at

your feet .

O h wh a t a G o d etc
, , .

7 T here is V é na R éja ( K ing v ana ) a d evotee of S l t ti t , a u a on o

R afi "
Shiv a d ecora t ed with pearls a nd cora ls T he whol e sur
,
v a
.
-
na

fa ce of his golde n body d ecora t ed with gold threa ds , ,

shin es as though it w e r e a ll gold T welv e tim es do w e .

bow at his feet .

O h wha t a G od etc
, , .

8 M ighty H a num an ( son of Pa v a na the Wind god H

. a ,
-

,
anu m n

a nd th a t monke y follow e r of R am a who cross ed ov er to

-

C eylon a nd brought the n ew s of his consort S ita) fetch e d

p
four pi e c es of ston e Shr ikanta scraped a nd sh ape d th em ,

a nd pour e d molte n gl ass ov e r th e m T h en he cov er e d .

the four roo fs of C ha ndi m a ndapa ( t empl e) with whit e -

chama ras ( cho u r ie the ta il of the T ib eta n ya k used as

,

a fly brush )-
1
.

(ie
. . him per fu m es and ash es hav e th e sam e v al u e)
to O h , h o w d eep .

in h is m ed itatio n l— H e is qu ite content w ith rags and torn K anthés

(th in q u ilts) , and r eceiv es a m enial and a k ing e qually : H e l ook s
ab ou t him w ith r estl ess eyes Who knows w hy and who can say .

wh er e h e is, whith er h e go es and wh ere he is not

B /idr a ta oa r siya Updsaka Sa mpr addy a
-

(T he R el igio u s Sects - .

of I nd ia .
) By A k sayak u m ar D atta .

1
D harm a sthana, o f Snu nya P ur dna , we h a v e
In -

T he stones were l aid in fo u r r o ws and m any were the b eau ti

fu l beam s o f gol d that were u sed T he fl o or was pa v ed with gol d .

”
a nd l oo k ed i
l l
k e m o ten glass .

I n D iza r m a m a nga l a ( of Ghanaram a)

T he fou r ro o fs were covered with cham aras nam ed Gangajal a
k
4

3
36 TH E FO L K E L E ME N T I N H I N D U C U L T U R E
-

O h wha t a G od etc
, , .

H olding in th ir h nd m c e s the chatpa t i( flu tt er

9 . e a s a ,

ing or fl exibl e e nds it is a n onom a topo etic word m ea n

“
In th a t which fa lls ch a tp at as sm a ck i n sm a ck w e nt
g ,

the whip o f which i s m a d e of copp e r a nd the n al a ( lit ,

.

st e m ; h enc e the st ea dy p a rt i.e the ha ndle ) of gold ,

. ,

N andi Bhr ingia nd Mahak fila a r e mounting guard a t the

,

door of Shiva T he whol e door is blocked by Bha ktas

. ,

too m a ny to n a m e th em sepa ra tely and with sanda l

wood past e and the sweet fragra nce of the scre w pin e -

flow er N andi is quickly relie ving th e m of th eir fatigue .

T hus do a l l the bh a kt as ente r the room of S hiva the ,

K ashish wara ( L ord of K a shi B en a r es) G am b hira is ,

.

purifi e d as w e ar e V isnu Bhai ( ie following the l ea d of . .

V isnu Dasa ) d evote es of Aula .

O h wh a t a G o d etc
, , .

I o T h e G uru tie d the mon ey th at he would requir e to

.

liv e six months a t o ne end of th e pi ec e of cloth that he

w as wea ring a nd e nt er e d t he for est with a triumph ant
bu stl e T he re he found a smooth and slim tree on which
.

l ea v es grew from the root a nd which closely resembl ed .

the K a ravi tr ee H e cut o ff its top and roots and took

-
.

t he middl e portion T h en he skinn ed a nd scra p e d it a nd

.

m a d e two dh aka ( drum ) sticks out of it The left .

h a nd stick is Sa raswa ti a nd the right h a nd o ne is -

U r dd ha ( lit high or e l ev a t ed )
. T hrough the gr a c e of .

S hiv a D urga the drum stick s of t h e G am b hir a ar e

-

,
-

purifi ed .

O h wh at a G o d et c
, , .

or pu rifi ed w ith waters fro m the Ganges and were decorated ni

cel y

her e a nd th er e with peaco ck -

tails . Pennons w er e placed on pitchers
of gol d o r sil v er and the fl oor was d eco rated with go l d l ook ing l ike
”
m o l ten gl ass .

T hen again in S/zu ny a P u r ina .

T h e store h ou se was co v ered with peacock s ( ie peaco ck tails)

-
. .
-

and p itcher s o f gol d ad orned the fl oor .

 TH E BE N GA L I FO L K PO E SY O F S H A I VA I SM -

37

Wh en H anuman w ent to L am k a ( Ceylon ) he Sh g f

g
I I
g
. a o
k
ate m ango ( m ang if er a indica ) fruit s throwing their fgf f f, f , um o o

ston e s bout
a a n d out of th es e spra ng up tr ees known M g w d an o -
oo
St h g f r et c in o
as A ma r ava t i lit
( belonging to Pa radi se m ango trees) th ki f
.
,
-
. e s n o

T he sprout shoots out first ; th en thi s grow s into the

tree. I n e v ery six months the tr ee grows ta ll e r by
twelv e cubit s ( 6 T he top a nd the roots ( of o ne
such tr ee) w er e cut o ff a nd the middl e portion s el ect ed ,

s cra ping a nd skinn ing which a D h aka

( long drum ) w as

m a de The bla ck smith sh ap ed out a n iron c a uldron

.
,

a nd m u chi r am a
( ie a skinn e r
.
).str etch ed t he skin of

K a pil a cow ( on the wood e n fra m e of the drum ) a ft er

h eating it on the c a uld ron U tt ering the na m e of .

Shiva the stick w as appli ed to the drum a nd the dea d

,

l ea th e r m a de forty two sounds ( ie sound e d loudly )

-
. . .

O h wh at a G o d etc
, , .

12 T he G uru sits in a purifi ed a sse mbly with his Th Bh a

. e n

neck a dorn ed with n eckla c e of satesw a r i I am going 32 325253 .

to purify the storehous e unde r ord e rs of my G uru out g dim"igé an -

l n

p p a e
of kindn ess he has taught m e (th ese) word s ( of pu r ifica
tion ) I a m purifying the four corn er s of the Ch a ndi
.

m a ndap a un de r ord ers of my G uru .

O h wh a t a G o d etc
, , .

I 3 Purifi e d are my p a r ents a nd purified is the va su P ifi ti

. ur ca on

m a ti ( earth ) from whom I h a v e sprung ( S itting on

,
.

this sea t ) I ha v e b e com e as pow erful as the go ds G w u

( b ec a u se
) this s ea t ha s just b ee n purified by sir e

D h a rm a G uru .

O h wh at a G od etc
, ,
.

14 Mak e your ob ei sa nc e to l a n d a nd w ate r a nd S l t ti t

. a u a on o
“
a lso to t he hut of S hiv a Bow low a l so to the S u n a nd $2
.
25
1
M oon cov ering eight cubit s of ground ( ie fa lling flat
,
. .

on the ground with out str etched h and s) .

I bow low at the feet of K au sena s son N ayanasena

’

,
 38 T H E FO L K EL E ME N T I N H I N DU CUL T UR E
-

Datta 1
who introduc ed ( by bringing it down as it w e r e
,

D at ta from h ea ven ) the vra t a ( volunt ary vow attende d with

cere moni e s a nd worship ) tha t has to b e obs erv ed in
honour of Maheshw ara ( Shiv a) .

O h what a G o d etc , , .

I
5 I n the month of V a isha k ha ( A pril Ma y) the
cultivator ploughed the fi eld a nd I n the month of Asa dha
( J un e J uly
) L ord Shiva sowed the s eeds of the cotton
-

pl ant A ft er thi s he w ent to kuchni —pada ( h aml et of

.

K och wom en ) in respon se ( to a ca ll from th er e) a nd on

his r eturn he coll e ct ed t he raw cotton a nd m a d e it over
to (his wife ) G a nga .

Gan ga k
m a G a nga m ad e y a rns out of thi s cotton a nd with those
2
2 smfgg ya rn s Shiva worked at the loom and brought out a piec e
gy a m

of cloth I t w as w ash ed by la undr ess N it ai in the

mx
i a t th e .

cha rming wat ers of the oc ea n of milk .

16 J agann atha w ent to Para dise and stole from

.

there Parij ata ( flow er tree of Pa radi se produc ed at the

churning of the ocea n as d escrib e d in t he Pu r dna s)
t he crimson Parij at a T h e gosain took in his ha nds .

t he end of th e st a lk as a pl ea sure c a n e
( ie stick ) . . .

( T hus) did the ca n e of h ea v en d esce nd ie on the , .

ea rth L ak sm i ( also ) out of cond esc ension c a m e down , ,

ther e .

O h wh a t a G o d etc , , .

17 O ffe r your sal u t ation to la nd and water a nd a lso

.

1
I n D /za r m a m a nga l a we com e a cr o ss o ne L au sch a , so n of

K ar nasena, w ho intro du ced and pro pagated the wor shipo f D har m a .

Pr ob ab ly K au sena a nd K ar nasena r efer to th e sam e per so n ,

and

N ayanasena and L au sena a l so

b u t different nam es o f o ne and
ar e

th e sa m e m an K ar nasena b el o nged to the Ba nia ( m er cantil e)

.

caste and his wi fe R anjav ati was t he dau ghter o f a B ania H er .

b ro th er M aham ad a b el onged to th e D atta fam il y, th e m em b ers

of which alone are fou nd to hav e b een patrons o f th e D har m a
cu l t.
 TH E BE N GAL I FO L K PO E SY O F SH A I VA I SM -

39
‘
to G a m b hira Bow low to the D umura ( sla ng form S l t ti t
.
1
a u a on o

of Dam ar u a sma ll drum shap ed lik e an hou r gla ss and 32

, 33333222 -

)
a fa vourit e mu sical instrument of S hiv a to t he right a nd ‘ B h g‘ m fi 0 a

to H a numan to the l eft L o ! there s Bhagav ati ( an

.
’

oth e r n a m e O f C ha nd i ; lit po sse sse d of the w ea lth of

.

divin e e n e rgy in a ll its a spects ) s eat ed on t he ba ck of

a lion Ma ke your ob e isa nc e tw elve tim es at her fee t
. .

O h wh a t a G o d etc
, , .

18 O ffer your s alutation etc

. We bow low S l t ti t
, . a u a on o
m “g d a ° s‘
tw elv e times at the fee t of all the G ods that ar e here .

O h wh a t a G o d etc
, , .

19 O ffe r your saluta tion etc

.
, .

I h a v e ( thu s) sung the s a lutation hymns a nd do -

( now ) m a k e tw elve bows a t the feet of a ll .

O h wha t a G o d etc
, , .

S E CT I O N V .
-
S PE C I ME N 3 .

T he la te M ichhu al Das of the Ma nda la fa mily of

K asimpur in Ma lda re cit ed the s aluta tion hymn s in the -

G a m bhir a and a lso pl ay e d the p a rt of H a num an H is .

hymn s a r e an exact copy of the chapt er on C reation in

ia ndi of M anik D a tt a
‘
the C/ F rom this it is app a r ent .

th at in olden da ys the story of creation by D ha rma

N ira nja na form ed a p art of the G am b hir a festiviti es in
Malda .

1 L ord D h a rm a N ir anjana of whit e compl exion S l

. a u ta tion to
Dh 2 ar m a
a nd dress e d I n wh ite 15 Sitt ing on a wh ite b edst ea d
Ni
.
,
r anjana

I n Snu ny a Pur dna am ong the ar ticles of D harm a s acco u tr e

’
1

m ents, we hav e T her e is the d u m ura ( ie dam aru) to the r ight and . .

”
H anu m an to the l eft .

2 We hav e the foll owing lines in the hym ns o f Dh ar m a in the

D fiar m am a nga ta of M anik G angu li
“
White is the com plexion, white is th e dhu ti (piece of cl oth tied
r o und the wai st) , and the whiteness o f the o rnam ents is su ch as
40 T H E FOL K EL E ME N T I N H I N D U CU L TUR E
-

Ohwhat a G od of G ods is our Shiv a natha the giver

, ,

(of boons) .

2 L ord D h a rm a hims elf m editat e d on the glob e

.

s he bro
( univers e ) a n d in doing,
thi ught into e xistenc e

the h ea d of D ha rm a .

L ord D h arm a him self m edit at e d o n the globe and ,

in doing this he creat e d th e body of D ha rm a .

O h wh a t a G o d of G ods is our D atamatha ( lit lord

,
.

of the giv ers of boon s) .

3 ( T
. hu s
) h a s b ee n born L ord D h a rm a m a tchl ess ,

in a ttribut es who will creat e the world and est ablish his
,

glory T he sa liv a of D h arma fell down from his mouth

. ,

a nd from hi s h a nds a nd fee t did w a t e r sprin g up on the

1
ea rth .

can be r eal i
z ed o nl
y throu gh m editation . Wh ite is the sandal paste ,

white ar e the sandal s o n th e feet, and th e th rone is al so o f th e white

co m pl exion The ph onta (sectar ian m ar k on th e forehead ) is wh ite,
.

the cl o tted h air on th e h ead is wh ite, and the neck lace is al so m ade
o f wh ite m oo ns White are the canopy and b edstead and white are
.

th e standar d and its staff . ( T hu s) the wh ol e h ou se is b r igh t and

”
gl oriou s with (a profu sion o f) white co lou r .

‘
1
As to the creation o f water we hav e in th e Sicu nya P u r a na
All
”
o f a su dden d id water fl o w fr om the V im bu ( Sal iva of

th e L ord .

Ad i Bu ddha or D har m a while fl oating on water , seated him self

on h is co n eyance v U ll u ka (gibbon) Fro m th e Cil a nd i o f Manik

.

D atta we l ear n o t e crea on o f h e l o tu s and o f D har m a s sitti

f h ti t
’
ng

ther eon . Th e l o tu s ha s b een indicated as th e seat o f Bu dd ha .

'
A ccording to the Snu ny a P u r ana the worl d wa s cr eated fro m th e
fi l th o f the b ody T hu s .

N arayana too k pin ch o f the fi l th

a .

In th is way t h e L o r d pr o du ced th e m ater ial s for cr eati

on .

Stu d ents of Pal i f ita na ( Bir th) sto ries ar e fa m iliar with th e
l egend that in b ir th Bu ddha assu m ed th e fo rm o f a m ark ata
one

( m onk ey) and per fo r m ed the Praj na Param ita .

U ll u k a seem s to appear o ccasionall y in the fo rm o f H anu m an .

I t was from th e person o f D harm a that h e was b o r n I t seem s, .

t herefore, th at the theo r ies ab ou t the o rigin o f U l l u k a were b ased

42 TH E FO L K EL EME N T I N H I N DU CULT UR E
-

8 Borne on many a lea f ( he ) sta rted on his journey

.

for the Patala (the nether regions ) .

O h wh a t a G o d et c
, , .

9 I n twelv e y ea r s he rea ch ed ea rth took a qu a ntity

.
,

with his ha nds and b esm ea red his body with it T hen .

t aking in his h a nds a qua ntity of ea rth of the m ea sure ,

of a Vatul a ( ie a v ery sm a ll qua ntity ) L ord D ha rma

. .
,

floated up in the form of shunya ( void ) .

O h wha t a G o d etc
, , .

I O A ga in did the Fo r m less L ord D ha rm a st a nd on

.

his feet ( ie on solid ground ) a nd reflecte d within him

. .

self a nd det ermining m e nta lly the person on whom the

,

earth should b e pl a c ed cr ea te d it , .

O h wh at a G o d etc
, , .

1 1 L ord D h a rm a b ec a m e himself a tta ch ed to an

.

(
e l eph a nt a nd pl a c e d V asu m ati the ea rth
) on it T he .

( )
ea rth with h er r est the el eph a nt w a s how e v e r about to
, ,

sink down to the n ether wor ld .

O h wh a t a G o d etc
, , .

12 L ord D h a rm a hims elf a ssumed the form of a

.

tortoi se a nd pla ced the ea rth on this tortoise .

T he tortoise could ( howev e r ) ill b ea r the w eight o f

the ea rth ; a nd with the e l epha nt a nd t he tortoi se the ,

1
ea rth w a s a bout to S ink down to the n eth e r r eg ions .

1
I n the S/zu ny a P u r dna , ho wev er, we have su ch l ines as
Placing his l otu s m ark ed hand , th e L o r d said B e steady
-

(A nd ) it was fro m this l o tu s m ark ed hand that the b ody o f the

-

tor to ise cam e into existence .

I deas ab ou t th e el eph ant are e v en now extant am ong the

B u ddhists . T he stor y o f hasti (l it
go od el ephant) is a pro o f
su -
.

o f the B u dd hi st ar tist s fo nd ness fo r th e el ep

’
h ant T h e m ystery o f .

th e creatio n o f a n el ep h ant b y D har m a is l aid b are b efo re u s in t he

sal u tations, etc. , sai
d to hav e b een m
b y h erd s o f el eph ants b efor e
ad e

Bu d d ha The B u dd hist Tantr ists ( fo l lo wers o f the system o f

.

Tantra) are fou nd to wor ship Bu ddha in th e for m o f a torto ise, since
the t or toise is su pposed by them to hav e sp ru ng fr o m th e b od
y of
 TH E BE N GA L I FO L K PO E S Y O F S H A I VA I SM
43
-

Oh wh a t a G o d etc
, , .

I 3 I n this w ay growing wis e r at every succes siv e

.

stage of creation D h a rm a N ir anjana ultimately cr eat e d

,

a s e rp e nt a nd restin
g on him the burd en of the ea rth
,

found rest a nd pea c e for himse lf .

H e ( N ir a nja na ) sn apped a sund e r the sa cr ed threa d C reati

o n of
th sem en"
of gold a bout his n eck a nd this w as tran sform ed into a e

hydra h ea d ed serpe nt N ir anja na gav e him t he n a m e

-
.

of V asu k ia nd bade him b ea r the burden of these three

worlds .

O h Wh a t a G o d etc
, , .

J ust a ft er its birth V asu ki felt v e ry hungry A nd , .

no soon e r had D h a rma N ir anja na flung aside his ear

ring to s atisfy the serp ent s hunge r tha n the frog c ame
,
’

into b eing a nd thi s unfortun at e crea tur e has ev e r since

,

been food for V asu k ia nd his progeny (T his story has .

bee n told al so in the C/zana i of Manik D a tta ) ’‘

.

G o you V asu k i b e you immorta l

, H im I giv e , .

she lt e r whom I do create .

O h wh a t a G o d etc
, , .

Dhar m a. Am o ng th e t en incarnations of the H ind u s al so, K u r m a

(torto ise) , l ik e B u ddha , h as b een h o nou r ed with a pl a ce . In m any

a part of Western Bengal , D har m a is w orsh ipped in the gu ise o f

K urm a . A S, fo r instance, in the v illage o f K al eswara in Burdwan
there is a to r toise like im
-
age o f D har m a .

I n the M S . o f an o l d poem j aga nndt/za Vijaya co m posed b y

, ,

M u k unda Bharati, there are p se b ei

r oo fs of th e t o rto i ng r egar d ed

as o m niscient .
1
I n the S/zu nya P u r dna a l so Vasu k i is re ported to h av e b een
crea ted in the sam e way .

H av ing pl aced at your feet (ie b efo re yo u fo r you r co nsidera

. .

tion) all th ese argu m ents, I a d v ise yo u to snapasu nder you r sacred

thread of gol d and to fl ing it into th e waters .

H a v ing h ear d these w o rd s o f U ll u ka, L ord N ir anjana instantl y

took o ff his sa cred th read o f go l d ;
“
Th en h e snapped it asu nder and cast it o ff into the waters an d
there u p sp rang fr om it the serpent V asu k i with a tho u sand
”
hoods .
44 TH E FO LK ELE ME N T I N H I N D U C U L T U R E
-

H ereaft er the
invocations of the othe r deities nay , ,

a l l t he oth er p a rts
‘
of the Vandana a r e found to be simi ,

lar to thos e of the oth er hymn s to Shi

A t the tim e of A rati ( w av e o ffering) at du sk the -

Bh akta s ar e found to sta nd on o ne foot only as lo ng as

the hymns ar e recit e d a nd a ll thi s tim e th ey r ep eat
,

ment ally also the n a m e of Shiva .

Som e st a nd on on o ne foot a nd with uplift ed a rm s

, ,

a nd with conc entra t ed mind s glorify a nd r ep ea t the n a m e

of Dha rm a ( D /ia r m a m ang a l a ) .

S ECT I O N V I .
— S PECI ME N 4 .

We have obtained th e
following B icaéta v a ndana -
‘

(hymns by Bhakta s ) from V i snu Das the pres ent ,

ma nd al a of the G zI ja n of B é b é I shaneshw ara of the

‘

village of K u d m u n in Burdwa n S uch Salutation .

hymn s ar e m et with in many of the V illage s of this

district T he oth e r c er emoni es of G aj a n are a lmo st
.

identic a l in a ll the c entres .

( a ) Tne Opening of D oor s

1
.

I . L o a nd b ehold ! th er e on his bull is S hiv a the , , ,

lord of immorta l s with a trid e nt a nd a r ed stick in his

,

ha nds a nd dressed in a tiger s kin -

.

R ise get up my broth e r the keep er of truth — lo !

, , ,
”
t he E ast ern gat e of the L ord is op en e d .

I n thi s w a y fiv e oth e r doors— v iz

, W est ern .
,

South e rn a nd N orthern door s a nd the gat es of H ea v e n

a nd the G a j a n — hav e to b e op en ed T he h ymn ha s .

to b e sung with the fac e turn ed towa rds the dir ection
of the door which is to b e op en ed a nd with the op ening ,

of each door the sev era l n a m es of Shiv a a re re cited ,

follo wed by a flourish of music .

1 “ '
Sim ilar to th e O pening of D oors in the Slzu ny a F a r iz na .
 T H E BE N GA L I FO L K PO ES Y O F S H A I V A I SM
45
-

( 6) A w ak ing f r om S l eep or M editation .

1 . L ord
ri se from thy sleep of m edita tion a nd look Aw king f
, a r om
l p S ee
upon thy m erry vota ri es who h a v e surre ndered them
,
'

(
se lv es a b solut ely a t thy feet ie m e rcy
) . .

( R ecita tion of his n a m es with da nce and a flourish of,

drum s ) .

“
2 . E mbra cing K artika and G anesha thou ar t ,

lying in a sl eep of oblivion H o w ar e w e th e n to m ake .

our ob eisa nc e at thy fe et ?

( D a“nce etc ) , .

3 . D esi st from sl eep 0 L ord of G ods a nd sit in

, ,

t he c e ntr e of thy b e d st ea d with G a uri con st a ntly on thy

,

l eft s ide .

( Da nce etc ) , .

4 . L ord thou a r t M a st er of the G ods and not to

, , ,

sp ea k of the l esser on es e v e n H a ri ( V i snu ) a nd ,

”
Bra hm a sing thy eulogy .

( D a“nce etc ) , .

5 . L ord T r ipu r ar i ( d estroy er of the d emon T r i

pura ) giv e up thy fondn ess for sl eep S how m ercy to
, ,

thy d evotees a nd sa tisfy th e ir d esir es

( Da“nce etc ) , .

6 . T a ke in thy hand s thy shinga ( horn u sed for

blowing) a nd da m a r u (a sma ll drum ) a nd keep thy ,

bull to thy l eft ; a nd let the V asu ki (king of s e rp ent s)

sta nd on with unfolded hood H old on thy h ea d .

the genia l G amga (tut ela ry d e ity o f th e riv e r

G a nges) a nd let thy for e hea d b e a dorn e d with the
,

moon I nside the la st let the ( brilli a nt) round ma rk

.

ca lled pho nta shin e ( gloriously ) a nd l et thy body b e ,

a dorn ed with a wr ea th of bon es a nd t h e ash es of cow

dung a nd put on the a rmour of medita tion ( yoga

,

p at a)
a tion of the n a mes with d a nc e etc )
( R e cit , .
 46 T H E FO L K EL E ME N T I N H I N D U C U L T U R E
-

“
7 . O L ord
with thr ee eyes re move our troubles ,

a nd obst a cles which a r e beyond huma n control We .

do a bsolutely rely on th ee and h a v e renounced ev ery

,

other prop .

a tion of the n a mes etc )

( “
R e cit ,
.

8 . We have in the Vedas and the esot eric Shéstras

tha t L ord G am gadhara ( lit holde r of G amga on the .

h ea d ) is the G od of G ods B e pl ease d O C onqueror.

,

of D ea th to forgiv e our fa ults

, .

( R e“citation of the n a mes etc ) ,

.

9 . O Shiva l ea v e the K a il asa mountain (the

,

a bod e of Shiva ) on the b a ck of thy bull a nd O T r i , ,

purari ( destroyer of the demon T ripura ) b e pl eased to ,

satisfy our d esires a nd to insta l thys elf in our G a m b hir a .

”
F iv e tim es do w e bow to thy feet .

( R ecita tion of the n a me s etc

) , .

( c) f ( Ten ) Q u a r ter s
1
H ym ns in H onou r o t/
ce .

“
I . t emple the threshold of the door and
T he , ,

ev e ry oth er a rticl e in a nd a bout the templ e a r e pro

t ect ed ( by m ean s of cha rm s a ga in st the e ntr a nc e of or

mol esta tion by wicked spirits) So a l so 15 prot ect ed the .

T ulasi ( the holy ba sil ocim u m sanctu m ) of the Ady a

, .

We do a l so Sing the hymn of Saraswa tI Make your .

obeisa nc e to R ama and L a ksm ana to the right a nd to

Sit a a nd the h eroic H a num an to the l e ft .

E ast .
T he glorious su n is in the E ast a nd fiv e tim es w e ,

m ake our ob eisance to him .

( R ecit ation of the n ames etc“ ) , .

ALB — T he word s from T he t empl e

1
Sim il ar to th at in v ogue in the G am bhiras o f M al da Cf . .

Mak e you r ob eisance to the ho u se, to the d oor and to the h u t o f

”
Shiv a .
 T H E BEN GA L I FO L K PO E SY O F S H A I V A I S M
-

47

theh eroic H a num an to the left a r e r epeated a t

the b eginning of ea ch hymn .

2. T h e re is Bh im a ( lit t e rrific) K ed ara ( a N th

. or

n a m e o f Shiva ) in the N orth to whom w e m a k e our

,

ob ei sanc e fiv e tim es .

( R ecita tion of the n a mes etc ) ,

.

3. T h er e is Arura V aidyanatha (a n a m e of W t es

Shiv a) in the W est to whom we m ak e our ob eisa nc e

,

fiv e tim e s .

( R ecitation of the nam es etc ) , .

4. T here is the glorious J agann atha in the S th ou .

”
S outh to whom w e ma ke our obeisa nc e five tim es
, .

( ecitation of the n a mes etc )

R , .

5
. T h e re is K ing I ndr a in the Pa ra dise to P di , ar a se.

whom we m ak e our ob eisanc e fiv e tim es .

( R ecita tion of the nam es etc ) ,

.

6. T h er e is the serp e nt V asu ki in the Pat al a Th Patal , e a,

mfg?
”
to whom w e m a ke our obei sanc e fiv e tim es .

( R e cit a tio n of the n a m es etc

), .
R gi e ons

7
. T h e r e I s the guardi a n d eity I n the vill age T t l y D i , u e ar e

V“
to whom w e ma k e our obeisa nc e fiv e tim es fi:g .

( ecita tion of the na m es etc )

R , .

8
. T h e re is Bho lfi ( lit lo st in medita tion ) O b i
.
t e sance o
Bh l a M h
Maheshwara I n the G am b hira to whom w e ma k e our hw i th
A A o a e
,
S ar a n e

ob ei sa nc e fiv e tim es .
G bhi é am r o

( R ecita tion of the na m es etc ) , .

9. . T h er e is the L ord D harma I n the G ajan O b t , eisa nce o

325
”

531
3
to whom w e m a k e our ob eisanc e fiv e tim es 32
.
1

( R ecitation of the nam es etc ) ,

.

10 . T h e re a r e thirty six Sa ins and s ev enty O b

. t eisance o
’
two Bha kt as (d e votees ) I n the G aj a n to whom we m ake égfgfi , fl fif
G il
our obeisa nce five times .
l an .

( R ecitation of the n am es etc ) ,

.
 48 T H E FO LK EL E ME N T I N H I N D U C U L T U R E
-

( d ) Sa l u tation H ym ns (in E ig lit Stanz a s lience

-
,
ca l l ed

S niu dsta éa m ) to S/cina .

O ne
hould m e dita te on the et e rn a l
s G od of G ods ,

respl endent like a silv e r hill etc etc , .

, .

( R ecitation of the n am es etc ) , .

( e) Sal u tation to S ada S/ziv a .

m ake my ob eisa nc e to Sa da Shiva the d estroyer

I ,

o f sins a nd the r epo sitory of a l l a ttribut es — the a ll pow -

er fu l god with a gra cious fa c e a nd with hi s ch ee ks d e

co r a ted with ear rings of sn a k es Who w a s formle ss a t

-

first a nd then b eca me a p e rson ( ie a ssum ed a form ) . . .

( R ecit a tion of t h e n a m es etc

) , .

Tne D /iu l a sdpa ta B n aétd or tn e Bn

(f ) -

( a kta t/ za t D u sts

tlce Tem p l e of S/iio a w it/t nis H a ir ) .

Dhu l a sapata
-
Of the Sa nnyasi s of G aja n o ne dances on o ne foot , ,
Bh ak ta
a nd in this w ay com es to S hiva at the pl a c e of G a j an
with the fist cl enched ov er his h ead and is ma d e to re ,

cit e the following hymn by the Ma nda la H e has to .

’
du st the floor of Shiva s templ e with the h a ir of his
h ea d .

I . L ord thou ar t lik e A t isini lik e Va tisini V atisini

, ,

15 lik e Pa nchav at isini which is aga in lik e D h a rm a

,

A dhik ari ( L ord of D h a rm a ) a nd D ha rm a A dhikari is , ,

a s it w e r e the fee t of G od
, B eyond t he sev e n oc ea n s
.

an d n ea r the V a l lu k a S ea i s th e seat of t he e l ev e nth

R udra the serv a nt of who se se rv a nts is th e D hul a sap a ta

,
-

Bhakta .

cit ation of the na m es etc )

( R e ,
.

2 . T he templ e has to b e dusted with ha ir unde r

“
,

orders of the gods T he dust of h eaven fli e s o ff to

.
 50 T H E FOL K EL E ME N T I N H I N D U CU L T U R E
-

D eath ie S hiv a), . . hims elf is at the E a stern ga te . Salu

tat ion to S hiva !

( R ecitation of the n am es , etc .

)
2 Vahu ti V a hu Pa re is in the N orth
.
Who is .

it that gua rds his door ? I t is the lion , et c , etc T he . .

C onqu eror of D eath is him self at the N orthern gate .

Salutation to Shiv a !
( R ecit atio n of the n a mes , etc ) .

3 . H a nu m a nt a i
s in t h e W e st Who I s I t th at .

gu ard s his door ? I t is the lion etc etc T he Con ,

.
,
.

q u er o r of D ea th hims elf i s a t the Western door Sa lu .

t at i
o n to S hiv a

( R ecit ation of the na m es, etc ) .

4 . Bh a v a ru dr eshw a ra is in the South Who is it

-
.

that guard s etc etc T he C onqu eror of Death is at

, .
, .

the S outh e rn door Sa lut a tion to Shiv a !

.

( R ecita tion of the n a m es, etc ) .

Tne D aily F inal

‘

(i) O r der s to tire Sannyasis w /ien

g oing H om e ; or fi re F ina l O r der s af ter t/ie F es
,

tiv ities o f ea clc D ay a r e Iceld te”c/znically cal l ed ,

O r der s 6y tne“ Tnat u r a s or Gods .

I . hou ar t like A t isini etc etc

L ord , t , .
, .

serv a nt of his
serva nt s .

( R ecitation of the na m es etc ) , .

O rders by th e 2 .Bhakta s n a med Avala a tita a nd Bha kta s na med -

Gm "
Chhat r ishasa in V a o a r e m a king th eir obei sa nce fiv e
tim es to the T hak u r as or gods .

“
What a r e t he plea sures of the gods ?
T he gods a r e pl ea sed to d eclare tha t th ey h ave be en
highly pleased with t he five sa lutations You a r e no w .

free to r eturn hom e frisking a nd frolicking a nd S inging

, .

T he ch a mp a flow er a dor ns the head of Shiv a .

A nd he holds the o da flower in t he n ame of his

B hakta s .

( R e cit ation of the n a m es e tc

) , .
 C H A PT E R I I I .

T H E GA M B H I R A : A PO PU L A R F O R M O F S H A I V A
C U L T I N E A STE R N I N D I A .

S E CT I O N I — T H E S E VE R A L PA R TS
. OF TH E G AMBH I R A
F E ST I V I TI E S .

T H E G a m b hir a festiviti escon si st of

1 .G hat a bh a r a t he
-
filling up with wat e r of a n
,

ea rth e n ja r symboli z ing the i

, nfil ling powe r of the god

to b e worshipp ed .

2 C hhota T am asa sm a ll e r a mu se m ents

.
, .

3 B a d a T am asa gr ea t er a mus e ments

.
, .

4 Ahara a pa rticul a r wor ship and

.
, ,

5 Chadaka Puj a th e swinging or whirling r eligious

.
,

c e remony ob se rv ed by the H indu s on the l a st day of

,

t he month of C h a itra ( Ma rch A pril ) -

.

T he da t es for the se sev era l festiviti es ar e thus fixed .

I f the month of C ha itra wh e n th e G a m b hir a worship is

,

h eld clos es o n t he 3 oth day th en the G hata bha ra t a kes

, ,

pl a ce on the 2 6th the Chhota T am asa on the 2 7th the

, ,

B a da T amasa on the 2 8th the Ah ara o n the 2 9 th a nd , ,

th e whol e c eremony is w ound up with the C hadak a

Puj a on the 3 o th .

Tlie G nata Ma r a
‘
-
.

Generally on the day previou s to tha t fixe d for the I t l t n f

g
r io
i
s a
g
o
,
‘
yf bd g
C hhota T am asa the c eremony of G hata sthapa na ie g fgf
a
-

, , . .
n e

insta l la tion of the G hata ea rth en jar as the symbol o f wg d thib d

, ,
o o e

fl,
ors ppe .

4
 52 T H E FO L K E L E ME NT I N H I N D U C U LT U R E
-

the god to be worshipped is h eld T his rule is not, . ,

how ev er observed in all the c entre s of the worship

,
.

A ccording to th e ir own tra ditions in som e pl a c es it ta ke s

,

pla ce a w eek a nd in others thr ee or nin e d a ys b efore .

T h ere ar e p ersons who obs e rv e s e v e re a ust e rities

during the month of C ha itra as a m ea ns of propiti ating
the G o d Shiva a nd ea rn ing a n uncommon religious
,

m erit T h ey obs erv e fa sts absta in from m a ny of the

.
,

enjoym e nts of life a nd go through m a ny other h a rd vows .

T h ey a r e rea lly te mpora ry vota rie s of the god and gen er

a lly ca ll ed Sa nny asis I t is the privil ege of the chief of
.

th e m to h elp in prepa ring the o ffering of ric e and the

oth er it ems of the G am b hir a worship I n som e pla c es .

this office is found to ha v e b ecome h eredita ry but in ,

most pla ces it has b ecome salari ed I n form e r times .

t he Bha kta s or vot a ri es obs e rv e d the customa ry vows

a nd injunctions with punctiliousn ess from this day but ,

t he pra ctic e seem s to h a v e a lmost di ed out now T he .

G a m b hir a hou se is light ed from thi s day

-
.

O n this day of G ha ta bh ar a a gener a l meeting is

-
,

ca ll ed a nd in th a t m eeting it is form a lly se ttled un ani

,

m o u sl y to fill u p a nd in sta l the G ha t a a nd the ,

M a nda la sa nctions it A ft e r dusk the B rahma n a

.
,

pri est in the midst of a loud music struck up by large

,

drums known a s D hakka s a nd us ed only a t the tim e of

,

worship goes to a nd fill s up the G ha ta with w a t e r from

,

th e n ea rest ta n k or riv e r in a ccorda nc e with a pra ctic e

,

th a t ha s obta in ed from tim e imm emori a l a nd then instals ,

it a ccording to the i nju nction s of the S hastra s ( Scriptures )

on thi s point N o other ceremoni es a r e held this day
. .

Tne Cn/zota Tdm dsd .

O n the day fixed for the l esser festiviti e s no c er emoni es

a r e h e ld ; but t he worship of H a ra Parv a ti Shiv a a nd
( -

his wi fe ) comm ence s on this day, a nd those who h a v e in

 T H E G A MBH IR A

the n a me of Shiva volunta rily t aken the vow ( in e xp ect a

tion of propitia ting him a nd re ceiving som e definite
favours from him ) dress th em se lv es a s and app a r e ntly
, ,

a dopt the life of Bha kt as or Sa nny asi s ie vota ries

, . . .
,

The majority of th es e Bha ktas a re boys a nd ar e known

a s V al a bh a kta s boy vot a ri es
(-

) -
.

I ne B a da Tdm dsd .

T he n ext day at som e auspiciou s tim e b etw een sunrise Bada r em asa
a nd sun set th e cu stom a ry worship of H a ra Parvat iis c e l e -

b r ated I n the a fternoon a procession of Bh a ktas st arts b odies w ith

.

a r row s
out T his procession is a very ent erta ining o ne a nd clos ely
'

resembles th a t formed by the Sa nnyasi s of G aj a n o n the

day of t he N ilapuja ( wor ship of H ara G auri on the la st -

but o ne d ay of the month of Cha itra ) at K alig hét in C a l

cu tta I n ev ery G a m b hir a all the Bh a ktas young a nd
.
,

old a lik e have to t a ke pa rt in thi s festivity F rom ev ery

, .

G a m b hir a p a nd a l th ey st art out d a ncing D r essing th e m

-
.

selv es a ccording to th e ir own ta st es a nd pl easur e a s m a l e

, ,

a nd fe m al e ghosts a n d goblin s as m ak er s of fire works a nd, ,

th e ir wiv es as R am a ts ( d evote es of R am a ) as pla yers on ,

bagpip es or a s S anthals and oth er aborigin a l trib es etc , .

,

l
th ey proc eed from pa nda l to panda l S om e of th e m .

pierc e either S id e of their ch est s with small a rrows look

ing lik e tridents wrap round the oute r e nds of th es e
,

tridents pi ec es of cloth soaked in oil a nd th en put fir e to

the m I n this w ay th ey go out dancing som e o ne co n
. ,

t inu a lly throwing powd e rs of dhupa ( a fr a gr a nt gum

resin burnt b efor e idols) on this fire T his festivity is .

brought to a n end b efore the close of the day .

I n the ev ening a sort of m ask pl a y known as H a nu -

,

m é n mukh a ( m ask of H a num an ) i

- s h eld S om e o ne .

1 Th ere ar e v ery o ften several andal s

p in o ne v ill age or town at

differ ent ward s .

 54 T H E FO L K E L E ME N T I N H I N DU C U L T U R E
-

a mong the votari e s puts on the mask of H anum a n and

m akes for himself a long t a il with unrip e ba n a n a lea v es .

R ound the out er end of this tail dry b a n a n a l ea v es a re

wrapped whe n th e pla y er st a nds up b efore the specta
,

tors T h en two pe rson s hold up b efore him a pi ec e of

.

cloth and fir e I S appli ed to his ta il ; a nd with thi s burn

ing t a il he l eap s ov e r the pie c e of cloth and returns in
the sa m e w a y to his former pl a ce T his s eems to b e a
.

’
fa ir representa tion of the monk ey god H a num an s leap -

ing a cross the sea a nd burning C eylon the pi ec e of cloth ,

represe nting the sea T he story is well known to read ers

.

of the R dm dya na .

Phu lb hanga, A ft er th e p a rt of H a num an is pl a y e d the Va la ,

call ing by
na m es, d anc -
bh akt as m arch out in a body crying a loud Shiv anatha,

in v ar iou s kimah esh a ( O h w h at a god of god s I s our Shiv anatha )

”
in
g , ,
gu ises .

a nd d a ncing to the mu sic struck up by drums tow a rd s ,

a n a dj a c e nt ta nk H e re th ey br eak down twigs from

.

a j a ck tr ee a nd m ak e up a bundl e with th e s e a nd a

h emp pla nt T hen th ey put th ese bundl es on th eir

.

br east s and perform th eir a blution s T h e r eaft er th ey .

r eturn to th e G am b hir a pa nd a l da ncing a s b efore to

-
, ,

t he mu sic of drum s a n d , calling by n a m es ( m eaning

“

”
proba bly crying a loud Shiv anatha ki ma hesha ) th ey
h o w low a nd pl a ce the bundl es in the t e mpl e T he n .
,

as on the pr e viou s d a
y th ey go through the sa luta tion
,

hymn s a nd return th erea ft e r to the bundle s T he pri est .

now sprinkl es shanti j a la (holy wa t e r ca lcula t ed to

“

confer p eac e a nd h appin ess) ov e r th e m T h en wh en .

flowe rs o ffered to a nd thu s ble ssed by Shiva a r e pla c ed

ov er th ese bundl es ( technically c a lled phul a flowe r ) the , ,

“
devotee s t a k e a way th eir resp ectiv e flowe rs ( bundl es )
a nd st a rt a da nc e firmly holding th e m aga in st th e ir
,

breasts T his continu es till in ob edi enc e to a sp ecia l

.
,

not e struck up by the drum th ey roll th emselves sev era l

,

times on the ground bow low simulta n eou sly a nd th en

,
 T H E GA MB H I R A

”
pla ce their flowers in the Shiv a G am bhir a T hi s is -
.

t echnica lly known as Phul a—b hénga ( lit breaki ng of .

flow e rs) T h en w a v e O fferings a r e presented to Shiv a

.
-

D urga ( ie H a ra G a uri) a nd th er ea ft er t he whol e

. .
-
,

G am b hira t empl e is illumin ed as it w er e with g a rla nds , ,

of lights I t is at nin e in the night th at danc es o n sma ll

.

sca les ar e st a rt e d ; and these includ e m ask da nc es of -

ghosts a nd goblin s o f R am a a nd L aksm a na of Shiva

, ,

a nd D urga of a n old m a n a nd hi
, s old wife of a hor se , ,

of fa iri es of K artika (G o d of War so n of Shiv a a nd

, ,

D urga) a nd of the Ch ali ( the d ecorat ed b a ckground

,

of an image ) T he dancing is a tten de d with the mu sic

.

of long drums and K ansis ( a mu sica l in strum ent ma de

of b ell m eta l ) Wh en the fa r ew ell not e is S truck by
-
.

the long drum the d a nc e rs c ea se d a ncing a nd go a wa y

,

for a noth e r G a m b hir a pa ndal The musici a ns gen er -

.

a lly
get r ewa rd s from the rich sp ectators a nd in som e ,

cases they obta in eve n new pi ec es of cloth .

G ra du a lly v a rious songs comm e mora tin g the m erit s Sh iv b th a o

a nd d em erit s of Shiv a ar e sung in h i s honour A t this .

tim e Bha ktas com e in troops into the G a m b hir a and

a mu se the sp ect a tors with th eir so ngs a nd d a ncings .

S ongs a r e a l so sung exposing the wick edn ess of the ,

countrym a n or fellow village r th a t ha s don e during the-

yea r no m att e r wheth er cov e rtly or ov ertly a nything

, ,

unjustifi abl e The S ingers dress th emselv es as ma l es

.

n chor us or i
a nd fem a l es and sing th e s e s ongs e ith e r i n

dividua lly B esides hymn s in honour of Shiva a nd songs

.
, ,

of a light er ch a ra ct er ar e a lso sung on the occasion

, .

A bout d aybreak but b efor e sunri se the da ncing of Th d i g e anc n

figfigfifig
‘
the m ashana t echnica lly known as m ashé na n ach a ta kes g
, , ex _

pla ce T he word m ashana prop e rly m ea n s a ce met ery gg

.

éfig fith
n
v
c

or crematorium ; h e re it s eem s to m ean the G oddess i th n e

g m m m
of Destruction O ne of the Bha kta s pla y s the p a rt o f
.
‘

this goddess H e dre ss es hims elf as a wom a n with

.
 56 TH E FO L K E L E ME N T I N H I N D U C U L T U R E
-

dishev elled ha ir with her fore h ead besm ea red with

,

vermilion with her h eaving breasts enc ased in a kan

,

cha li ( a sort of short j a cket ) and with her wrists a dorn ed

with bra celets of conch sh ells D ecora te d with orn a
-
.

ments and with her fa ce painted in such a w ay as to

strike t e rror into the h ea rts of the Specta tors this m ashana ,

dances with va rious gestures a nd her att endants throw

powd ered resin into the fir e in a n incense pot and hold -

up by w a y of a pp easing her wra th the smoke thus

, ,

produce d b efore her fa ce T his app ea sing c ere mony is

.

obs erved a lso during the da ncings of K ali and other

G odd esses of T error in the G am b hir a hous e Wh en -
.

the drumm e r strik es up the not e of stirring up ( M atAna )

th en the mukh a (m ask ) danc e r each es t he high est pitch
of fren z y A t this tim e t he pri est pla c es a ga rla nd of
.

flowers a nd the smok e of burnt inc ense before the ma skers

r epr esenting K alia nd oth ers and th ey becom e app eased
,

a ft er turning th e ir fa c es in t he direction of the smoke

a nd inha ling it a nd th e m a shana K al i rolls h ers e lf on the

,

ground A ft er this the Bhakt as tra vel from G am bhir a

.

to G am b hir a till 8 or 9 a m and then bathing together

. .
, ,

in the riv er return to th eir resp ective homes

, .

Tne r f/zer o P uja

e
‘
.

Par ticu l ars of On the day following the B ada T a m asa aft er the
the Ahar a
,

pnja au d its m a sha na da n c e and the worship of H a ra —Parv ati ar e

pr o cession
.

ov r e , thec e r emony of hom a ( casting of cla rifi ed butt er

into the sa cred fir e a s a n offering to gods) a nd the feed
ing of Brahma n as a nd virgin s t a ke pla c e O n this da y , .

a n unrip e ba mboo or i ts bra nch is pla nt ed on the ground

in o ne side of the pa nda l a nd a ma ngo and some blos
,

soms of the ban a n a tr ee with som e oth er a rticl es a r e

ti ed to it T hen this post is duly worshipped a nd this

.
,

worship is known as the Ah ara Puj a I f a ft e r the .

,

Ahéra Puja 15 ov er any o ne pass es through the G a m

,
 58 T H E FO L K E L E ME N T I N H I N D U CU L T U R E
-

ea rthquake will b e t aken to ha ve the ea rthqua ke as its

m u dda .T here a r e expert compos e rs of songs fo r the
purpos e T h ey a r e c a lled K h a lifas or Professors I f
. .

the audienc e will suggest to the m theme s the y will com

pos e songs o n th em I n singing tho se so ngs which
.

h ave nuptia l qua rr els or a ny oth er ma tt er conn e ct e d with

both m a les and fem a l es as th eir th emes the singers dress
,

th ems elv es as such and pl a y th eir r esp ectiv e pa rts .

I ne Sdm sol e Cli/iddd (L etting f

o o f tire Sdm sol e

F is/c) .

basin a sma ll Sakul a fish is kept a liv e A ft er

In
gags? wa rds it is ta ken to the n earest tank or river and let off
n a .

c m i g th
ss n e

$fi 3,j 33 ;aoff of the Sam so le fish I n the ev ening of the da of

1
into it T his is known as S Em so l e C hh ad a or t he l etting
1
.

( re
-

p) um . .
y
Ah ara a sma ll hol e is exca v ated on the ground a nd
filled with wat er T h en a fish is l et off into it a nd the
.

Bh akt a s l eap a cross it T his c eremony is observed till

.

now in the G am b hir a of Dhanatala in M a lda T hen .

a hol e i s dug in front of the G a m b hir a a nd two b a m

boo posts a r e plant e d on opposit e sid es T h e r eaft er .

a noth e r b a mboo po st i s pl a c e d a cro ss th e m a nd the

“ ”
bra nch es of trees m aking up the Phu lb hé ngfi a r e
fetched a nd pla c ed on the hole T h en fir e is appli ed to
.

th ese bra nch es and powd ered r esin is occ a sion a lly
thrown i nto the fir e thu s kindl ed O ne by o n e the .

Bhakt as now get up on the horiz ont a l b ar tie th eir fe et ,

to it and then ha ng th emselv es down a nd rock to a nd fro

s even tim es with the ir h ea ds downwa rds inha ling the
choking smok e of b u rnt r esin ri sing up from the fir e be
neath I n som e pla ces thi s is known as A gni jham p
.
-

(jump into fires) A d escription of thi s c er e mony is

.

to b e found also in D /ia r m a m ang a la T hus it is sa id .

th ere
 T H E GA MBH I R A

O v er the
sacrificial fire burning bright th ey rock to ,

a nd fro with their fe et upw a rds a nd h ea d s downwa rd s ,

rolling on the ground .

“
Powd er ed r esin is thrown profus ely into that .

T he c e r emony of SEm so le C hh ad a seem s to b e but a

Malda edition 1 of the “ cro ssing of the Va ita r ani ( the ” 2

riv e r tha t is suppos ed to run b etween the l a nd of t he

living a nd the land o f the d ead a nd tha t must b e cross ed
by the d epa rting soul ) to b e found in D ha rm a s G aj a n
,
’

in West B engal H ere the Vaitar ani is exca va t e d on

.

t he ground a nd fill e d with wa ter a nd a fish is le t o ff ,

into it A Pa ndit ( pri est ) sta nding ca n e in h a nd on

.
, ,

its brink r ecit e s inca nta tion s for the purpose and t he
, ,

Sannyfisis cro ss the V a itara ni catching hold of th e t ail ,

of a cow .

D anapat i fe rri es (passengers) with the h elp O f a

’ ”
cow s ta il .

A ccording to the S/zu nya P u r dna U n d e r the wat ers ,

of the V a itara ni liv e and mov e sundry coloured fish -

D /zen/éi m -
a ng a l a .

I n connexion with D ha rm a s G aj a n are r epresent ed Df enki nan

’

aia anére
t he D henk i m a nga l a c er e mony a nd t he a dv ent of t he ceptio n

n
t°
s age N a ra da on a hu sking peda l ( m a de of a la rge a nd 3 2: °

long block of wood ) I n the G a m b hir as of Ma lda also N arada

.

both th ese c e remoni es a r e O b serv ed the form e r und er ,

the n a m e of D he n ki C hu m ana O n thi s occasion the .

Bha ktas c a rry on th e ir hea ds into the G a m b hira a dhenki

colour e d with turm eric paste a nd dott e d with v e rmilion
”
m a rk s a ttend e d with the joyou s Shout of U lu U lu
, ,

1
T his festiv ity is h eld in th e G am b hiras of Dhantala and
‘

so m e

j
ad acent pl aces o n the days o f th e Bada T am asa and the A h ara .

A cco rd ing to th e inj u nctio ns in th e Snu ny a P u r dna and D ha r m a

pujd paddna ti, a tank is excav ated to bathe therein for attaining re
-

ligiou s m er it .

2
T he Styx of H indu m ytho l ogy .
60 T H E FO L K E L E ME N T I N H I N D U C U L T U R E
-

uttered by women O ne of the Bhaktas sits on it r e

.

presenting N arada T he rest a fter circuma mbul a ting

.
,

the Shiva templ e with thi s N ara d a on his d henk i pla c e ,

it on the courtya rd of the G a m b hir a hou se -

.

O n this point w e hav e in the S/zu nya Pu r dna

The gods ord ered the four K o talas ( consta bles ) to
“

fetch N ara da without del ay .

H earI ng lord of sages ( N ara da) equipped

this the
his conv eya nc e d henki a nd sta rted on it
, ,
.

A nd thus he ca m e to the V é ram ati hous e ie the -

,
. .

plac e of G aj a n .

T he flight of the dhenki is d e scribed below

A ttend ed with t he songs of frogs the thr ee legged ,
-

d henk i st a rt ed on it s aeria l jou rn ey for the pl ace of the

”
gods
A s soon as N arada thu s appea red before them the ,

gods welcom e d him cordia lly a nd s eated him on a jew

”
ell ed thron e .

T he L ord of T r id iv a (heav en ) worshipp ed the

d henk i with ga rl a nds of fragra nt flow er s ; a nd c el esti a l
da msels ch eerfully rec eiv ed it with du e forms utte ring ,

the joyous shout of U l u Ul u ,

R ec eption is a ccord ed to the dhenk i in the G a m

bhira in the following w ay
T he wi se m en pr es ent r ecite t he V edic hymn s a nd
rece iv e the d he nk i with leav es of the piper betel ( a ft e r
wa rds cast a wa y) a tt ended with the Shout of U lu U lu
, ,
’

utte r ed in clo se succession .

A fter the d henki is thu s r ece iv e d with t he utt ering

of V edic hymn s with the Shouts of U lu U lu a nd with
, ,

bet e l l eav es the last o ne thrown a wa y R am ai Pandit

, ,

invokes it for conferring blessings on D anapa ti

, .

H e says
T hi s is my ear nest pra yer th a t T hou wilt n ev e r look
i
 T H E G A MBH I R A 61

with disfa vour on D anapati ra th e r tha t T hou wilt eve r

”
h ave his good a t h ea rt .

E ven now on the occasions of A nn a Pr ashana the

(
ceremony with which rice is giv en for the first time to a
child ) U pan ay ana ( ie investiture with a sa cred threa d )
, . .

a nd m a rria ge the good housewiv es of B e nga l do not

,

forge t to pay their respects to the dhenk i and invok e

its blessings .

T hi s is wh a t is known as Dhenk i C hum sI na in “

-

Ma lda .

SE CTI ON I I — T H E S E VE R A L C E N TR E S
. FO R TH E G AM
BH I R A F E ST I VI T I E S .

T he festivities tha t ar e held in conn exion with the

worship of the va rious H indu gods but more espe cia lly ,

of Shiva have in course of tim e receiv e d va rious designa

,

tions in v a rious pl a c es T h ey w ere however origi na lly

.
, ,

o ne a nd a r e ev e rywher e h e ld in t empl es n a m ed G a m
,

bhira H enc e it is app arent tha t they a re but the

.

G am b hir a ( festivity ) under di ffe rent nam es .

A long with di fferenc es in n a m es di ffer ences h av e ,

a lso cr ept in in the a ttenda nt cer e moni es I n som e .

plac es the festiviti es hav e r ece ived the n a m e of G aj a n ;

th ey ha ve wid ely sprea d und er the names of Shiva s ’

G aj a n a nd D h a rm a s G aj a n whil e in O rissa the n a m e

’

Sahiyatr a has also be en applied to th em .

S hould a n a tt empt b e m ad e to giv e a geographica l

a ccount of the pl a c es wh ere thi s festivity i s h eld at the

present day a n int eresting ch apter of the hi story of r e

,

l igion would b e O pened th e r eby We name at the out

.

set the pl aces wh ere G am b hir a festiviti es a r e now seen

to b e held T hese pla ces a r e— D in ajpur R a ngpur
.
, ,

R aj sha hi Ma lda and Mo o rshidaba d

, .

I t is on the eastern side of the G anges tha t the

 62 T H E FO L K E L E MEN T I N H I N D U C U L T U R E
-

G a m bhir a festivitiesobserved I n som e villages

ar e .

of the Moorshidab ad district situated on the oth e r sid e ,

of the latter th ey a re a lso see n to hav e preva il ed O n

,
.

inquiry how ever it has b een l ea rnt that thes e V illages

, ,

have rec ently bee n peopl ed by m en from the ea st ern

side of this river .

F estiviti es like the G a m b hir a ar e found to b e h e ld

a lso in O ri ssa M idn apore
,
Birbhum B urdwa n N a dia
, , , ,

H u ghli 2 4 Pa rg a n as K hulna J essor e and Fa ridpur

, , , , ,

but und er the n a m e of Séhiyatr a in the first two and of ,

G aj a n in th e r est .

“ ”
The word G a m bhira is found to occur in con
,

nex i o n with the c e r emoni es tha t ar e held in ce l ebra ting

the G a ja n in B irbhum Burdwa n H u ghli etc T his

, , , .

l ead s u s to infer th at th eir O ld n a m e was rea lly

G a m b hir a a lthough aft e rwa rd s for som e in evita ble ca use
,

this was cha nged to G aj a n T he G aj a n of B aba .

( Fa ther lord) I shaneshv ar a of village K u dm u n in B ur

,

dwa n w as form e rly h eld in the G am b hir a~Mandapa

( t empl e n a m ed G am b hira a ft er the festivity tha t was
first held the r e) I t has b een found on inquiry tha t it
.

w as d u e to the influx th e r e of the goldsmiths of G auda ,

th e a nci ent c apita l of B enga l ( now in ruins in the di strict

of Ma lda ) .

O f a ll th ese festiviti es the G am b hir a of Ma lda

des e rv es the most sp eci a l notic e for this pa rticula r ,

r eason tha t the origin a l ch a ra ct er of the G a m bhira has

,

b een fully preserv ed here .

S ECT I O N I I I .
—PO PUL A R D E CO R A TI O N S .

a per l ot u ses . T he fir st thing tha t attract s the attention of sp ecta tors

at the G a m b hir a c e l ebration s of Ma lda is the d ecora tion

of the da ncing hous e or pand a l a tta ch ed to a nd forming

-

the front of the G am b hir a t empl e F o r it has a pecu

-
.
 T H E G A MBH I R A 63

liar ity of its own such as is not ob serv a bl e in the de

,

co r a ti
o ns of the t empl es or of the B aro yari Ma ndapa (a -

t emporary t emple erected by public subscription for th e

worship of a god or goddess on a pa rticula r occasion ) of
t he oth e r di stricts H ere a lmost the wh ol e of the G am
.

bhira Ma ndapa is thickly decora ted with paper lotu ses

-

of va rious colours O v er tha t part o f the p a vilion which

.

is r eserv e d for da nc e a nd music nothing is sprea d a nd ,

no a rra ngem ent is ma de for the party to sit upon so ,

that th ey ha v e to pla y th e ir resp ectiv e pa rts on the ba re

ground .

T h ere are reasons for thus decora ting the entir e

G am b hir é with p ap er lotu se s of va riou s colours T his .

pra ctic e has obta in ed without int erruption from v e ry

1
ea rly tim es I n conn exion with D ha rm a s G aj an the
’
.

deh ara ( t empl e ) of Adya ( lit the origin al ie the first .

, . .
,

)
t he primitiv e d e ity w as de corat ed as now with lotu ses , , .

N o doubt in old en tim es the G am bhir fi Ma nd ap a a lso -

look ed bra v e a nd gay with liv e lotuses cull ed from

n a ture N o w howev er this h as b ecome a n im po ssi
.
, ,

b ility for two reason s first flowe rs a r e not so a bunda nt

,

now as in t hos e d ay s a nd secondly the festivities ex

, ,

tending ov er thr ee or four day s the b eauty a nd gra ndeur ,

of the d e cora tion ca nnot be kept unimpa ire d unless fr esh

1
I n th e Glea ndi of M anik D atta we find that D harm a cr eated
a l otu s and sat o n it . T hu s he says
“
T he G o sai ( th e A l l Power fu l L ord)
-
j
con u red a l o tu s b efore
him self.
“
H e then took his seat o n it and b egan to m utter prayer s
“ ”
to the Fir st Cau se
( Sfihitya Parisat Patrika, N o I V , p 2 51 ,
. . .

1 3 1 7,
I n D har m a m a nga l a of M amk G angul i al so we hav e “
T here
a re m any petall ed l o tu ses in fu l l b l oom
-

“
G etting d own into th e waters I pl u ck ed innum erabl e l otu ses
,
.

Then m ed itating on, and saying ‘

Sal u tation to,
’
Brahm an, I
ca st th ose l otuses in l im itl ess waters .
64 T H E FO L K EL E MEN T I N H I N D U C U L T U R E
-

flow ers b e procured every day F o r th ese reasons the .

d e cora tors find it more conv e ni ent to ha ve re course to

p ap er lotuses .

T he G am b hir a Ma nd apa is not now decor a t e d in the

-

sa m e w a a s it w as in form e r d a y s e g fifty ye a rs b a ck
y , . . .

T he G am b hir é templ e a nd the a tt a ch ed d a ncing h a ll

- -

look ed brisk with fresh lotuses of liv ely colours a nd

with the ge nia l glow of lights burning with ghee ( clari
fied butt er ) and w e r e filled with the sc e nt ed smok e of
,

burnt r esin a nd fra nkince ns e .

T he d a ncing ha ll w as light ed by Sa ra or ea rth e n

-

cups T his wa s don e in the following w ay U pon the

. .

top of a b amboo post w as pla c ed a n earth en cup and in

-

it a wick drenched with must ard O il T he projecting .

end of this wick w a s light ed and occasion a lly the l a mp

thu s m ade w as replenished with oil from a ba mboo tube .

I nc en ses were a lso burnt here T orch es m a d e of r a gs

.

fa st en ed to the end of a stick a nd dr e nch ed with oil

w ere a lso u sed on the occa sion Wh en the vot a ri es ap .

pear ed on the sce n e to da nc e a nd S ing th ese torches ,

w ere kindled and in the gla ring light thu s ma de they

,

exhibit ed th eir v a rious p erforma nc es With lighted .

ukas bundl es of dri ed jute pla nts t he p erformers went

, ,

from G a m b hira to G am b hira N o a rra ngem ent s were

.

m ade for the public to sit upon but th ey brought th eir ,

own sea t s with th em F o r such resp ecta bl e person a ges

.

as th e M a nda l a a sort of b ed w as spr ea d with co a rse

,

sa ckcloth T he orga ni z er s how ev e r ent e rta in e d t he

.
, ,

a udi enc e with tob a cco a nd smoking a p a ra tu ses G radu

p .

a lly i
, n orde r to wa rd o ff the sun a c a nopy of sackcloth ,

w as hung up ov e r the dancing stage with the h elp of

bam b oo ~ po sts S om e op en iron l amp s of a p eculia r
.

kind with fou r fa ces and known as chom ack as were sus
, ,

p end ed h ere and th ere with iron ch a ins T h ese lamps .

w ere a l so placed on big Sta nds from three to fiv e feet ,

66 T H E FO L K E L E ME N T I N H I N D U C U L T U R E
-

S ECT I O N I V — T H E SY ST E M
. OF A DMI N I STR AT I O N .

In very V illage there a r e o ne or more Ma nda la s or

e

h ea dm en The Ma nda la is the most importa nt a nd wi se

.

m an of the villa ge I n olde n tim es a ll the village a ffa irs

.

were settled a nd ma n aged under his directions A n os .

tima te of his position m a y b e form ed from the following

G r dm asya M anda l o R a
‘
Sa nskrit saying , jd ie the , . .

h ea d m an is the king of the V illage

-
H e w as held in
est e em ev en by the Z a minda r or l a ndlord R ents and .

taxes w ere reali z ed through him with greater ea se and

l ess disturbance H e was bou nd for thi s ensured su c
.
,

c ess to render h elp to G ov ernm e nt officers whenever

,

they c a m e to the village on some bu sin ess or other I n .

la ter tim es the G ov e rnm ent crea ted the post of Sah ata na ,

vesting him with m a ny of the duties form erly discha rged

by the Manda l a E v e n now ma ny famili es ar e found
.

to r eta in this titl e shorn of its dignity a nd duti es

, .

T h er e is a G a m b hir a und er ev e ry Mand a la and no

G am b hira is found tha t is no t u nd er the control o f a Man r
-

da la I n ev ery village th er e ar e sepa ra t e Ma nda las for

.

separa t e communiti es A lthough thi s holds good in

.

Malda also a nd a lthough a ccordingly there a r e separat e

,

G am b hir as for ea ch of the sev er a l castes yet th ere is to ,

b e found h e r e a common G a m b hir a worship c el ebra ted -

by a G en e r a l A ssembly a s it wer e of a ll the castes a nd

, ,

se ct s I t is c a ll ed C hha t r isi ( lit b elonging to thirty six

. .
-

ie a n indefinite numb er h enc e it m ea n s common )

. .
,

G am b hira T he post of t he Ma nd a la of thi s common

.

t empl e is h e ld by o ne of the secta ri a n Ma nda las T he .

meeting c alled Va ithaka that is conv en ed to discuss a nd

, ,

settl e som e busin ess of this G a m b hir a is called a ft er it ,

the Chhatr i si Va i tha ka or the sitting of the thirty six -

.

I n form er days the Z a mindar gra nted to the Ma nda la

som e rent free land or r educed his du es b elow the pr e
-
 T H E GA MBH I R A

vailing rat e of rents as a ma rk of resp ect for him and

a lso to en a ble him to m a inta in hi s dignity B e sides .

this he al so m a de some sm a ll a llowa nce in the sh ape of ,

rent free lands for the est a blishm ent of the tut elary
-

deiti e s of V illages and the G a m b hir a worship F o r this -

.

reason old G am b hir as are ev en now found to b e in

poss ession of som e la nded prop erty I n m edie va l times .

the assets from th e s e l a nd s were quit e su ffici e nt for the

exp ens es of S hiv a wor ship but now th ey ca n m e et only

,

a pa rt . Primitiv e G a m b hiras h av e thu s r ent fr ee la nds -

of th e ir own through gifts from Z a minda rs or rulers

, ,

whil e tho se of more r ec e nt origin h av e no such source of

income T he re ar e how ev e r som e a mong the la tt er
.
, ,

tha t a r e found to hold l a nd rent free or rent paying from

quit e differe nt sources .

T he Ma nd ala exercise s a gr eat s wa y ov e r t he com

munity of which he is the h ead I t is he who punish es .

th e soci a l culprit s a nd th e s e can e xon e ra t e th e m selv es

from the obloquy of ha ving violat ed a soci a l la w or cus

tom and th e cons equ ent puni shm e nt inflict ed by the
M a ndala on ly by making in the n a m e of the G am b hirér
‘

, ,

or its L ord Shiva som e gifts of la nd or some othe r equi

,

va l e nt things B esides if any o ne die without a n h eir he

.
,
’
m a kes ov er his prop erty to the G a m b hir zi T h ese gift s .

a re ca su a l sourc es of incom e .

I n course of tim e the m emb ers of the Ma nda l a fa mily H w th o e

incr ease in numb er a nd th e re occasion ally br ea k out 312 12

22 8

feuds a mong th e m selves and on such occasions a mong ,

other things the G a m bhir a a lso turn s out to b e an appl e

,

of discord T he village rs a lso side with the contending

.

p a rties and thus th e re a ri ses a n ecessity for the est a blish

,

m e nt of a sep arate G am b hir a for the seceding bra n ch of

t he M a nda l a fa mily a nd i ts support ers and they h av e to

forego th eir cla ims to the old G am b hir a I n this w ay .

in course of time th ere spring up more th a n one G a m

i
5
 68 TH E FO LK E L E M E N T I N H I N D U CU L T U R E
-

bhir é in village without however any claims to the

a , , ,

funds or a ny part of them from the origin al one I n some .

villages however only the Chha tr isi G am bhir a is to

, ,

b e found B esides th ese ther e occa sion ally leap into

.
,

existence a mateur G a m b hirfi orga ni z a tions a ls o which

,
,

general ly die out a fter a yea r or so T hes e ar e not con .

trolled by any Ma nda la s T hey a re appropriat ely styled .

Sakher G am b hir fis ie those for pl easure , . . .

A short while befor e the tim e fix ed for the celebra

tion of the G am b hir afe stivities a gen e ra l meeting ca lled , ,

Vaithak a of the V ill age rs is conven ed to settle the finan

,

ci a l que stion I n this m eeting an estim ate is formed by

.

the Ma nda l a with the a ssista nce of the other gentlemen

,

present of the proba bl e e xpenses to be incurr ed and

, ,

th e reafte r a list of subscriptions is prepar ed T his is .

wha t is known as the BhAngan of the G am bhir a The .

V aithaka is held in a w e by the villagers ; for in it

a ll soci a l o ffences ar e a lso tri ed a nd punished and the

G am bhir acess is in stituted .

S E CT I O N V .
-
T H E N AME O F TH E I N ST I T UT I O N .

T he qu e stion m ay na tura lly a ri se how the festivities

a nd cer emoni es th a t a r e h eld in honour of the G o d Shiv a

in the R adha country ( west ern pa rt of B enga l compris ,

ing the H u ghli and B urdwa n di stricts the northe rn di ,

vi sion b eing Var endra ) and gen era lly know n there as
’
— 1
S hiv a s G zt an hav e come to rec e iv e the app ell a tion of
,

Adya s G a m b hira ( G am b hir a of Adya the first goddess

’

the origin of creation ) in Ma lda I n m edi e va l tim es houses .

like C ha ndi—mandapa ( a house for the worship of the

goddess C h a ndi personifi ed divin e energy in full splen
,

1
I t is a com prehensiv e
incl u ding th e festiv ities that are
nam e

hel d and the self tortures t hat are u ndergone by the dev otees o f Shiv a
-

in the m onth o f C haitra ( Mar ch A pril ) , beginning on the fir st day -

and endi ng w ith a worshipo f the god on the last da

y .
 TH E G AMBH I R A

dour ) were c a lled G am b hir i or G a m b hir a in this part of

the country A t l east w e l earn from the S ongs of G o
.
,

oi nda c/
iandr a th a t during the thirte e nth a nd fourteenth

c enturies the n a m e G a m b hira w as exclu siv ely a p

plied to houses of the abov e description Fo r w e find .

th ere
The Q u ee n had the two m ess enger s ti ed down in
”
the G am b hir a .

“
T he asc etic sat down in m e dit ation in the G a m
bh ira a nd c a m e to know [of
H adipa [ spiritu a l prec eptor of G ov i nda cha nd ra s
’

mother] a ppli ed himself to religiou s medit ation in th e

”
G am b hir é .

[H e] left b ehind his own body in the G am b hira

“

a nd t a king through h i
,
s illusiv e pow e rs the a irs of a n ,
”
astrologe r [ ,he] set out .

F rom t he abov e us es of the word G am bhir a it is ,

cl ea r that it refers to a house of m editation or worship

like t he C h andi m a nda pa-
.

H ou sehold e rs kept Buddh a pada ( foot print of Th dw ll i g

- -
e e n

Buddha) o r D ha rma paduka (sandal s u sed by D h a rma ) E

-

ggs
g
f th e

in the G am b hir a of th eir hou ses I n course of time Ch dik é

.
an

t he godd ess Ady a ca m e to b e inst all ed a nd worshipp e d

th ere. A nd a fte rwa rd s wh en she r ec eiv ed wor ship
under the n a m e of C h andika her ghata (a ja r of wat er
,

symboli z ing her in filling pow er) wa s a l so placed in

-

t he G a m b hir a . T h en a ga in by a nd by C h a ndika
, ,

c a m e to be rega rded as the wife of Shiva a nd joint ,

im age s of H a ra (anothe r n a m e of Shiva ) a nd G a uri '

( a nother n a m e of C ha ndika) were in sta lled in the G am

bhira T hu s w e see that in the v e ry t emple wh e re
.

during Buddhi stic supr ema cy the festiviti es of D ha rm a

we re h eld during Sha iva suprema cy worship w a s o ffe red
,

to a nd festi v iti es h eld in honour of H a ra a nd G a ur i

’

.
, ,

I t w as not only in Malda R a ngpur D in ajpur and

, ,
 70 T H E FO L K E L E ME N T I N H I N D U CU L T U R E
-

dj ace nt pl aces in Varendr a or N orth Benga l th a t the

S hiva s t em pl e a
’

in th e R ad ha
co unt ry. G am bhira w as transform ed into C hand i m a ndapa or
’
Shiva s temple the s a me pr actice c a m e to obt a in a lso
,

in the district of B urdwa n in R adha or West B e nga l .

F rom t he p a negyric s o ffere d to Shiv a in the R a dh a

country in the course of his G aj a n w e find th at G am
bhira m ea nt h ere the t e mpl e of Shiv a T hus in the .
,

pan egyrics of B ab a ( Fath e r) I shé neshw ara ( a n a m e of

Shiv a ) in th e cour se of his G aj a n a t the village of K u d
mun ln Burdwa n w e come a cro ss such lin es a s th ese
T her e in the G a m b hira is Maheshw ar a ( god of
gods) who is ever lo st in meditation F iv e tim es do I
,
.

mak e my obeisa nc e a t his feet .

I t is cl ear th at in th e R adh a country also G am b hira

m ea nt the t e mpl e of S hiva .

C on sulting the V a isnav a S criptur es a l so o ne would

find tha t G am b hir a m ea nt a t emple of Shiv a or a t empl e ,

gen era lly T hi s will b e clear from the fo llowing couplet

.

in C/caita ny a Cna r itam r ita ‘

I will not sl e ep at night in the G a m b hir a .

Fo r it r esults in the int e rior of the mouth a nd the

”
hea d being ulc era te d or sca rred .

I n this book G am b hir a has be en d efinit ely m ad e

to r efe r to a t empl e and to cont a i n four doors L ord .

Chitanya ( 1 4 8 5 1 53 3 ) once p asse d a night th er e

-
.

T he following lin es from the m a nuscript of Cnand

‘

‘
Vdu l by K ed arn ath Da tta Bhak tiv inoda m ay al so b e
quoted :
I n sid e t he A nt ar gam t r a ( inner t empl e) at the
-

Ak hada a hou se of congregat ion of the followers of

,

C ha it a nya th ere I s a b ed sprea d

, T h er e ar e two dimly
.

burning a nd flicke ring lights on two S id es of it T he .

m a in ga t e has been closed I n the c e ntre of the b ed is

.

sitting th e chi ef V aul

"
(a cl ass of religious minstrels )
K isor D asa .
 T H E GA MB H I R A

A lso in the inc a ntations tha t ar e mea nt for the o ffer

ing of oblations to the m a nes of the d epa rt ed w e com e ,

a cross the word G a m b hir a and G a m bhir a there seem s,

“ ”
clearly to m ean a house .

I t a lso occur s in the pa n egyrics th at ar e offe r ed to

Shiv a in O ris sa . T hus
H ymns in honour of Ma h ad ev a ( Shiv a ) .

I bow down at the feet of the inh a bitants of K a il as a A d ar k inper

[the residenc e of Shiva] so that th ey m ay b e pl eas ed to

lea v e K a ilasa for this pl ace May the wi elde r of the .

K ha tté nga [ ]
a p e culi a r w eapon used by S hiv a a nd e n e my

of the god of passion s b e pl ea s ed to turn h ere for a mo

ment to r e mov e my affliction s H e is the much b elov ed .

husba nd of G a uri and the only obj ect of a doration by

the a sc etic . B ea ring G a mga [the tut ela ry d eity of the
G anges] upon his h ea d he b ea rs the n a m e of G an
,

gadhar a . B ell s a r e ringing fast in the ghora G a m b hir a ,

t he inner ap a rtm ent a nd lord A rdh a cha ndra [

, a n a m e of -

S hiv a as h is for eh ead is a dorn ed with a h a lf moon ] as

,
-
,

luck would hav e it is prepa ring himself

, .

S ta nding up K a vi K a r na m ak es it known th at he
,

has to som e ext ent succ eeded in winning th e gra c e of

, ,

Mah ad eva
”
.

I n t he a bov e quota tion we h a v e Bells ar e ringing

”
fast in the ghora G am b hir a H enc e it is cl ear th a t.

the im age of S hiv a w as in sta lled in a v ery d a rk inn er

a p a rtm e nt of the hou se a nd it w a s this inn e r a p a rtme nt
, ,

this t empl e of S hiva tha t w as call ed G am b hir a

, .

I t is furth e r cl ear from the a bov e a ccount th at as

G a m b hir am ea nt the t e mpl e of Shiv a or a t emple gen er
a lly
, it w as h e re that Shiv a w as worshipp ed a nd h is
festiviti es wer e h eld I n cour se of tim e the festiviti es of
.

Shiv a held in the G a m b hir a c a m e to be r egarded af ter ,

tae na m e of t/ ie p l ace as G am b hira worship

,
-
.

T here is a furth er reason for the contention th a t

72 T H E FO L K E L E ME NT I N H I N D U CUL T U R E
-

G am bhira means a templ e of Shiv a I n medie val times

.

the temple of Shiva used to b e decorated with G am

bhira or lotus ( nel u m 6iu m speciosu m ) H ence it will not
.

be unrea son able to conclude th a t the festivities th at ar e

now known as G am bhir a ca m e to be r ega rded as such
owing to the fa ct that th ey were held in a pla ce c a lled
G a m b hira which w as decora ted with G a m b hir a flowers
,
.

I n S LiI/a Sam fiitd aga in w e find G am b hira as a

-
, ,

1
n a me of Shiva F rom this it a lso seems probable that
.

just as the place of worship of the goddess C handi has

rec eived the n a me of C handi Ma nd apa the pla ce where
-

th e festivitie s w e r e h eld in honour of S hiva under the

n a me of G am bhira ha s b ecom e kno wn as G am b hira
Mandap a I t m ay thus b e the n a m e of the deity th at
.

has furnish e d the nam e of the l ocal e a nd ultim ately that

,

of the stage and the p erforma nc es .

' '
1
Cf Yugddzi
. ér id y uga oa r to G a m M ir o om lin- oaizanalz.
74 T H E FO L K E L E ME N T I N H I N D U CU L T U R E
-

in conn exion with the G aj an of Shiva T he title of .

Ma nd al a and the syst em of m a n age ment by the Ma ndala

ar e still in vogu e among t he Podas a nd S imil a r low class
-

people in the villages of G o palanagar C hetla T aliganj , , ,

etc in the T w enty four Pa rga n as A nd a s in the G am

.
,
-
.
,

b hir as of Ma lda in the G éjan of Shiv a a l so the Ma n

, ,

da l a is found to exe rcise a considerabl e swa y N ay in .

,

ma ny pla c es it is he who ma n a ges all the a ffa irs in con

nex io n with th e G aj a n festiviti es a nd it is he who i s re

ga rded as the master of the c ere moni e s .

B efore the comm enc em ent of the G aj a n of Shiva ,

the M a nd ala following the tim e honoured cu stom on

,
-

such occ a sio ns m a k es a l l n ec es sa ry a rra ng em ents for t he

,

c eremoni es to b e h eld in con nexion with this festival .

T he Adi Shiva of the village has som e la nded property

set apa rt for h i s m a int en a nc e F rom its incom e ar e m et .

a ll the e ssenti a l e xp ens es of the loc a l worship Should .

thi s sourc e of incom e b e found in su ffici ent for the pur

pose subscription s a r e ra ised to augm ent it B esid es
,
.

t he Ma ndal a the M ul a — Sa nny asi ( or chi ef vota ry ) is a lso

,

a n ec essary fa ctor in the d u e perform a nc e of t h e G a j an

festiviti es A tt a ch ed to ev ery t emple of S hiva whe re
.

these festivities ar e h eld the re is a n h eredita ry post of ,

Mul a Sa nnyasi a lthough origin a lly it w as filled by se

-
,

lection from a mong the vota ri es of t he tim e I t is this .

chief vota ry who ma k es a ll the n ece ssa ry a rra ngem ents

for the G éjan festiviti es subj ect to control a nd direction ,

by the Ma ndala a nd who is prima rily responsibl e for the

,

due execution of the la tte r s r equirem ents ’

.

Tne O r der tn
‘
f e G a a n F estiv ities
o j .

’
S hiv a s G aj an m ay be divided into the following si
x

p a rts
I . S election of Sanny asis , ca lled Sannyasi -
dhara .
 T H E G AJ A N

( I n some places it lso c all ed ma rking ie pla cing a is a , . .

pho nta or m a rk on the foreh ead of the Sa nnyé si )

f
, ,

2 .S h a ving and a bstinence from m eat a nd fish ca lled ,

N Ijhad kam an -
.

3 H av isya ( food con si sting of boil e d ric e and ghee

.

only ) a nd G h a t a sthapa na ( inst alla tion of the s acred

-

pitch e r ) .

4 Ma h a hav isya (food con sisting of fruits a nd roots

-
.

only) O n this da y the festiviti es comm enc e

. .

5 Fast festivities a nd the wor ship of N ilav a ti

.
, , .

6 C ha da k a th e swi nging c ere mony

. O n this day
, .

the festiviti es ar e brought to a close .

Sannyasi dna r a
‘ ‘
I .
-
.

da ys b efore the Chadak a the Mul a Sannyasi b ti

S ix
p gfi
s er ce
-
,
8 a”d
i;
r
ent er s the village in the a ft ernoon a tt ended by loud a , f

music produc e d by the b ea ting of long drum s T hose .

who hav e t a k en the volun t a ry vow of becoming Sa nny

asis ga ther tog eth er on th e occ asion I n som e c a s es the .

M ul a—Sanny asi is found to put ma rks of sa nda l past e on -

th eir foreh ea ds (and thus ma rk th e m out as it were a s , ,

vot ari es of Shiva ) in oth e rs aft er a sse mbling th ey get , ,

th emselv es sha v ed T he M ula—Sa nny asi is shav ed first .

of a ll a nd a ft er this is don e the vota ri es go in a body to

, , ,

ba th e in the a dj a c ent riv e r or ta nk dancing a ll the while ,

to the mu sic of long drums A ft e r ba thing th ey ta ke .

,

th eir supp e r a voiding fish a nd m eat from sepa ra t e

, ,

pl at e s T his c er emony is c a lled Sa m ya m a or absti

.

nence .

S /iaw n
'
‘
2 . N ijlzad Iédm dn -

, or g .

N ext day, other volunteer Sa nnyasis get

a ll t he
themselv es sh a v ed in the a ft ernoon a ft e r th ey h a v e ,

t ak en their food (a voiding fish a nd mea t ) a nd assemble ,

1
T he v o taries o f G am b hira and Gaj an ar e techni
cally k nown as

Sannyasis Bu t generally speak ing the ter m denotes perso ns who

.

ab stai res and enj oym ents

n from al l worl dl y desi .
76 T H E FO L K E L E ME N T I N H I N D U CUL T U R E
-

in a pla ce to da nc e to the mu sic of long drums A ll .

those who int end pla ying the p arts of Sa n nyasis ha v e to ,

get th em selv es sh a v ed on this da y ; for lat er than this

no Sa nnyasis a r e tak en T he sh a ving of this da y is in
.

som e places c a lled N ijhad kaman T ho se only who -

.

d esir e to b e S annyasis or who by w ay of propitiating

, ,

the god h a v e volunta rily promis ed to s erv e as such ar e

, ,

e nli st ed in t he ra nks of Sannyasis T h ey h a v e inv a ria bly .

to go through the following cours e E a ting of food con

sisting of boiled ric e a nd gh ee only ; ea ting of fruits

only fasts p assing sl eepless nights dusting the temple

( ca lled dhul at ) ; a nd swinging .

3 . H a v is
ya .

Fo r p erforma nc e of the abov e c er emoni es the

the
1
servic es of t he G aj a n e B rahm an a ar e not r equir ed .

T h ey ar e r equire d for the first tim e on the day of H av

isya wh en the G ha ta sthapa na ( ie insta lla tion of a
,
-
. .

wat er jar as symboliz ing t he in filling power of the god )

- -

t akes pl a c e F irst the Sa nnyasis go to ba th e attended

.

by the music of the long drums a nd return with water ,

a nd flow ers in a v e ss el a nd si t down in w et cloth es at

th e pl a c e of G aj a n T h en the G aj a n e Brahm a na puts
.

round th eir n ecks a ga rla nd of sma ll threa d ba lls strung -

togeth er on a kush a grass a nd touch es th eir h ea ds with ,

2
t he G aj a n e Shiv a A s soon as this is don e th ey a re
.
,

‘
1
T h e G atjane B rah m a na
(so cal l ed from h is offi ci
ating in th e
G aj an festiv ities) is inferior to B rah m anas of th e h igh o r der, b ecau se
h e is th e priest o f th e l ow class peo pl e H e is su per ior, ho wev er, to
-
.

Br ah m anas o f th e l o west o r d er H e offi ciates in th e G aj an festiv i

.

‘
ties a s priest for Sa nnyétsis recru ited fro m all the or d ers o f so ciety .

2
I f the im age o f Shiv a in who se hono u r th e G aj an is hel d is
anentl y fi xed an d im m o v abl e, o ne or m o re sm al l sto nes ar e u sed
perm
as his repr esenta tiv es, and o ne of these st one r e
presentativ es o f Shiv a
the Gaj ane Br ahm ana tak es u pin h is hand s and m ak es th e Sannyasis
to u ch it A fter this, the stone is m ade over t o th em and th ey wo r
.
 78 T H E FO L K EL E ME N T I N H I N D U C U L T U R E
-

da nc e music a nd song the reciting of the hymns of

, ,

S hiv a and the n a rration of his virtu es .

T he Phul k adh an or Phul ch ap an is o ne of the

-

,
-
,

essentia l c er emoni es th at a r e obs erv e d d a ily T hi s .

c eremony is pe rform ed a s follows F irst with a view . ,

to securing bl essings for the king a leaf of t he ma rmelos ,

tree dre nch ed in the waters of the G a nges is pla ce d on

, ,

the h ea d of t he im age of S hiv a a nd to the a ccom pa ni ,

m ent of music from the long drums the n a m es of Shiva

a r e r e cit ed I f the l ea f fall s o ff it self from the he a d of
.

Shiva it is t ak e n as a S ign th at the god has b ee n pl ea sed

,

with the cer emony and ha s d e ign ed to show his ap

prov al T hen the sa m e c eremony is repeat ed severa l
.

tim es to invoke t he bl essing of the d eity on the Z a min

d ar ( l andlord ) a nd the Sa nny asis A n d l ast of a ll .
, ,

tho se who d esire to b e cured of th eir di seas es or who ,

d e sire to ha v e son s born to th em through the fa vour of

the god com e forwa rd a nd r ep ea t the c e re mony
,
.

AP
r o cessio n. I n the a ft ernoon the Sa nny asi s a dorn th eir p erson s
with v a rious orn a m ents a nd set out in procession with
ca n es in th eir ha nds a nd b ea ring a loft on th e ir should ers
a p a l a nquin in sid e which is pl a c ed the G a j a n e S hiv a .

T hi s proc ession is a tt end ed by the mu sic of t he long

drum s I n thi s ma nn e r the Sa nnyasi s m a rch to the
.

t empl es of S hiva in G aj a n ta la or pla c e of G aj a n in

-

, ,

t h e di ffe r e nt a dj a c ent vill a ges H er e th ey e xcha nge

.

e mbra c es with a nd d a nc e a nd sing i

, n t he comp a ny of ,

th eir broth er workers a nd thus a dd to the importa nce of

-

the occ asion .

E v ery G aj a n e Sa nnyasi joins in the proc e ssion

th at ma rches out a ccording to loca l us age with dancing
, , ,

mu sic etc from his own G aj a n ta l a to the origina l

, .
,
-

a nd principa l G a j a n ta l a of the di strict H ere he join s

-
.

his force s with those from other adj a c ent centres of

G aj a n a nd joins in the festiviti es th at ar e held h e re
,
 T H E G AJ A N

with music da nc e a nd song I n som e pla c es the songs a r e

, .

s ung in the sa m e m a nner a s the songs of the K a vi In .

1

this th ere ar e two riva l p arties cont ending with ea ch

oth e r in ma kin g e xt e mpore verses T h es e songs a r e .

divid ed into the three pa rt s of C h ap an ( a seemingly u n

a nsw e ra bl e ch a rg e m a d e aga in st the oppon e nt a ft e r he

ha s a n swer ed a previous ch a rge ) C hit en ( a ch arge which

,

is likely to excit e the oppon e nt) a nd Ja v av ( ie a n swers, . .

a nd r ejoind ers
) T h er e is in T aliga nj a suburb of Cal
.
,

outta , s uch a n a ncient a n d principa l pl a c e o f G a jan ,

known as t he pla c e of V uda ( old ) Sh iva

“
a nd Sa n

nyasi s from the a dj a c e nt G aj a n ta las of K éligha t Bha

-

w a nip ur C h etl a C a lcutta and Sav jib agan a ss embl e

, ,

h e r e and pass the whol e night with danc e song a nd ,

music . H er e a lso such festiviti es as ar e h eld in t he

G a m b hir fis of Ma ld a t ak e pl a c e The passing of sl eep
.

less nights with such fe stiviti es a nd m erryma kings is

wh a t is known a s J aga rau T he underlying id ea of the
.

songs is to some e xte nt simil a r to th a t of t he songs of

Malda for th ey con sist likewi se of hymns of Shiv a a nd

,

po etica l recita ls of his m erits a nd d em e rits .

I n m a ny pla c es of the T w enty four Pa rga n as with the Shiv C

-

,
’
as ro
dil d co e, an
comm encem e nt of the G aj a n festiviti es worship is a lso th l ighti g , e n

o ffered to the C rocodile of Shiva B y t he side of the hp f thf N il .

u o
ou se o
e
a.
G aj an ta l a a hug e crocodil e is sh ap e d out with cla y and
-

its body is nicely finish ed a nd pl aster ed I t s sc a l es a r e .

m ade with the ston es of the tam arind fruit a nd the in

t er io r of its mouth i s b esm ea r ed with v ermilion An .

infa nt is S hap ed out with cla y a nd pla ced before it in

such a posture a s to in d icat e th a t the crocodile is a bout
to d evour it I t is thi s crocodile which is known a s
.

’
S hiv a s C rocodile I t has to b e m a d e a s soon as the
.

1
Com petitive versifyi
ng (cf
. Sa nger /br ag) b efore large au diences

has been a r egul ar institu tion in Bengal ’

s l iterary and so ci
al life .
 80 T H E FO L K E L E MEN T I N H I N D U CU L T U R E
-

G aj a n festivities ar e sta rted A t du sk the temple of .

N ila (a n a m e of Shiv a) is lit up T o plac e l a mps in this .

house is ca lcula ted to confer high re ligiou s m erits on

wom en .

5 F a sts
. .

Worshipof T he
next day the Sa nnyasi s take no food whatsoever
N il a Mu sic
.

an d d i A t noon wor ship i

a nce n s O ffe r e d a nd other c e r e monie s ob
th g i
e f
u se o
S h iv K al i
a,
serv ed with grea t é cl a t
,
T he da ily worship is o ffered
.

b f
t
e c. , e ore
a ft e r the P hul k adh an c er emony is gon e through
-

bl
.
th e em em
of Sh iv a. M ost of the C aj a ns of the H u ghli di strict go to T ara
keshwa r on the occa sion A la rge numb er of pro .

c ession s a sse mble the re I n the sa m e w ay processions .

from a dj a c ent pla c es assemble a t some w ell known ( old) -

place of Shiva in every district E a rly in the morning .

of the N ilapuja day the G aj a n e Sa nnyasis a nd ma ny

,

oth e r peopl e of Ca lcutt a a nd the neighbouring plac es

flock to the t e mpl e of K ali to o ffer worship th er e and ,

the p a int ers of Pa tu atuli a t K al i g hat on paym ent of ,

nec essa ry fee s pa int the Sa nnyasi s a ccording to th eir

, ,

pl ea sure as H ara G a uri Shiva K ali ma le a nd fema le

, , , , ,

gho st s a nd spirits a nimals a sc etics a nd m endic ants

, , .

T h ey pa s s in troop s d ancing a n d singing through , ,

group s of Sp e ctators into the templ e of K al i and a ft er

, , ,

o ffering worship to the goddess ba th e themse lves a nd ,

re turn som e of th em how ever r eturn dressed a nd de , ,

co r at ed in the sa m e w a y a s th ey go I n th e morning
‘

festiviti es of the N ilapujaday H indus and Moha mm eda n s ,

a r e found to join tog eth e r T h es e festiviti es a r e s imila r

.

to those of Ma lda in which such m a sk d a nc es as those

,

of Ch amund a K ali Vasu li etc ta ke pla c e ; and it shows

, , , .
,

cl ea rly tha t in m edi e va l times these festiviti es w ere h eld

throughout the l ength a nd brea dth of Benga l .

A ft er th es e cer emoni es h av e b een obs erv e d the ,

82 T H E FO L K E L E ME N T I N H I N D U C U L T U R E
-

cultiva tion of the la nd by him T hi s cultiv a tion song .

-

is a lso sung in the G a m b hiré of Ma ld a and as h ere in , , ,

that song a lso reference is made to the growth of pa ddy .

A d et a il ed a ccount of this cultiv ation is to b e found in

‘
Sliii/ay ana and S/civ agitd A s a dvis ed by his wife
. ,

Parv ati Shiv a desired to t ak e to cultiva tion

,
but he ,
1

n eede d la nd s for the purpose Parva ti th e n a dvis ed .

him to apply for th em to I ndra the K ing of G ods A c ,

.

co r din ly Shiv a we nt to the pl a c e of the l atter and

g
a ddr ess ed him thus

I f you will gr ant m e l a nds I m ay t ake to cultiv a ,

”
tion a nd thu s sa tisfy the wishes of Parvati .

I ndr a repli ed : B e ing the la ndlord how is it that ,

you ask your serva nt for la nds

S hiv a sa id T h e re ar e som e di fficulti es about it O ,

S h akr a [I ndra] . I fea r l est you should qu arrel with m e

a t the harv est tim e . I t is not r ea son a bl e to r ely on the
words of o ne who is a bsorbed deeply in worldly a ffairs I f .

you gra nt me a l ea se I m ay re st assured th at no diffi

,
”
cu l ties will a rise in the future .

I ndra a sk e d S hiv a to st a te the extent and location

of the lands he wa nt ed a nd then ,

H a ra [ S hiv a] a sk ed for the limitless fa llow ground

n ea r the settl em ent of the K och as excluding l ands al ,

rea dy gra nt ed [to othe rs] as s ettlem ents for the service of
gods a nd the graz ing of c a ttle or as r emuneration to ,

pri ests .

T h ereupon the so n of K ashyap a ( ie I ndra ) gr ant ed . .

to the god of gods a l ea se of D ev o ttaraland [ie la nd . .

endowed for the s upport of a god]

A nd D igam v a ra [ lit sta rk n aked a n a me of

.
-
,

Shiva] binding th e lease with the cord a tta ched to his

,

dam aru [ a p eculi a r small drum] a nd blessing I ndra

[for
1
Sim ilar to th e growing of paddy , as d escrib ed in the Snu ny a
 T H E GAJ A N 33

his goodn ess] m a de for the pla c e of Yam a [G o d of

D ea th]
Why is Shiv a going to c a ll at Ya m a s ? I t is to ’

borrow the s ervic es of his bu ffa lo T his and his own .

bull a r e to b e yoked togeth er for ploughing the fi elds .

A nd Ya m a as soon as r equested [
“
, lit comm a nded] .
,

made over the bu ffalo to him

T hen V ishwa karm a ( the chief enginee r a nd m ech an ic
-

of the gods ) with a V iew to m aking the implements of

,

agricultur e h eld up the trident of Shiv a a nd sa id

,

T he impl em ent s of agriculture ar e one p ashi o ne ,

plough sh are two ja lo is o ne spa d e o ne sickl e and o ne

, , ,
1
ukhun L et us ma ke the p ashi w eighing five m aunds
.
,

th e ploughsh a re e ighty m a unds the two jal o is togeth er ,

two ma unds the Sp a de o ne m a und the sickle eight

,

ma unds and the ukhun e ight maunds .

T hen Shiv a stopping th e hol es in the b ellows with

,

h is tige r s k in S et to work with it a nd the ghosts suppli ed

-
,

cha rco a l to the furnac e from burning plac es ca ll ed

fun era l pyres H e h eld the trid ent with the h elp of a
.

pa ir of tongs in his l eft ha nd a nd knelt down b eside the ,

furn a c e with much ado With the h elp of his hands and.

feet he worke d the formida bl e bellows from which con ,

tinu a lly we nt forth the sound of d etayya

Whe n S hiva gr ew anxiou s how to secur e s eeds for
the growth of p addy K atyayani[Parv ati] s a id
, H ow
is it my lord th at you ha v e nothing at a ll ? T h ere ar e
, ,

pl enty of seeds in the house of K uv era [tr easurer of Shiv a]

go and get the qua ntiti es you r equire from there
T he qu estion s of getting a ploughma n to till his
fi elds for him a nd a lso a pair of bulls wer e settled thus
, ,

by her
“
We have in our own house the old bull which is ,

1
I m d 8 0 lbs .
 84 T H E FO L K E L E ME N T I N H I N D U C U L T U R E
-

e xception ally strong I t m ay b e yoked with the bu ffa lo

.

of Ya m a T h ere is the plough of Va lai [V a lar am a

. ,

step broth er of L ord Shri K ri sh a not ed as b eing the

- -

wi e lder of a plough] a nd there is Bhim a [the most

pow erful of the fiv e broth e rs in the M and6/zdr ata] who
will do well as a ploughm a n Wh ere th en ar e your .
, ,

difficulti es ?
T h en follows a d eta il ed a ccount of the v a rious pro
c ess es of cultiva tion .

When the pr elimin a ri es of cultivation w ere ov er a nd

the tim e of ha rv est ca m e Bhima bowed to V ish ,

w anatha [ lit L ord of the U niv e rs e a n am e of Shiva]

.
,

a nd went to the fields with a scyth e weighing te n ,

ma unds in his hands H e rushed breathless a nd in the

.
,

course of two seconds only mowed the crop s T he .

pa ddy thus obta ined me asured but two h alas [a v ery

sm all
H ea ring th at it m easur ed only two h al a s Shiva ,
”
ordered it to b e cast into fir e .

T h er eupon Bhim a applied fire to the h eap of paddy

a nd blew it with his mouth T he paddy burnt
through et ernity a nd it w a s from this tha t paddi es of
,

di ffe rent colours were grown .

E v en now the cultivation scen e is e n a ct ed in con

nex io n with the G a m b hir a festiviti es .

S hiv a visited the hou se of H im al a y a ( fa th er of

G a uri wife of Shiv a ) in the gui se of a sell er of bra c el et s
,

ma de of conch shell s and help ed G a uri in putting on a

-
,

pair .

T he l a di es sat in the courty a rd surrounding

Mah am ay a [lit the creativ e pow er of G od so ca ll ed
.
,

from the illusory n a ture of the world ; hence a n am e

of Bhagav ati or D urga] and Madhav a [here m eaning
,

S hiv a although rea lly a n a me of K r isna or V i snu]

, .

T h ese two sat on b ea utiful s eats fa cing ea ch oth er Par ,

86 T H E FOL K EL E ME N T I N H I N D U CU L T U R E
-

G aj ane Brahm ana o ffers him a flower , a lrea dy o ffered

to Shiva by way of conferring on him
, the benediction
of the god .

Tne K dntdjlzdm p —T he Sa nny asis ta ke their stand

.

on a ra ised p la tform with a bundl e of the br a nches of a

thorny tree fas t ene d to th eir breasts Below a piece .

,

of canvas is held a loft in front of them a nd they jump

down on it one after a noth e r I n som e places branches . ,

of the thorny tree are pla ce d on the piece of canvas

itsel f
.

Tbe Pdt 66dng d — T his is not observed in all the

-
.

centres I n this ca se the Sa n ny asi s t ake their st and on

.

the bamboo pla tform with s om e fruits tied in a corner

-

of their cloths a nd throw th em down a mong the crowd

of spectators m a ny of whom try th e ir best to c atch some
,

of these bundles b efore th ey reach the ground I f they .

succeed in doing thi s with som e obj ect in their minds

, ,

they believe tha t obj e ct will be real i z ed .

m e D nu nd P oddna or 6u r ning of r esin — T his ,

ceremony is perform ed in two wa ys I n the first men .

,

and women fa st the whol e da y a nd t a k e their se a ts in

wet clothes on o ne side of the temple of Shiv a with ,

ea rthen cups called Sa ra free from bla ck spots on , ,

their hea ds held with th eir two ha nds and also placed
,

between their two kn ees Pi eces of wood ar e pla ced on .

thes e Sa ras a nd fir e applie d to them T hen when the .

,

Brahmana throws some flowe rs a nd sprinkles wa ter of

the G a nges upon th e m powd e red r es in is a lso thrown
,

into the fire Som e go through this c eremony a lso with

.

in fa nts on their kn ees .

I n the second method two b a mboo posts ar e pl ant ed,

on the ground and anoth er pi ec e of b a mboo is ti ed to

their heads Below this a hol e is dug on the ground
.

a nd filled with fire T hen the Sa nny asis one by one

.
, ,

tie their feet to the hori z onta l bar and seven tim es swing
 T H E G AJ A N 87

their bodies hea dlong over the fire into which is th en ,

thrown powder ed r esin .

N il do ati—puja — Wom en say on this occasion

‘
.

A s the r esult of my pl a cing lights in the t empl e of

N il a I sh all ha v e a cc ess to h ea v en [
, a fter d ea th
] .

A t dusk the wom e n light up the t empl e of S hiv a

with la mps burning ghee I n the B enga li a lm a n a c s
.

a l so it is r ecord ed th a t on this da
y the goddes s N ilav a ti
should be worshipp e d N ext day .

6 . Cna da éa fi uj a
-

is p erform e d with great éclat I n old en tim es on this

.

occasion the pla ce of C hadak a u sed to b ecom e a sc en e

of stirring incid ent a nd difficult p erforma nc es such a s
,

th e V ana fo d a took pl a c e th er e T he C had ak a festivi

.

ti es ha v e of la t e b ee n prohibit ed by law .

O n thi s da y the m a rria ge c er e mony of Shiv a is

found to b e represented in som e pla ces T hi s festivity .

a l so is p erform ed a bout the end of th e month of C h a itra ,

a nd i s giv e n with great pomp in N a v a d w i p (

a N a di a
1
) ,

S antipur a n d some oth e r pl a c es .

1
I n the C/ia nd i of M anik Datta, Shiva is m arried to Adya,
and i n D lza r m ap j a ddlza ti D har m a is m arried to h er Adya is
u dp
- .

b u t another nam e o f Arya Tara, th e Bu ddhist godd ess H indu iz ation

.

of m ed i e v al B uddhist dei
ties wo u l d thu s b e appar ent .
 C H A PT E R V .

FO LK FE ST I V I T I E S I N N O R T H BE N G A L A N D O R I SSA
- .

SECTI O N I .
— G A M BH I R A .

T H E gen era l n a m e fo r the low cl ass peopl e of Var endra -

1
orth rn B e nga l ) such as t he K och as, the Po li h
( N e ,
as ,

etc.
,
is V angal T he n a m e might w e ll be tra nsla ted by
.

t he E nglish word
“
ru stic T he Vangals offe r wor
ship to S hiv a towa rd s t h e clos e of the month of C ha itra

( M a rch A pril-

) as oth e rs do
,
T h e ir G a m b hir as ar e
.

a bsolut ely free from the r emot e st influ enc e of luxury .

I n m a ny ca s es the temple its elf is in a dil apidat ed condi

tion a nd the e mble m of Shiva a lmost buried under
,

ea rth inside the hous e only such poor a rticles of wor

ship as the chamar a ( ya k ta il used as a fly brush ) dried
- -

ga rl a nds of flowe rs wood en masks of K ali and other

,

gods a nd goddess es , old ea rth en vessels a nd inc en se pot s -

ma k e up the furniture The courtya rd is ov ergrown

.

with grass a nd w eeds O nly a t the tim e of worship the

.

floor is cl eared a nd besmea red with cow dung a nd a p art -

only of the courtya rd is cl ea ns ed .

O n the occasion of the G am b hir a festiviti es the

V angals ar e a ctu ated by sincer e d evotion a nd r eligious
feelings T hey ha ve no priest to o fficia te for th em
.

th ey th em selv es pe rform th eir own worship E v en the .

drum is pl a yed on by them T he chief Sa nnyasi or .

,

G uni as he is oth erwis e c a ll ed pla y s the p a rt of the

, ,

pr I est .

1
D escendants of Mongol invaders o f N o rth Bengal ( tenth cen

tury ) accordin
g to M r C handa
. . Vide Banerji’s R ite s o f B enga l .

88
 90 T H E FO L K E L E ME N T I N H I N D U C U L T U R E
-

a vert evils ( technica lly c alled Shantipatha ) and o ffer s

flowe rs a nd sa cr ed w a ter of the G anges A fter this the .

d ancers are ma de to d a nc e s ep a rate ly each ta king his ,

turn on hea ring his sp ecia l not e struck out by the drum .

T h ese da nc es a r e wild a nd ecst atic ( like tho se of Shiva )

a nd ar e a tt e nd ed with furious shri e ks a nd e xcl a m a tions .

F rom the possessed or chief Sa nny asi m a ny will th en

e t m dicin for th ir di se s a nd unfortun a te wom e n
g e es e sea ,

oft e n find m edicin es wh ere with to ta m e th e ir indi fferent

husba nds .The jaga r a na night is wholly passed with
such mask d anc es reli eved now a nd then b y musical
-
,

performa nces a nd Shiva s hymns The scen e o f

’
.

the cultiv a tion by S hiv a is a lso en a ct e d in th e follow

ing w ay A boy o r a young Sa nnyasi throws a quantity
.

of paddy in the midst of a group o f a ged men som e of ,

whom pla y the p a rt of the bull in ploughing som e de ,

vour the s e eds lik e birds and O the rs perform va rious ,

oth e r rel eva n t p a rts .

The M ashan O n t he third day b efor e sunris e t he Ma shan

, ,
Dance, th e
Dance o f th e
C orpse.
( lit a c em etery he nce its tut el ary deity the Mashan
.
, ,

K al i) da nce t ak es place a nd in the ea r ly m o r ning of this

,
i

day is h eld the C orpse D a nc e O n the pr evious day . ,

or two or three da y s b efor e the H adi ( a sca v enger or , ,

a m a n of a v ery low ord er

) fetch es a corp se from som e
”
pla c e a nd a wa k ens ( ie instils li fe without the V isible
, . .

signs ) it aft e r going through va riou s rit es a nd purifying

,

it with inc antation s a nd th en pl ac es it in a ta nk or ties ,

it to the higher bra nch e s of a tree n ea r it A t the tim e .

of the Mashan danc e he d ecora te s this a w a ken ed

,
”

corpse with wreath s a nd vermilion ti es a cord round its ,

wa ist a nd th en with it e nt ers the G am b hira ma ndap a

,
-
,

utt ering v a riou s inca ntations T hi s pa rt of the festivi .

ti es is extinct nowa da ys A noth er p eculia r c e remony is

.

“
ob se rv ed h ere in the d esc ent of the Pant a on the
,
”
Bh a ktas ie wh en they b ecome possessed by the tute
, . .
FO L K F E STI V I T I E S I N BE NGA L AN D O R I SSA
-

91

la ry d eity of the village T he m an who is thus pos

.

sessed strives to strike t error into the hearts of t he

spect ators by uttering terrible shri eks and m aking stra nge
gestur e s .

S ECT I O N I I .
— SAH I Y AT R A .

T he sahiyat r a is obs e rv ed ov e r the whole of O ri ss a The ,

sshryana
to th e great d elight of the popul a c e .
.

I n th e month of A pril spring a dorn s the almost d ead

tr ees with gree n foliage a nd liv e ly blossoms , a nd the
whole of O rissa s ee ms to b e r ejuv ena t ed with the
round of m erry m akings a nd festiviti es
-
T he day of .

the full moon is the b est tim e fo r the c e l ebration of

th ese festiviti es which gen e ra lly cov er thr ee day s a nd ,

ar e perform ed with d a nce song mu sic etc , , , .

O ne ca nnot say po sitiv ely wh at the r ea l n a m e of the

presiding d eity of the sahiyatr a festiviti es is E v en in .

O ris sa ther e ar e diffe re nc es of O pinion on this point .

A l l th at can b e s a id with a ny d egr ee of precision is th at

e ither S hiv a S h a kti or D h a rm a is the god
, T his d iffi .

culty is d u e to the fa ct that in the t empl e wh ere the

sah iyatr a is h eld th er e is no im age of a ny god but only ,

a gh a t a
( pitch er of w a ter ) as r epresenta tive of the pr e
siding de ity I n ma ny vill a g es how eve r the festivities
.
, ,

a re h e ld b e for e the im ag e of a godd ess poss essing o n e of

t he m a ny forms that S ha kti a ssum ed .

M usic song a nd dance form an integra l pa rt of the se T h S éhi

,
C

at
A
l r
festiviti es and the se ar e performed by the popula ce I tiiit i
, es es.

putting on masks of gods goddesses a nd m any lower ,

a nima l s .

A s in the G aj an and G am b hira festivities of other

plac es in these also there is the pra ctic e of enlisting
,

Bh akt as T h ey ar e the principal organi z e rs of th es e

.

festivities a nd they a lso observe the custom of Vana

,

foda ( hook piercing ) the saluta tion se rvice etc

-

, , .
92 T H E FO L K E L E ME N T I N H I N D U C U L T U R E
-

A mong the several forms of dancing m ay be men

t ioned the C h a it G hoda lit the hor se th a t is ridd en
( .

in the month of Cha itra , ie Ma rch A pril ) .

T he
.
-
.

Bhakta s de corate th eir bodi es with v ermilion a nd then ,

standing on two sticks ( or hobby horse ) da nce with -
,

va rious gestures T hi s C h a it G hoda da nce can also

.

b e p e rformed in a di ffe r ent wa y Th e d a ncer hid es.

hims elf insid e a horse m ad e of ba mboo rods and

cov e red with cloth and m a kes the horse da nc e Be
, .

sid es thi s mask d a nc es of a he spa rrow a nd a she

,
- -

sp a rrow
( p erformed by wash er m en) V uda V udi (a n
-

old m a n and his old wife) R av a n a H a numan K ali

, , , ,

e tc . ar e a lso perform e d
, .
94 T H E FO L K E L E ME N T I N H I N D U CU L T U R E
-

is the Adi( Primitiv e) Buddha who is not infrequently,

to be found id entifi e d with som e of the V edic and

Puranic gods and goddess es I n som e places however
. , ,

he is said to b e di fferent from a nd begotten of Adi

B uddha .

L or d D na r m a .

to the D 6a r m a gita of Ma hadeva Das

A ccording -
1
,

D harma is like the so n of Adi B uddh a T he D harma .

worshippers of West Benga l s ing their hymn in honour

of the creative gods .

“
Who is there in these three worlds [hea ven earth ,

and the nether region s th a t knows thee who ar t B uddha

] ,

the protector of the m ee k and the poor ?

T hou hast no b eginning or end 0 L ord and , , ,

ha ving travelled ov er the whole universe no one has ,

ever seen thy ha nds or feet or body .

T hou hast neith er form nor attributes Who is .

there that has ev er seen through or gauged thy illusive

powers
D harm a has bee n shown as sitting with his face to
wards Adi Buddha T h en it is sa id .

0 ! how many cror es of a g es did el apse in this state

2

[ie sitting on this sea t with his face tow ards Adi
. .

B uddha] H ea r m e I am going to tell you how

.
,

D ha rma w as born th erea fte r A fter Mahaprab hu [L ord

.

of L ords] had destroyed the sins o ne by one the glorious ,

face of D ha rm a ema nated from him ( D ha r m a gitd) -

.

We have it here that Mahaprab hu Adi Buddha re

vealed the glorious fa c e o f D ha rma N ow how did this .
,

Mahaprabhu look him self ? A nd we ar e told

Whose gra c eful body is ma de of Shunya and who ,

1
M ayur 6lzanj A r ctza ol ogica t Su r vey , by N agendranath Vasu ,
I ntrod .

2
10 m ill ions I cr o r e .
 PO PU L A R BU DD H I S M I N H I N D U BE N GAL 95

is without any app etite or d esir e ; who has no form

"
a nd who is a bsolutely indescriba bl e a nd u ndefinab le .

”
H is form is S huny a I n the D /ia r m afiujd .

padd/ia ti D h arma has b een d escrib ed in the eight sta n z a -

hymn composed by C hint am a ni thus

“
I m a k e my ob eis ance to the spotless [N ir anjana]
D ha rm a who is subtl e m a de up of the Shuny a a nd is
, ,

hims e lf the Shunya [the void] who is invi sibl e [even ] to

1
,

the gods who is a bov e a ttribut es who is a pproa ch abl e

, ,
”

[ only ] throu g h m edita tion a nd who is e t e rn a l

“
, .

T hroughout the whole of W e st B eng al D harm a Dh ,

’
ar m a s

N ira njana is a compound n am e for o ne a nd the sam e

god but D na r m a g ita has shown N iranjana as sepa rat e
-
‘

from D h arma T hus w e ha v e.

Yuga w as gr eatly afra id to undert ake the task of

crea ting the world and a ccordingly produc ed out of his
,

body a son n a med N ir a nja na a nd sa id to him : G o

, ,
‘

you imm ediat ely N ira nja na and com e ba ck to m e

, , ,
’

aft e r you h av e cr eat e d the world H aving thus b een .

dire ct e d by his fath er N iranjana [ob edi ently] went a way

, ,

but w a s highly a fraid to crea te the world .

I n the a bov e e xtra ct the son of Ad i Buddha has

b een d e scrib ed as N iranjana .

Tne P r esiding G oddess in t/ze G dja n f

o D ha r m a,
A
‘2
Goddess A dy a .

I n th e G aj a n godd ess , Adya receives worship with

D h a rm a N ir anjana She . spra ng out of the body of
D h arm a as w e ,
ha ve in the M a ng a l a Cnandi of
M anik D a tt a .

1
T his doctrine, so popu lar in m edi
e v al Bu ddhism , can b e traced

b ack to the fi rst centu ry A D . L ondon, 1 914

— V idhu sek
'
har a sastr is ni
cation )
co m m
p .

2
A cco u nts of Adya are al so to be fo u nd in S/zu ny a P ar ana and

k indred work s .
96 T H E F O L K E L E ME N T I N H I N D U C U L T U R E
-

Begotten of his smile Adya fe ll down on the ,

ground Wh e n she Stood up peopl e beheld her with

.
,
”
a dmira tion .

I n the D /ia r m a g ita of Ma h ad eva D as of O ris sa it

’ ‘
-
,

is sa id th at a fem a l e figur e spra ng into e xist e nc e from

t he swea t of D ha rm a s brow e nga g e d in t h e thought of
’

crea tion .

H a ving thus refl ect ed within hims elf D h a rma sat

“
,

down in e xtr e m e a nxi ety a nd troubl e of m ind a nd per ,

spira tion flowed in str ea ms from hi s body H e then .

wip ed his forehead with his ha nd and shook off the drops
of p e r spiration upon the ground and immediately up ,

spra ng from th ere a fema l e figure .

Tw o D i
fler ent F or m
’

s o f ze G a
t/ jan .

T h e r e are two di fferent forms of the G aj a n v iz , .

v ar si k a (a nnua l ) and Av al a .

a ) Tn
( e A nnu a l G aj a n — O n the third da
y of the
light h alf of the month of Va ishak ha (A pril May) -
,

th e inst a ll ation of the gh at a t a k es pl a ce a nd the festiviti es

a r e brought to a close on the d a
y o f th e full moon T hi s .

is observ ed in a ccordance with the injunction s of R amai

Pandit a nd th H déanda P u r dna
g .

t o A v dl a G a a n — T his ca n b e h e ld in any
( )
6 TI j
month of the y ea r a nd is h eld wh en with a V i ew to
, ,

a chi ev e succ ess in a n und ert a king , the god D ha rm a

is sought to b e propitia te d The pho nta of niy ama

.

( ma rk put o n t he for eh ea d in recognition of a vow ) is

put on on a F riday .

Tb e D aily Cer em ony qf G r ada -

Ma r a na .

T he Dhar m apujacov ers twelv e days from t he con

struction of the D ehar a ( a lt a r ) a nd t he insta ll ation of
98 T H E F O L K E L E ME N T I N H I N D U C U L T U R E
-

D ha rma cult in B enga l a lso follow this custom in th eir

-

worship a lthough the ma ntras ( incant ations ) and hymns

,
,

e tc a r e thos e th a t w e re compo se d by R am ai Pa ndit

.
,
.

T he syst em of wor ship a dvocat ed in the H dka nda

P u r dna has long b e com e a dea d lette r A lthough R am ai .

Pa ndit has followed thi s a uthority in l aying down most

of his injunctions yet by schola rs of the D h a rm a cult he
,

is a l so reput ed to ha v e in stitute d the pra ctice o f drawing

the D har m a p ad u ka ( expl a ined b elow ) .

Tlie Sev er al Pa r ts f
o tlie War s/t ip .

O ffering
worship to h e S u n god and Sa m k a lp
( ) I t a -

e a form a l a vow a l of t h e obj ect with which the wor

(.i .

ship i
) ( )
s o ffe r ed ; 2 se l e ction of t he pl ac e of festiviti es ;

empl e) ;
( 3 ) con struction of th e D eh a r a ( a lta r or t
( 4 ) dra wing the D ha r m ppadu k a (ie footprints of . .

D h a rma ) ; ( 5) pl a cing of A min a a nd K am inya ; ( 6 ) ih

sta lla ti
o n of a nd offering worship to the s e v era l a tt end

a nt s o f D ha rma ;
( )
7 a b stin e nc e from fish a nd m eat ,

pa rta king of food con sisting of gh ee and boil ed rice or ,

of food consi sting of fruits only a nd fa sting ; ( 8 ) the ,

pi ercing c eremo ni es ( 9 ) the m arriage of Ady a ( 1 0 ) the

brea king down of the Deh ara ; a nd ( I I ) da nce song ,

a nd mu sic .

Tlie D a ily Wor snip .

Tne F ir st P a r t —
con si sts of plucking flowers T hi s ,

making past e of sa nda lwood pho nta shu ddhi ( purifying ,

th e m a rk ) tik a d ana ( putting a sacr ed m a rk ) purifying

,
-

wat ers a nd purifying the sea t

, .

The S econd P a r t — T he c e r emoni es in connexion

with the a wa king of D ha rm a from sl eep ba thing wor , ,

ship m a nui ( or o ffering of cook ed ric e etc

, as food to a , .
,

d eity ) D ha rm a s retirem ent to rest

’

, .
 PO PU L A R BU D D H I SM I N H I N D U BE N GA L 99

Tlie Cer em onies of tire L a st Tler ee D ays .

T here are ome a ddition a l rul es for r egul ating the

s

worship of the thirt ee nth the fourt eenth a nd the fift eenth
,

da ys of the bright h a lf of the month I n the morning .

of ea ch of the th ree da ys is h eld a p e culia r festivity

known as Am a ni C hiyana B esid es this it is a l so en
.
,

join ed tha t the four doors of the t empl e should b e kept

esp eci a lly ne a t a nd clea n on thes e da ys a nd the fes ,

t iv ities of rousing D ha rm a from sl eep etc S hould b e , .

,

h eld and worship o ffered to the d eity T he c ere moni es .

of Jihv a V ana ( pi ercing the tongue with a long n ee dl e ) ,

of K apala V ana ( pi ercing the foreh ea d with the sa m e

in strum ent ) of Shaleb ha ra ( lying down on the ends of
,

point ed n eedl es) etc a nd of the Pashchim a U da ya ( lit

, .
,

rising in the W est ) ar e a lso observ ed on th ese occasions .

L ast D ay — M a r r iag e of A dy a
. T hi s is the con
.

cluding festivity a nd is a b eautiful o ne I t is composed .

of sev era l pa rt s such a s K am inya M a nui etc N ext

, , , .

a r e obs e rv ed the c e r e moni es of C ro ssing the V a i ta r a ni ,

a nd of o fferi ng w a t er to t he m an es of R am a c a ll ed R ama ,

ta rpa na ; a nd th ese a r e follow ed by the extrem ely de

lightful a nd hi storica lly int eresting c eremony of D ehara
bha nga ( pulling down t he D ehara) :
T he inca nt a tion s with which thi s D e hara bha nga is -

observ ed ar e divide d into two p a rts known as C hhota ,

l es ser ) J an ani a nd B a da ( gr ea t er ) J an ani ( lit the act

( .

of intimating or procla ma tion )

, .

T he following extra ct is m a d e from Chhota J anani ,

pj pa ddna tis
'

a s d escrib ed in D / ia r m a u d -

The K ho nakara is o ffe ring his pra yers to the d eity

sitting with his fa c e towards the We st .

Som e worship A ll a ( G o d in I sl a m ) som e A li a nd , ,

oth e rs worship Mamuda Sa in ( Moha mm ed the Prophet ,

of A ll a).
10 0 TH E FO L K E L E ME N T I N H I N DU CU L T U R E
-

T he crow is asking a nd D ha rm a is considering

where K hoda ( G od in I sla m ) w a s first born .

T hey st art for th at pl a c e with Mother Manga la

C handi .

“
G oddess K alika went th ere a nd settled in the
house of C haka nda C oming forwa rd V ivi [a common
. ,

design ation of marri ed M oh am me da n women] V isa da

w as crushing to po wde r long p eppe r etc [G od] J agan , .

natha came there and sat down to see tha t nothing went
wrong H e stole a quantity of spirituous liquor and
. ,
”
his hands were [consequently] cut o ff etc , .

Tlie I m ag es f
o D na r m a a nd H is R etinu e .

G o d D harm a had no form T o represent him .

,

however the image of a tortois e is placed inside a

,

small stone ch ariot amidst a v ery sma ll heap of stones .

O n the occasion of the worship of Dh arm a Dharm a ,

p ada (ie footprints of D ha rma) is drawn with s andal

. .

p aste o n the im age of this tortoise The D harma .

p aduka ( s anda ls of D har m a) is a modern form of this

D h a rm ap ad a .

D harma is worshipp ed under v a rious n ames such ,

a s D h a rm a R a ja K alu R aya B ankuda R a a Vuda

, , ,

R ay a K alachanda V r iddhinaga K helaram a

, , diyar aja , , ,

Sw aru pa n arayana etc

-
, .

p
Gods and G oddesses w ar s/zi ped w ith D ha r m a The .
-

Bha ira va s ( eight in numbe r ) A va rua Dam a ra Shain , , ,

K am adev a, H anum an U llu ka K setrapala, Mat a nga, ,

A
,

N ilajihv a, U gr adanta A m a ni goddess Mana sa ( mother

, ,

of serpents ) M a ni Bhagini a nd Vasuk i ( king of

, ,

serpents ) .

Tne M editation .

S alutation
to D ha rm a— salutation to Dhar m araja
the formless who ,
has neith e r b eginning, middle, nor
102 T H E F O L K E L E ME N T I N H I N D U C U L T U R E
-

A H ym n in E i nt S tanz as 1 to N ir an ana
g j .

Sal utation to that N iranjana who is both Shiva and

Brahm a who is confin ed to no particula r plac e [ie
, . .

who is omnipres ent] who is above the sense of honour

,

a nd dishonour who ha s no fe et who is subtle colour

, , ,

le ss and formless and a bsolut ely u ndefinab le who is the

,

observed of all observ ers and the essence of cont ent

ment etc — D na r m apujapaddnati
,
”
.
‘
-
.

(po em s co nsisting o f eigh t stanzas)

1 A
sta kas .
 C H A PT E R V I I .

PH YSI C A L A U ST E R I T I E S PR A CT I SE D BY T H E PE O PL E .

S E CT I O N I .
-
T H E VAN A FO DA .

B OTH in G am b hira a nd G aj an the Sa nnyasis p e rform

a c er emony under t he n a m e of the V ana fo d a Th e .

word V ana ( lit a n a rrow ) does not m ea n here the d art

.

or a rrow that go es o ff from the bow H er e it is quit e a

.

differ ent thing both in S hap e a nd u se

, .

O f the sev era l V an as s a id to b e i n u se in the G aj a n ,

the following thr ee kinds a r e most gen e ra lly noticed :

( I ) the K a pala V ana ; ( 2 ) the T r ishu la ( trident ) or

A gni ( fir e) V ana a l so ca ll ed Par shw a ( sid e ) or Pasha
,

V an a a nd 3 ) the J i b y a (tongu e ) or Sa rpa ( sn ake )

,

V an a.

ie K apal a (f or e/w u d — I t is short b eing T h diff

( )
I Tl ad
) V d
”
,
e er ent

only a cubit in l ength ; like the n eedl e pointed a t o ne fifi f s

e nd a nd blunt a t the oth e r a nd i s m a d e of iron

, T o the .

sh a rp end is att a ched a sma ll pip e with a n op en iron

l a mp on it.

H ow it is u sed — T he n am e K apal a V an a is d u e to
th e fa ct th a t it is stuck into the kap al a or foreh ead , .

T hi s is don e a t night T he Sa nny asi sits calm a nd still

.

b efore the idol a nd the bla cksmith forc es the V an a b e

,

low his skin betwee n the ey ebrows in such a way that it

m a y stick out about two inch es from th e for e h ea d .

T h en the fa c e of the Sa nny asi is cov er ed with a pi ec e of

new ba n a n a le af a nd the ends of it are dra wn togeth e r
,

103
 10 4 TH E F O L K EL EME N T I N H I ND U CUL T UR E
-

a nd ti ed to the out er end of th e V éna T he reafter a .

qu antity of gh ee ( cla rifi ed butt er ) a nd a wick ar e put on

the iron la mp which with the d et a ch e d pip e is then
,

a tt a ch e d to the end of the Vana into the out e rmost ,

e xtr e mity of which a J av a chin a ros e) flow e r is a l so

(
insert ed A noth er Sa nny asi th en com es forwa rd a nd
.

lights the la mp a tta ch ed to the V an a .

— Ma d e of iron a nd
( )
2 T b e T r is/z u l a or A g ni V u a
Q
of the sa m e sh a pe a s the K apala V an a only h a lf a cubit ,

longer I t ha s howev e r no s epara t e pipe or la mp

.
, ,

a tt a ch ed to it Wh e n two such V ana s a r e join ed to

.

geth er in a stra ight lin e the ir join ed e nds ar e link ed ,

togeth er by a d evic e like a trident H enc e the n a me . ,

T r ishu la ( trid ent ) V é na .

H ow it is u sed — T his c er emony is p erform ed in the

course of a procession that is form ed in som e p lac es in
the day a nd in oth ers at night T he Van a s ar e stuck .

into the skin of the sid es b elow the a rm s the pointed ,

out er extr emiti es sticking out m aking a n a ngl e b efore ,

th e br ea st of the p e rform e r T h ese ends are th en .

j oin ed togeth er by m ea n s of a pip e to which the trident

is a tta ched T hen the p erform e r r a ises the Vana s a
.

littl e with his ha nd s but in such a w ay that th e link ed

,

end s m a y not b e d et a ch ed N o w a pi ec e of cloth is .

st eep ed in a qua ntity of gh ee a n d wra pp ed round th e

trident a nd fir e is set to it T he Sa nnyasi now begins .

to da nc e a nd powd ered r esin is thrown now a nd then

,

into the fla m e .

— M a d e of iron as
( 3) Tfi e
j zfi v d 0 7 S na ke Vin a ,

thick a s the thumb and six to nin e cubit s long O n

, .

th e Sh al e bha ra d a y of the G aj a n festiv a l the jihv a

-

V anafo da is exhibited O n e end of this V ina is like

.

the hood of a s erp ent t h e oth e r en d is point ed but the

, ,

extr emity i s blunt T he tongu e is pi erced with it

. .

H ow it is u sed — T he jihv a is not in serted in the

106 T H E FO L K E L E ME N T I N H I N DU C U L T U R E
-

Pier cing the B ack w it/i t/

ze Vrind .

T his c er emony w as obs erved at the tim e of the

Chadak a I n form er tim es the ba ck wa s pi erc ed with
.

o ne or two iron Van as sh ap ed lik e fishing hooks -

.

C ords w er e th en p ass ed through the out e r e nds of these

b ook s a nd the Sa nny asi thus susp e nd ed enjoy ed
, , ,

swings on t he Chadak a po st .

T he thick skin in t he c entr e of the b a ck a nd on ,

e ith e r sid e of the b a ckbon e w as pull ed out l ea ving, ,

the spin a l cord a lon e a nd t he w eapon na m e d V el a

,

kanta w as ma de to run through it a nd th en through ,

the hol e thu s m a d e the b oo k w a s thrust T he skin is .

made ready for this op e ration by b eing rubb ed with

ghee and a sh e s of dri ed cow dung -
.

S E CT I O N l l .
-
H I STO R Y O F T H E PR ACT I CE OF

V KN AFO DK .

In the M a/zcibfidm mfind tha t Bhism a lay for a

‘
we
considerabl e tim e on a b ed of a rrows b efore his death .

T hi s is not wh a t is m ea nt by Vanafo da still it m ay b e ,

ta ke n to h a ve furni she d the origin a l id ea of this pra ctic e .

I n H a r iv am s/m t her e is the legend of K i ng Vé na ,

who went b a the d in blood with a rrows stuck in his

, ,

body to t he pla ce of Shiva a nd d a nced b efore him

, .

O n the a ffa ir of secr et lov e b etw ee n V an a s daught er

’

’
U sa and S hri K r isna s so n A nir u d dha a t erribl e w ar ,

took place betwee n the a ggrie v ed fathe rs in which K ing ,

V ana of Sho nitapu r a lost his a rm s a nd blood trickl ed ,

down his whole body being wounded with da rt s I n

, .

this stat e he appro a ched S hiv a a nd da nc ed b efore him ,

till the god w a s pl eased to ma k e him hale a nd hea rty

a nd immortal a nd a lso to direct a t the r equ est of Van a
,

that any sinc er e a nd ea rn est vot a ry who would thu s

da nce before him in future would be bl essed with son s .
 A U ST E R I T I E S PR A CTI SE D BY T H E PE O PL E 10 7
’‘
I t w as thi s legend of Vé na in D fia r m a S a m kitcz F th
, ,
r om e

more p a rticularly the b eli ef tha t Shiva ha d b een pl ease d $22

13
to dir ect tha t a ny sinc e re a nd ea rn est vot a ry who would g flipfigfi
gi n
e ce
fast a nd thus da nc e b efore him would b e blessed with f v a f da o na o .

issu e th at gav eris e to the pra ctic e of Vina fo da A s

, .

a m ea n s of purchasing the fa vour of S hiv a the Sa nny ,

asis a llow th e ir bodi es to b e thus pi erc e d a nd this is ,

why they thus dance b efore his ima ge A pp a r ently .

the na m e of V finafo da w a s giv en to the pra ctic e aft e r

K ing V ana who w as its origin ator
,
I n the G aj a n .

blood has to b e spilt in o ne w ay or other ; a nd thi s is

known as V anafo da .

I n the S am /zitcis w e find th a t provision has TheS am

been m a d e for worshipping V an as in the course of

V 3 ?”
th e worship tha t i s offer e d to S h iv a T hu s it is l a id .

“
down : While worshipping S hiv a worship should ,

a lso b e o ffe r e d to th e glorious trid ent in the north

east ,
the thund erbolt in the ea st the ax e in the ,

s outh ea st -
the a rrow in the south the sword in the
, ,

s outh w est th e noos e in the w est t he driving hook ( for

-
-
, ,

e l e ph a nt s ) in the north w est a nd th e bow ( or th e tride nt )

-
,

i n the north
The story of H ar ishcha nd ra s wo r shipping D h arm a Th Sh y
’

, e un a
f
as told by R am ai reminds o n e of the l egend of V an a fi gfigff
°
.
,

T he following lines ar e quot ed from his Sk u nya

‘
P u r ézm .

“
A sa w ppli ed to the h ead of R ama but it
w as a ,

could not ma ke ev e n the fa intest impr ession as the ,

"
Maste r w as with him Ya m a Purana I O ) ,
.

“
T h e re stood C h a ndra the pr efect of police with
, ,

the sword of C ha ndra H as a in hi s h a nd (

“
M ess age

brought by the M ess enger of Ya ma ,

“
Su r yya the pr efe ct of polic e stood with the
, ,

w eapon s of Sen a a nd D ak v u sa I o) .

G a rud a the pr efect of police stood up with the

, ,
10 8 T H E FO L K E L E MENT I N H I ND U CUL T UR E
-

weapons of Jhat i [broomstick and Jhagada ( i621 ,

Io
)
Ullu ka prefect of police stood up wit h the
, th e ,

Jiv anasa [life destroying] C huda in his hand ( idiot

-
,

T he trea ti se D ha r m apujd fi add/m ti ( on the system -

of worshipping D ha rma ) is s a id to h a ve been com

posed by R amai Pa ndit T he practice of Vanafoda has .

been recogniz ed by him I n the chapter of G raha .

bharan a we ar e told of the proc esses of K und a seva -

,

H indo lana J iby a v e da n a a nd Pa ncha veda n a

,
- -
.

T he p e rform a nc e of V é nafo da is even now exhibited

in the G aj an and the G a m b hir a festivities T he pier c
’

ing of the tongu e a nd a lso of the ba ck on the occasion

, ,

of the Chadaka festiv a l a r e not however included in , , ,

the programm e of our da ys only feats with small

K apala Vana s a nd T r ish u la Vanas ar e performed .

T he body is nowa da y s pi erc ed in m any places with the

thorns of the m arm elo s tree the outer ends of these ,

being decora ted with chin a roses T his seems to be a .

refined edition of V anafo da .

T he Vanafo da is a n h e roic practice I n the modern .

G am b hira and G aj an festiviti es the Bhakta s d ance with

scimita rs sp ea rs etc T he sect of K u tichak a followers
, , .

of Shiva still wi eld the spa de a nd the scimita r as their

badges T he N aga ( lit n aked) Sannyasis of the Shaiva
. .

cult al so use the sp a d e and the scimita r .

T o encoura ge the dev elopm e nt of chiva lrous ideas

in soci ety the V anafo da w as introduced and cultivat ed
,

probably as a s emi milita ry fea t T he class of m en

-
.

from whom th ese Sa n n yasis w e re recruited furnished the

H indu Z aminda rs ( la ndlords) of yore with their in fantry ;
a nd it was th ey who w e re occ a sion ally found to commit

da coities in the land .

 1 10 T H E FO L K E L E ME N T I N H I N D U C U L T U R E
-

an d earthen m a sks ar e m a de by m alakaras ie m a kers , . .

of a rtificia l flowe rs and ga rla nds .

B efore the Bha kta puts on a new m ask of wood he ,

will pla c e it before the pri est in the G am b hir a for its
prana pra tistha (the religious rit e that is suppos ed to
-

bring life into a n ima ge ) T hose who h a v e m asks .

in th eir poss ession ha v e to worship them duly on the

V ijaya dasham i day ( ie the fourth day of the D urga
-
. .

puj a h eld gen e ra lly in O ctobe r ) a lthough this pra ctice

, ,

has for som e tim e b ee n fast dying out M a ny old .

m asks are see n hung in the G a m bhir a house People .

b eli eve th at som e of these m asks a r e j agrat a ( lit .

a wa ke h e nc e e ndu ed with life and abl e to smil e or

,

frown ) a nd tha t the tut ela ry d eities of som e a r e ex

tr em ely wra thful I t is r eport ed th at som e mask danc ers
.
-

som ehow or othe r incurred the di spleasure of the gods or

goddesses th ey mea nt to r epresent a nd in con sequenc e
lost th e ir liv es T hose who in olden tim es da nc ed with
.

the m ask s of de iti es esp e ci a lly of K al i C hamunda N ara

, , ,

simha a nd V asu li took sp e ci a l c a re to do no such thing

,

as might bring down o n the m t he displ easur e of th eir

god s B efore th e y put on th ese masks for da ncing

.
,

they gav e up the u se of oil a nd the ea ting of fish a nd

m ea t tri ed to ma ke th eir h ea rts cl ea n of a ll impious
,

thought s a nd id eas a nd dressed a nd d ecora t ed th ems elv es

,

with pure clothes a nd orn a m ent s .

N ea r t h e upp e r extre mity of t he m ask and on its

inn e r sid e ju st a bov e the foreh ead of the w ea rer th e r e is
, ,

o ne hol e a nd b ehind its ea r s th er e a r e two oth e rs through

, ,

which strings or cords a r e pass ed a nd the ma sk m ad e

fast to t he fa c e A pi e ce of cloth is wra pp ed ove r the
.

h ea d cov e ring the ea rs in the m a nn e r of a turba n to

, , ,

prot ect the fa ce from b eing scratch ed by friction with

t he m a sk .
 FO L K DA N C E S I N R E L I G I O U S F E ST I VAL S
-
I I I

S E CT I O N I I — T H E D A N C E . .

T he hors e of the horse da nce is mad e of a ba mboo Th H -

e orse

fra me overl a id with pap e r O n its b a ck at the pla c e 233 2

.
2
? , 3

wh ere the sa ddle is put ther e is a la rge hol e T he 23 33 M

, .

an
rid e r thrusts himse lf up to the wa i st into this hol e d h O l d ,
an is
W'f e
pla c es a cross his should ers the cords that a r e tie d to the
two upp er sides of the hobby horse a nd th en comm ences -

his d ancing T he p ea cock da nc e of K artik a is simil a rly

.
-

p erform ed T he b ear da nc e is a lso occa sion a lly m et

.
-

with I n thi s case the da ncer puts on the ma sk of a

.

b ea r a nd has his whol e body cov ered with h a ir m a d e of

da rk coloure d jute or hemp fibres and is th en ma d e by
-
,

anoth e r to d a nc e in the m a nn e r of a b ea r L ik e the .

ima ge of D urga its b a ckground ( Chali) is al so nicely

,

d ecorat ed T he sel ect e d Bha kta fasten s it to the front

.

s id e of his w a i st a nd sea ting little childr en on it ca u s es

, , ,

them to d a nce with his two h and s from b ehind I n the .

da nc e of the K ali m ask the da nc e r is occasion ally seen

,

to ha v e four ha nds A ll these how ev e r a r e of wood

.
, , ,
’

th e da nc er s own b eing ti ed togeth er b ehind his ba ck .

T he d a ncer in the C hamunda mask da nc e wield s in o ne -

ha nd a k ha rpar a ( the upp er pa rt of the huma n Skull ) to

r ec ei v e the blood of her victim s a nd in the oth er a
pigeon a nd such oth er things I n the H anum an m ask .

da nc e it is the chi ef vota ry tha t pla ys thi s part H e puts

, .

on the m ask of a nd dr ess es himself lik e H a numan the

, , ,

grea t monkey ge n era l a nd th en exhibits the crossing of

-

the sea a nd the burning down of L a m k a ( th es e w er e

a mong t he mo st import a nt feats p erform ed by H anum an
‘
a s d escrib ed in the R dm éy a na ) T he d a nc e of S hiv a .

Par v atl 15 p er form ed in a ge ntl e m a nn er U nd er her .

a rmpit a nd e ncircl ed by her l eft ha nd Par v a t1 wi elds a ,

pitch er fill ed with water and ov er its mouth ar e pla c ed

,

som e fresh ma ngo twigs (m a ng ifem indim )

-
I n her .
 1 12 T H E F O L K EL E ME N T I N H I N D U C U L T U R E
-

right ha nd she holds a full blown lotus T he d ance of

-
.

V uda V udi ( old m an and h is old consort ) has a comic

-

el em ent in it .

S ev era l danc es do not requir e a ny p articul a r o b ser

521253 “ v ation on th e m T he N a rasimha danc e and its mask
12
‘

cannot howev e r b e pa ssed ov er without remark We .

hav e s een th at the da nc e in the G a m b hir a Ma ndapa

is p erform ed sol e ly by r epres entativ es of S hiv a S h akti ,

( Parvati) a nd their gho st a nd goblin retinu e T hi s ha s .

b een the pra ctic e from tim e imm emori a l a nd is a l so in

‘
k eeping with the injunction s in the P nn inas on the point .

T h ere is no r eason a nywh e r e fo r the in t roduction of the

N a r asim ha d a nc e into th ese festiviti es N a ra simha b eing ,

a noth er n a m e of V i snu a nd thu s popula rly quit e dif

fer ent from S hiv a T he r ea son for thi s introduction m ay

.

b e found in th e following A mong th e sev era l form s

.

th a t C ha ndi is sa id to hav e a ssum ed w e find o ne d e ,

scrib ed as that o f N arasim hi A s she is popul a rly r e

.

ga rded as the wife of S hiva it m ay b e th a t the devot ees

,

felt i nclin ed a lso to introduce her b efor e her L ord in the

G am b hir a a nd in cours e of tim e her n a m e ca m e to b e
shorn of t he fin a l i sign of t he feminin e the da nce thu s
, ,

coming to b e known as the N a rasimh a da nc e .

We reproduce b elow the D hyan a ( set form of m edi

ta tio n ) a nd th e p r a nam a
( set form of sa lutation ) of the
godd es s N arasim hi .

M edita tion on N a m sinz ni .

Om[symbol of the H indu tria d b eing a contract ed ,

but joint n a m e for B rahm a the G o d of C r eation V i snu

, , ,

the G o d of Prot ection a nd M aheshw a ra the G od of

, ,

D estruction . G en e ra lly it introduces m edita tion and

s aluta tion hymn s] [the obj ect of my m edita tion is]
,

dr essed like a goddess [is] of a v ery powerful build

,

[or it m ay m ea n f or cibly br ong /zt ant r efer ring to t he

, ,
 C H A PT E R I X .

SOC I A L I Z AT I O N A N D SE CU L A R I Z AT I O N O F H I N DU
L I FE .

THE ch eapest and most superfici a l vi ew of H indu civili z a

tion is th a t it is ab solut ely non secul a r and ultra spiritual
- -
.

A n e xc essiv e do se of p essimi stic religiosity and an utt er

disrega rd of m a t e ria l int erest s are glibly ta lked of as the
cha ra ct eri stic features of the H indus T hi s interpretation .

of H indu t emp eram ent is how eve r not at a ll born e out

, ,

by facts of hi story I t is stra nge tha t the H indus should

.

hav e b een rega rd ed so long a s a pure ly non politic al and -

non economic or e ven a pr e politica l a nd pre economic

- - -

ra c e in spit e of t he thousand and o ne evidenc es of a rich

secul a r a nd ma t erial life furni sh e d by a rchitectural sculp ,

tura l numisma tic a nd lit era ry records I t is unfortun at e

, .

tha t suffici ent a tt e ntion has not b ee n dra wn to the study

of pala c es t empl es forts irriga tion works t anks roads
, , , , , ,

et c that testify to the engin e ering skill of the I ndian s

in anci e nt and medi e v al times for th a t a lon e is su ffi
ci ent to dispel the e rron eous theory a bout the genius of
t he civili z a tion th at has grown on I ndi an soil O r aga in .
, ,

t he id ea tha t o ne ge t s from a study of the N iti

S ni a
‘
Vastn S/zastm s K am a Slicistr as and
-

,
-

oth er treati ses on polity warfa re town planning ad

, ,
-
,

mini strativ e ma chin ery a nd fin a ncia l m a n agement a rts ,

a nd crafts , sex
, hygien e s a nitation eugenics etc is
, , , .
,

sur e to convinc e the most critic a l stud ent of history

th a t the H indus ha d th eir f or te not only in t r a nscen

1 1 4
 SOCI A L I Z A T I O N A N D SE CU L AR I Z A T I O N 1 1 5

d ent a l a nd m et aphysica l speculations but a lso in the ,

m a n age m e nt of the a ffa irs of this earthly earth the a d ,

ministra tion o f secula r interest s a nd t he supply of the

n ec essaries comforts and luxuri es of life
, .

I t is the object of this chapter to giv e a hi storical

a ccount of o ne or two e ntert a inments and a mus em e nts

that ar e prominent features of H indu socia l exist ence

and m a k e life in I ndia thoroughly commun a l a n d collec

tiv e a s O pposed to m erely individualistic and exclu sive .

T he evid ence s ar e certainly not exh a ustive but will a t , ,

any rate indic at e the gre at z est th at the H indus ha v e

,

ev e r felt in e njoying secul a r life a nd m a king it sw eet ,

socia li z ed a nd comfort abl e a nd undoubt edly prov e th at

,

p es simism is not the stuff out of which the I ndi a n mind

is m ad e.

T he subj ect is b eing tr eated under thr ee h ea d s :

procession s musica l p erformances and socia l ga therings
, , .

I t would b e int er esting to n ot e th a t th es e feature s of

modern life ha v e ea ch a long history b ehind them and ,

th a t a s in ma ny oth e r things I ndi a is the hoa ry birth

,

pla c e o f va rious socia l conv entions and in stitutions S o .

tha t I ndian lit e ra ture a nd history r equire to be studied

“ ”
more inte n s iv ely a nd ela borat ely b y mod erns not
sol ely in the int er est of comp a ra tiv e mythology and
philology bu t also of C ompara tive S oci a l A r t ie the
, , . .

comp a ra tive study of soci a l festiviti es a nd e njoym ents ,

p a stim es m erry ma kings and at hom es

,
-
I n fa ct the
-
.

s ci e ntific study of soci a l m an has to b e centr e d mor e

a nd more on I ndi a .

S EC TI O N I — PR OCE SSI O N S
. .

By proc es sions w e m ea n the tra in of p erson s th a t

proc eeds through a town or village a s the ca se m a y b e , ,

on the occa sion of a festiva l with flourish es of mu sic ,

flags a nd buntings elepha nts and hors es etc

, , .

8
1 16 T H E FO L K E L E ME N T I N H I N D U CU L T U R E
-

Tlie Vea ie A g e — Proc essions do

’
not see m to ha v e
b e en common in the V edic age We . do how e ver h ea r
, ,

of a proc es sion tha t w as form e d in conn exion with the

c eremony of A v abhr itha bath Winding up a sa crificia l
p erform a nc e .

The R am a
y a na a na
’
tae M a aaonar ata .
— Proc ession s
a re m ention ed in the R am ay a na I n conn exion with .

t he in stall a tion of kings m a rriages etc th ese w ere , ,

form ed at A yodhya I n the M anao/zar ata al so w e com e

.

a cro ss proc ession s i n m a ny pl a c es V e ry oft en the .

kings m ad e a rr a nge m ents for these to sign ali z e their

sa crific es m a rri ages a nd conqu est s A n a ccount is
, ,
.

giv en of a huge procession th a t w a s form ed in con

nex i o n with the b a th th a t co n cluded the c elebrated
A shw a m ed ha s acrific e of Y u dhisthir a We ar e als o .

told of a noth er a nd a very good o ne that wa s form ed

, ,

on the occa sion of the worship of Brahm a .

Tiie H a r io am s/ia — A proc ession is s a id to have

ma rched out on the occa sion of the festiviti es th at S hri
K r isna h eld a t the town of D warav ati A noth er was .

form e d when he a nd oth ers bound for the Shrin e of ,

Pindaraka we nt to the shores of t he sea st epp ed into

, ,

a v esse l d ecorat e d with fl ags and str ea m ers wa iting

for the purpose finish ed th eir a blution s and took th eir
,

m eal s th e re .

Tlie B nag ao ata — I n the B / ni g aoa ta proc essions ar e

.

sa id to h av e b een ge ner ally form e d i n conn exio n with

ma rriages etc ,
We a r e also told of o ne that w as
.

form ed on a sma ll sca l e in the house of N a nd a on the

occasion of the nativity of Shri K r isna .

Visnu Pa r ana — A proc ession m a rch ed out on the

occ a s ion of the Bow sacrifice perform ed by K ing K amsa .

O n festiv e occa sion s a lso th es e a r e s a id to h a v e b een

form ed .

S/zioa P a r ana — T h ere is scope for proc ession s in

1 18 TH E F O L K E L E M E N T I N H I N D U C U L T U R E
-

G a ndh a rv a Sena to the pl ace of the Phalgo o n festivities

with a vi ew to r end ering his hom age to Parshwanatha .

We are told in the M i mi S u o na ta P a r ana that on a

c ert a in occasion R ama and L a ksm ana with som e la di es
c elebra ted the spring festiva l in the ga rd en of Chitraku ta
a t B en a r es
. A n account is to b e found a l so of a pr o ces
sion th a t w as form ed on th e occ asion T h en ag a i n we .

com e a cro ss the description of two other proc essions th at

w ere form ed in conn exion with the impo sing c ere moni es
of the J in a worship p erforme d on the z u d day of the
light h a lf of the month of K artik a ( O ctob e r N ovember ) -

a nd a l so with the worship of jin a D ev a by R ama .

B ndd/zzst books — I n the v a rious Buddhist works w e

'

b ecom e a cqua int ed with the pomp and gra ndeur with
which proc essions wer e form ed a nd ma rche d out .

S hak yasim ha ( B uddh a ) w as born on a full moon day -

in the forest of L u m v ini F estiviti es w ere h eld in the

.

town for a w eek from the birthd ay Wh en on the d eath .

of his moth er he w as brought into the c a pital from the

forest of L u m v ini great festiviti es ar e sa id to hav e b een
,

h eld a nd gra nd procession s to h av e b een formed to

sign a li z e the occa sion
. I f the gloriou s d escriptions of
th ese b e not hype rbolica l it m u st b e sa id tha t the gr ea t
,

festiviti es a nd procession s h eld by the la te r Buddhi st

E mp erors were by far l ess gr a nd and c eremoniou s tha n
thos e d escrib ed in L a/ita Vista r a .

I t say s F iv e thousand w ell dress ed m en with -

pitche r s full of wa t e r will l ea d the v a n follow ed by as ,

ma ny girl s of the z en a n a holding a loft in th eir ha nds

,

fans of the pea cock ta il to b e followed in th eir turn by

,

girls holding fa ns of the palm lea f T h ey will be a o

-
.

compa ni ed by oth er girls with gold en v ases fill ed with

fragra nt wat ers in their hands T he public roa ds will
.

ha v e to b e sprinkled with wat er F ive thousand girls

.

will hold fl ags followed by as ma ny decora t ed with

 S OC I AL I Z A T I O N A N D SE C U L A R I Z AT I O N 1 19

v a ri ega ted flowing ga rl ands a nd by fiv e hundr e d Brah

ma na s proceedi ng with ringing b ells T he Princ e will .

b e follow ed by tw e nty thou sa nd el eph a nts tw enty thou ,

sa nd horses eighty thou sa nd cha riot s a nd forty thou sa nd

,
”
a rm e d infa ntry .

T hi s w as the first birthday festiv a l of Buddh a with

procession F e stiviti es we re a lso h eld with procession
.

on the occa sion of the cre m ation of his body aft er d eath .

O n the full moon day of V a ishak ha ( A pril Ma y) a gr ea t

- -

B uddhi st festiv a l is celebra t ed with proce ssion b e ca u se ,

it w as on this day tha t Buddha w as born as w ell a s a t

ta ined his pa ri —nirvana ( ie fina l emancipation ) or d ea th . . .

'
A B na aliist p r ocession of 40 0 A i m F rom th e r ecord
’ -

l eft by the C hin ese tra vell er F a H i en of I ndi a n fes , ,

tiv it ies a bout 40 0 A D we g et som e a ccount of a Bud

. .
,

dhist proce ssion I t w as in the r eign of C h a ndra G upta

.

I I Vik r a m aditya that this tra v ell e r visit e d I ndi a

, , He .

witn essed a huge procession a t Pata lipu t ra (mode rn

Patn a) on the occasion of the B uddhist car festiva l -
.

H inen Thsang ? descr iption ( 643

-
H iu en
T hsang t h e C hine se tra v ell er witn essed a gra nd pro
, ,

c ession at K a nauj during the reign of E mp eror H a rsa

Va r d hana in conn e xion with a gr ea t Buddhi st festiv a l
,

tha t w a s th en sole mni z ed to comm emorat e the a blution

c e r emony of Buddh a T hi s is known as C haitr o tsav a
.

( festival to b e h eld in the month of C ha itra or M a rch

A pril ) . T he E mp eror him se lf ca rri ed on his should ers
a sm a ll imag e of Buddh a to the G a ng es to giv e it a

plunge the re a nd aft er thi s w as don e r eturn ed to the

, ,

p avilion for festiviti es A procession con si sting of twenty

.

kings a nd thr ee hundre d el eph a nt s m a rch e d round t h e

city following the image to the riv er a nd ba ck from it .

Tfie S /znny a Pa r ana and tae D na r m ap nj ap

'

ad -

a lzati o R a ai P a ndit — R am ai Pa ndit i

s sa id to h av e
f
’
m

liv e d a t G auda in the twelfth century Provision

 1 20 T H E FO L K E L E ME N T I N H I N D U C U L T U R E
-

w as made for a procession in the arrangement tha t he

made for p erforming the worship of D h a rm a a nd holding
festiviti es in his honour I t w as la id down th at on the
.

occasion of the G aj a n of D ha rm a the orga ni z e rs should

go round the city on a horse n a m e d Madhai a nd the
cha riot of Dha rma T his is how the proc ession of
.

thos e d ays w as formed .

I n D na m a M ang ata — I n all the editions of D /ia m n a

-
.

M ang a ta th at ha v e com e to light m ention is m ade of ,

proc essions in conn e xion with grea t fe stiviti e s .

I n U sa tpu r S ukh a D a tta of the v ar u i ( betel pla nt

grower ) fa mily is enga ged in the worship of D h arma
with h ea rt a nd soul Pla cing D h a rma Paduka ( sa ndals )
.

in a gold pa la nquin he c a rri ed it o n his h ea d a nd thus

brought G aja n to the circle of M aya n a .
”

G hanar am a ha s r efe rr ed to the pra ctic e of m arching

out proc essions of Dha rma from village to village .

[n t/ze Ga /a — I n R adha
jan o f S k it
( w e st ern dis

t r icts of Benga l ) the S a nnyasi s in honour of Shiv a s

’

G aj a n or festiva l dr ess th ems elv es in v a riou s ways a nd

tra v el from villa ge to village with r ejoicings pl acing the ,

ph a llus of Shiv a on a copper pla te and c a rrying it in

som e pl ac es on the h ea d a nd in som e oth ers in p a lan

quin s .

I t is cl ear th at the cu stom of forming proc ession s

o n festiv e occ asion s has com e down from v e ry ea rly

tim es and has b een observed by a ll d e nomin ation s ,

V edist Pu r anist S h a iv a V a isnav a J a in a a nd Buddhist

, , , , .

I t w as not only in con nexion with the worship of god s ,

but on a ll a uspicious occasion s tha t the p eopl e a r e

found to h a v e indulged in thi s luxury Proc ession s .

a r e ev en no w see n in conn exion with the cer e moni es

of m a rriage th e first tonsur e the investitur e with the

, ,

sacr ed thr ea d etc I n B engal the c er emony of con sign

, .

ing the ima ge of D urga to the wa ter s is att end ed with

1 22 T H E FO L K EL E ME N T I N H I N D U CU L T U R E
-

In th e M a nao/iam find tha t wh e n in disguis e

‘
ta w e ,

A rjun a took to a mu sicia n s profession and ta ught music

’

and da nc e to the princ ess of V irat a I n the R ajasu ya .

sa crific e of Y u d hi r a a lso da nc e a nd mu sic w e r e pro

sth i , ,

vi ded on a l a vish sc a l e N o t to sp ea k of the pl a c e of

.

festiviti es ev en the courts a nd b ed ch a mber s of princ es

,
-

r esound ed with th e ir sound s .

I n H a r ioam s/za — I n the pl easa nt boa t trip th a t w as -

ta ken to th e shrin e of Pindarak a the l adies and gentle ,

m en o f the Ya du fa mily indulged th e ms e lv e s fr ee ly

in d a nc e and music T he pa rticula r mode of music .

known a s Chhalikya w as i nv ent ed at thi s tim e by an

A psar a ( a c el esti al nymph devot e d to d ance and mu sic )
n a m ed Pa nch a chud a who defeat ed the a ccompli sh ed
-
,

c el estia l singe r N arad a the sage in a competition of

E v ery P a r ana every Up
‘
music P n n zna ev ery
’

. a , ,

S a m nita t eems with inst anc es of th e preva l e nc e of

”
,

th ese fine a rts T he p e opl e of tho se da ys freely en

.

co u r a ed th e ir cultiv a tion
g .

I D na r nza Sa m izitci
n I n D it a r nza S a m b itci w e .
-

find a n a ccount of the mu sica l ent erta inm ent a tt end ed

with da nc e that w as giv e n to Shiv a .

A ll the fa l se moth e rs (sixteen godd esses such as

G a uri Pa dm a etc ) ente rta in ed R udra with da nc e and
‘

.
, ,

song som e d a nc ed
-
som e sa ng som e l a ugh ed
, a nd , ,
”
oth ers a mus ed him a morously .

F rom this w e l ea rn th a t a ll the di sgui se d mothers

da nc ed a nd sa ng rou nd S hiva K ing V ana himself .

treat ed Shiva with v a rious da nc es to the a ccompa nim ent

of music We read of div erse gestures a nd noddings of
.

the h ea d e xhibit ed on this occ a sion .

‘
— R efer e nc e to danc e a nd mu sic i
j na n a S zitc
am / i .

‘
s

a l so to b e found in j nana S a m /ul a .

I n spir ed by the sentim ent of devotion the wis e per

form worship with danc e a nd music in the first pa rt of
 SO C I A L I Z A T I O N A N D SE C U L A R I Z A T I O N 1 23

t he night a nd the n a pply th ems elves to the repetition of

,

their respectiv e m antras ( inca nta tions invoking the ap

”
pear a nce of the gods th ey worship )
Da nc e a nd mu sic h av e aga in to b e perform ed till
"
the ri sing of the su n .

T hese injunction s go to prov e th at danc e a nd mu sic

were much too indulged in in the worship of Shiva .

H enc e it is tha t he h a s got t he na m e of N r itya priy a -

( fond of danc e) a nd N a ta raj a ( prince of danc e) -

.

[n the j aina P n r cinas — R efer enc es to d a nc e a nd

‘
.

‘
mu sic a r e a lso to b e m et with in the J a in a P nr énas .

I n the l ege nd of R isab ha D ev a in J a in a H a r ioanzsha ,

otherwise call ed A r ista nem i P a r ana w e ar e told of a ,

da nc e p e rform a nc e R isab ha D e v a lost all z est for the

.

worldly life a t the sight of the da nc e perform ed by

N il anjasa o ne of the fema l e d a ncers in the service of
,

I ndr a t he king of god s

, .

[n M a ni S u v r ata P a r ana — Wh en the J a in a sag e

-

S u v ra ta took h is birth a mong m en he w as sprinkl ed ,

with holy wat er and on this occasion I ndra a nd the

,

oth e r gods sa ng hymns to him T he spring festival s .

c e l ebrate d by kings were a l so a ccompanied with dance

a nd music .

I n B u ddhist B oohs — L a lita Vista r a says th at fiv e

.

hundre d Brahm an as who join e d in the proc ession tha t

w as form ed on the occasion of the birthday festiv a l of
S hak yasim ha w e re e ngaged in ringing b ell s
, .

“
B lind K un al a with his wife m a n aged to p en e tra t e
into a n inn er court of the pala c e wh e re he lift e d up his
voice a nd wept a nd to the sound of a lut e sa ng a song
, ,

full of sadness —A soha by S mith ,

.

[n the r eeor a of his tr av el s l ef t F a H ien — I n the

’

d ays of the G upta K ings da nce a nd music w e re e xt en

si v ely cultiv at ed B right pictures of the cultiv ation of
.

th e se a rts are to be found in the dra ma s of the tim e .

 1 24 TH E FO L K E L E M E N T I N H I N D U C U L T U R E
-

On the8 th day of Jya istha ( May J un e ) Fa H ie n -

witn ess e d the Buddhist ca r festiva l a t Pata lipu tra H e

- .

sa y s tha t to the ima g e of Buddh a s ea t e d on the car ,

flowers a nd oth er fragra nt things w er e offer ed to the ac

co m a ni of d a nc e song a nd m u sic G loriou sly the
p m e nt ,
.

ca rs ma rched with flourish es of mu sic a nd in a seria l ,

ord er to the pla c e of festiviti es which w e r e h eld through

,

out the night with d a nce song a nd mu sic

,
.

I n the a ccou nt l ef t hy H inen Thsa ng — Th e C hin ese

tra v ell er H iu e n T hsa ng visite d I ndia as w e h a v e seen
-
, ,

wh en H a rsa V a r dha na w as on the thron e Da nc e a nd .

music w er e la vishly provided in the t empora ry p avilion

th a t w as e rect ed for t he gr eat festiva l which he wit
nessed at K a n a uj a nd a lso in the procession th at
m a rch ed through the city o n the occasio n E v ery day .

the festiviti e s w e r e h eld with da nc e a nd music .

A m ong the inju nctions of B u ddhism — T he ringing

of b ells the s inging of r eligiou s songs etc ar e a mong
, , .
,

th e inviol a bl e duti es of the Buddhi st .

I n the Sh u ny a P a r ana of R am ai— I n the cours e of

the wor ship of D h a rm a
’

a ll t he th e m es of R am ai s
,

Shu ny a P u r cina ha d to b e sung in con n exion with the

c el e bra tion of the c eremoni es I t is sa id tha t th ese
.

we re sung in the Ma nga la a nd the R a v ari modes o f

mu sic T h ey w e r e i nt erspersed a lso with inc a ntation s
.

n ec essary for worshipping D ha rm a A t the tim e of .

thi s worship the mal e a nd fem a le Sa nnyasis sa ng to the

a ccomp a nim e nt of da nc e a nd t he mu sici a n s pl a y e d on

th e ir in strum ent s T hu s
.

“
With offe rings of flowe rs the songs of R amai w ere

on a copp er ring the da nc er sing s songs

Putting ,
”
throughout the liv elong night .

“
With various m erry da nc es mu sic a nd songs the ,

worship of Dharma ch a rm s the whole wo rld .

"
1 26 T H E FO L K E L E MENT I N H I N D U CU L T U R E
-

fly bru sh es ) were bra ndish e d and cymb a ls w ere pla yed

on while the D ha rma Ma nga la s we re sung -
.

O n your way (or ju st go a nd) see and h ea r da nce ,

a nd music in the gaj a n of D harma — Cant0 I V .

,

Ghana r am a .

H ow m a ny po em s ( songs ) a r e sung and how m a ny

musica l instrum ents ar e play ed on in t he G aj a n of
Adya .

“
I t w as a ll the r eign of music struck up with long
(
a nd sm a ll drum s horns a nd K ada drum b ea t e n a t o ne
,

—Ca nt0 I I I ihia' .

,

With gr ea t pl ea sure th ey w ent through the se rvic e

of making saluta tion s a nd passed a sl eepl ess night with
d anc e song a nd music m edita tion a nd worship — Cant0
, , .
”

V , ihia ’
.

“
T h ey da nced a nd sa ng with u
plift
-
e d a rms
.

Canto V ihia ’
. .

“
B ea ting a couple o f flat drum s ( b ea t en at o ne end
only ) blowing a horn a nd flying a royal flag (he ) quickly
,

Ca nt0 X I V a n
”
w ent past G aud a .
-

. .

“
S inger s a nd musicia n s a r e th e princip al items of
the G aj a n H a ri a nd H a ra b e pl eased to com e and
.

li st en to the flouri sh of music in honour of Ady a

— D ha r 7na P uj a by G au cl eshw a r a .

“
I n the morning a nd ev eni ng a nd a t noon (ie . .

throughout the day) with e ndl ess song a nd mu sic ,

"
th e king wor shipp e d D h a rm a with a b sorb e d mind .

— D h a r nza P u ei h
j y Ga u aeshw a r a
’ -
.

I n the D ha r m a M a ng a l a by M anié G ang u l i

‘
-
.

Mu sic is struck u p with dhakas a nd d ho las (long

drums) san ai (pip e) a nd k an si ( a n instrument of b ell
,

met a l) conch sh ells a nd b ells lyres a nd flutes kada and

,
-

, ,

o o ta turi s bugl e ) a nd v eri s kettl e drum

( (
”

p ,
) -

hy K av iham ha na a na M cinih
’‘
I ll ang a l a Chana t ’

D atta — M ang a l a Chana i is a noth er book of songs

.
’
-
.
 S OC I A L I Z A T I O N A N D SE CU L A R I Z A TI O N 1 27

T he wor ship of Ma ngala C ha ndi has obt a in ed in B e nga l

'
-

fo r a long tim e S he has b een the gu a rdi a n a ng el of

Bengalee hom es , and ev e ry hous ehold er installs a
pitch er filled with wat e r as her repre se nt ativ e to which
worship is o ffered on e v ery a uspicious occasion T he .

singing of her songs is indi sp ensa bl e e sp ecially in ,

ma rriage s L ong b efor e t he birth of C h a itanya

.

( 1 4 8 5 1 53 3 ) thes e son gs used to b e sung in ev e ry

-

house T he lays of Ma nga l a C ha nd i by K av ik am

.
-

kan a ( Mu ku ndaram a) a r e held in sp eci a l esteem

1

in R adha just as the Chana i of Manik D atta pr e

,
’

v ail s in G a uda The usua l a ccompa niment s of th es e

.

songs ar e the chamara the cymba l t he khol a (a kind , ,

of drum ) and the T anapu ra (a stringed in strum ent u sed

a s a n a ccomp a nim ent in voc a l mu sic
) T hese songs .

c a nnot b e sung without a principa l singer ( leade r) ,

som e se cond s a nd a musicia n Whil e singing the .

,

l ea der and his seconds pla y on cymbal s a nd da nc e

to t he m ea sur es of the music .

A mong the r efe r enc es to d a nc e a nd music in Manik

’ ’‘
D a tta s Cha na i w e find
Manik D a tt a sang a new song .

Be pl eased O A bh ay a to stay in ( my ) hous e for

, ,

e ight day s Fo r your a mus em ent da nc e a nd mu sic will

.

b e provid ed your ya ntra (di agr a m representing the

,

goddess) will b e duly drawn and worshipp ed and a n ,

outer ga rm ent will b e o ffered to you I m ak e ov e r .

the songs to you that will require eight days to be sung .

G o a nd b e pl eas ed to sing in my te mpl e I m a ke .

R aghu a nd R ag hav a your seconds and a lso provid e

you with a T anapu r a and a musicia n T hu s you are .

provided with a full p arty .

I n the L ay s of Visaha r i —T he songs in honour of .

'
M u ha naa r am B enga l in the Six teenth
'

N Das G u pta s
1 ’ ’
Vzde .

Centu ry ( Cal cu tta U niversity,

1 28 T H E FO L K E L E ME N T I N H I ND U C U L T U R E
-

Visaha r i or Ma n asa a r e popul a rly known a s the l a y s of

M e M ang a l a
1
Visahar i or th e B hasana o f [ a na sa L ik
’‘
Cha na i songs th ese also w er e h eld in grea t e stee m
,

by the people of B enga l Ma ny w rit e rs e mploy ed

.

th eir pen on the Bhasana of Ma n asa O ne Vipr adasa .

,

of the village o f Vata g r am a compo sed the songs of,

Padm a . T w o old book s on the songs of Ma n a sa ar e

still e xt a nt in Ma ld a und e r the n a m es of Ta nt r ao ihh u ti

a nd
j ag ajjio a na T h ese songs were circulat e d a mong
.

t he p eopl e as cha rm s a ga in st th e ra v a g es of sn a k es .

M ost of th ese songs ar e to b e found in the l egend of

C handa Sadaga ra (trade r ) a nd V ehu la .

T he songs ar e sung with the khola a nd cymb als .

T he B hascina of M a nasa is found to b e sung by the

a ctors r epr es enting the p er sonn e l of t he story A ll the .

di ffere nt collections of the lays of Visahar i ar e full of

r eferences to da nc es songs and music
, .

A study of the history of d anc e a nd music in I ndia

shows tha t these hav e la rgely influence d the H indus .

T h ey grow a nd d evelop v e ry n a tura lly in the genia l

atmospher e of soci eti es A s soon a s the huma n mind
.

seeks r e l a xa tion da nce and music spring up as th ey

, ,

l a rgely help in driving out the gloom a nd in di spersing

th e clouds that hov e r a bov e t he mind H ence it is .

th a t th ey ha v e b een e xten sive ly used for communa l

c e remoni es a nd festiviti es T hey ar e a l so very powerful
.

a ge nt s in the h a nd s of th e pr ea ch ers of r e ligion a nd in

ev e ry a e a new r eligiou s sect ha s sprung up a nd let

g
loose the current of d evotion ov er the peopl e s mind by ’

initiating festivities a nd songs with da nc e and music .

S ince th ey hav e this e ffi c acy most of t he scriptura l,

works in I ndia ha v e from v ery e a rly times b een com

pose d in the form of song s .

'
al so by th e
1
T hey pass nam e o f the L ay s f
o P a am a
’
.
1 30 T H E F O L K E L E ME N T I N H I N D U CU L T U R E
-

princ es of the different countries with their r elations

ma y b e s a id to have a lmost lived a nd moved tog ether .

T hey dined together t alk e d together and v e ry ih

, ,

tim a tel y mixed with one a nother on the occa sion of the
A v ab hr ita ( concluding) ba th — so much so th at the
pangs of sep a ration w er e v ery keenly fe lt and they
could not pa rt with one a nother without excha nge s of
embrace and oth er signs of deep cordi ality T his was .

the form that Sau b hr atra M ila n a of thos e days took .

I n H a r ioa nzsha — A ll the h ero es of the city of

D warak a ( capita l of S hri K rish a ) a mused thems e lves
togeth er on all festive occa sions When they diverted
.

themselves in v a rious way s in the wat e rs of the sea ,

wheth er at R aiv a tak a or in the course of their voyage

to the shrine of Pindar ak a they forgot all personal
,

quar re l s and di fferences T h a t they dined sat and

.
,

ta lked together is a proof clear a nd simple that they

, , ,

were in spire d by brotherly lov e toward s one anoth er .

I n the Sa m hitas — O n th e occasio ns of wor ship as

.
,

for exa mple the worship of Shiva the vota ries lived
, ,

togeth e r cordia lly for sev era l days a nd help ed in the

c el ebra tion of the festiviti es T hey da nced and sang
.

together and with excha nges of e mbra ce parted with

o ne a nother a ft e r the fa re w ell dinn e r T his conduced .

l argely to creat e a nd strengt h en the bond of union and

fellow feeling
-
.

I n the j a ina Scr i ptu r es — The ja in a festivals in

which all the m embers took p a rt h elp ed in dev e loping
,

not only devotion to the sa m e religion but also the feel

ing of cordiality a mong the m emb ers of the se ct .

B u aahist Cong r esses — When the gr ea t religiou s con

’ ’

fer ences of Buddhists w ere sta rted Shram anas ( monks ) ,

from di fferent countries ca m e as delega tes a nd promoted

t he feeling of cordi a lity a nd unity by living a nd mix

ing freely togeth e r E mp e ror A sok a tri ed to k eep

.
 SO C I A L I Z AT I O N A N D SEC U L A R I Z AT I O N 1 31

up thi s h appy feeling by establi shing a broth erly un ion

a mong the se v e r a l s ect s H e cr ea t ed opportuniti es for
.

the d e velopm e nt of a s inc ere concord a n d fellow feeling -

by bringing p eopl e of a ll cl ass es a nd cr eed s to mix to

geth e r with kindly s entim e nts E a ch Buddhi st festiv a l
.

w as a n occasion for th e cultiv ation of fra t e rnity a mong

the follow e rs of Buddhism .

I n the ag e of Vihr a m cia ity a C ha ndr ag u pta I I w as

’
.
“

on the thron e whe n Fa H i e n ca m e into I ndia O n the .

occasion of the Buddhist festiva l th a t he witn esse d a t

Patalipu tr a p e opl e from vill ages flock ed to the city and
,

join e d in the festiviti es A v e ry cordi a l feeling grew up

.

a mong th e m owing to th eir living a nd dining togeth er

a nd mor e e speci a lly to th eir ta king p a rt in t h e festiviti e s

with da nce song a nd mu sic

, T hi s se rv ed th e sam e
.

purpose as the broth erly gath erings of oth er tim es I n .

th ese festiviti es th e Sh a iv a t he Shakta a nd the Buddhist

, ,

the S hra m a na a nd th e Brahm a na mix ed with ea ch oth e r ,

on a n equ a l footing a nd found a n equal sha re of a mus e ‘

m e nt.

I n the tim e of the Va r a hana K ing s — I n the r eign

’

of S hri H arsa V ar dhana H iu en T hsang witn essed the

,
-

grea t confe r enc e for religious unification that w as h eld a t

Pr ayaga ( A ll a h ab ad ) Wor ship w as o ffe r ed to Buddh a
.
,

S hiv a a nd Su r yya ( Su n) a like a nd food a nd clothing

, ,

mon ey a nd j e wels w e re giv e n a way fo r ov er a month .

T hi s w as a mo st notabl e insta nce of a n I ndia n broth erly

ga the ring.

D u r ing the r eign of the Pal/a K ing s — T he wor ship

of D ha rm a prea ch ed by R amai was a l so a n effectiv e
m eans of creating a brotherly feeling a mong the sev eral
orders of the community T h ere wer e sixt een hundr e d
.

S a nny asis who fo lloyved thi s new r eligion of R am ai

, .

T h ey w ere a ll bound to o ne a noth er by the t ie of unity ,

brought a bout by thei r havi g to eat a nd live togeth e r

9
n
1 32 T H E FO L K EL E ME NT I N H I N D U C U L T U R E
-

a nd to ta ke pa rt in the sa m e religious festiviti es T heir .

fri ends and relations a lso join e d in the G aj a n c e remon i es ,

as R am ai sa y s in the Pu s a t o la na ( plucking flow ers )

p
C a nto of his S hu ny a Pu r cina :
“
U ncl e s of som e a nd son s of oth e r s c am e in spired ,

by the feeling that th ey w ere a ll rela ted to o ne a nother ,

and th er e w a s non e th at w a s not includ e d in the self

sa m e Sw ar u a N araya na ie G o d )
p ( . . .

T he sixt ee n hundr ed tog eth er cri e d out a ll glory

“ ‘

( to D ha rm a ) with ch eerful minds

’
.

F ifty ( a l a rge numb e r ) cours es of dinn er we re

cook ed som e say through the gra c e of A nadya ( lit o ne
, ,
.

who has no b eginni ng ) .

T he god s sa t down ( to dinn er ) with m erry voices ,

V isnu sitting down with the R is i s ( s ages ) a nd Ma ,

had ev a with a ll t he a sc etic s and a ll tho se p e rsons who

had m a tt e d h a ir on th eir hea d s .

Adya natha Minanatha S imga Chara m g inatha

, , , ,

D a ndapani a nd t he K innar as ( a cl a ss of d e mi god s -

ha ving huma n bodi es a nd fa c es like horses) a nd a ll

th e oth e r gods took th eir sea t s a ccording to th e ir r espec

tive ra nks a nd the da ughte r of J a na ka ( Sita) bega n to

,

serv e th e m .

T he prepa ration of boil e d ric e milk a nd suga r that , ,

w a s offer ed to th e god of t he s a crific e w as serv ed among ,

t he m erry p a rty A nd th e gods pa rtook of it with grea t

.

reli sh a nd ch ee rful h ea rt s .

A ft er dinn e r th ey wash ed th eir h a nds a nd mouths

a nd m astic a t ed ( for purifying th e ir mouths) myrob a l a ns

a nd Va heda T h en with th eir minds consta ntly fixed on

.

t he feet ( ie form a nd virtu es ) of D h a rm a th ey r etir ed

. .
,

to th eir own pla ces .

R am ai thus fed the gods not forgetting th e ir vota ri es

,

a l so . O fferings of ric e etc w ere m ad e to the gods of

, .
,

all se cts a nd with th ese offerings wer e ent ert a in ed the

,
1 34 TH E FO L K E L E ME N T I N H I N DU C U L T U R E
-

work togethe r for the common good a nd thus re v eal ,

t he fa ct th a t the id ea of a coll e ctiv e life gov e rn s th em .

E v en the di stinction of H indu s and Mohamm e da ns is

sunk in this in stitution .

B r other ly f eel ing f oster ea by the D u rg ei Pa id — O u

’

the fourth d ay of the D urga ( the creativ e en e rgy of G o d ,

wife of Shiva ) Puj a a fter the im a ge is con sign ed to the

,

wa ters the H indus forget a ll th e ir p e rson a l a nd oth er

,

di fferenc es and m a ke it a point to offer V ij a ya ( the day 1

o n which t h e im age i s con sign ed to t he w at ers b e ing

ca lled V ij a ya Dasham i) greetings to o ne a n oth er I t is .

a v ery sw ee t a nd ch ee ri ng sp ect a cl e— tha t of p eopl e

e mbra cing o ne a noth e r a nd p a ying th eir d u e r espect s

a nd complim ent s a ccording to a e ra nk etc

g T h a t the , , .

whole soci ety feels o nen ess in its ev ery limb is brought
hom e to H indu mind s on thi s occasion .

I t would thu s b e a pp a rent th at life in I ndia has ev er

a fford ed a mpl e S cop e for t he promotion of the sen se of

n a tion a l solid a rity a nd has giv en ri se to c erta in cha r

,

a ct er ist ic conv ention s which lik e the oth e r conv ention s

, ,

of oth e r p eoples deserv e a ttention from the students of

,

Socia l Ma n .

1
V ijaya is ob serv ed in o ne form o r a noth er all o v er I ndia . T he
greetings h a v e the sa m e signifi cance as Christm as and N ew Year
gr eetings in C hr istian l ands .
 C H A PT E R X .

BU DD H I ST A N D I AI N A E L E ME N T S I N M O DE R N
H I N D U I SM .

I — T H E H iN Av AN A SC H O O L 1
S ECTI O N . OF B UDDH I SM .

'
D UR I N G Shak ya sim ha s life tim e no St eps wer e t ak en to
-

worship Buddh a through a n idol I t w as after he had .

(
att a in e d fin a l e m a ncipa tio n ie aft e r h e had br ea th ed
. .

his l ast ) tha t procession s w ere start e d with his corpse

a nd festiviti es h e ld in hi s ho n our I t w as on the full .

moon day of the month of V a ishak ha (A pril May) tha t -

he first sa w the light of the day and it w as also on tha t ,

d ay th a t h e brea th e d his la st .

H enc e on thi s o ne day w er e c el ebra ted the fest iv al F est1v 1t 1es

of h is n ativity as well as the festivities of his atta inm ent

of fin a l ema ncipation By w ay of m e morial a la rge P um im day
.
,

stupa ( mound) w a s e rect ed ov er hi s h a ir n a ils t eeth , , ,

bon es clothes a nd K a m a nda lu ( wate r pot u sed by

,
-

a sc etics) a nd such oth er s a cr ed obj e ct s

,
I t w a s h er e .

tha t the abov e festiv al s w ere celebrate d O ccasions like .

th ese a fford ed the Buddhist s O pportuniti es to hold festi

vi ties a nd to m a k e th e m w ell a tt e nd ed .

A t the tim e of initia tion the Buddhist had to r esign C

,
onfession of
h
h imself to the prot e ction of the T riratn a I t is l a id .
2
if n "
lf
se .

( Prob sthain
’
1 See H ack m ann s B u ddhism as a R el igion , L o ndo n,
1 91 0 )
2 Th e Bu dd hist T rinity, l it three
. j ewel s— B u ddha , D ha rm a a nd

Sam gha .
 1 36 T H E F O L K E L E ME NT I N H I NDU C ULT UR E
-

down in the treatise n a m ed P r dtim ohsa ( ie pointing to . .

Mo k sa or salvation ) tha t confession of sin or guilt by

the si nn e r him se lf is a m ea ns of a bsolution for four

kind s of sin or o ffence T he s ect th at ob serv ed th e se

.

rul es w as nickn a m ed by the la ter B uddhi st s ect as

H inay an a ie follow er of L ow er ( L ess e r ) V e hicl e
, . . .

T he H in ay anist also o ffere d worship to Buddha on

his sea t or footprint s by im agining him to h av e estab
, ,

lish ed him self th e r e A nd it is v ery lik ely th at it w as

.

this practic e that subs equ ently led the p erform ers of
D ha rm a s G aj an to introduce the O ffe ring of worship
’

to Buddha Pa da ( foot mark of Buddha ) or Dharma -

paduka ( sa nd a ls of D h a rma ) T he votari es of Shiva in .

the G a m b hira h a v e a lso a dopt ed a nd up till now pre ,

1
se rv e d t he H in a y an a idea
,
of being a b solv ed from sin
‘
by confessing it as enjoin ed in P r atim ohsa H ence it .

m a y r ea son a bly b e sa id th a t the worship of t he im age of

B uddh a a nd the fe stiviti es th a t we re h eld in his honour

a r e b e ing s till e n a ct ed in the G a m b hi ra t empl e only

M ater ial s fo r und er diffe r e nt n a m es a nd modifi ed form s Ma t eria ls .

for the G a m b hir a festiv a l h a ve thu s been furni sh ed by

th e festiy ities th e festiviti es th at the H in ay an a Buddhi st s h eld on t he
of t h e H m a
m Bu d full moon day of the month of V aishak ha
fi r
-
.

l StS .

] A I N A F E STI V I T I E S
S E CT I O N I I .
— .

T he ja in a r eligion was founded in the a ge which

precede d the founding of Buddhism J ust as Buddhi sm .

h as provid ed room for mor e th a n o ne Buddh a so t he ,

ja in as a lso b eli ev e th a t th er e ha v e b een sev era l T ir tham

ka ras a nd th at oth ers will follow in the tim e to com e
, .

D i ffer ent from H indui sm in c erta in principl es J a ini sm ,

has not wholly don e a wa y with rather it sh a r es the , ,

orthodox b elief in h ea v en and the body of gods h ead ed

1
See p . 20 . T his is a J aina cu sto m too .
1 38 T H E FO LK E L E ME N T I N H I N D U C U L T U R E
-

lfisa mounta in a nd th enc e surrounded by a l a rge ,

number of G anis ( proba bly the sam e word as G ana ,

mea ning a host a l a rge numb er use d mor e e specia lly

,

to d enot e the ghost atte nda nt s on S hiva ) retired to the ,

S iddh a sthana ie the pla c e wh e r e he a chi ev ed success

-

, . . .

O n thi s occasion the gods wor shipp ed him with inc en se

a nd flowers .

T he story of thi s fir st J in a will b e found to be

simil a r to tha t of Mah ade va of the H indu his con ,

nex i o n with the K a il as a mounta in a nd his r eceiving

homage of the gods b eing simply a n e cho of wha t has
b een said of the la tter T he birthday festiv a l of this
.

R isab ha a nd the pr a ctic e of offering worship to him

see m to h a v e contribut ed not a littl e to the sta rting of

t he G a m b hir a a ffa irs .

T he J a in as comm e mor a t e the tim es of app ea ra nc e

birth ) of th eir T ir tha m k ara J in a s by holding fes
t iv ities a nnu a lly on the occ asion s A fte r Jinendra (the.

chi e f of the J in as ) w a s born in the month of Jyaistha

( May J un e ) th e gods hea ded by I ndra solem ni z ed the
-

occ asion by holding festivitie s in his honour S imilarly .

in the months of C ha itra Va isha kha a nd Jyaistha were ,

c el ebrat ed th e birthda y festiva l s of th e oth er J i nas .

O n th ese occasion s the J a in a Ajw akas ( priests) o ffered

wor ship to t he J in a s with resin lights flowers etc , , , ,

in th eir V ih ara s ( Buddhist a nd J a i na t empl es ar e so

ca ll ed) a nd a lso offered pra yers a nd s ang th eir glori es
,

with the obj ect of invoking th eir bl essings T he .

t emples were bea utifully illumin a t e d at nig ht T he .

J a in as a lso insta ll ed the idol of J in a and offer ed worship

to I t .

A r ista nem i Pur ina , 1 4

1 The festival was cel ebrated on the
.

'
b ank o f th e K al indi (a riv er) See the chapter o n M ah av ira s Pre
.

d ecessors and D iscipl es in Stevenso n s H ea r t of j a inism

’ ' ’

.
 BU D D H I ST A N D J A I N A E L E ME N T S

Par sh w anatha is the twenty third T irtham ka r a the F tiviti i

-

, es es n

imm edi a t e pred ec es sor of Mah av ira the reput ed founder g fiffiff gfi
‘ " ’
,

o f J a inism H e w as the so n of A shw a sena rul er o f hw fith

.
,
s afl a

B e na res by his wife v ama D evi T he conc eption took

, .

pl a ce on the fourth day of the da rk ha lf of the month of

C ha itr a J u st aft e r his birth the compl e xion of Par
.
,

shw a natha s body w a s found to b e blu e a nd th er e w e r e

’

sn a ke lik e forms ov e r his p erson

-

( wh e nc e the epith et

Pha ni b hu sana a d orn ed with sna k e ; this is the titl e of

-

Shiv a al so ) A t the moment of his birth the gods bl e w

.

trumpets in hea v en flowe rs were scatt ered in profusion

,

from the skies a nd t h e d a m sel s of h ea v en e nt er ed the

,

lying in room sca tt er ed flower s a nd perform ed oth er

-

b en edictory c er emoni es th ere I t w as thu s th at the

.

god s a nd goddesses S igna liz ed his n ativity ; a nd h is

“
fath er r e l eased the prison ers a nd enga ge d b eautiful
girls to da nc e a nd sing a mid st excla m a tions of triumph ,

shout s of ulu ulu ( utt e red by wom en on festiv e o c

,

c asion s) blowings of cou ches a nd v a rious oth er b en e

, ,

d icto r y c er emoni e s I t w a s thu s with d a nce song , ,

music a nd with gift s that the nativity festiviti es of the

J in a s w ere ob se rv ed .

Wh e n he ca m e of age Parshw anatha tra v ell ed from H g i d

,
e a ne
,

pla c e t o plac e to preach the J a ina religion T he r e .

d emption of the fa ll en w as the only obj ect of his life ffii fifi ?

gi
y a
.
o

I n t he for enoon of the fourth day of the dark h a lf of the Ch it a r a.

month of C ha itra wh e n the moon had e nt e r ed the r egion

of V ishak ha ( the sixteenth lun a r ma nsion con si sting of
four sta rs) he a cquir ed the A n a nt a v aib hav a K a ivalya -

j nan a ( the knowledge th a t l ea ds to a tta i nment of

id e ntity with the divin e essence and thu s to fin al em a n
ci pat ion of the soul from all bonda g e s and which is ,

A na nta v a ib hav a ie the r epository or sou rce of

-
, . .

'
1
A r ista nem z P u r ana
‘
 140 TH E FO L K EL E ME N T I N H I N D U CU L TUR E
-

e terna l bliss) under a D hataki tree in B en a res T her e .

after reports of his sup e rn atura l grea tness and powers

spre ad far a nd wide 1n all directions Bent upon doing

.

good to the J a in a s he ca me in the course of his travels

, , ,

to the country of the Pu ndras ( N orth Bengal ) which ,

has ever sinc e been r ega rded by the J a ina s as a sacred

r egion .

T o commemora t e his acquisition of the above know

l edge the J a in as offer worship to his memory and hold
,

a festiva l in his honour in the month of C h a itra T his .

is the c el ebr a t ed spring fe stival of t he J ain as .

I t is under circum sta nces like the a bov e tha t the

J a in a festiva l s were sta rted and ha ve ever since been
,

pra ctised in the months of C haitra Va ishak ha and ,

1
Jyaistha .

T he J a i na festiviti es were first a dopted and cel ebrated

by the Pu ndras immedia tely after the visit of Par shw anatha
to their country and ha v e ever sinc e been duly observed
, .

T hrough the efforts of G oraksa natha a nd N em inatha ,

a nd tha nks to the est ee m in which J ainism w as held

by the moth er of G ov indachandr a ( c twelfth c entury

.

a l a rge number of J a in a Ashra ma s

( hermit ages or t e
trea ts) sprang u p in the Pundra country T hus like
.

Buddhism J a inism w as a lso la rgely fa voured in Benga l

, .

E cl ect icism T he birthd ay festiv a l of the first J in a celebrated ,

1“ G am b hi’é '
on the n i n th day of the dark ha lf of the month of
Ch a itra cam e in cour se of time to b e mixed up with the
,

birthday and the Par inir v ana festiva ls of B uddh a in the

mon th of V a ishakha ; a nd we m ay reasonably go a step
further a nd say tha t in course of tim e aga in all the ,

J a in a and Buddhist festivities of the months of Chaitra

1 T he N andishwara festiv al o f the J ainas extends o v er eight days,
from th e eighth day of th e l igh t half o f the m onth s o f A adh a ( J u ne
s
J u l y) , Kartika ( O ctober N o vem b er) and Phalgoon (Febr u ary March) ,
- -

to the fu ll m oon day, and is cel ebrated in ev er J aina tem l e wi th

y p
-

d ance, song, m usic and the offering of wor ship, etc .

1 42 T H E FO L K E L E ME N T I N H I N D U CU L T U R E
-

of losing its purity and to decid e th eir course of a ction

,

under the circumstances ar e sa id to h a v e m et togeth er ,

at R a j agriha I n this assembly a ca reful a nd ela bora t e

.

di scussion took place rega rding V in aya a nd oth er p a rts

of the ca non A ft er this sev era l oth e r as semblies w er e
.
,

a l so conv e n e d by which the T ripita k a or T hreefold

,

C anon ( ie V in aya S utra a nd A b hidha r m a ) w as d efin ed

. .
,

a nd re cord e d .

T he discipl es of Shak ya b e ca me divid ed into num

er o u s c a mp s e v e n during the sitting of o ne of the first

conv entions known as D ha rma m aha sam gati O ne

,
.

of th es e p a rti es profess ed its d evotion to the old rigid

order a nd expressed its int e ntion to a dhere to it .

T he vi ews of thi s sect of Buddhism w er e not popular ,

si n c e it could not find out a m ea n s of e m a ncip a tion tha t

would b e equa lly applica bl e to the wi se a nd the ignorant .

A ccording to this primitiv e form of Buddhism only the ,

Bhiksu s ( monk s) we re entitl ed to pr a cti se the a ust erities

a nd obt a in through th em t h e p ath for ema ncipation .

O ne of the new ord ers how ev e r that spra ng up in , ,

opposition to the orthodox sect of Buddhi sm threw open

the doors of em a ncip a tion for a ll ma nkind T h ey pro .

c la im ed with a cl ea r voice th a t through m edita tion and

pra y er e v ery m a n the wi se and the ignorant a lik e would
, ,

b e a bl e to a tta in sa lv a tion v ery ea sily a nd v ery soon .

The sect tha t a nnoun ce d this lib era l or ra th er popul a r

theory a nd show ed a n easy w ay of ema ncip a tion to o ne
a nd a l l assum ed the titl e of M a hayan a lit following a
,
( .

high ie broa d w a y) and nickn a m ed th eir illib era l a nd

, . .
,

na rrow mind e d O ppon ent s H in a y an a lit following

-

( a .

low and n a rrow w a y) .

I t w as th is Ma h ay an a bra nch that contribut ed l a rgely

to the propagation of the th eory of Shunya or the void .

L ik e the V a isnav a s e ct of H indui sm they pl a c ed m ercy ,

a nd devotion a bov e e v erything e l se T he ir r e ligious .

 BU D D H I ST AN D J A I N A E L E ME N TS

principle m ay briefly b e e xpl a in ed in the following w ay .

S adha n a ( i e con sciou s efforts a t d evoting on e s s elf to

’
. .

the se rvic e a nd thought of G o d ) which ca n lift up our ,

soul s a bov e gross m a t eriali sm is bas ed upon D hyan a ,

abstr a ct r e ligious cont empl a tion ) a n d D hara na st e ady

( (
ab stra ction of mind from a l l oth e r con sid era tion s a nd
conc entration of it upon the idea of G o d or the r eligious
goa l a im ed at) B esid es thi s th e y a lso enjoined as
.
, ,

a rticl e s of th e ir fa ith the ext ension of m e rcy a nd sym

,

pathy tow a rds all crea tures I t w a s thi s bro a d a nd

.

lib era l a sp ect of the n ew er form of Buddhi sm th at

t empt e d m e n and women a like to embra c e it in the
hope of finding p ea c e and comfort therefrom and thus
succ eede d in giving it predomin anc e ov e r all the other
cr eeds of the country .

A ll th e t en ets of Mahaya nic Buddhi sm can b e tr a c e d Nfigfi l r u na

l
d e finit ely ba ck to A shw agho sa who pl a ye d a promin ent,

pa rt in the fa mous C ongress conv en e d by K u sha n ,

E mp e ror K ani sk a in K ashmir about 1 0 0 A D w h en . .

a nd wh e r e th e schism m a y b e sa id to h a v e b ee n o ffi ci a lly

e ffect e d .N agarju na w as how ev e r th e first to sy stem

, ,

at iz e a nd expl a in Ma h ay ani st philosophy in a m ethodica l

w ay . H e expl a in ed the obj ect and goal of Buddhi sm

to m en a nd women of all ra nks a nd h eld it up b efor e ,

th em as the only m ea n s of w a rding o ff tria l s a nd tribu

latio ns of all kind s a nd th e n impa rte d to th em inst r u c
,

tion s as to the a tt a inm ent of N irvan a H is r eligious .

vi ew how e v er do es not s eem to ha v e b een a purely

, ,

B uddhist o ne for he offe red worship to the Sh a iva

,

goddes s C ha ndika ( of course as the personifi ed en ergy

of B uddha ) a nd con sulted her opinion as to the good
or evil lik ely to spring from int end ed a ction s a nd
guid e d himse lf a ccordingly T hus the Mah ay an a
.
,

1
See V sastris
.
’
com m u nicati
on in ( L ondon ,
1 44 T H E FO LK EL E ME N T I N H I N D U C U L T U R E
-

cre ed will seem to h av e b een la rgely ind ebt ed to the

S h a iv a o ne .

N agarju na s O rde r known as the M adhy a mika s h e ld

’

th a t for the a cqui sition of religious m erit it w as essenti a l ,

to cultiv at e ch a rity lov e of p ea c e and fortitud e to form

, , ,

ch a r act er dev elop und e rsta nding a nd acquire th e h abit

, ,

of withdra wing the mind from the sense s a nd conc entra t e

it wholly on the cont empl a tion of G o d T he new .

form of N irvan a tha t th ey set up b efore th eir eyes w as

not for m a n a lon e ; but th ey e v e n affirm ed tha t the
lowe r orde r of god s a l so such a s B ra hma V isnu M a hesh , ,

w a ra K al i T ara a n d oth ers might b e entitl ed by

, , ,

p assing through the high er a nd higher proc esses of con

t em p la t ion a nd m edit a tion to the att ainm ent of N irv ana
,
.

F o r thi s r esp ect and con sid e ra tion th at the Madhya mika
O rd e r of M a h ay ani sm showed for the H indu pa nth eon ,

the H indu Brahm a n as b eg a n to look upon th em with

fa vour and good feeling -
.

T he r eason why th e Br ahm a n as the l eaders of ,

H induism w er e r e c eiving so fa vourably the Buddhists

,

of t he Mah ay an a sect with th eir religiou s vi ews and

principles is thu s not far to seek A s the t ea chings of
, .

t he Ma h ayan a bra nch of Buddhi sm w e r e simil a r to those

of lib era l H indui sm m a ny w ere the p eople th at wer e
,

con sciou sly or uncon sciously influ enced by the m ; a nd

thos e who contra ct ed a n a v ersion to th e ob servanc e of
sa crific es a nd oth e r c e re moni es enjoin e d by t he Br ah

ma nas retired into the woods in ord er to d evis e the

, ,

b est m ethods of p erforming th em m e nta lly I t w as .

th ese p eopl e tha t might be sa id to b e r eally houseless

Bhik su s ( Buddhist m e ndica nt s) una ffect ed by pl ea sur e
,

a nd p a in . T h e y ha d r enounc ed the o stenta tiou s per

fo r m a nce of sa crific es a nd the o ffering of wor ship to the
low er ord e r of d eities a nd took unmixed d elight in th e
,

cont empl a tion of the form of Maheshw ar a .

 1 46 T H E FO L K EL E ME NT I N H I N D U C U L T U R E
-

togeth er with the ir p ersonifi ed e n ergi es a s th e ir wiv es

known as T ara a nd other s I n differ e nt plac e s dif
,
.

fer ent conception s we re form ed of t he forms compl exions ,

attv as a nd
(
a nd v ah a n as a nim a t e conv eya nces
) of Bodhis
the Sh a kti s ( p ersonifi ed e n e rgi es) .

V air o cha na is sa id to ha v e ridd en a lion A ksobhya ,

a n e l epha nt R a tnasa m b ha v a a hors e a nd A mit abha a

, ,

goose or p ea cock and A m o ghasidd hi is sa id to hav e

,

tra v elled on the ba ck of G a ruda ( the king of birds who ,

a ccording to the H indu s b ea rs V i snu on hi s b a ck

) .

D it i
e f th
es o e T he Brahm anas unh esit a tingly welcomed into the fold
M adhy ikam
iv d by
r ece e
of H induism the Buddhist deiti es Padm apan i Manju shri
as
,

th H i d
a n d V a r a ani Bodhis a ttv a as V i snu Ma heshw ara and
e n u s.
j p ,

I ndra resp e ctively or in oth er word s th ey b ecame in

, ,

directly and uncon sciously conv erted to Buddhistic creed .

Buddhism was also influenced by H indu id ea s b ecause

th e H indu d e ity Ma h ad ev a w a s st ea ling into the Bud
dhist community which how ev er for the tim e b eing
, , , ,

relegat e d him to a position inferior to th at of Buddha

T he p articul a r d ays on which the Bu ddhi st s held r e
lig io u s discu ssions w er e known as U posatha N othing .

but r e ligious O bs erva nc es w as a llow ed on th ese days ,

which w e re like Sa bba ths to the Buddhists I t was .

e njoi ned th a t th ey Should ha v e a b solute rest from the

pursuit of all munda n e ma tte rs on th ese occasions T his .

pra ctic e is found to be eve n now observ ed on the last

day of the G a m bhir a festiva l wh en its organi z ers resign
,

th ems elv es wholly to e nterta inm ents a nd div ersions a nd

tot a lly absta in from the pursuit of tra d e agriculture and , ,

a ll oth er worldly conc ern s T he m erit a ccruing from

.

li st ening to the G a m bhira hymn s etc is considered to , .

,

be equal to th a t d eriv ed from li st ening to the religious

aphorisms of the Buddhist s .

T he Buddhists of Ceylon c e l ebrat e in the spring a

festiva l known as Mara V inashak a ( lit the destroyer of
-
.
 B U D D H I ST A N D J A I NA EL E ME N T S

Mara ie T e mpt e r the god of a m a tory pa s sion s)

, . .
In , .

Benga l a lso worship is offered to Ma hadev a the de

, ,

stroy e r o f K ama ( the a wa kene r of pa ssion s) in the ,

spring T he birth a nd Pa r inir v ana festiv a l s of B uddha

.

a r e c el e bra t e d in V a i
shak ha wh en the G a m b hir a a n d

G aj an festiv a ls ar e a l so sol emniz ed A car festiv a l of .

-

B uddha is a lso observ ed in Var endr a ( N orth B enga l )

under the n a m e of R athai or R atha chhara ta I t is .

on r e cord tha t a car festiv a l was a l so h eld in honour of

-

D h arm a in connexion with his worship .

A lthough the H in ay an a a nd t he Mah ay ana sects H d l m q e e

:1 1353:
di ffered on the ca rdin a l principl es of religion yet n eith er $ 2231 ,

w a s b ehind the other in its r espect for the T rira tn a

or T rinity which in course of time a ssum ed definit e
, , ,

m at eri al forms T hus on the right sid e of the im age

.
,

of Buddha sa t D ha rm a as his spouse whil e on his l eft ,

sat Sa mgh a in th e m a l e g a rb a nd it b ec a me the custom

to offe r w orship to th eir joint images I t is sa id th at -

.

Adi B uddha crea t ed this femal e Dh a rm a out of S hunya

or the void ; a nd it w a s from him th at the gods S hiva ,

e tc spra ng into b eing

.
,
H e is the for emost of a ll the .

gods
I t will thus b e s ee n th at the g erms of the pr esent H i d d n u an
-

day G a m b hir a worship ar e to b e found in the Buddhi st

festivities tha t were cel ebrat e d on the full moon day of i d “P -
m xe

t he month of V a i shak ha in honour of both H indu a nd

B uddhi st deities T he hymn s of the G a m b hira ev en

.

now r e fl ect the controv ersi es th a t a rose from di ffer enc es

of opinion between the H in ay an a a nd the Ma h ay an a
s ects and conta in ela borat e di scu ssions on C rea tion a ft er
th e ir di ffe rent philosophies T he Buddhi st festiva l s w ere .

1
celebrated with o fferings of fruits flowers inc en se a nd , ,

1
M tinda Poinho
'

Whether B uddha a cce

pts w or shi p or not.

M aharaj (0 1 king) , if we ar e to r eap h ere the fru it of e v il actio ns

d one b efore (ie

. . in a form er l ife) , th en it is u ndeni
ab l e that b oth
10
1 48 T H E F O L K E L E ME N T I N H I N D U C U L T U R E
-

food Dance and m usic were also performed on these

.

occasion s The o fferi

. ng of food before the im age of
Bu ddha is not opposed to the Buddhist creed .

go o d and ev i
l actions o f th is life and of pr ev ious l iv es m ust b ear their
res ecti e
p v t H ence it is to be u nderstoo d , 0 K ing !
fru its wi hout fa il .

that ev en if not acce ted b o r acce tabl e to T atha ata B u ddh a

p y p g ( )
who has a ttained Pari nirv ana ( fi nal em ancipation) , actions d one in
h is h o nou r or to gain his fav ou rs cannot b ut b e rod u ctiv e of corre
p
"
s o ndi
p ng r uits
f .
1 50 T H E FO L K E L E ME N T I N H I N D U C U L T U R E
-

brought under his sway pra ct ica lly the whol e of E aste rn
I ndi a .

A t the tim e of the brea k u p of the G upta E mpire -

om v a li a nt m emb e rs of the fa mily who

( c .A D . s
. e

were ruling neighbouring countri es as tributary princes ,

set up a l a rg e number of sma ll ind ep e nd e nt kingdoms .

Shasham k a N ar endra G upta w as prob a bly o ne such king

of the G upta lin e H e w as a Sha iva and professed
.

him self to b e a sta unch followe r of th e creed I nd eed .

,

th ese scion s of the G upt a fa mily who w er e sca tter ed ov er

the country a s p e tty chi efs follow e d a l l of the m the
,

creed of the last G upta E mp erors and thu s cam e to

1
,

h av e firm fa ith in the non Buddhi st syst em s of worship

-
.

T h eir profess e d cree d w as in r ea lity a mixtur e of the

Ma ntra y an a form of the Mah ayan a branch of Bud
-

d hism a nd the new T a ntric form th a t t he Sha iv as a nd

t he Sh akt a s h a d d ev elop e d a mong th e m se lv es N ay .
,

it m ay with fa irn ess b e sa id of the whol e H indu and

Buddhist communities of the time that th ey had really ,

lo st sight of the di ffe r enc es in th eir respectiv e creed s

a nd ha d com e to st a nd on a common r eligiou s pl a tform ,

t he pl ank s of which w er e s upplied a lik e by Buddhi sm

a n d t he Pur anic a nd T a ntric form of H induism T h ey .

had but littl e r esp ect for t he injunctions la id do wn in

the V edic t ext s or T ripita ka The Brahma n as had in
.

fa ct b egun to pra cti se T a ntri sm .

T a ntri sm b ase d on t he S ha iv a a nd the S h akta cr eed

w as a cc ept ed as pe rson a l r e ligion by Shasham k a a nd
other kings of E a st e rn I ndia H enc e it wa s th at
.

S ha iv a T a ntrism la rgely spr ea d throughout B e nga l .

B ut wh en H a rsa assumed th e rein s of gov ernment

ov er th ese region s Buddhism w a s r e esta bli sh ed a mong
,
-

t h e p e opl e T his Buddhi sm w as not how ev er genuin e

.
, ,

1
The fi rst G u ptas were wo rshippers o f V isnu .
FE ST I V A L S O F T H E SE V E N T H CE NT U R Y A D . . 1 51

it w as simply the T antric form tha t the Ma ntra y an a -

sect of the Ma hayan a bra nch ha d l ately developed .

H ow ev e r it w as this form of Buddhi sm difficult to dis

, ,

t ingu ish fro m neo H induism th a t w as being r e—esta b

-
,

l ished about this time in v arious pla ces of U pper I ndia

’
throug h H a rsa s policy of re ligious neutrality .

T he lin e of the Vardha na K ings to which he b e C th l i ity f a o c o

Hm “ h °
longed conta ined princes of v a rious faiths ; some w e r e w h ipp d ors e

Shaivas some Saur as and other s B uddhists Pu sya Sh

éi3 a
ggya - v l 1 r
, .
,
an u a
bhuti o ne of the ea rliest kings of the line was a S ha iv a lik
, , a e.

from boyhood Prabhakara V ar dhana father of H a rsa

.
, ,

w as a st a unch Sa ura ( Su n worshipp er ) -

H e used da ily .

to worship the Su n god on a crysta l pl ate with red

-

lotu ses D uring his reign the Saura religion exe rcis ed
.

con side ra bl e influence R ajya V ar dhana elde r broth e r

.
,

of H a rsa a nd their sister R ajyashri were aga in ear nest

, ,

a dvoca t es of Buddhism H a rsa himself a dopted o ne

.
,

a ft e r a noth er the H in a yan a th e Mah ay an a and ulti

, ,

m a tely the Mantrayana creed ; but he worshipped

equa lly the im ages of Shiv a S u r yya and the di fferent
,

B uddhas H e also establish ed th eir images in temples

. .

I n his ea rly life he was a Sh a iva ; l a ter a devoted Bud

dhist and during his last days he a ga in professed hims e lf
,

to be a staunch Maheshwara ( ie follower of Maheshw ar a . . ,

S hiv a ). H enc e it cannot b e sa id with a ny degree of

certainty which of these was the creed of his heart H e .

perform e d va rious religious O bserva nces but was not ,

p arti al to any I t m ay be infe rred th at it was for the

.

people of I ndia an age of religious unifica tion ; and

H ar sa m ad e it a p art of his state craft to follow t he -

subjects in the practice of those O bservanc es which had

come to find fa vour with them .

T hu s during the reign of the V ar dhana dyna sty the ,

people celebrat ed the Sh aiv a S h akta Saura and B ud

, ,

dhist festiv al s alike As a ll the di fferent sects had

.
1 52 T H E F O L K EL E ME N T I N H I N D U C U L T U R E
-

fa ith in T a ntrism a ll the religious fe stiviti es b ega n

,

to be unifi ed and grow id entic a l in chara ct er The .

B u ddhi st spring festiv a l a nd the birth a nd Par inir

eld in the month of Vai
V ana fe stiv a l s of Buddh a
( h
shakha) as well as the J a in a spring a nd Sha iv a festiva ls
w ere c el ebra t e d a bout the sa m e tim e ; a nd as w e ha ve ,

seen b efor e the worship a nd festiv a l s in honour of the

,

v a rious gods a nd godd esses by the Ma ntra yan a sect of -

M a hay ana B uddhism w ere simil a r to tho se p erform ed by

the H indu s H enc e it will b e s een th at th e fe stiviti es
.

a nd e nt erta inm ent s of the whol e p e opl e w e re the sam e ,

no m a tt e r how ma ny diffe rent s ects and denomin ations

th e re were superficially A nd in course of tim e the .

tend ency of mutua l imitation b eca me so great among

the se v e ra l cr ee d s a nd sects th a t the di ffer enc e b etw een
H i ndu a nd Buddhist festiv a l s c a m e to b e v ery slight .

T he se festiva l s th a t w e r e h e ld in the month s of

C ha itra ( Ma rch A pril ) a nd V a ishakha ( A pril May) gradu
- -

a lly contributed to t he growth a nd d evelopment of the

G am b hir a I t m a y b e noted h ere th at H indu a nd

.

Buddhist T antrisms a r e so id entical in chara cter that

e v en a tra in ed eye ca n sc a rc ely be e xp ect ed to find

out the nic e points of di fference .

F rom a study of the festivities and ent erta inm ents

th a t w er e a ct u a lly h eld during the reign of H arsa it ,

would app ea r th a t the age of religious ecl ecticism

1
r eached its clima x I t w as not a mong his subj ects only
.

tha t a h a rmoniou s spirit w as a t work t ending towa rds

Shri H arsa D eva was him self a po et and there was in his cou r t
1

th e fa m o u s poet nam ed B anab hatta I t was by th is cou r t that .

‘ '
su ch d ram a s of genu ine poet i ts as N a
cal m er i
gana nda , R a tndoa l t,
Pmy a da r shihd, pu b lished
'

etc., wer e .
J im u tav ahana , the h er o of

N agana nda , was a Bu ddh ist, while h is wife M alyavati was a m odel

foll ower of th e Shaiv a cu l t A stu dy o f this dra m a will l ead

. one to

infer th at ab ou t this tim e a har m oniou s s pirit tending towards u nifica

tion was governing b oth Bu ddhism a nd Shaivaism .
1 54 T H E F O L K E L E ME N T I N H I N D U C U L T U R E
-

is a matter for regr et that in no historical

It ,

religious or poetical work of the tim e a ny detailed and

systema tic a ccount i s found of the festiviti es th a t were

th en in vogue F ortuna te ly for u s how ev e r a foreign er

. , , ,

Sp ea king a fore ign tongu e v i z a piou s C hin ese pilgrim

, . ,

took p a ins to r ecord in h is la nguage a la rg e ch apt er

of the I ndi an hi story of the tim e ; a nd it ha s b een
a cc ept ed by post erity as a v e ry a ccurat e r ecord of those

days .

R e liabl e proofs h a v e b een found as to the accuracy

of his d escriptions a nd thus he m ay b e sa id to h ave
,

illumin ed a da rk chapt er of the m edi aeva l hi story of

I ndia H e saw with h is own ey es th e festivities that
.

w er e h eld during the re ign of H arsa and w e r eproduce ,

below in bri ef what he said of them .

(a ) The Specia l F estiva l at K a na uj (A D

. .

I t w as thi s pilgrim th at w as the occasion of

C hin ese
the sp e ci a l a sse mbly th at w as for the first tim e ca ll ed
a t K an a k u bja
y ( mod ern K a n a uj
) a nd w a s follow ed by

festiviti es exhibiting the imag e of Buddha H e oh .

ta ined a n int ervi e w with E mp eror Shri H a rsa in

B engal a nd the latter w as so highly sa tisfied with his
,

religiou s di scours e that on his return to the capital

K an a uj with H iu en T hsa ng h e conv en ed a public
-
,

asse mbly to l et t he p e opl e in gen e ra l ha v e a n o

ppo r

tu nity of li st ening to hi s l ea rn e d r eligious t alks .

A t this congregation a ss embl e d a l a rge number of

J a in a a nd Buddhist Shram anas a nd Bhik su s as well as
Brahma n as A huge t empora ry p a vilion w as erect ed
.

for th e purpo se ; and in side it a hundr ed feet high

templ e w as built for holding festiviti es in honour of Bud
dha a human si z e im ag e of whom w as a l so est ablish ed
,
-

th er e The E mperor himself c a rri ed on his Shoulders a

.
FE ST I V A L S O F T H E SE V E N T H CE NT U R Y A D . . 1 55

sma ll gold image of Buddh a for a ba th in the G au ges

1
a nd a fter a blution brought it b a ck to the t empl e T hi s .

festival e xt ende d from the I st to the 2 I S t day of the

month of C ha itra ( M a rch A pril ) -
.

Provi sion w as m a d e h e r e on a lavish sca l e for the

pe rforma nces of d a nc e a nd music voc a l a nd in strument al
, ,

a nd e very da
y the festiviti es op ened with th e se S hr a .

manas and Brahmanas n a tiv es and for eign ers were fed
, ,

a lik e with v a riou s a rticl es of food in pl e nty .

O ne day the Br ahma nas jea lou s of t he Buddhi sts

, ,

a r e sa id to h a v e set fir e to this hug e p avilion a nd a

portion of it w as burnt to ashe s .

T he a bov e festiv a l which w a s h eld in the mon th o f Th Ch it e a ra

“
C ha itr a w as h enc eforwa rd turn e d into a n annu a l o ne £31333 .

A nd in cour se of tim e this C ha itra ( spring) festiv a l of

K a n a uj by H a rsa has d ev elop e d or r a th er d egen e ra t ed
into our G am b hir a a nd G aj a n festiva l A t l ea st it has .

m at e ria lly h elp e d in the gradua l deve lopment of the

la tte r .

I n lat er tim es to comm e mora t e t he burning of the

pa vilion v a riou s feats w e re e xhibit ed with fir e a ft e r
,

the festiv a l w as ov e r T his part of the festiviti es a l so

.

has not be en negl ect ed in the G am b hir a F o r even .

now v a riou s div e rting fea ts a r e p erform ed under th e

n a m e of Phu lk hela ( lit diversion with flowers) both
.

in th e G am b hir a a nd G aja n festiva ls T he Phul .

kh ela is perform e d in the following w ay The Bh a ktas .

or S a nny asis divide them selves into two opposit e p a rti e s

a nd kindl e a fir e wi th sm all pi ec es of wood et c T hey , .

th en sn a tch these burning pi e c es a nd hurl th em at o ne

Sim ilar cerem o nies o f bath ing and wor sh ipping the im age
1 ar e

to b e m et with al so in co nnexion with th e instal l atio n cerem o ny

of th e phal l u s o f Shiva in th e G aj an o f D harm a and the Gam b hira
o f Adya .
 1 56 T H E FO L K E L E M E NT I N H I N D U C U L T U R E
-

a nother A s observed b efore th is is simply a r epr odu c

.
,
1
tion of the burning of the pavilion at K a n a uj .

Processions
.
I n the abov e spring festiv a l a procession w a s st arted
with the im age of Buddha T he principal tributary .

chi efs with elepha nt s horses etc a nd the common , , .

,

peopl e join ed this process ion and it w as a ttended by

da ncers singers and musicia ns O n this occasion
, .

flowe rs of gold w er e giv en a w ay T he procession .

passe d round the city a nd then return ed to the pl ace of

festiv a l T his practice of starting proc essions is still
.

ob serv ed in the G am b hir a a nd the G aj an o f Shiv a and

D h a rm a .

( b) The Q u inquennia l F estiv al at A l l a habad (A D

. . 64

H iu en T hsang witne ss ed a grand festiva l at Prayaga

-

( A ll ahabad )
2
I t was a festival of ch a rity under the
.
,

dir ections of E mperor H a rsa U pon t he cel ebration .

of th e K anyak u bja festival , the E mperor came to

1
E v en now D oal yatr a festiv al a fir e festival
o n the ev e o f th e - -

is h el d under the nam e o f N edapoda in so m e pl aces, Medhap oda

in o th er s, and Agchi in still Oth ers Probab ly it was intended to

.

insinuate the b u rning to ashes o f th e N edas, ie cl ean shav ed Bu d . .

-

d h ists, b y the Brahm anas A l tho u gh a r eason fo r th e cel ebration of

.

this festiv al is to b e fou nd in the Shastra, yet th e ab o v e seem s to be

the o riginal cau se .

2 “
E v ery Bhiksu o r Bu d dhist ascetic had to confess his
o wn si ns twice in th e m on th— o u the fu l l m o on and o n the new -

m oon day Gradu all y th is practice was intr o du ced am ong the
.

h ou seh o lders al so , b u t it was not al ways co n v enient to ob serve .

A ccor dingl y K ing A soka sta rted a great festiv al fo r th e ato nem ent
o f sins At firs it was orda ned b oth to confess o ne s o wn sins and
. t i ’

to pr actise the vir tu e o f charity o n this o ccasion Sub sequ ently, .

howev er, the first clau se was o m itted in the case o f househol ders .

T h is festiv al of charity was a q u inq uennial o ne I t was once .

o b ser v ed i n Prayaga i n th e 7 th centur

y A D , wh en H iu en T hsang . .
-

th e C hinese p ilgrim witnessed it —The R el igious Sects of I ndia, by

.

A K Datta
. . .
1 58 T H E FOL K EL E ME N T I N H I N D U C U L T U R E
-

t en thou sa nd Buddhi st Shr a m anas vast rich e s were dis ,

tribute d to th em E a ch of th em w a s the re cipient of

.

preciou s food drink flow ers a nd p e rfum es in plenty

, , ,

a nd ov er a nd a bov e these o ne hundr ed go ld coins o ne

, ,

p ea rl and o ne rich wrappe r for the body T he n ext .

twenty da ys w e re de vot ed to the rec eption of Brah

mana s T he n e xt ten days w ere distrib u t ed rich es and
.

oth e r things to the J a in a s a nd the peopl e of oth er cr eeds .

T h e n a ft e r t he Bhik su s coming from far o ff pla c es w ere -

gra tifie d with g ift s for the sa m e p eriod t he orpha n and ,

th e h e lpl ess the di sea sed a nd t he poor r e c eiv ed v a rious

,

kinds of h elp for full o ne month .

I n the course of thi s festiv al H a rsa offere d worship

to S hiv a the Su n the Buddhas and the tutelary deities
, ,

of the ten directions I t does not see m unr ea sonable to

.

suppo se tha t the tributa ry princ es of the whol e empire

a l so c el ebr a ted S imil a r G ift fe stiviti es in th e ir own t er

-

ri to r ies a nd th e r e th ey pl a y ed the p a rt of the giv er ( ie

,
. .

ga v e a way mon ey cloth es , like H a rsa T his is

, .

as much as to sa
y that in thi s age of religiou s unification ,

in every tributary t erritory al so homage w as r endered

a lik e to the Su n S hiv a and the Buddh a s
, O n the se .

occasion s a l so a s in the tim e of Fa H i en provi sion w a s

, ,

ma de in conn exion with Buddhi st festivities for ent er

, ,

ta ining the p eopl e with dance and mu sic .

T he provisions th a t a r e m et with in t h e pr es ent day -

’
G a m b hira for confessing o ne s own sin b efore Shiv a
a nd for worshipping S hiv a a nd t he oth e r gods with the

tut elary d eiti es of the ten quarters of the glob e seem to ,

b e but relics of this I mp eri a l festiv a l I n Buddhist .

festiviti es of thi s n ature in the tim e of R amai Pandit

,

( tw elfth century four Pa ndits with th eir respective

gati s ( de votees) of a fixe d numb er ( R am ai had sixteen )
ha d to a tt end them ; and the h ero or t he principa l
orga ni z e r of the Dhar m apu ja wa s ma de to pla y the r 61e
FE ST I VAL S O F TH E SE V E N TH CE NT U R Y A D . . 1 59

of D anapa ti ( m a ster of ch a riti es) like H a rsa and pro

vision w as ma de for distributing in gifts a large a mou nt
o f mon ey . T he ceremony of m u k ta m a ng al a ( the a u
-

sp icio u s p ea rl ) th at w as observed in this connexion in

the time of R amai Pa ndit is a cl ear proof th a t a t this
time a lso p earl was given a w ay just as H arsa gav e a wa y
’
gold and pea rl to Buddhist mendica nts L ike H a rsa s .

insta lla tion and worship of the images of three gods on

three succ essiv e d ays the G aj a n festivities also exte nd
,

over three da ys a nd the feeding c eremony of the la tt er

,

performe d on the last da y under the n ame of Shiva

yajana is a lso a poor repr es enta tion of t he sumptuous
feast th a t the E mperor provided on the occ asion of his
festiv al .

I n the course of his tra v e ls in the ea stern pa rt of R eligifiml8

,

the country H inen T hsa ng visited Pundra Vard hana

,
- -
,

the capit a l of the Pu ndras in N orth B engal T here .

were twe nty B uddhist Sam ghar am a s and three hundr ed

,

Buddhist prea chers lived th ere The pilgrim noticed

.

a lso ov er o ne hundred H indu t e mpl es a nd a good num

ber of J a in a devotees I n the southern pa rt of G a uda

.

circle a dja ce nt to this territory K ing Shasham ka had

, ,

celebra t e d festivals both of the S ha iva and the Saura

creed T he movement of religious unification was thus
.

l
at work in E a ster n I ndia ; since a lthough Shasham k a
,

w as a S h a iv a there w as in his kingdom a B uddhi st

,

Sam ghar am a ( mon astery ) n am ed R ak tam itti .

ersecution of Bu ddhi
sm i
’
1
Shasham k a s all eged p s h el d to be
”
not pr o v en in the writings of R D Banerj i
. . .
 C H A PT E R XI I .

SO C I O R E L I G I O US L I FE O F T H E
-
PE O PL E O F BE N GA L
U N DE R T H E PAL A S .

S ECTI O N I —T H E PAL A C H OL A PE R I O D O F H I N DU
.
-

I M PE R I A L I SM ( 9 T H TO 1 3 TH C E N T UR Y

R ECE N T resea rch es of I ndian scholars in the mediaeval

history of E a st ern a nd South ern I ndia from archaeo
logica l linguistic religiou s a nd othe r sta ndpoint s have
, ,

un ea rthed importa nt facts of B enga l a nd T a mil a nti

uit i
e s which dem and prominent r e cognition in t he
q
sta nda rd works on I ndia n cultur e hi story T he Palas -
.

a nd Chola s of m edia e va l I ndi a ca n no long er b e tr eat ed

a s subordin a te or p etty princ e s ruling ov er the sm a ll er

kingdoms in o ne of the so ca ll ed p eriods of disint egra -

tion which I ndi a n hi story is sa id to repea t aft er ev ery

1

epoch of con solida tion ; but mu st b e ra nke d a s b y no

m ean s inferior in prestige titl es pretension s influenc es, , ,

a nd a chi ev em e nt s to th e fa mou s V a r dha nas of the

s eventh century A D the G uptas of the fourth fifth century
. .
,
-

A D a nd t he M a u r as of t he fourth third c e ntury B C

y
-
. . . .
,

D har m apala (c A D . the Buddhi st E mp e ror of

. .

E ast ern I ndi a with his imm ediat e pre d ec essors and suc
,

cesso rs a s w ell as R a
, j endra C hola ( 1 0 1 8 3 th e gr ea t

1
It b e noted that such perio ds o f d isintegration h av e b een
need
“
r e eated in the h i r y of ev er y p l Vid h i Com
p sto eop e e t e sect on o n .

par ativ e C hro nol ogy and C o m par ativ e H istory in Chinese R el igion
thr ough H ind u Ey es .
1 62 T H E F O L K E L E ME N T I N H I N D U C U L T U R E
-

problem s which are of p a ra mount import a nc e in I ndia n

history lit era tur e fine a rts philosophy a nd religion ;
, , ,

b e c ause it w as during thi s age that the oc ea n of T an

sm fina lly swa llow e d up in a common philo sophy t he
tr i
div erge nt cha nn e l s of Mahayan a Buddhi sm a nd latter
day Br ahm ani sm tha t V a isn a vism and Shaiv aism the
, ,

corn e r ston es of modern H indu life rece iv ed the o fficial

-
,

sta mp the pa rent s of present day v er ngcu lar s we re

,
-

e ncouraged a nd prot e cted nobl e religiou s edifices w ere

,

built huge sea like ta nks were exca v a te d magnificent

,
-

ima ges w ere sculptured in bron z e a nd Ston e s the n avi ,

gat io n of th e sea w as pu sh ed forwa rd co m m erci a l and ,

cultura l int ercourse b etw een the South ern ers and
E ast ern e rs w as promot ed a nd I ndia beca m e really the
,

school of A sia by supplying fa ith lit era tu re a rts a nd , , ,

m at eri a l n ec essa ri es to N ep a l T ib et C hin a J apan , , , ,

J a v a Burm a a nd oth e r l a nds b eyond t he seas T hi s

, .

period do es in fact c arry forwa rd a nd dev elop the im

pul ses a spiration s a nd t end enci es of H indu life t estified
,
’
to by the C hin es e mast er of la w in H ar sav ar dhana s
tim e .

T he Palas ( 78 0 1 1 7 5) a nd C hol as ( 9 0 0 1 30 0 ) ar e
- -

r ea lly the spiritua l succ essor s of the great empire builder -

a nd sta t esm a n of t h e se v e nth c entury ; t he epoch of

th eir h egemony in I ndia n hi story is a brillia nt sequel to

the spl e ndid epoch of imp eri a li sm r eligiou s tol eration a nd ,

ecl ectici sm coloniz ing a ctivity a nd soci a l a m a lga mation

,

which it ha d b een the policy of t he gr eat H a rsa to pio neer

a nd dir ect T h eir servic es to the m a king of I ndian
.

n ationa l culture d ese rv e the sa m e m eed of hom age ,

th erefor e from hi stori a n s as tho se of H a rsa A nd now

, .

that excav ations e xplora tion s r ea ding a nd int erpret a

, ,

tion of old v ern a cul a r m a nuscript s copp er plat e inscr ip ,

-

tions a nd numi sm a tics study of folk lor e folk songs

, ,
-

,
-

folk a rt s a n d villa ge tra ditions evid enc es of San skrit

-
, ,
 S O CI O R E L I G I O U S L I FE
-

lit e ratur e old sculpture s a nd pa intings call up b efore us

, ,

a pictur e of politic a l a nd r e ligious life comm erci a l a nd ,

socia l int e rcour se a r t d ev elopm ent and lit era ry progress

, ,

no l ess d efin it e a nd clear tha n wh a t w e hav e for a ny

oth er p eriod of I ndia n hi story the n ecessity of looking ,

upon the Pala Chola p e riod a s the really la st ph ase of

1 -

I mp e ria lism in H indu I ndi a ca nnot b e too stro ngly

a dvoc at ed .

S E CT I O N I I .
—S U BME R G E N CE
B U D D H I SM OF .

N orthern I ndia w as agita ted by an a rchy and r ev olu A hy d narc an

tion s from t he middl e of the s ev enth dow n to the b e gggg g figd

f m m

ginni ng of the eighth c entury D uring the ea rly y ea rs figh “ .

ter

of the e ighth ce ntury it w as subjuga t ed by Y asho v ar m a n

of K a n a uj T hough thi s suppress ed a n archy in oth er
.

pa rt s of N orth e rn I ndia yet it w as now tha t politica l

,

troubl es ga th er ed ov er M aga d ha a nd G auda Pu ndra -

( B enga l ) .

T he conqu est of G a ud a by Y a sho v ar m a n furnish e d Th pi e e c,

to the poet V ak pati the th eme of his epic G a u da v a a ha y ,

-
’

lit e M urd e r of G a ud a t he ki n g of
( T h i e -
. .
. ,

in Prakrit la nguage F rom thi s w e l ea rn simply tha t

.

Y a sho v ar m a n kill ed t he king of G a uda a nd conqu ere d

it ; but w e a re l eft in t he d a rk as to how long or if a t
a ll t he cou ntry submitt e d to hi s yok e .

I t I s b e li ev ed th at a littl e aft e r thi s conqu est G a uda E ff t t , or s o re

w as und e r the rul e of Ad ishu r a or Ja yant a ( c 7 3 0 ) V di

m bl 'h es S
.
, t e c re u
g
wh e n the tide of Buddhi sm a lmost o v er flow ed the l ti a on s

cou ntry The S hura kings m ade the first e ffort to

.

Since the ab ov e was wr itten M r V incent Sm ith has in th e third

1 .

ed i tion o f his E a r ly H istory ( 1 9 1 4) a d m itted th e claim s o f th e Pal as

fo r re m em b r ance as one of th e m o st r em ar k ab l e of I nd i an d ynas
“ ”
t ies, and as h av ing m ad e B engal on e of th e gr eat po wers o f I nd ia .

H e has a l so d rawn pr o m inent attention to the achiev em ents o f the

G u r j ara Pratiharas
-
of K anau j (8 1 6 -
1

"
1 1
 1 64 T H E F O L K E L E ME N T I N H I N D U C U L T U R E
-

re e
-
stablish V e dic r eligion and are by tra dition known ,

to h ave brought down som e V edic B rahmanas from

K an a uj a nd with th e ir h elp promulgated the V edic rites
,

a nd c e r e moni es throughout t he circl e of G a ud a T h es e .

B rahmana s fiv e in numbe r settl ed in G a uda and did

, ,

a l l th ey could to ma ke the peopl e bow aga in to V edic

rules a nd injunction s T h e ir task b eca me ra th er easy

.

from the fa ct th a t the king him se lf follow ed the V edic

pra ctic e T he authenticity of this tra dition is disputed
.

by schola rs .

Matsya B enga l had to submit to three more for eign invasions

N yaya , o r
S ta te o f from the ea st the we st a nd the south in succession
, , , .

N a tur e, ” as
B esides th e whol e r egion w as divid ed a mong a numb e r
u nder sto o
,
d by
H o oker a n d o f sm all e r V edi st a nd Buddhi st princ es who w ere em
S pinoz a.

gaged in a perp etual struggle with o ne a noth e r T he .

m ajority of the p eopl e how ev e r see m to h a v e b een , ,

B u ddhists T h ey w ere engaged in a sort of continual

.

w a rfa re with the V edists Mat sy a N y ay a (the logic .

of M at sya ie fish implying the destruction of the

, . .
,

wea ker by the stronger ) or the struggl e for e xistence

w a s a t this tim e the ch a r a ct e ri stic of the p eopl e in
E ast ern I ndia T he condition of the country w as
.

a lmo st a n a rchic th ere b eing no strong rul er ; or if

, ,

the re were a ny his a tt ention w a s wholly ab sorbed in

,

st a mping out int ern a l dis sensions T he con sequ ence .

w a s tha t the strong O ppr ess e d the w ea k with impunity

“ ”
a nd th e re w a s a v erita bl e st ate of n a tur e T he
' ‘
following lin es from V a su s B a ng er j at i y a I tihdsa ( T he
H istory of B enga l Ca st es ) Va ishya kand a ( C h apt er on ,

t he V a ishya s) Va i shya kul a p chaya A ccount of the

, ari
(
sev era l V a i shya fa mili es
) mirror forth the actual con ,

dition of the country a t thi s tim e

T he th ro ne is vacant ,
there b eing no king at the h el m o f affai
rs

the m ercy o f whoe v er can tak e them

”
L ife a nd p p ro er ty are a t .
1 66 T H E EF O L K E L E ME N T I N H I N D U CU L T U R E
-

principl es H is chi ef gen era l N ar ayana V ar m an in

.
, ,

sta ll ed a n idol of N ar aya na

( V i snu ) a t a pla c e n a m ed
Shu bha stha li T he V edic a nd Pur anic c er e moni es wer e
.

thus pra cti sed without opposition T he k ing w as .

a nxiou s to pl ea s e hi s subj e ct s without distinction of

cr eed . H enc e it w as th at Buddhism could not gain
g round or ev en hold its own against its o st entatiou s
, ,

a nd tol e r at ed riv a l s J a ini sm al so w as at a low ebb in

.

G a uda during t h e re ign of D har m apala H e w as a n .

en emy of Am a r a a a J a in a ki ng ; h e nc e the influ enc e

j ,

that Buddhi sm ha d could not b e exert ed by the creed of

the l a tt e r I n the twenty sixth y ea r of his re ign was
.
-

i nst all ed a n idol of the four fa c ed Ma hade v a not far off -

from t he M ahab o dhi tr ee of G ay a .

O n the d eath of D ha r m apala his second son ,

D ev apala ( 8 3 0 6 5) asce nd ed the thron e of G a uda

-
.

T he V edic Brahm a nas ha d monopoli z ed the o ffic e of

prim e min i st er of the Pal a E mp erors T his threw .

op en the doors of the roya l house to the gra dua l influx

of the H indu influ enc e D ev apala looked upon his .

B rahm an a Premi er with gr eat resp e ct a nd esteem F or .

thi s rea son H a ri M ishra has gr eatly eulogi z e d him in

‘
his K ar iha (a po e m con si sting of e xpository stan z as) .

G hana r am a Pa ndit ha s sa id in his D ha r m a m ang al a

th a t the lin e of the Pala kings w a s desc end ed from the
G o d of O c ea n H er e he had not dra wn on his im agin a
.

tion fo r such a tra dition had long b ee n curr ent in the

,

country G ha nar am a sa ys
.

K ing D har m apala is a pious rul e r O f good de .

sc ent a nd high cha ract er he is lik e the k alpataru ( a ,

fabulou s wi shing tr ee tha t giv es wha t ev er is b egged of it)

-
'

of thi s K a li or I ron A g e .

H is so n G au d eshw ara is born of the spirit of G od

, , .

F o r his piety a nd indomita ble en e rgy he is pra i sed by ,

the whol e world .

 SO CI O R E L I G I O U S L I F E
-

Wha t sh all I sa y of him who is d evot ed to his Th O ,

e cea n
G d o
fa ith rul es the ea rth a nd has d esce nd ed from the O c ea n
, ,
“

who ha s the M oon fo r his fri end ? ”

I t is thi s D ev apala who is the O c ea n s so n in the

’

I f dr ihd I n R dm a Cha r ita ( c

. by Sa ndhyak ar a
-
.

N a ndi a l so the Pal a fa mily has b een sa id to h av e

, ,

b een d esc ended from the sa m e sourc e I t w a s b eli ef .

1

in thi s tra dition that m ay h av e led the Pala kings to

pra cti se H i n du rit es a nd cu stom s .

T he Pala king s w er e gr a dua lly e nt erta i ning gr ea t e r

r esp e ct for the Brahma n as a nd the Br ahm a nic r eligio n .

I n the in scription on the G a rud a st a mbh a ( pilla r ) w e -

“
ha v e : Shu r apala w as like I ndra hims elf and w as a ,

fa vourit e of th e peopl e K ed ara M i shra w as his ad

vi ser a nd prim e minist er H e w as a n orthodox V edic .

Brahma na the great gra ndso n of the fir st Pre mi er of

,
-

th e Pal a H ou se .

Som e coin s with the n a m e of V ig r ahapala hav e b een

found T h ese a r e like the coin s of the fir e worshipping
.
-

Sass a nia n roy a l fa mily of Pe rsia T he a lta r of fi r e .

wor ship of the Sassa nia ns a nd the effig ies of the sa cri
ficial pri est and of A dhva ryu ( pri est profici ent in the
,

Yajurv eda ) o n its e ith er side l ea d u s to susp ect tha t

Vigr ahapala a l ias Shu r apala w a s a fir e worshipp e r ie
, ,
-

, . .

followe d the V edic practic es .

K edar a s so n G u r av a M i shra the prim e minist er of

’

, ,

N ar aya napala se t up the pill a r O f G a ruda the bird

, ,

v ehicl e of V i snu We l ea rn from a stan z a in a copp er

.

pl a t e gra nt ed by N ar aya napala that the Pashu pata ,

r e ligion ( ie t he vi ew that inculcat ed the wo r ship of

. .

L ik e the po rary Gu rj ara Pratihara E m peror s of K anau j ,

1 co ntem -

th e Pal as of E astern I ndia m u st be ethno l ogicall y traced to T ar tar

or M ongo l (Saka, K u shan, H u n) factor s in I ndian po pu l ation . See
”
th e sectio n on Tartarisation of A ryanised Drav idians in Chinese
R el igion thr ough H indu E y es .
1 68 T H E FO L K E L E MEN T I N H I N DU C U L T UR E
-

Pashu pat i ie Shiv a) , . .

1
a lso obta in ed unoppos e d in the

country a bou t this tim e .

) E
“
( T his piec e of l a nd is set ap a rt by mp eror

N ar aya napala aft e r h aving e st abli sh ed the t empl e of

,

Saha sr ayata na for m eeting th e exp ens es of du ly wor

,

shipping Shiva Bha ttarak a who has b een i nsta lled ,

th ere of offering sa crifice s a nd obla tions of ric e milk

, ,

a nd suga r boiled tog eth er to him and of giving

, , ,

a w a y food to the poor a nd th e n eedy in hi s honour ;

for supplyi ng b ed s sea t s food a nd medicin es to the body

, ,

of the pri ests of Pashu pat i a nd fo r the discharge of the .

m enia l work that th ey m ay r equir e ; a nd a l so for the

d u e ma i nt en anc e a ccording to the allotm ent d evis ed by
,
’
him self of those p erson s who follow the grantor s
,
”
fa ith .

F rom this inscription on the copp er plat e w e get an -

id ea of the deep root that Sha iv a ism ha d struck in G a uda .

A lthough a sta unch Buddhist him self yet N ar ayanapala ,

e ndow ed l a nds for the s ervic e of Shiv a T he O bj ects .

of the endowm ent ar e clea rly set forth— the du e worship ,

etc of S hiva Bha ttarak a th e supply of b eds etc to the

.
, , , .
,

pri est s of Pashu pa t i and the d u e m a int en a nce o f tho se

,

oth e r p erson s who were o f the gra ntor s ( E mperor s) ’ ’

fa ith T his shows unmistaka bly tha t N ar ayanapala

.

founded t empl es of Shiva for promulgating the Pashu pata

vi ew while he m a d e a rra ngem e nts for the gra tification
,

of his subj e cts of othe r creeds as we ll T hu s while ar .

,

ra ngement s were m a d e fo r the worship o f Shiva Bhat

t araka in th ese t empl es provi sion w as m ade a t the sam e ,

tim e for supplying b eds etc to the Buddhists as w ell as , .

,

to the pri ests of Pa shu pati; and tha t th ese might not ,

ha v e occasion for qua rrelling with o ne a noth er he a lso ,

defin e d th eir resp ectiv e rights a nd sh ares .

1
A bro nz e im age of Par v ati, the wife of Shiv a, was set u pin the
fifty fou rth year of this reign
-
.
1 70 T H E F O L K EL E ME N T I N H I N D U C U L T U R E
-

S E CTI O N I I I . E ST A BL I SH M E N T O F S H A I VA I SM
— IN

B E N G AL ( E L E V EN TH C E N TUR Y ) .

I t was b efore the tim e of the Pala dyna sty tha t

Shaiv a ism had S truck root s in B engal B ut it w as .

unde r this dyna sty tha t the predomina nt voice of the

B rahm ana mini ste rs enh a nc ed its influenc e and es
ta b l ished H indui sm ov e r B uddhi s m More esp e cially
.

during the re ign of N ar ayanapala Shaiv aism ga in ed an

e xt en siv e hold upon the minds of the peopl e Buddhi sm .

w as b e ing driv e n out of B e nga l a nd wha t r e ma in ed of

,

it w a s so simply in n a m e the substance b ecoming ,

gra dua lly ide ntified with Shaiv aism I n the copper pla te .
-

injunction issue d by him N ar aya napala ord ere d that

,

the C h at as ( thi ev es ) a nd Bhatas ( lit pa n egyri sts h enc e

.
,

ch ea ts ) S hould b e prev ent ed from ca rrying o n th eir de

predations within the limits of the country a dminist ered
by the pri ests of Pashu pat i I t m ay b e inferred th a t
previous to the issu e of the ord er som e sect or sects
oppressed the Sh a iv as and tha t this oppression w as
,

thus put an end to by roya l proclama tion B eing pro .

tected from opposition a nd i ts course m a d e smooth the ,

Sh aiv a cre ed gra du a lly spr ead ov er the whol e t erritory

of the Pal a kings .

T he ea rli e r kings of the Pala dynasty wer e p erson

a lly s ta u nch Buddhists But in late r tim es kings of this
.

lin e ar e found to ha v e yi eld ed to the Shaiva and t he

V aisnav a cr eeds T he country had in the m ea nwhil e
.

wit nessed a religious revolution to which the rul ers had

to ad apt themselv es .

I n his e dition of the Shuny a Pu r dna Vasu giv es ,

the following pictur e of the r e ligiou s tra n sform ation in

E ast ern I ndi a
A bout t he tim e o f D har m apala ( c the whol e .

of N orth a nd E ast I ndia witnessed the succes sive rise and

 SO CI O R E L I G I O U S L I FE
-
I 71

fa ll of v a rious sects J a ini sm ga in ed th e da y wh ere only

.

a short whil e b efor e the V edic r e ligion ha d sw a y e d the

minds of the p eople I n the sa m e w ay within a v ery

.
,

short tim e H indui sm w a s found to h a v e ris e n out of t h e

,

ash es of J a ini sm a nd to h a v e enli st e d the public s m

y
pathy on its sid e T he pla c e which w a s onc e the sc ene
.

of sa crific es from which sa cred smok e rose up in curls

,

a nd ov e rc ast the h ea v e ns a n d which r esound ed with the

,

r ecit a tions of V edic hymn s w as found a short whil e a fter

,

to ha v e been tra nsform ed into a disma l scene wh er e the ,

sa crific es of an im a l s b efor e the v a riou s t errific im ag e s of

M ahakala worshipp e d by the T a ntric B uddhi sts be

, ,

ca m e the ord er of the da y .

I n a n age of such r el igiou s tr an sition s H i n dui sm b e

,

c a m e ultima t ely esta bli sh ed through the influ e nc e of the

Brahmana mi n i st e r s of the Pala kings T he T a ntric .

form of Buddhi sm w as s imila r to tha t of Sha iv a ism ,

L o k eshw ar a a nd T ara of the form er b eing S imply

sh a dow s of S hiv a a nd D urga of the l a tt e r H enc e it
.

w as easy for T a ntric B uddhi sm to lo se it self in Sha iv a ism

a nd th e con sequ e nc e of thi s w as th at th e S h a iva a nd the

Sh akt a cr eed comm a nd ed the r eligiou s d evotion of the

p eople .

R ajyapala had t a nk s exc av a t ed a nd w ell s sunk a s

bottoml ess as the ocea n a nd had t e mples built the
,

room s of which were as high as a mount a in H e w as

proba bly a nomina l emp e ror ; as about the middl e of
t h e t e nth c entury the north ern di strict s of t he Pal a

E mpir e c a m e und e r K amboj a ( M ongolian ) rul e a nd ,

t he w e st e rn w er e ov erru n by t he G urj a ras of K a n a uj .

I t w a s Mahipala I ( c 9 8 0 1 0 2 6 ) who succ ee d ed in

.
-

est a blishing a Se cond Pala E mpire A rch ae ologica l ev i

.

d ences indicat e th a t t he ba rb aria n K am b ojas a cc epted

the Sh a iva fa ith of t he peopl e a nd tha t M ahip,
ala who ,

w as tol e r a nt of a l l cr eed s had a Br ahm a na Pr emi er

,
.
 172 TH E FO L K E L E ME N T I N H I N D U C U L T U R E
-

At isha , a l ia s born in Vikram apura ( E a st

D ipam k ara ,

B enga l ) w as a n a dept in the Buddhist T a ntric pra ctic es

, ,

a nd ga in ed the titl e of Sh ri jnana H e w a s appoint ed .

the spiritu a l H ea d ( Ach aryya ) of the V ik r a m ashila

Dipam kar a
S hr ijnana an
mona st ery N a yapala ( c 1 0 2 6
. patron of the phy
.

d
sici a n Chak r a an i D att a look ed upon him as almo st
T a ntr ism.
p ,

a god T hrough the efforts of Shr ijnana and the eu

.

cou r a em e nt of N a a ala h e T a ntric vi ew obt a in ed

g y p t ,

now ove r the whol e O f G a uda E v en from fa r o ff .

-

countri es lik e T ib et schola r s c a m e in numbers to V ikr a

m ash i la to obt a in in struction s of the T a ntric school .

H indu s a nd Buddhists w ere a lik e eager to worship

goddess T ara ( divin e e n ergy ) a nd to l ea rn the esot eric
pra ctices Peopl e in those da ys looked upon thi s T ara
.

as a H indu godd e ss Shiv a a nd Sha kti w ere th en

.

'
r ece iving worship throughout the country D ipam kar a s .

v i e w of Buddhi sm ha d much in com m on with the H ind u

T a ntri sm I n fa ct Buddhism linger ed o n only in nam e

.
,

— a ll its in stitution s na
y e v en it s d eiti es h a vi ng b e
, , ,

com e a lr ea dy incorpora t ed with tho se of H indui sm .

U nd er th ese circum st a nc e s it b ec am e a lmo st im

pos sibl e for the people to m ark out the li ne of demar
cation between Buddhi sm a nd Sha iv aism T he former .

lost it self in a nd a dded to the d ev elopm ent of the

latt er . E v e n for the propitiation of Buddh a gr a nt s of ,

la nd were mad e to Brahm a n as Mahipala w as a Bud .

dhist still on the day of the su n s p assag e from L ibra

’

to S corpio or from A ri es to T a urus he perform e d his ,

l
E c ecticism ablution in the G a ng es and ma d e gr a nts of l and to
of M ah i al a
p .

Brahma nas in the hop e a nd b eli ef of thu s securing the

good will of Buddha D uring his reign th er e w as little
-
.

or no di stinction b etween H indus and Buddhists T he .

current of Buddhism w as fast emptying itself into H in

d u ism a nd feeding the strea m of Sha iv a ism which had ,

a bout this tim e establish ed its elf ov er B enga l .

1 74 T H E FO L K E L E ME N T I N H I N D U C U L T U R E
-

I t is clea r th at Buddhi sm w as gra du a lly p a ssing into

Sha iv a ism .

Shaiv aism b ec a m e w ell esta blish ed in R am av ati a nd

G auda the ca pita l citi es , a nd thi s l ed to the gen era l
,

a doption of i ts pra ctic es throughout the country In .

the simil es appli ed to the Pal a kings t he influ e nc e of ,

S haiv a ism is cl ea rly m a rk ed I n the copp er pl ate .

-

gra nt ed by Ma danapala ( c I I 1 0 ) w e find the following .

lin e
O f Vigr ahapala w as b egotten Mahipala as gloriou s ,

as C h a ndra shek ha r a Shiv a

1 -
.

T hus Sha iv a ism found its w ay ev en into the inscr ip

tion s of professe dly Buddhist rul e rs T h e Pal a E m .

p we re Buddhi st s while th eir wives b ec a m e attached

er o r s ,

to H induism F rom the a bov e m ention ed copp er pla t e

.
- -

w e l ea rn th a t Q u ee n Chitra m a t ik a ha d the M a habhar ata

recited to her by a ce rta in B r ahma n a n a m e d Va teshw ara
S w am in and as r e mun e r ation gra nt e d him a pi ece of
,

la nd in the n a m e of Buddha Bha ttarak a of divin e attr i

but es E v en in the roya l z e na n a H indu custom s w ere
.

b eing pra cti sed a s r eligiou sly as in a strict H indu fa mily .

A nd w e ha v e see n b esid es tha t the di ffere nce b etween

, ,

H induism a nd B uddhi sm had a lrea dy di ed out F rom .

’
th ese fa ct s w e m a y ea sily infer the tr end of the peopl e s
2
socio r eligiou s
-
life I t w a s this : Shaiv a ism had ov er
.

3
grown Buddhi sm ; or the latt er had b ecom e identified ,

with the form e r .

1 “
L ik e a seco nd C handra shekh ara Sh iva, h e had the glorious
-

M ahipal a for his so n, wh ose fam e was m o r e fragr ant th an w ater m ixed
with sandal wood powd er , a nd w h ose gl o ries wer e
”
su ng by th e joyou s
peopl e o v er the w ho l e wor l d .

2
F or the archaeo l o gy o f th e perio d Pal a s f
’

, see B a n erjI s o

“
sectio n o n T he A ll eged E xtinctio n
3
Vide t he of Bu ddhism in
I nd ia in Chinese R el igion thr ough [Hind u E yes .
 C H A PT E R XI I I .

T H E T ANT R I C L OR E OF M E D I E VAL BU D D H I SM .

S E CT I ON I — M AH AY AN I C
. MYTH O LO GY .

I T w as the B uddhists of the Ma h ayana branch that

d e v e lop e d what m ay be ca ll ed T antric Buddhi sm In .

course of time a bra nch shot out from this sect with
the t e n et s of G u hya D h a rm a ( occult religion ) a nd l a t e r
,

on a noth e r branch under the na me of Ma ntra yana .

F rom thi s la st also by and by there spr ang aga in fir st

, ,

K alachak ra and then Vajra yana .

I n the middle of the sev enth century H iu en T hsang ,

-

found the predomin a nc e of T a ntri sm in Buddhi sm .

F o r a long while before thi s the H ina yan a a nd Mah a

y ana sects had been qua rrelling with each oth er T he .

Shr am a nas of the first s ect inve igled aga inst the s econd ,

a nd d enounc e d it cl ea rly as h a ving brought a bout the

ruin of genuine Buddhi sm .

T he Madhyamik a sect of Mah ay anists fir st produced

religiou s unification in the country by being the conn ect
ing link between H induism and B uddhism I t w as
.

a ga in this sect th a t indir ectly helped in the do w nfa ll

of Buddhi sm . Fo r the K alachak ra a nd the V ajra yana

sects tha t grew out of it ca us ed Buddhism to ultima t ely
lose its e lf in a Ta ntrism abounding in ceremonia l forms
a nd O bs e rva nc es. T he compiler of S a rva D a r sha na
ha s a s signed Shunyav ada ( the theory of the void ) as
I 7s
 1 76 T H E FO L K E L E ME N T I N H I N D U C U L T U R E
-

The Void
. the kernel of the Madhya mika r eligion The Maha .

yanists h av e dra wn a compl e x picture of th e cr ea tion of

th e U niv e rse by fa ncying a M a h a S huny a (grea t void )
b eyond a nd a bov e the Shunya a nd aga in m a ny oth er ,

things beyo nd it .

T h e Shr am a nas of the Ma h ay an a sect h a ve di scussed

the th eory of creation a ft er the m a nn er of the H indu
Pu r anists .T hey h av e r epla ced t h e forml e ss Ma h es

hwa ra— of the form of the void— b y an A d i ( F irst )

Buddha and with his h elp ha v e thrown O p e n the door
to the r ealm of cr ea tion T h ey h av e tra c ed the visibl e
.

univ er se from thi s Ad i Buddh a a n embodim ent of the ,

“

a b solut e void

The M ahay anist s h a v e ta k en pa in s to establi sh the

a ntiquity of th eir r eligiou s vi ew by tr a cing it through
'
m a ny D hyani B uddh as lik e Bra hma V i snu Mahes , ,

hwa r a a nd the oth er H indu Puranic gods to the Adior ,

“ ”
O rigin al Buddh a who is a ll void the st at e th a t exi st ed
, ,

b efore the univ er se ca me into b eing N ay not content .

,

with this th ey ha v e ev en fa nci ed Sha ktis ( p ersonified

,

en e rgi es a nd wiv es ) to th ese Buddhas a nd hav e thu s

mad e th eir pa nth eon a compl ex o ne A nd to m ak e it .

1
mor e compl ex th ey h a v e crea t ed Bodhis attvas out of
,

those asc etics who h a v e by virtu e of th eir m editation

,

a nd d evotion b ecom e entitl ed to the att a inm ent of the

,

r ea l sta t e of B uddha T hus w e ha v e got three ord ers

.

of diviniti es— the Buddhas the Buddh a Shaktis a nd the ,

Bodhisattva s— which ha v e given div ersity to m ediaev al

Buddhi sm .

We giv e b elow a li st of the sev eral Buddhas Buddha

2
,

Sh akti s and the Bodhi sa ttvas

1
Th e b eing that q
ac u ires B o dhi ( ie th e k nowl edge that
. . confers
“ ”
th e state of Bu ddha, the E nl igh tened ) is so cal l ed , ie
. . a

Bu ddha in posse .

Vide G etty s G ods f N or ther n B u ddhism , pp

2 ’
o . 2 5, 4 2, 1 0 2.
 1 78 T H E F O L K E L E ME N T I N H I N D U C U L T U R E
-

s ect . qu estion abl e if B uddha him self ev e r r ec eived

I t is
t he sa m e a mount of hom ag e at th e ir h a nds F a H i en .

as w ell a s H i u en T hsan sa w m a ny a n im ag e of thi s

g
-

A v alo k iteshw ar a T hi s god with two oth e r s n a m ed

.

Prajn a p ar a mita and Ma nju shr i ex ercised undi sput ed

-

swa y from M uttra a nd C entra l I ndi a to B ih a r and .

B engal E v en E mp eror H a rsa him self is known to

.

h a v e o ffer ed pray ers to B odhi sa ttva A v alo k iteshwara .

1

F rom the a ccount of H iu en—T hsang w e l ea rn th at a

la rge number of the im ages of this go d were sta nding
about th e c e l e bra t e d Bodhi tr ee of G a y a T he Buddhists .

of E astern I ndia r e me mb ered thi s god and offered

pray e r s to him and b egged his grac e while taking th eir
seats sitting down to dinn er or going to b ed
,
N ala nd a .

al so a bound ed with im a g es of thi s god I n side t he .

V ih ara h er e e xactly in the centre w as a n im age of hi

, s , ,

of short st atur e holding a lotus flower in full bloom in

,

his h a nd a nd aloft on his h ea d and e n shroud ed by his

, ,

h a ir the figur e of A mit abh a Buddha Peopl e in gen eral

, .

h eld this idol in gr ea t est eem a nd r ev er enc e .

T he loca tion of A mit abha Buddh a on the h ea d of

t he im age of A v a l o k i tesh w a ra re minds t he H indus of and
m ak es th e m hold it to b e the figure of Sham k ar a ( Shiva)
holdi ng o n his hea d t he goddess G a mga .

’ ‘ "
I n S dahana -
m al a Ta ntr a K hasar pa na L o k eshw ara
“
has b een d escrib ed as h a ving a n e ffulgent body like
crores of moon s with long ma tt e d ha ir o n his h ead on
, ,

which lik e the crow n is sea t e d A mit abha

, H e is
, .

d ecora t ed with a ll sorts o f orn a m ent s a nd is lying down ,

o n a so fa pl a c ed a bov e the moo n which i s in it s turn ,

pla c ed on a lotu s r epres enting the un iv erse H e has a .

1
See Waddell s ’
I ndia n B u ddhist C u l t f
o A va l ok ita a nd his Con
sor t Tar a the Sa viou r ess in the J ou rnal of th e R oyal A siatic So ciety
( L o nd o n ,
TA N TR I C L O R E O F ME D I E V A L BU DD H I S M 1 79

smiling fa ce a nd is twic e e ight y ea rs old H is right P r ph . a a er

h a nd is ln the posture of pronouncing b en ediction a nd mai ,“ n

in the l eft he is holding a lotus with the st a lk H e is P th .

an eo n

jovia l with the u se of n e cta r str ea ming down from his

pal m s B elow him is the glorious Po talak a who dwe lls
.
,

in the A cha lo dara whose fa ce is turn ed upw a rds who

, ,

has a la rge belly a nd is v ery lea n whos e compl exio n ,

is v ery whit e who has a n elonga t ed fa ce who se ey es

, ,

ar e ge ni a l with kindne ss who is intoxicated with the ,

pa ssion of lov e but is v ery ca lm a nd who is d ecora t ed

, ,

with v a riou s orn a m ent s B ehind him is T ar a a nd on .

h is right h and sid e is Su dhanv a K um ara

-
H er e T ara .

is shyam a ( of d a rk compl exion ) holdi ng a lotu s with the ,

st a lk in her left ha nd a nd displa ying the pa lm of her

right a dorn ed with va rious or na m ent s a nd b ending
down a s it w er e unde r the weight of a pa ir of breast s
, ,

re vea ling her blooming youth Su d ha nv a K um ara .

,

a ga in i, s sta nding with fold ed ha nd s H is compl exio n .

is lik e th a t of gold H e is of th e form of K um ara

.

rtik ey a t he god of w a r ) a nd a dorn ed with a l l sort s

( K a ,

of orn a m ent s a nd holding a book und er his left arm pit -

.

O n the w est is Bhr ik u ti a nd on the north H ayagr iv a .

H er e Bhr ik u t i is r epre sent ed a s ha ving four h a nds a nd

thr ee ey es of golde n compl exion and with matt ed h a ir
,

on his h ea d H e is holding a tr idand i ( it should

.

properly b e t r idanda three sta v es r epre se nting the

, ,

control of thought sp eech and a ction t he person who

, ,

c a rri es th ese sta v es b eing c alled tr idand i) and a K aman

d a lu ( wa t e r pot such as the ascetic s ca rry ) in his left
-
,

h a nd a nd in his right is c a rrying a rosa ry of beads

,

showing the a ttitud e of pray e r H ayagr iv a is crim son .

coloure d and of short statur e H e ha s a long b elly .

,

t he bright upturn ed ha ir of his h ead is r eddi sh brown ,

a nd a sn a k e i s r epresenting hi s sacr e d thr ead T he .

complexion of his hear d is mor e reddi sh brown .

12
 1 80 T H E FO L K E L E ME N T I N H I N D U CU L T U R E
-

H e has three ey es a nd all of th em ar e r ed a nd circula r

,

a nd his e y ebrow s a r e contra ct e d as if i n a frown H e is .

cloth ed in a tiger s S kin a nd hold s a club as w eapon ( in

’

his l eft h a nd ) the right h a nd b e ing set in the a ttitud e of

,

pra y er A ll th ese a r e sta nding r eady and prompt to follow

.

”
up the slight est hint s through th e ey es of th e ir m a ster .

F rom the a bov e w e l ea rn tha t K hasar pana L ok e

sh w a r a or A v a lo k i teshw a r a is a s effulg ent as t en million
moon s and a midst the locks of matt ed hair o n his h ead
is sea ted the imag e of A mitabh a A v alo k it esh wa r a is
.

seat e d in the p a rticul a r po stur e known a s Pa dmasan a

( in which t he st a tu es of Buddha ar e inv a ri a bly r e r e

p
sent e d
) an d is about S ixt een y ea rs old C lose by him .

Su dha nv a K um ara is St a nding with fold ed ha nds He .

has a gold e n compl exio n and a la rg e b elly O n the .

right ha nd sid e is the goddess T ara in the full bloom of

-

youth She is crim son coloured a n d is holding a blu e

.

lotu s in her l eft ha nd O n the w est in the standing .

posture is Bhr iku ti of thr ee eye s a nd four hands and

with a profu sion of ma tt ed ha ir on his h ea d H e is .

holding a tr idanda and a kam anda lu in his ha nds A nd .

crim son coloured H a yagr iv a of a long b e lly a nd three

-

e y es cl ad in a ~
’

,
tiger s skin a nd wea ring a sn a k e as his
sa cr ed thread is st a nding on t he north
, .

F rom th ese d escriptions w e g et a glimp se into the

T a ntric p a nth eon of Buddhi sm T ara Bhr ik u t i H ay a
.
, ,

griv a a nd the lik e seem to b e the courti ers of A v a lo k ite

I n the tr eati se known a s Scia ha na m ala Tantr a
’ A
sh w a r a .
-

deta il ed a ccount s a r e to b e found of t he A rya A v a lo kite

sh w a r a a nd t h e K hasar p a na L o k esh w ar a T h ese ar e .

but two n a m es of o ne and the sa m e deity T he Ma ha 1L

.

y ana sect us ed to wor ship a ll th ese gods .

1
A nd so m e h av e cl ear l y appl ied th e nam e K hasar pana A v al o -

Das s I ndia n P u ndits in the L a nd

’
k itesh wara —
f Snow p
o
,
. 1 8 .
1 82 T H E FO L K E L E ME N T I N H I N D U C U L T U R E
-

club in his ha nd and b edeck ed with j ewe ls T o his south .

a nd north a r e st a nding C h a n dra prab ha a nd S urya -

r a bha r esp ectiv ely I h st is V ro cha na in the

ai
p n t e ea . ,

w est R atn a sa m bha v a in the north A mit abh a a nd in

-

, ,

the south A m o hasi dd hi A n d in the south east a nd

g
-

the thr ee oth e r corn e r s a r e L och a n a Mam a k i Pand a r a , ,

”
a nd T ar a .

Buddhi st s wor shipp ed Ma nju shr i of this d escription

a nd a tt end ed by a ll th ese Buddhi st idol s M anju shr i .

of y ellow compl exion a nd sea t ed on the thron e ; lovely

Su dhanv a K um ara with a book und e r his ar m pit ;
- -

J a mari of di sfigured fa ce and da rk compl exion a nd ,

V a ir o cha na R am a Sa m b hav a A mitabh a a nd A m ogha

,
-
,

siddhi as well as L och a na Mam aki Panda ra and T ara ;

, , ,

thi s host of Mahayan ic d e iti es w as more or l ess pa ra ll el

to a nd could b e easily assimilat ed with the pr eva iling
, ,

Pur anic gods and godd esse s .

( b) Tdr d .

T he im age of the godd ess T ar a is gen era lly found

on the l eft S id e of tha t of L o k eshw ar a of thr ee ey es and
four hands of whit e colour w ith a profu sion of matt ed
, ,

h a ir on the h ea d a nd s eat ed und er the Bodhi tr ee I n .

m a ny B uddhi st V ihara s th ese images w er e in stall ed .

A lthough the ordin a ry pl ac e of T ara is on t he l eft sid e

of L o k eshw a r a yet in som e pla ce s her image has b een
,

found on his right ha nd s id e O wing to di fferent n am es

-
.

this T ara is foun d to b e divid ed into sev e ra l clas ses

such a s
—N il a Sa ra swa ti T ara A rya T ara J angal i
, ,

T ara V aj ra T ar a e tc
, T he fe m a l e figur e n a m ed
, .

a s N il a S a r aswa t i T ara i s h e ld in d eep r ev er enc e by

t he Y o gachar a se ct of T ib et T he following descr ip .

tion is found of this Saraswa t i in S w ata nt r a Ta ntr a

O n t he western sid e of M eru ( Pa mir ) is the great
"
l a ke of C ho lana wh er e was born N ila Sa raswat i T ara .
1

1
A rchaeol ogical Su r v ey of Mayu r bhanj .
 T A NT R I C L O R E O F M E D I E V AL BU D D H I SM 1 83

T he figur e of T ara w as held in great est eem a mong A y r a T ar a

the Ma h ay ani st s H i nen T hsang saw o ne such ima ge

.
-

in the mon astery of N ala nda wher e worship w a s o ffer ed

,

a nd festiviti e s h e ld with gr ea t pomp H e took c a r e to

.

l ea v e a n a ccount of thi s idol .

T o the north of a figur e of B uddh a— 2 or 3 11 in a ,

Vih ara con struct ed of brick— is a figur e of T ar a Bodhi

,

sa ttva . T hi s figur e is of great h e ight a nd its spiritu a l

app ea r a nc e v e ry striking E v ery fa st da y of t he y ea r
.
-

l a rge o ffe rings ar e ma d e to it T he kings a nd mini sters .

a nd gr ea t p eopl e of t he n eighbouring countri e s O ffer ex

q u isite p erfum e s a nd flow ers holding gem cov e r ed fl ag s

-

a nd c a nopi es ,whilst in strum ent s of m eta l and stone

r eso u nd in turn s mingl ed with t he h a rmony of flut es
,

a nd h a rp s . T h ese r eligious asse mbli es l ast for sev en

da ys
.

A n und er curr e nt of the G a m b hir a festiviti es is

-

found on observation to b e st ea lthily flowing b en eath

the ritu a ls a nd c e r emoni a l s th at w e re obs e rv e d in co n
n ex io n with t h e worship a nd festiv a l of T ar a O n t he .

day of festiv a l t he Buddhi st s would worship a nd m ak e

o fferings to her a nd in thi s kings a nd mini st ers and
,

th e p e opl e g e nera lly took p a rt a lik e V a rious kin ds of.

music a dde d to the gra nd eur of the occasion a nd p eopl e ,

from the n e ighbouring countri es a tt end ed th e pla c es in

th e ir t e n s a nd thousa nds a nd thu s the current of festi
,

vi t ies roll e d on for sev e n con secutiv e d a y s —ju st the

numb e r that the G am b hir a festiva l cqv er s I t will thus .

b e see n th a t in cour se o f tim e thi s A ry a T ara fe stiva l

p a ss e d on into the Shaiva G a m b hir a .

J a nga li T ara is simila r to A r ya T ara T he epi J m g .

- a al i Tm
”
th et J a ngali (lit relating to a forest ) is du e to the
“
.

fa ct tha t the Shr am anas of the Mah ayan a sect wor

shipp ed thi s godd ess with two or four h a nd s in t he
wild erness H er description is to b e found in the follow
.
 1 84 T H E FO L K E L E M E N T I N H I N D U C UL T U R E
-

ing instruction for co nt emplation quot ed from the Bud

dhist T a ntric treatise d hana m ala:
,
‘

She has to b e cont e mplated a s of white colour and

two or four ha nds a nd as b eing all white with m atted ,

ha ir on her h ea d as crown She is cla d in white a dorned

. ,

with white orn a ments a nd white sn akes a nd sea t ed on

the couch of truth O f the four h a nds the principal
.

two a r e engaged in playing on a lyre ; of the other

two the left is holding a whit e snake and the right is
set in the M udra a ttitud e ay a ( hop e a nd r e
( ) of A bh
a ssur a nc e
)
. S he is encircled by a h a lo r es embling the
”
glow of the moon .

j
a ra Tara. V aj ra T ara w as worshipped by the Mah ayanists .

I t is this godd e ss who in som e pa rts of I ndia has come

to b e known as C ha ndi I n d hana Sam u chchaya a
.
,

treati se on Buddhist T a ntri sm the following d escription

,

is found
“
She has to b e cont emplated as s ea t ed firm on a
moon as throne fixed on a lotus representing the universe ,

in the centre of the circl e of the Matr ikas ( lit mothers .

,

s ixte en goddesses such as Pa dm a G a uri She has

, ,

e ight h a nds and four fa c e s of white dark y ellow a nd red , ,

colours and al l turn ed a little to the left and furnished ,

with three eyes She is decora ted with a ll sort s of orn a

.

m ent s T he glow of her complexion is like th a t of gold

.

a nd she has a m aj estic a pp ea r a nce blooming with the

signs of m a idenhood T he ha lo of her p erson is blood

.

r ed a nd four Buddha s a r e set on her crown

, C los e by .

h er is a couch of the thund er bolt I n thr ee of her right

-
.

ha nds ar e a thunder bolt a da rt and a sna k e a nd the

-

, ,

fourth one is set in the a ttitude of confe rring boons .

A nd on the for e fingers of the four left ha nd s ar e a lotus

-

a b ow ,
-

(
a thunder bolt a s a guiding hook a nku sh a a nd
)
a nother a s a noos e .

I n the N epal ese edition of d ha nam al d Ta ntr a the

‘
1 86 T H E FO L K E L E ME N T I N H I N D U CU L T U R E
-

is d e cora ted with a l l sorts of orn a ment s a nd is r eclining

on a sofa ma d e of moon s a nd lotu ses .

I t will now b e cl ea r tha t the B uddhi sts w e r e inv est

ing with form s a ccording to th e ir fa nci es the gods a nd
. ,

godd es ses of T a ntri sm a nd dev ising th eir suita ble form s

,
'

of worship a nd festivities I t w as thi s T a ntri sm that

.

brought a bout the r ap p r ochem ent of the Ma h ay anists

with the Pu r anists whose feminin e diviniti es were
,

a n a logu es or duplic a t es of th es e T ar as .

S EC T I O N I I I .
— D R A MA AN D T A N TR I SM .

F rom the tim e of down to th a t of H iu en

Fa H i en
T hsa ng the re w as a st ea dy spr ea d of the T a ntric influ
,

e nc e a mong t h e follow e r s of Buddhism I n cour se of .

tim e th e re d eve lop ed out of Ma h ayani sm the Ma ntra

y an a a nd the V ajr ayana sect s T he dra m a tic works of .

the p eriod t estify to the T a ntric influ enc e .

T he dr a ma n dnana a compo sed during the r eign

’
,

of E mperor H a rsa (seventh century ) indica t es that ,

T a ntrism had b ecom e w ell est ablish ed in upp er I ndia .

u tav aha na w a s a Buddhi st whil e his con sort Mal

J im

yav a ti w as a n id ea l Sha iv a She w orshipp ed G auri of

.

a ll attribut es . O n o n e occ a sion J im u tav ahana lost his

life but w as r estored to it through the grac e o f Shiva and
,

D urga ( G a uri) A t this tim e H iu en T hsa ng ( 6 2 9 45)

.
- -

notic ed exten sive worship a nd festiviti es h eld in hono ur

of gods lik e A v a lo k iteshw ar a who how ev er looked , , ,

lik e Shiva in appea ra nc e a nd a l so of goddess es like

,

T ar a and Aryya T ara looking lik e G a uri A fte r this . ,

a bout the middl e of the eighth c entury L alitaditya ,

d efeated Y asho v ar m a n K ing of K ana uj a nd took with

, ,

him to K a shmir the r enown ed po et Bha v abhuti I t was .

thi s po et who w as the a uthor of the Sa nskrit drama

M al ati M ddhav a in which w e find cl ea r proofs of the
-
,
 T A N TR I C L O R E O F ME D I E V A L B U D D H I SM 1 87

sway which T a ntri sm exerci se d about th a t tim e ov er

the p eopl e .

T h e plot of M al ati M adhav a st a rts with the spring M al ti

-
a
M dh
festiva l oth erwis e known as the M ad a no tsav a ( C upid s ( ’

c
.
a av a

festiva l ) O n o ne such occasion the schola r M adhav a sa w

.

the m ini st e r s da ught er M al a t i p assing by o n the b a ck of

'

a n e l eph a nt H er ey es a lso fell on him a nd as luck would

.
,

ha ve it th ey lov ed ea ch oth e r a t first sight T h ey w er e

, .
,

how ev er v e ry di ffer ently S ituat ed a nd M adhav a who

, ,

could on no a ccount aspire to the h a nds of his b elov ed

, , ,

thr ew him se lf in d espa ir on the m ercy of o ne K am a nda k i ,

who w as a Buddhist nun She ga v e him hop es of a .

'
u n ion with the minist er s girl but could n o t e ffect thi s , .

N ow in gr ea t er d esp a ir M adhav a r esolv e d to t a k e r e

, ,

course to som e T a ntric m ea ns as likely to b e mor e effi

ca ci o u s in se curing M al a ti H a rd by on th e cr em atio n .

ground th er e was a t empl e dedicat ed to the servic e of

the godd ess C h amund a a nd th e r e w a s in h er s ervic e a t ,

this tim e a Bha ira vi( a fem a l e a nchorit e who ha s a ccord ,

ing to the T a ntric sy st em dedicat ed her life to the worship ,

of Bha ira v a a n a m e of Shiva ) n a m ed K apal a K u n

, ,

d a la who wor e a bout her n eck wha t m ay b e ca ll ed a

,

ga rla nd of huma n skulls She appli ed h ers elf to the .

pr a ctic e of T a ntric ritua ls on the cr emation ground with -

r a w fl esh a nd the lik e Bha ira va (masculin e of Bha iravi)

.

Agho r agha nta int end e d to sa crifice a ch ast e m a id en b e

for e t he godd ess and then to sit in m edit a tion on her
corps e A nd with thi s purpo se in vi ew he m ana ged to
.

bring the minist er s girl M ala ti to the plac e of cr ema tion

’

in the r equir ed gui se S om ehow Madhav a ca m e to .

have a n inkling of his mind and succ eed ed in t aking

a w a y t h e life of A ghor a b efor e he could r ea li z e hi
s h e inou s

obj ect H e could not however find out the wh er eabout s

.
, ,

of his la dy love and in the cour se of the search r ea ch ed

-

the V i ndhya hills F ortune smil es upon him now a nd

.
1 88 T H E FO L K E L E ME N T I N H I N D U C U L T U R E
-

h er e he m et a Buddhist nu n pur sui ng the T a ntric syst em .

H er n a m e w as Sau dam ini A nd at l e ngth through her .

m agic powers a nd the spiritua l str ength that she had

ga in ed through ab stra ct cont empla tion he b eca m e unit ed ,

with his M al ati T he influ enc e of T a ntric Buddhism

.

p eep s out through incident s like thi s a nd und er its Sp ell ,

it will a lso b e noticed the comm andm e nt of Buddhi sm ,

as to t he ab st e ntion from killing n a y d ea ling cru elly , ,

with a ny cr ea ture s seem s to ha v e b ecom e a d ea d l ett er

,
.

C h amund a a l so ca m e to b e a n obj e ct of wor ship with

the Buddhi st s of the T a ntric s chool I n the T a ntric .

scriptur es of Buddhi sm a ccount s a r e found of m a ny

Buddhist S ha kti s C h amund a w as a t thi s tim e r egarded

.

as a Buddhi st godd e ss T he following description of

.

her is to b e found in Sar a a d Til a ha ’

“
She ha s to b e cont e mpl at ed as of blood r ed colour -

w ea ring a ga rl a nd of human h ea d s a nd holding in her

ha nds a sp ea r a sword a hum an skull a nd the bon e of
, ,
”
the fore h ea d A s to her ha nds in som e pla c es w e a re
.
,

told she has e ight in oth ers ten a nd in still others, ,

S ixt ee n .

T hu s the d e iti es of H i ndu T a ntric panth eo n w ere

be ing worshippe d by the T a ntri sts of Buddh ism The .

pra ctice of worshipping d e iti es sitting o n a corpse and

t he oth e r T a ntric rit es a r e a kin to the Ma shana dance
“
a nd th e corp se da nc e of the S ha iva G a m b hira The .

c e remoni es of the G a m b hir a festiva l b ea r a mpl e trac es

of the Ta ntric influ enc e o n it T he T ara of Buddhist .

T a ntri sm is S imil a r in ch a r a ct e r to t he K ali a nd T ara

a nd the oth e r S ha kti s of the H indu T a ntr i sm Cha ]L

mund a a lso b elongs to the sa m e c at egory .

1
See N iv edita s K al i the M other , an d A v al o n
’
s pl es
P r inci f
o

Ta ntr a and o ther wo r k s .

 1 90 T H E FO L K E L E ME N T I N H I N D U CU L T U R E
-

fa ithful image of Buddhism a s it pr eva il ed in thi s age .

I t w as thi s religiou s tr end that found expr ession in l a ter

times in the Shu ny a Pu r dna of R am ai I nd eed the .
,

r eligiou s id ea l set forth in thi s work m ay b e said to b e

a slightly modifi ed form of th a t which D i a m ka r a ha d
p
professed a nd inculcat ed .

M editation on Shr ijnana w o r shipped T ar a a nd in all his doings re

T ar a
ce iv ed h is inspir a tion from h er Wh en it w a s a rranged
.

th a t he should go to T ib et with a vi ew to a sc erta in if

,

he Should do thi s a nd to know b efor eh a nd if good or

,

evil w a s lik ely to a ccru e from it he stepp ed into the

,

te mpl e of the godd ess a nd pla cing b efor e the image a

, ,

Su v ar na m a nda l a ( gold en orb ) as a n ec essa ry ingr ed

-

ient of wor ship offer e d pra y er s to her

,
T ar a app ear ed
.

b efor e him in a vi sion with this instruction : G o to

M ukh en the r esort of pilgrim s which is nOt far o ff from
, ,

V ik ra m ashila T her e you will m eet a fem al e m endi

.

c a nt T ell her of your w i sh es a nd she will giv e you

.

prop er a dvice .

A S w as the custom in tho se day s with a h a ndful of ,

cowri es ( conch sh ells small est unit s of curr ency ) A tisba

-

set out for th e t empl e of T ar a a t V i kr am ashila with the

obj ect of con sulting the Buddhist m endica nt H e also .

ca rri ed with him present s for the goddess including ,

a gold en orb . O n his a rriv a l th er e he pl aced th ese ,

a rticl es b efore the idol a nd ga v e th e co w ri es to the

Yogi ni ( fema le d evot ee ) of the t empl e H e th en con .

su lted her a s to t he r esult of h is int e nd e d vi s it to T ib et .

T he fem a l e d evot ee r epli ed th a t it would b e good but ,

she a dd ed th at he w a s to m eet h i s d ea th th e r e .

F rom Vikr a m ashila Shr ijnana pr epa r ed to vi sit Vajra

S a na . Acharyya ( prec eptor ) Janashr i a dvised him to
look for the i nstruction s of a c erta in Yogin i of the
t empl e of Vajra T ara on this point While proceeding .

a ccordingly to the a bov e t empl e he m et with a Yogini

 R AMAI PA N D I T

of r espl end e nt form a nd con sulte d her a l so as to the

con se qu e nc es of his int end ed vis it to T ib et She a l so .

ma d e the sa m e r eply as her sister T h en wh en he .

,

had r ea ch e d t he t empl e of Vajr a T ara h is wo nd e r ,

kn e w no bounds on the Yogin i of thi s plac e aski ng him

for the ha ndful of cowri es which Janashr i ha d a dvised
him to ta k e with him But a gr eat e r surprise w as in
.

stor e for him for he soon ca m e to l earn tha t the Y ogin i

,

h e had encount er ed on h is way w as no oth e r th a n the

godd ess V ajra T ar a h er sel f .

A tisb a took alo ng with him into T ib et N agacho

L o chab ha , Bhu m igar b ha Bhu m isa m gha, Vir yya cha ndr a
,

a nd a few oth e r n a tiv e s of T ib et .

On th e ir w a y th ey wer e e ncount er ed by a troop of

pilgrim s who b elonged to the S ha iva the Va isnav a a nd ,

the K apil a cr e e ds T h ese hir ed a b a nd of eight een

.

robbers to a s sas sina t e A ti sba a nd to plunder his b ag

a nd b a gga ge A t the v ery sight of th em he r ead th eir
.

mind s and utte r ed som e inc a ntation by touching the Th B ddhi t e u s

ground a nd m a king gestur es with his finge rs T hi s 32 232

1
h£ g
g .
6
°

non ~plu ssed the robb e r s a nd ca u sed th em to b e Sp ell ti -

em .

bound I t is r eport ed th a t it w as through the gra ce of

.

T ar a h er self th at A tis ba b e ca m e m ast er of thi s sup e r

2
n atura l pow e r .

O n his a rriv a l in T ib et he p e rform ed his a blution s

,

in a t a nk a nd went through the c e remony of o ffering

wa t e r etc to the ma n es of d ec eased a ncestors N a
, .
, .

ga cho a sked what a ll thi s mea nt a nd he sa id he w as ,

o fferin g wa t e r to th e m an es of the d ecea s ed H e al so .

3

1
Br oth er of A tish a — I ndia n P u ndits in the L a nd o f Snow ,

p 69
. .

2T
he go ddess T ar a is b el iev ed to possess the secret of d etecting
and catching rob b er s b y cer tain char m s — I bi
d , p 69 . . . .

3
A tisha said that he was offer ing water to the Pr etas — I bid , . .

p 72
. .
 1 92 T H E FO L K E L E ME N T I N H I N D U C U L T U R E
-

instructed N agacho in t he wor ship of the god K ha

sa r pana .

Su pernat u ra l F rom this incident in the life of A tisb a w e get a fa ir

” w a s at id
‘

ea of the tr end of Buddhi sm th at obt a in e d l a t e r in the

t ainab l e by

t im e of R am ai Pa ndl t We l earn furth er that to ev ery

0

B uddhist .

{ 313112 23511 of tem

p l e of Buddhist goddesses w a s a tta ched a S hr am ani ,

5 W
1

1 “
or fe m al e d e vot ee a lso obta in a n id ea of the hold
3 33
1 1

312 1 e .

dhist yogi th at the pra ctic e of the Yoga sy st e m th en ha d upo n the

‘

minds of the people from t he sup ern a tura l pow ers a s

cr ib ed to a c erta in di scipl e of A tis b a T hi s m a n while .
,

bidding a di eu to his preceptor took his b ag for a lm s and ,

othe r a rticl es and in o rder tosh ow his m ast ery of

, ,

t he yoga pr a ctices he quickly tra nsform ed himself ,

into a t errible tige r and devoured a corp se th at was

lying clo se by T h en in the twinkling of a n eye he
.
, ,

a ssum e d hi s own form aga in a nd stood b efor e his

pre
c eptor T h ereupon A tisba r em a rked
. N ow you can
pra cti se wha t form of worship you lik e
A l th gh
ou T he sy st em of D h a rm a wor ship inculcat e d by R am ai -

T t i‘
th
an f s s
em selv P a n dit w as b a s ed on
es,
such vi e ws of T a ntri sm but ,

th M h éym nowh ere d id he a cknowl edge th is I n words D l pam

‘
e a r .
'

t f b d
iiipfié i k ara Shr ljna na also d id not regard his w o r shippl ng
A

c c
“h T m “
a nd offe ring obl ation of w a t er to L o k eshw ar a etc
gy t
e a
a nd , .
,
s em .

his ar t of m ak l ng th e robber sp ell bound as T a ntr l c -

,

a ffa ir s ; for o n o ne occ a sion A ti sba obs erv ed b efor e

“
G yatso n : Pr a ctising t he T a ntric sy st em is not pro
d u ct iv e of good to Buddhi st s no r is it prop er for th em ,

S E CT I O N I I .
— H B UDD H I SM
I NDU E L E ME N T S IN R AM AI
’
S .

T he wor ship of T riratna murti w as in vogu e in -

B enga l when R amai Pa ndit prea ch e d his D h arma

wor ship T he T rimurti ( thr ee figur es ) consi sted
.

“
Atisb a sai
d: I t was go od fo r a B u d dh ist pr iest to ha v e
1 not

l ear nt a Tantr ic char m fro m a her etic

”
— I ndia n P u ndits in the
.

L a nd f Snow p
o ,
.
70 .
1 94 T H E FO L K E L E ME N T I N H I N D U C U L T U R E
-

a nd , o ne a fter a noth er a ll the other de iti es a nd th en

, ,

he has provid ed for th eir worship with th a t of D h a rm a .

R am ai has introduced H indu d e iti es a long with the

M ahayani st T r ira tna m u r ti a nd the Shunya T hus he .

s a ys
Bow to the all pow erful Mast er who is N iranjana
-
,
”

( lit
.
, )
spotl e ss h e nc e p e rfe ct a nd forml ess .

By a b ea utiful proc ess of evolution H e m anifest ed ,

H im self in thr ee form s which though di ffer ent are but , , ,

o ne and the sa m e .

F rom a ch ange in the I mmut a bl e spra ng Dharm a

o f whit e form
( T hus
.
) D h a rm a of white complexion

a s sum e d a figure .

’
N a w is the symbol of the worshipful N iranjana ,

A w of the wor shipful R a mbh a ( Sh akti )

’
Saw of
‘ ’ ‘
,

V i snu a nd Ma w of Mah ad ev a
’
.
,

Ma w a nd A w combin ed m ea ns the union of

‘ ’ ‘ ’

S hiva a nd Sh a kti— which d estroy s fears which is with ,

out a b eginning a nd is the m ast er of T im e Cl early .

b eyond forms and cha nges is t he Shunya whom the ,

I mmort a l s a dor e .

D eiti es of the H indu pa nth eon a r e thu s mixed up

with those of the Buddhi st in t he Shu nya Pu r dna .

R am ai s T rimurti is a t once Ma hayanic and Puranic

’
.

“
T he mystic syll abl e Om of the V edi sts w as al so
a dopt ed by the m edim v a l Buddhi st m innesinger s .

R am ai has sung T he mo st h einou s sin s of the hous e

hold fly a wa y from as fa r as the sound of O m of
D ha rma r ea ch es ( ie t he utt ering of Om
. . destroys “

all sins ) .

N ot only O m
“
but ev en the G aya tri ( a short but
,

s ignifica nt hymn to t he S u n r epr esenting the Cr eator ,

which the Brahmana r ep ea ts sil ently thric e a day) of

H indui sm w as gr adua lly a dopt ed by Buddhism a nd the ,

following G ayatr i of D ha rma was composed

 R AM AI PA N D I T

O m : L et us m e dit at e on th e S iddhad ev a ( the

p erfe ct G o d ) Whose r eligion is p erfect ( S iddhadha r m a )
, ,

Who is Bhar gad ev a ( the repository of a l l light and

glory ) Who is worshipful a nd upon Whom the mind
,

sho u ld b e fix ed th at H e m a
y b e pl ea s ed to dir ect our
,

und erst a nding tow a rd s the S iddhadhar m a .

S ECTI O N I I I .
-
T H E W O R K O F R AMAI AS PR E A CH E R
( T WE L FTH C E N T UR Y
R am ai i ntroduce d the pa rticula r form of worship O f R a ai t v l m ra e s

;n
th
H e prea ch ed 11 5
e
D h a rm a known as D h a rm a s G aj a n
’
.

to a ll pe opl e without di stinction of c a st e or creed and D h , ,

ar m a

a s t he Buddhi st Bhi k su s of yor e ha d don e he tra v ell ed ,

from pla c e to pla c e for the propaga tion of his r eligion .

T hu s it is s a id
T h en w ith the obj ect of est ablishing ( the r eligion R a ai i iti
,
m n
1" f
a rm a throughout th e sea girt ea rth R amai t ra 31 2 52
6 °
of
) D h 3 -

v e l l ed in v a riou s dir ections ( H e d ecl a r ed tha t

) N ir an .

j a na ( ie D h a rma ) w as equa lly pl eased with the wor ship

. .

o ffe red by p eopl e of a ll c ast es and thus he tri ed to es ,

ta b l ish t h e r eligion of D h a rm a a mong the thirty s i x -

”
c ast es .

F o r the propag a tion of the wor ship of D h a rm a R am ai B ddh p d ,

u a- a s
11 d b y
333 5
1
introduce d the D h a rm a p a da or D ha rma p aduka ( foot 12 -

,
-

print s or sa nda l s of D ha rm a a lso ca ll ed Buddha pa da ) ,

-
,

in th e pla c e of h is ima ge a nd e njoin ed th at worship ,

should b e o ffe re d to it T hus he sa y s in the course .

of his o w n a ccount in his S hu nya P u r ana s

I hav e introduced the footprints glo riou s as the
“
,

lotus fo r which r ea son N ir anjana has t a ken o ffenc e

,

with m e .

r o cess o f m aki the D harm a pad uk a is b e fou nd in

1
T he p ng -
to

th e MS . treatise k no wn as D ha r m a pujd paddha ti,

- - referr ed to se eral v
tim es.Ther e it is said that the pictu r e o f a qu ad r ilateral for t
with fou r gates sho u ld b e d ra wn w ith panchagu nd i ( fiv e po w ders ,
)
I 3
 1 96 T H E FO L K E L E ME N T I N H I N D U C U L T U R E
-

’
T he mantras ( inca nta tion s) of R amai s Shu ny a
P u r dna do not rea lly form the d eta ils of t he worship
of D harma T hey we re simply sung by th e Dha rma
.

S a nny asis at t he conclusion of e v e ry function m aking up

t h e worship T he D ha r m a p j p
’ ’
. u d a a a ha ti by R am ai
- -

is quit e a di ffere nt trea ti se T he worship of D ha rm a

.

w as prop a gat e d in B enga l by R am ai in a ccorda nc e with

t he syst em la id down in thi s work T he songs that .

wer e sung during the worship were ba sed on Shu nya

Pu r dna .

L et u s now exa min e the proc ess by which R amai

evolv ed his story of cr eation fro m the S hunya and ln
t r o du ced th e Mant r a yana view rega rding the Buddhist
de iti es .

T he followi ng ar e the sev era l ch apters of R am al s

S hu ny a P u r dna
( 1 ) Begi nning of creation ; ( 2 ) D eluge ; ( 3 ) T ik a
pava n a or purifying with a ma rk ; ( 4) Plucking of
,

flower s ; 5) Worship of Dha rma by H a ri sh chandra ; -

( ) nsp ection of the room ; ( 7 ) I nspection of the room

6 I
by Dana pat i( ma st er of gift s) ( 8 ) O p ening of the door
( ) urifying with the urin e of the cow ; ( 1 0 ) Putting
9 P
the sa cr e d m a rk ; ( 1 1 ) Ya m a purana or the l eg end of
-

Ya ma the lord of death ; ( 1 2 ) C onv ersation with the

,

m essenger of Ya m a ; ( I 3 ) C onv ersation with the lord

of dea th ; ( 1 4 ) T he Va itara ni ( the riv er Styx of the
H indus ) ; ( 1 5) T he Pl ac e of D h a rma ; ( 1 6) Adhiv asa
( c er emony introducing a festiv a l or holy function
) ( )
17

inside which v asu k i, the K ing of Serpents, shoul d be represented

in th e fo r m of a circl e A nd insid e t his circl e a black tor toise
.

shou l d b e d rawn, u po n the b ack of whi ch a p air o f footp nts shoul d

ri

b e pictured with white sand al paste A nd it is this pair that is

-
.

known as D ha r m a padu ka -
Th e m o dern D harm a p
. and its regard -

this pro cess a s th e L au seni system o f D har m a wo rship I n Bhotan -

.

and a dj acent cou ntr i

es thi spai r of foo t ri
p nts is al so k n own as D harm a
pada as well as Dh ar m a padu k a
-
.
 1 98 TH E FO L K E L E ME N T I N H I N D U CUL T U R E
-

birth ( 2 0 ) from the huge body of t he G r eat V oid

re -
.

T h en from H is exha la tion w as born the bird U llu kai

on the ba ck of which the D ha rm a N ira nja na t ook
h is s eat 1 .

T h er eaft er the goo se w as b egott en of the U ll u ka .

T h en ca m e the tortoi se Whe n he w as found unabl e .

2

“
to b ear D ha rm a upon his ba ck th en the latt er took ,

o ff his sa cr ed thr ea d of gold a nd flung it into the

wa t ers F rom thi s spra ng into be ing the s erp ent
.

V asu k i of thou sand hood s 3

352235 3:
1 “
1
T h e n the filth of the body w a s pl ac ed upon the
1
v a k i d f head of V asu k i a nd thi s w as ultim a tely conv e rt ed into
su an o
,
th E th
e ar
t h e V asu m a ti or earth T h erea ft e r Dh a rma N ira n
, .

”
j a n a with U llu k a i l eft the wa t ers and got up on land
, , ,

a nd in t h e cours e of his tra v els through the world He ,

wiped off the sweat of o ne side of H is body And

G d Adya th e re spra ng into b e ing 5 a ll of a sudd e n the goddess
“

gg tt f
o ess
, ,
1s e o en o A
“
A dy a from th is swea R amal has said th a t she
Dh ar m a .

t ”
b ea rs the n a m es of A dya D urga a nd J aya T hi s , .

D urga or primordia l en e rgy brought into b e ing the god

K am adev a ( the god of lov e ) All thi s time Dh arm a .

N ir a nja na w a s engaged in undivide d religiou s m edita

tion on the ba nks of the V allu k a riv er A s a dvi sed by .

1
I n th e R ig Veda the U llu ka has b een sai
d to be a m essenger

of d eath .

j aga nnatha (Co nqu est J agannatha)

2
I n th e po em Vi
jay a of
“
th is to r toi
se has b een d escr ib ed as o m niscient and as the king
of tortoises, a nd creatio n has b een said to h a v e b egu n fro m the

Shu nya .

3
T his is fou nd in the Cha ndi o f M anik D atta and The Sa l u
l a tion -

Hym ns .

4‘
T his is said in th e Cha ndi o f M anik Datta, The Songs o f
Visaha r i and al so in t he Gam b hira hym ns .

5
T his l egend is t o b e fou nd in the Cha ndi of M anik Datta,
'
in the Gam bhirahym ns, inj aga nnatha Vi /ay a , and al so in The Songs
of Visa ha r i, etc.
 R AMAI PA N D I T

D urga , K am ad ev a
went th ere a nd by virtue of his ,

pow e rs succ ee de d in di sturbing the m edit ation of

,

Dharma who felt a morou sly inclined

, T h e n the la tt e r .

deposite d his s eed on a v essel a nd stepping into the , ,

t emple of Adya with it sa id th at he w a s going to the ,

Va ll u k a to get a pa tr a l ea f for her

( ) S o h e w e nd e d .

his w ay lea ving howe v er his seed which w a s mistaken

, , , ,

for po ison in the house of Adya U pon this the B th f

, . 1r s o

“
goddess thought : I sh a ll make a n end to myse lf by 2
5d
swa llowing the poi son T he thought w as soon M fi hw m a eS

tra nsla t e d into a ction and the result w as tha t she b e ,

ca me quick with child a nd in du e course o n e a fte r , , ,

“
a noth e r c a m e out : V isnu by t earing asund e r the ,

n a v el ( 1 8 “
Brahma by pi ercing the crown of the ,

“
h ea d a nd Shiva in t he n atura l w ay ,

T hu s thr ee gods w er e born of the p er sonifi ed pri Shiv gift d a e

‘
m or di al e n ergy D ha rm a endow ed Shiv a with thr ee 2
.
32
;:gz
gfig,
ey es us ing th ese word s : Shr 1 Dha rma sa id You 33533 1
, ,
‘
6 0

ha v e r e cogni z ed m e a nd thus though form erly blind of ,

both eyes you h a v e now be com e thr ee eyed

,

R am ai has a ga in spok en through the lip s of D ha rm a

N l r a njana of the m a rr iage of Ady a with this Mah esh
wa ra T hus D ha rma sa ys ( to Adya)
.
, .

I say, go o n cr eati
ng th u s .

I n t he next bir th M ahesha will m arr y you .

ysteriou s birt hs o f these thr ee go d s ha v e b een thu s tol d

1
T he m

in the Cha nd io f M anik D atta, in The Songs of Visa har i, and in th e w o rk

of B rah m a H ar id asa. B et ween th e fi r st and the thir d ther e is a sl ight
differ ence in b oth b raced Adya and m ad e h er
of these D har m a em

Sit o n h is knees I n the M SS fr o m O r issa al so th e b ir th sto r y of .

-

th ese th r ee god s has b een sim ilar l y tol d I n so m e H ind u work s, su ch .

as M dr ha nde Madhu k aitab ha

'

y a P u r dna , D ev im ahatmy a cha nd i,

’

”
va dha p rak ar ana
-
( stanz as 8 3 and 8 4 ) and K ashikhanda , Bhagav ati
h as b een b orne B rahm a, V isnu and M ah eshwara
said to h av e .

2
Manik Datta has m ar ried Adya to Shiva Brah m a H ar idasa .
-

has al so repeated th is I n D ha r m a pujd paddha ti al so Shiv a was

.
- -

m arr i
ed to Adya .
20 0 T H E FO L K E L EME N T I N H I N D U CUL T U R E
-

S EC TI O N V .
—F I N AL H I N D UI Z I N G OF ME DI E V AL
B UDDH I SM .

T he chapt er of the Shu nya P u r dna on C reation has

thus b een brought to a close A ll the di ffer ent func .

"
tion s from the b eginning of C r eation ar e r epr esent ed
.
“
,

partly or fully in the mod ern G a m b hir a pa nda l in con ~ -

,

o n with the D h a rm a s G aj a n a nd a l so with the

’
nex i ,

G aj a n of Shiva I n th e D h a rma s G aj a n the m a rriage

.
,

c er emony of Shiva with Adya and the giving of dowry

a r e p erform e d with gr ea t écl a t .

A d et a il ed a ccount of the function s and c er emoni es

composing the Buddhist festiv a l of D h a rm a s G ajan
’

which a ccording to the Sh u ny a P u r dna of R amai fir st

, ,

took pla c e during the rul e of the Pala dyn asty is to b e ,

found in D ha r m a M a ng a l a We find th at ea ch of th ese

.

functions is al so obs erv ed in the Sha iva G am b hira .

R am ai c all ed A dya by the H indu na m e of D urga N ay .

,

he w ent to the ext ent of d ecorating her with ga rlands

of the j a v a flower ( Chin a rose)— a favourit e with the
H indu Durga— and sacrificing go at s b efor e her H enc e .

it is cl ea r that in the tim e of R am ai the wor ship of the

Buddhist d e iti es w as conv ert ed pra ctica lly i nto th at of
t he H indu Shiv a a nd D urga T his w as don e in the
.

following w ay A t first in D ha rm a s G aj a n Adya sat

.
’

as t he pr e siding d e ity Shiva a nd the oth er gods ar

,

t ending as sp ect ators only T h e n wh en the pr ediction

.
,

of R amai to the effect that Mah esha will ma rry her

( A dy a) in t h e n ext birth c a m e to b e tru e Shiv a ,

r ec eiv ed the wor ship of the G aj an vota ri es with Adya ,

a s wife on his l eft side H e r e must b e sought t he b e

.

( Adya) si
tting o n ghata (a jar o f water sym b ol iz ing the
the

infil ling po wer of Go d in natu r e) with Shiva, K artik eya and V inayaka
( Ganesha) witnessed the dance and listened to the m usic with eternal
happiness .
—M anik G angu l i .
 C H A PT E R X V

M O SL E M
'
PE O PL E S L I FE I N BE N G A L O N T H E E V E O F
I N V ASI O N S .

S ECT I O N I .
-
B R AH MA N I SM E ST A BL I SH E D ( E L E VE NT H
C E N T URY ) .

U N D E R t he long rul e of the Pala kings who ost ensibly , ,

Buddhist wer e r ea lly ecl e ctic in matte rs of fa ith the

, ,

p eopl e of B enga l b eca m e a ccustom ed to the perform

a nc e of both Buddhist a nd H indu rit es T his hybrid .

tr end of socio r eligious life b ecam e so well est ablished

-

th a t Brahm a n as of the orthodox school could not with ,

all th e ir effort s st amp it out to a n a ppr e ci a bl e ext ent

, y .

H enc e th ey thought it mor e exp edi ent to incorporat e

the d eiti es of t he Buddhi st V ihara s e ith er as they
,

wer e or in som e modifi ed form with those of their ,

own r eligion : a nd these borrow ed diviniti es wer e al

low ed t he sa m e ra nk as the d eiti es of the H indu
T antric school T he proc ess did not involv e any
.

dr astic ch a nge F o r the Buddhist festiva ls had adapt ed

.

th em selv es to the form the soci ety of those days had

a ssum ed a nd t he rit es a nd c e r e moni es of t he Mah ay an a

s chool ha d b ecom e gr eatly H indui z ed to suit the social

orga ni sm of the tim e E v en t he littl e vows a nd oh

.

ser v a nces pr a ctise d by te nd er boy s a nd girl s w er e in

k eeping with that tran sformation .

B engal w as then conn ect ed in va riou s ways with

T ib et Chin a a nd the adj a cent countries
, O wing to this
.

20 2
 PE O PL E S L I FE I N BE N GA L
’

1
foreign int ercours e ma ny a god of th e C hin es e the
, ,

Mongol s t he H un s a nd the Burm ese a lso fou nd its w ay

,

into the H indu pa nth eon T he T a ntric d e ities of the .

Buddhist V ih ara s having b een r ecogni z ed by the H indu

T a ntric school t he p eopl e in general b ega n to forget
,

ev en the e xi st e nc e of t he V ih ar as T hu s V isnu S hiva .

, ,

S u r yya T ar a a nd t he other god s a nd godd esses with

, ,

th eir v a riou s festiva ls b eca me firmly esta bli shed in

,

B enga l .

T he d esce n d a nt s of thos e Brahm a n as who ar e b e

liev ed to h a v e s ettled in Bengal from K a n a uj we r e
sprea ding ov e r the cou n try T he V ar m an dyn asty .
,

d esc end e d from som e Punj a bi roy al fa mily who ha d , ,

during the d eclining da y s of the Pala E mpir e in th e

e l ev e nth c e ntury esta blish ed th eir influ enc e in E a st
,

B enga l e ncourag e d V e dic Brahma n as h a iling from

,

N orth W estern I ndia to settl e in th e ir country

-
F rom .

th e titl e V r isa b ha Sham k ara ( Ma had eva ) G au deshw ar a

( L ord of G a uda ) a ppli e d to Shyam ala V a rm a in a
,

copp e r—plat e gra nt ed by him it m ay r eason a bly b e l n ,

fe rr e d th at his hou se w as following the Sha iva cr eed .

U nd er thi s dy nasty the wor ship of V i snu a nd S hiv a

w a s h eld in gr eat e st ee m a nd t he p eopl e bowe d to ,

the Br ahm a nic influ enc e .

Whe n such w as the stat e of the country the S en a dyn I t ll ti ,

ns a a on

a sty d esc end ed from som e S outh I ndi a n settl e r s who ha d a ziéfflxf
y r l

com e in th e wa k e of the T a mil inva d er R ajendra cho la

conqu e red B enga l a nd esta bli sh ed th emselv es
o n th e thron e V ij ay a se n a ( 1 0 60 1 1 0 8 ) d edic at ed a
.
- -

2
t e mpl e in his n e wly found ed capita l V ij ayapura on
-

, ,

1
Vide th e secti
on on
“
A M el ting po t -
of R aces in Chinese
gion thr ough Hindu Ey es
R el i . .

2
T h e site of the cit y a nd th e t em pl e h av e b een id entifi ed b y
the V a r endra R esear ch So ciety at a p l ace ten m iles east of R a m pu r
B oa l ia in R aj shah i .
 20 4 T H E FO L K E L E ME N T I N H I N D U CU L T U R E
-

the G anges, to Ma had ev a und er the n ame

ba nks of the
of Pr adyu m neshw ar a St an z as composed by U m apati
.

and inscrib ed on a ston e pl a t e a tta ched to the templ e -

giv e u s a glimpse into those times V ijay a sen a was a .

-

sta unch d e vot ee of S hiv a a nd w as c alled V r isab ha ,

Sha m kar a G au deshwar a We find from Shehh Sha h

'
hoa ay ei that he did not t ak e even a sip of wat er before
’

o ffe ring his worship to Shiva .

S ECT I O N I l .
— F O L K T R AD I T I O N
-
ABO UT C A ST E S AN D

C R EE DS .

fil
ou p l ing of
s
u im sm .
V ijaya -
succee ded by his aged son V allala
se na w as ,

sen a
(1 109 1 I who I S fa mous in B enga l trad ition as
-

t he found e r of K u l inism — the H indu institution of H er

a ldr
y on which is b as ed the present day hi era rchy of
-
,

socia l gra d e s in E ast e rn I ndi a But the tradition m ay .

b e a s unfound ed as the oth er o ne a bout Adishu ra and

his importation of Brahmana s from K a nauj into B engal .

H e h eld in est e em the S h a iv a T antric vi ew We m ay .

ga th er ma ny a n ecdotes of his life from the Va ll dl aehar

zta of An a nda Bhatta
'

When A nir u ddha Bhatt a he

.
1

c a m e the spiritua l pre ceptor of V a ll ala his fa ith turn ed ,

into the cha nn el of Sha iv aism T he king did not look .

upon the Buddhist s with fa vour henc e th ey also did ,

not like him .

I nternal dis S ociety in G aud a w as p erturb ed ov er a n incident

rela ting to a wom an of the D oma ( v ery low in social
estim a tion ) c ast e
“ Stas
and a s a con sequ enc e of this many
'

, ,

m e mb ers of the higher ca st es ceased to h av e a ny con

n ex io n with V a ll al a A bout this tim e a lso the c ensu s
.

of the Brahm a n a and the oth e r castes is sa id to hav e

1
H e was at fi rst a foll ower of Shaivaism
his fam ily creed ,
. I n his
m atu r e years, h owev er , at the instance o f a T antric Buddh i st nam ed

Sim hagiri, he is b el iev ed to h av e ad opted th e Bu ddh ist v iew .

 20 6 T H E F O L K E L E M E N T I N H I N D U CU L T U R E
-

T he Pitha ( a shrin e 1
w as esp ecia lly in vogu e in G a uda .

conta ining it is sa id a pa rt of the dism emb ere d body of

, ,
'
Shiv a s wife ) of Patal a C h a nd i ( a villa ge in the pr esent
di strict of Ma lda ) took its origin from a pa rt of the body
of Shiva s wife I n P a a m a P a r ana occurs the lin e
’ ’
.
,

Pat al a in Pundr a Var dha na a nd D ev i Pa r a a also

n ,

assign s Pat al a D ev i to Pundr a Var d hana A gama .

‘
V agisha in his Ta ntr a sam
,
has ra nk ed Pundra Var ,

dh a n a a mong the fifty o ne Pithas ; a nd it is Patala -

D ev i that is a ccording to him t he pr esiding deity of

, ,

Patala T his shri ne of Pat al a w as on the banks of

.

the G a ng es to t he south of G a uda

, .

‘
I n Vy iha nnil a Ta ntr a it is sa id that godd ess Pra
cha nda flourish ed in C ha ndipura which is a ccording to , ,

thi s T a ntra o ne of the fifty o ne Pithas T hus it is

,
-
.

“
sa id G odd es s Pr a cha nda also ca ll ed C ha nd i C h anda , ,

v a ti a nd Shiv a reside in C ha ndipura , T his Ch andi

pura w a s a suburb of Va lalla s city and is a t present a ’

village in the di strict of Malda .

Th e M andar a I t is cu stom a ry th a t a Bh a ira v a ( a n a m e of Shiva ,

Bh air av a
)
a lmo st as a corr e l a tiv e of Sh a kti should liv e clo se to a
.

S ha kti in t he Pitha plac e A ccordingly h er e a l so w e.

,

see tha t a S hiv a of th e n a m e of Ma ndara r esid ed in

Pundra Var dha na A bout this tim e th e influ ence of

.

t h e T a ntri st s of t he S h a iv a cum S h akt a cult b eca me ex - -

ceed i ng ly grea t throughout B e nga l A mong the relics .

rec ently un ea rth ed the images of T a ntric deiti es scat

, ,

t e r ed h e re a nd th e r e ov e r the country gr eatly out ,

1
I n Sha htzlf a m gam a Ta ntr a it is said that the wor ship of Tara
'
ob tai
ned u nop posed in G au da A cco rding t o R u dr a Yam a l a (a
.

T antric wo rk ) , V ashistha , acting u pon the a d vice of Bu dd ha, b rought

’

T ar a Dev i fro m C hina zhé Ta ntr a al so T ara D ev i has

‘

In i .

b een said to hav e b een im por ted fr o m a fo r eign co u ntry T ara (in .
_

h er d ifferent for m s as Aryya T ar a, V a j ra Tar a, Banddha D ev i, etc ) .

has b een pointed ou t to be akin to K al i .

 PE O PL E S L I FE I N BE N G A L
’

numb e r a ll oth ers D uring t h e tw elfth c entury the

.

T a ntra s w ere chie fly follow e d in the ma nagem ent

a nd re gul a tion of soci a l a ffa irs The t e mpl e s of C h a ndi
.
,

C h amunda a nd V asu li a r e e v e n now a mply in ev i

d e nce .

I t w as not with the lower c ast e s only th a t T a ntri sm

pre v a il ed so e xt en siv ely the Brahma nas a lso ha d begun
to pay but little h ee d to the old er V e dic rul es a nd in
junctions T his l e d the minist e r H alayu dha thu s to
.

e xpres s h i s r egr e t in h i
s B r ahm a n a sa r v a sw a
( a treatise -

on the whole duty of a Brahmana )

I n thi s d egen e r a t e K a li or I ron Ag e owing t o T h B ah , e r
“ “ m an 3“
th e shortn ess of life und e rst a nding en ergy a nd d e l
,
q ih d, in u s e

V Ot
‘

Il only the study of the Vedas is unde rta k e n th V di d

,
e e c an

by the W estern ers ( ie na tiv es of the w est ern pa rt o f iiltfféfliy

‘ t
. . .

I n dia ) ; a nd the Brahm a n as of the R adh a a nd the V a r e n

d r a country on the oth e r h a nd without studying the
, ,

Veda s apply them selv es to the finding out of the

,

det a il s a nd the functions of sa crifice s a nd othe r rit es

with the h elp of th a t bra nch of the Vedas which is
known as the settl em e nt of r it es and duti es but
‘
,
’

which throws only a sidelight o n the m ea ning of the

Vedas E v e n by this proc ess th ey ca nnot arriv e a t the
.

import of m a ntra s a nd duties l a id down in the Vedas ,

th e knowl e dg e of which a lon e ca n confe r the d es ir e d

r esult a nd the absenc e of the knowledge of which is
,
”
th e r efore sa id to b e ineffica cio u s .

I gnor a nc e le d the Brahm a n a s to r esort to O ppression

to k eep up th e ir form er dignity a nd this led V a llala it
, ,

is s a id to b ani sh a la rg e numb er of th em from his king

,

dom ost en s ibly as H indu mi ssion ari es a mong the n eigh

,

b o u r ing p eopl es e g of N epa l Burm a and O ri ssa

,
. .
, .

S ixty w e r e s ent into Bhotan a nd Magadha a nd B i h t , a n s m en

fifty into U tkala a nd D aranga a nd thirty into the country 333?

,

of S akhi M o r a nga T his is the w ay in which sa y s the

.
,

minstrel the ba nishment w as effected

,
.
20 8 T H E FO L K E L E ME N T I N H I N D U C U L T U R E
-

T his
procedure struck t error to som e extent into the
h ea rt of the Brahma nic community .

S E CT I O N I I I .
— H AL I§Y U D H A TH E S OCI O L O G I ST AN D OTH E R

ME N O F L E T T ER S T WE L FT H C E N T U R Y )
( .

Wh en ge rm s of socia l revolution a nd of int ern a l

t he
dis sension a mong the se v e r a l c ast es w e r e d ev eloping ,

L ak sm a na sen a ( 1 I 2 0 70 ) asc e nd e d the thron e of G auda

- -

which sm ee b ecam e known as L ak sm anav ati The .

”
A r ir aja su dana sham kara ( like Sham
“
epith ets of - -

ka ra or Shiva the de stroy e r of the chi ef of en emi es) and

”
Pa ra m a Va isnav a ( a sta unch d evot ee O f V i snu ) l ead
-

o n e to infe r th at he w as a Sh a iva fir st a nd th en b eca m e

a conv ert to Va i sna vi sm H is COp per pl at e in sc ription s .

-

a r e found to ha v e b een introduc e d by hymns in e ulogy

of Shiva T he gr eat schol a r H alayu dha w as ap

.

“
point ed the G au dendr a dharma gar adhikar i ( O fficer - -

in charge of the religious a ffa irs of the K ing of G auda )

during thi s reign Fo r the settlem ent of al l r eligious
.

controv ersi es of the peopl e of G a uda he compil ed a

treati se n a m ed M atsya Sa hta on the b asis of the Vedas -

the Code of M a nn th e P nr dna s a nd the Ta ntm s

,
T he .

supre m a cy of the T a ntri st s i n the l a nd ha d cau sed oh

ject io nab le pra ctic es to run riot T O ch eck this and .

yet to pr eserv e the spirit of T a ntrism his M atsya ,

t ta w as compos ed H e a l so compil e d t he following

.

works : M znzdm sd S a r oa sw a Va isnav a

’

e ncyclop e dic -

,
’ '

S a r oa sw a S hazv a S a m asw a
,
-

, a nd Pandzt Sa r o aswa
-
.

E a ch of th ese w as int end ed to be a m a nu a l of the

“
whol e duty to cert ain classes a nd for c erta in purposes .

The tw elfth c entury w as ind eed a p e riod of socio re -

lig io u s stock t aking r e int e rpreta tion a nd r e adjustm ent

-
,
- -
,

and witn es sed the b eginnings of a ne w orde r of things

in B engal .
210 TH E FO L K E L E ME NT I N H I N D U C U LT U R E
-

It m ay not be out of plac e to quote a few lines from this

description
“
With white e dific es the city of Mah adeva looks as
gra nd a nd b ea utiful a s the K a ilasa mounta in itself .

T her e is install ed h er e on the b a nks of the G anges an

image of A rdha G au r ishw ar a ( a joint image consist -

ing of a half of the body of Shiva and a hal f of that of

his wife G auri) A huge da m immorta li z ing the name
, .
,

of K ing Vallala interv e nes between this place of Maha

,
”
d eva and the G a nges a lthough not so far away T hen
, .

follows a description of V ij a ya pura the capital of Laks ,

m ana sena -
V ij a yapura conta ins a huge cantonment
. .

L ook here ! you will find ther e on the roofs of houses

small rooms cov ering the st a ir c ases and you will find -

numb e rs of pictur e s engra v ed on the walls The place .

is v ery sacred H er e L aksm ana sena has his palace

.
-
,

consisting of s even a pa rtm ent s T here is a great tank .

also in the hou se The public thoroughfares of the.

capital resound with the j ingling of the a nklets worn by

public wom en The whol e night is kept awak e by the
.

loving conv ersation of the female vot ari es of the god of

1 ”
lov e .

We cannot a scerta in wh eth er Jayadev a compos ed his

‘
G itag ooinda a t G a uda but it is certa in tha t his sweet ,

songs were sung b efore the L ord of G a uda I t is not .

unreason able to guess tha t fas cin ated by the charming ,

music of th es e la ys L aksm a na sena was induced to ,

-

embrace the V a isnav a creed .

U m apat idhar a a lon e knows how to embellish and

a mplify a styl e a nd
Jayadev a alone knows how to
,

keep up the corr ectn ess and purity of diction I n the .

swiftness of style and the collocation of di fficult words

Sharan a is the most skilled Acharyya G ov ardhana .

1
This work earned for the poet the titl e of K aviraja (lit
.

and other h o nou r s from L ak sm ana

k ing of p oets ) -
sena.
 PE O PL E S L I F E I N BE N GAL
’

has no riva l in dila ting upon the s entim ent of pure lov e
as a m a tt er of p e rson a l exp e ri enc e a nd t he po e t D ho i
y
has the p e culiar pow e r O f r eta in ing what ev e r he h ear s
a nd aft er w a rds r eproducing the sa m e v e rb atim .

K ing V allalasen hims elf ha d b een an a uthor He .

‘ ‘
w rot e a asa a m
g a work on la w a nd A dhhntasa a r a
, g ,
.
,

a work on a stronomy T h ese a nd oth e r works of the

.

1
twelfth c e ntury we re all writt en in San skrit a nd not in ,

the v ern a cul a r B enga li T his has be en d escrib ed a s the

.

“
A ugusta n age of Sa nskrit lea rning in B enga l L ak s .

m an a se n a w a s like his grandfath er V ijayasena a mili

-

, ,

t a ry genius a nd a conque ror a nd like his fa ther Va ll ala , , ,

w as a po et a nd a pa tron of lit er atur e L ik e H a r sa .

of the s ev e nth c entury and A kba r the G reat M oghul O f

,

th e sixt ee nth thi s w a rrior a uthor phil anthropist us ed to

,
- -

hold conv er saz ione with schol ars on lit e ra ry a nd r el ig i

’

o u s topic s a nd li sten ed to the lays of G itag ooinda

from the lip s of Jaya dev a a nd his fri end s Par asha r a ,

a nd oth er s H is gen erosity too w a s prov erbi al

.
, , .

I n the tim e of L ak sm a na sen a the rul e of Br ahm anas M d -

o er n
” d ty th " “ ”
w a s esta bli sh e d in B e ngal und er roy a l prot ection e
th t sam e as a

a n d it w as th ey who w ere t he le a d er s of H induism tit t d .

cons u e
S ena
C odes of th e ir composition a nd wa y s of r eligious life
exhibit e d in th e m w er e the force s a t work in orga ni z ing

th e H indu soci ety O f th at day A nd it is th ese cod es .

promulga t ed by the Brahm anas tha t ar e ev en no w

gov e rning the soci a l life of the H indus in B enga l .

2
T h e origins of th e Ca st e sy st em in mod ern B enga l
ha v e to b e sought in t he efforts at soci a l recon stru e
tion in Sena ti m es a nd not in the earlier era s of H indu
rul e .

'
M C hak rav artis writings in ( Cal cu tta
'
1 the
’
Vza e .
,

1
9 0 5,
Vza e th e section on
“
Caste System and M il itary H isto ry in
‘
2 ’

Chinese R eligion thr ough [fi ndn E y es .

*
i4
 212 T H E FO L K E L E ME N T I N H I N D U C U L T U R E
-

I n E ast ern I ndia the tw elfth c entury w as indisput ably

th e epoch of the pow erful S e n a s as the ninth ha d b een
that of the mighty Palas Both th es e epochs wer e .

ma rk ed by strong I mperi a l a dministra tion unde r which

t he a chi ev em e nts of Be ngal ee g eniu s a tt a in ed t he high est
wat erm ark in medicin e v et erin a ry sci enc e ch emistry , , ,

sculptur e a rchitecture bel l es Zettr es po etry a nd gen era l

, ,
-
,

culture .

S E CT I O N l V — S H E K H S H UB H O D A Yf f— A PI CT UR E
. OF

M O R A L D E GE N E R AT I O N .

S tori es ar e not w a nting to prove the incr ea sed fond

n ess of the people of G a uda for luxury on the ev e of
M osl em conqu est . T h e ir mora ls appear to h ave de
t er io r a ted . Shehh Sha hhodayd giv es a picture of de
gen e rat e B engal .

ar l o try . D uri ng t he r eign of L ak sm a na sena a c ert a in Sh ekh -

,

( M oh a mm ed an
) v a li a nt dr e s
, s ed in
“
bl a ck a nd a n xious ,

to k eep his h ead dress in position is represent ed as

-
,
“
ha ving a rriv ed at G a uda O ne day ev en that .
,

Sh ekh whil e w ending his w a y m et with Vidyu tprabha

, ,

e wife of the
( lit
. a s lu strous a s t he lightning fl ash
) th ,

da nc er G a nga S he w a s wearing a tight bodice and

.

r esting a gold pitch er o n her wa ist Seeing her the .

S h ekh sa id
“ ‘
R eturn 0 sinful fr a il wom a n holding an empty
,

pitch er on your wa i st if you wish you r own w eal— r e ,

turn for a mom ent a nd th en you m ay 0 sinful o ne go

, , ,

ba ck to your hom e .
’

H ea ring th es e word s V idyu tpr abha thu s r e ,

flected
Vidyu tprab ha appro a ch ed him a nd sa id L i st en ,
0 for e ign er ! E xpl a i n to m e the r eason why you have
T he S h ekh r epli ed : H ear
‘
a ddr ess e d m e as sinful
’
.

th en with all virtu e the C r eator cr eat ed m an, and with

2 14 T H E FO L K E L E ME N T I N H I N D U CU L T U R E
-

A ft er sons Madhav a sena

L ak sm a na sen a his
- -

K eshav a -
1
sen a and V ishwaru pa
sen a bec ame rulers of -

Benga l in succession ( 1 1 70 1
, Madhav a se na was
- -

a follower of the Sh a iva creed A fter the throne .

w as sn atched from him he went a wa y on pilgrim age ,

with B rahmanas Som e words about him a re to be

.

found in the inscription on the walls of the Y ogeshw ara

t e mple a t K uma un .

K eshav a s en a w as a Sa ura or Su n worshipp er

-
H is -
.

title w as Pa ra ma Saur a Maharajadhir aja G hatuka -

Sham kara G au deshw ara Vikram apu r a in E ast

B enga l was his capit al G a uda m ay th en have passed
.

into the h ands of B akhtiya r F rom the copper .

plat e in scription s it is known that K eshav a and Vish

w aru p a had to fight with t he Moslem s a nd inflicted de

fea t on them on o ne or two occa sion s But the a ctual .

events leading to the fin al overthrow of the H indus in

N orth and W est Bengal ha ve yet to be brought to
light T he general tend ency is to a cc ept the story as
.

give n by the Moslem chronicler in Tabahdt—i—N asir i .

But th a t is pr im a f acie absurd as has b een point ed out

by B a nerji in his recent B dng diar [tihdsa ( H istory of ’

Benga l ) About this tim e howev e r for fear of o p

.
, ,

press ion at the ha nds of Mohammeda n s a large number ,

of high class fa milies of the northern a nd west ern dis

-

tric is of Benga l migrated into Vikr am apu r a H enc e it .

is that these families ar e found to preponderat e in this

p art of the country at the present day .

1
T he chronol ogy o f the Sena kings acce tedp in this wo rk is that
adopted in Banerjis Mem oir
’
ffers from that
and d i

in Sm ith s E ar ty I f istory (Thir d

’
E dition,
 C H A PT E R X V I .

I SL AM I N PO PU L AR H I N D UI SM .

SE CT I O N I — F O R MATI VE F O R CE S
. IN I N D I A N C U L T UR E
H I ST O R Y .

TH E aof H ar sav ar dhana continuing a ll the tra di

ge ,

tions of the V ikram ad itya n ( G upta) R en a i ssa nce

1
,

marks o ne of the first epochs in the ma king of mode rn

H induism— its culture cult a nd lit eratur e , T he Pala .

C hol a p e riod of H indu I mp eri a lism bri efly r efe rr e d

to a s the last phase of I nd epend ent H indu I ndia ca rri es ,

forward a nd a ccelerates the formativ e forces of the age

O f H a rsa a nd thus r epres ent s the second stage i
, n the

history of a great evolution T he advent of I sla m in .

I ndia a s one O f the last wav es of I sl ami z ation that had

,

ov erwh elm ed E urop ean a nd A s ia n huma nity during the

period from 60 0 to 9 0 0 A D clos es the second epoch in . .
,

the forma tion of modern H indu ci v ili z ation and initia t es ,

t he third .

I sl a m w as rega rd ed in I ndia by the peopl e who e n

count e re d it for the first tim e primarily and for a long , ,

p eriod sol ely as a n a li en sy st em of socio religious fa ith

, ,
-

a nd in stitutions T he cha ra ct e r of I sl am as a political

.

power in I ndia as o ne of the rival cl a imant s to the

,

“
1
Vide th e cha ter p on T he Beginning o f H indu C u l tu r e as
Worl d Power (3 0 0 60 0 ) in
- -
Chinese R el igion thr ough [ i
f nd u Ey es

“
With th e estab lishm ent o f t he G u ptas at Patal ipu tr a we enter

m o der n I ndia
216 T H E F O L K E LE ME N T I N H I N D U C U L T U R E
-

revenu es of the land w as a t first only subsidi a ry or at

, ,

a ny r at e not felt as such till consider a bly a ft er it had b e

com e a s ettled fa ct A nd wh en the secula r preten sion s

.

a nd politic a l titl es of the M u ssa lm a n s w ere firmly es

tab l ished in th e con sciou s n ess of the p e ople the H indus ,

p erce iv ed a ll the more t he new idea ls of social life and

thought a nd religious rit es a nd c e r emo ni es with which
the pro se lyti z ing cr ee d of th e c a m e l driv e r of Mecca -

w as associ a t e d .

T he p eopl e of H ind u st han did not invit e I sla m with

wa rm fee lings no r did they a llow it to settle down with
,

out great opposition N orth ern I ndia or Ar yav a r ta

.
,

howe v e r fell a mor e or l ess easy prey to the onrush of

,

the Mo sle m hord es a nd by the middl e of the S ixt eenth

,

c entury the G reat M oghul w as firmly e sta blish ed as the

pa ra mount sov ere ign D ak sinatya or I ndia south of
.

th e V indhya ra ng es w as not how e v er the easy pl a in O f

, , ,

th e N orth a nd did not a llow of a ny smooth sa iling to

,

a conqu e ring a rmy T he south e rn ers pr esent ed th eir

.

bulwa rks aga in st the a li en fa ith and pow er first in

Vi a ya na ara a nd l at e r i n M a h ar astra
j g .

Ar yav a r ta has known of no con sid era bl e patrons of

Saya n ach ary a a nd Madhav ach ary a sinc e the b eginning
-

of the thirt eenth century or of no powerful confederacy,

of the H indus to measure th eir strength with the

M osl em s exc ept in the mixed Sikh M isls We a r e in .

fa ct a t the parting of wa ys— H indu culture a nd civiliz a

tion dev eloping a lo ng two distinct ch a nn els in N orth
er n a nd S outh ern I ndi a sinc e t he b eginning of the

thirt eenth c e ntury T he third stage in the making of

.

modern H indu cult a nd cultur e witn esses t he working

of two sepa ra t e forma tive forc es South ern H induism .

gro ws by indu ction to u se a t e rm of electrica l sci ence

, ,

ie by oppo sing a nd a s the r esult of con sciou s mov e

. .
,

m ents aga in st the a li e n cult a nd culture

, N orth ern .
 218 T H E FO L K E L E ME N T I N H I N D U C U L T U R E
-

mixture wa s not new in the tim e of A kb ar but dated ,

from a long tim e back K hy al which is associated

.
,

with the n a m e of S ulta n H usa in Sha rqin of J a unpur as

its inv entor has b ecom e a n importa nt limb O f H indu
,

music while Dhr u pad has e ngra ft e d its elf on M oham

,
’
m edan mu sic F urth e r
. A kba r s w a s a system atic
,

a nd de lib era t e policy of protection of H indu l ea rning ,

which showed it self in the ge nerous provision s he m ade

for the education of H indu youths in the ir own culture
in the m adr asas a long with M oh a mm eda n boys in the
discussions which he initiat e d in the [hddat K hanah
with the orthodox H indu learn ed m en ; in the transla
tion s of H indu classics a nd scriptur es ; a nd fin ally in

the sta t e pa tron a g e bestow ed on di stingui sh ed H indus

for th eir proficiency in such fine a rts as music a nd
p ainting

S ECTI O N I I .
-
A GG R E SSI V E I SL AM IN E ASTE R N I N DI A .

I ndian E cl ec M ed im v al B enga li works a fford a mpl e evid ence of the

233 33532way in which
32 ,
th e
tra n sition from the neo Buddhism of
ii
l am ite pr es
th e a ge of V ard ha nas Pal as a nd Sen a s into T a ntric
,
re
H induism or S ha iv a cum Sha k ta ism ( i e the tran s . .

form a tio n O f the worship of Ad i Buddha D ha rma T a ra , , ,

N iranja na Shunya the V oid a nd a l l oth er divinities

, , ,

of the latt e r day Maha yanic pa nth eon to that O f the

Adya Durga K a l i Ma ngal a C h a ndi Manasa etc
, , , , ,
.
,

a nd of Shiva Ada ma Maheshw ar a et c ) w as h elp ed

, , , .

forwa rd by the a dv ent of the ne w fa ith of the conquering

Pa th an s and M oghul s We find trac es of I slamiz ation
.

or a daptation to the co ndition s of the I sl a mic world in

both the d e clining Buddhi stic lore as w e ll as the ri sing
H indu literature of the tim e I t w as in fa ct an age of
.
, ,

ra pid assimilation as w e have rema rke d above— give

,

and t ak e of ideas ; a nd e v ery bit of socio r eligious a nd -

 I S L A M I N PO PU L A R H I ND U I SM 219

l itera ry picture of the day b ea rs witn ess to al l the thr ee

fa ctors— I sla m Buddhi sm a nd H induism that ma de up
, ,

the compl e x web of I ndi a n life .

T he D h a rm a G aj an songs a nd hymns int ersp e rse d ,

with M oha mmeda n ideas ar e a clear proof of the fa ct

,

that a ft e r the esta blishm ent of the Moha mm eda n king

doms the follower s of D h a rm a were not a llowe d to offe r
th e ir worship openly T he r easons a lso ar e not fa r to
.

seek F irst the Moha mme da n s were dea d e n e mi es of

.
,

idola try s econdly in the eye of Br ahmanas and H indus

,

gen er a lly the B uddhists ha d sunk down to the ra nk a nd

“
statu s O f untouchable D om as (a v ery low class p eopl e -

who genera lly ea rn their liv elihood by mak ing bask ets
a n d wicke r work-

) they were put to great imp edim ents

a t ev e ry st ep in the perform a nce O f th eir religious se rvic es .

T hirdly th e m ajority of the l a ndholder s of the provinc e

,

we re H indus a nd h enc e for fea r of incurring the dis

, ,

pl easur e o f the Brahma nas th ey could in no w ay en ,

coura ge these Buddhist D ha rm a festiviti es .

Fo r these reasons the D h a rma worshipp ers could

not O ffer their worship to D h a rma in many p a rts of the
country T hey were how eve r equa l to the occasion
.
, , .

I n t he se rious struggl e for e xistence tha t ha d almost

ove rwh elmed them they r esorted to ma ny a trick at
,

onc e to dra w a v eil upon th e ir real creed and a l so to

win ov er the Moh a mmeda n s to th eir side T hu s th e y .

h eld the festivities of D ha rm a by giving them the a ir of

a d eb as e d form of M oh a mm eda nism a nd al so by vilify

ing right and left the gods of the H indu pa nthe on .

N ay th ey e ve n s ucceed ed in h aving it pronounc ed

,

through the lips of the M osle m o ffic e rs ca ll e d K az is

a nd K ho nk ar s th at the pra yers wer e rea lly o ffe red
to K hoda or the Payga m b aras of I sla m a nd w ere ,

full of encomiums of the Moha mmeda ns T he B a da .

nani songs bristle with spite and jea lousy aga in st the
j a
Brahm a n a .
 2 20 T H E FO L K E L E ME N T I N H I N D U C U L T UR E
-

D u ring Moha mmedan suprem acy the re had been a

tim e when the H indus a lso could not Op enly profess the
cr eed of their consci enc e T hen they a l so had to take .

re course to va rious tricks to throw dust in the ey es of

t he K az is T hus they introduced the worship of Satya
.

Pira ( a Moh amme da n

int ) which w as only a p
sa seu ,

d onym for their own N ar ayana or V isnu .

I nde endent T he H indu Z a minda rs ( landlords ) in m a ny pl aces

H in u ch iefs
.

reta in e d or rega in ed virtua l independence during the

M oha mmed a n regim e and could then ge n era lly perform
,

th eir religious cere moni es without being int errupted or

mol ested H ence the G aj a n of Shiva which had al
. ,

rea dy ta ken possession of the H indu mind w as largely ,

1
pa troni z ed by them a nd gra dua lly beca me a more and
more powerful institution .

J ust as the H indus invoke and worship G an esha and

oth er gods and goddesses in connexion with the worship
of a ny pa rticula r god or goddess the Dha rma worship ,

p e rs a lso following suit began to offer worship to

G a n esh a and the oth er H i n du gods or goddes ses in
conn e xion with the worship of Dharma T his was .
,

howeve r only a S cr ee n to hide the servic e of N iran

,
"
j ana identica l wi th the V oid For we find th at al .

though th ey substitute d D urga for A dy a a nd H a ri or ,

V i snu for D harm a yet the ess ence of th eir m edita tion
,

r e vea l ed itself through such phra s es as ha ving n either

”
body nor sound and N ira njana identica l with the “

V oid A ga in in worshipping V isnu th e y w ere not

,

really guilty of s e rving two ma sters at the sam e tim e ,

for t he H indus had a lr ea dy a cc epted Buddha as a n

inca rna tion of V isnu .

Bengal i ( Feb ru ary M ar ch, 1 9 1 5)

F r a uds?
1
I n the m o nthl y -

th er e is an article b y a M oh am m edan writer givi ng a l ist o f sev enty

H ind u chiefs in the sixteenth and sev enteenth centu ries in different
parts o f I nd ia .
 2 22 T H E F O L K E L E MENT I N H I N D U C U L T U R E
-

The L ord himself creat ed his own body —then ,

out of the L ord s body spra ng the god N iranjana

’

T hus the L ord left his forml ess stat e a nd assum ed a

form then aft er a ges ha d elaps ed
“
T he bird Ullu k a ica m e into being from the br eath
or e xh alation .

A ft er cr ea tion w a s thus comm enc ed the L ord created ,

K urm a ( tortoi se) a nd th en the Vasu ki sn ake .

H e tore a su nder t he sa cr ed thr ead of gold and cast

it o ff into the wat ers— a nd up sprang from there the
thousa nd h eaded v asu ki sna ke
-
.

T h ereaft e r he brought into e xistence N ature the ,

b asi s and primary condition of the creation of beings .

“
Whil e tra v elling a bout a drop of p erspiration fell
,

from his body and ga v e birth to the goddess n am ed

Adya ( lit the primit iv e e n e rgy ) D urga and J aya ( the
.
,

fema l e agency in creation ) .

I ntent upon comm itting suicid e Adya dra nk for , ,

poison the seed of Dh arma a nd thus in cours e of time

, ,

b ecam e moth er of three sons na me d Brahma V isnu , , ,

a nd Maheshw ar a .

“
your d esire to die you dra nk hon ey (seed ) for
In
poison a nd thus ga v e birth to Brahma V isnu and Ma
, ,

h esh w ara .

Shiv a ( Ma heshw ar a) sa lut e d L ord D ha rm a by touch

ing his feet .

T h e r e sit togeth er U ll u k a Ady a Shakti ( i e prim , . .

ordia l e n ergy ) and N ir a nja na Shiva sa lut ed the L ord

( D ha rma ) by touching his feet .

R am ai Pandit Mah adev a D a sa and Valar am a Dasa

,

hav e e nt ert a in ed almost the sa m e opinions a bout Dharma

H indu deities a nd Adya T his S hiva of the S hu nya P u r ana is a l so
.

found to h a ve been invit ed to att end t he G aj an or

D h arm a festiv a l in honour of D ha rma .

H a ra ( S hiv a ) ridi ng his bull duly equipped h asten ed

to the G aj an of D harm a .
 I S L A M I N PO PU L A R H I N D U I SM 223

T he G aj a n of D ha rma a s in stitute d by R amai w as

, ,

proba bly a n imita tion of the Buddhi st festiviti es wit

nessed by H i u e n T hsan I h l a tt e r H r
g n t e . a sa a nd ,

K um ara D ev a a pp ea red as I ndra a nd Bra hm a r espec

tiv el
y to s e rv e Buddha S imil a rly in the form er a l so
.
,

w e find t he gods of the H indu pa nth eon prese nt .

Brahm a I ndra the king of t he c el esti als on his ele

, , ,

pha nt n am e d A ir av ata a nd N ar ada a lso on his v ehicl e

, ,

t he D henk i gra c ed the t empl e of D h a rm a

, .

T he sta tus O f S hiv a in the Sh u ny a Pu r dna is w ell

describ ed in the following passage s
Wh en the L ord tra vell ed n ak ed from door to
door begging a lm s and with the n a m e of G o d on his
lips Bha gav a ti Ady a a dvis ed Mah esh a to ta k e to
,

cultiv ation :
“
G row in your fi elds a l l the v a ri eti es of crop s and
grow ba na nas a lso S o tha t w e m ay get a ll the neces
.

”
sa ry thi ngs on th e occa sion of D ha rma worship .

A l so in the D e v a sthana ( or a bod e of god s) as pic

,

t u r ed by R am ai w e h a v e the following
“
With h is feet turn ed upwa rd s a nd h ead turn ed
downwa rds Pashu pa ti ( Shiv a) has struck up a conc ert
,

with his Shinga ( a horn used for blowi ng ) and Da m ar u

( sma ll drum these two b eing t he fa vourite mu sica l instr u
,

m e nt s of Shiva ) H e is pla ying a song on the Shi nga

.

to t h e mu sic of the Dam ar u H e is m edit a ting on .

D h a rm a a nd is pl ayi ng on his ch eeks ( T hi s pa rticula r .

mu sic sounding V o m Vo m is struck up by beating

, ,
’
on e s finge rs aga inst on e s Ch eeks and is sa id to b e v ery
’

,
”
d ea r to Shiva )
F o r th e pl easur e of D h a rm a a l l the god s a r e found
,

to ta ke p a rt in singing a nd d a ncing on this occasion .

F rom t he abov e a ccounts it would app ea r tha t Shiv a

has so long b een introduc ed in the G aj an of D h arm a
m er e ly a s a d a nc er or spectator— he has not yet been
2 24 T H E F O L K E L E ME N T I N H I N D U CU L T U R E
-

a bl e to assert his own influ enc e A nd this picture O f .

S hiv a a nd the oth er gods d a ncing singing and pl aying ,

on music al in strum ents m ay not hav e b een the product

of R amai s own im agin ation Fo r it w as t he establish ed
’
.

custom a mong Buddhi st vota ri es to a muse themselv es

on the occasion of their festival s by app ea ring in the
ma sks of H indu gods a nd godd esses .

T he pictur e of the M oha mm eda n invasion tha t w as

dra wn in the Shu ny a Pu r dna under the title of the
R u sm d ( w r ath) of N ir a nja na a nd th a t w as s a id to ,

h a v e been sung by R amai Pa ndit was not r ea lly his ,

work T hi s i nv asion song w as compos ed at som e l at e r

.
-

p eriod and the n incorporated with the origin a l Shu nya

P u r a na S ongs lik e this a re compo sed in connexion
.

with the Deha ra bh a nga ( lit br ea king down of the .

d ehara or temple ) of the G aj an S uch pictures of .

M oh a mm eda n inv asion ar e a lso found in other Bengali

m a nu script s r ela ting to the worship of D h a rma T he .

following extracts ar e taken from the Shu ny a P u r ana .

D ha rm a assum ed the form of a Y a v ana ( Moha m

m eda n ) with a black capon his hea d a nd with tr ir u chas
( trid ents) in his ha nds H e rod e a b ea utiful horse
.
,

th e sight of which s ent a thrill of t error through the

three world s and a ssum ed th e only n am e of K hoda
( G od
) .

T he forml ess N ir a nja na b e c a m e inca rn ate d as

V esta ( pa ra dise) and happily utt ered the na m e of
D am o da r a .
“
god s un a nimously resolv ed to put on a nd
All the
did r eally put on gla dly ( the) loos e trous ers ( worn by
M oha mm edan s) .

Brahm a b eca m e Moha mm ed V i snu Paygam bara ,

e proph e t ) a nd Sh u la p i ( i e S hiv a ) bec a me Ada m

( t h an , . .

( i e A dam )
. . .

G an esh a becam e G az i ( a M oh a m m ed a n sa i nt)

“
,
226 T H E FO L K E L E MENT I N H I N D U C U L T U R E
-

T he following extra ct is ma d e of this song from

D ha r m a p j paddha tis
u d
- -

N o w th e n o f the con struction of the d eh ar a .

O G o d V i sai m a k e t he v e ss el ( te mpl e ) with

,

ma t erials and do not n egl ect your work .

( F o r
) K ing H a ri s h ch a ndr a will c el ebrat e th e re the
”
worship of D h arm a a nd it is now noon .

T hu s w as V i sai brought to build a t a n auspiciou s

mom ent t he hou se for the worship of D ha rma by H ari sh
chandra A cord eighty cubit s long a nd divided into
.
,

nin e pa rts hooks of gold fea th ers from the t ails of

, ,

p ea cocks looking like pi ec es of C loth Studded with

j ewel s for r oo fing— with a ll th es e a dec ent hou se w as
,

constructed a nd inside it on a long sea t plac ed in front

,

of D ha rma w ere seat ed m a ny gods et c etc , .

, .

“
With such songs the construction of the dehara
w as compl et ed When the p erma n ent deharas ( build
.

ings ) w ere pr ofa nedb y M oha mmedans — in ma ny cases

th ey were ev en pulled down— th ese t empora ry on es
had to b e built for the wor ship of D h a rm a ; a nd with a ,

vi e w to please a nd pa cify the M oha mm ed a n a udi ence at ,

the conclusion of the wor ship w as sung the p a rticular

song na m e d D ehcir d hha ng a ( ie pulling down of
-
. .

t h e d e h ara) in which fa lse a nd unju stifi a bl e attacks

,

were ma de upon t he H i n dus a nd the H indu gods and ,

godd esses we re m a de to e mbra ce I slam .

"
T he “
d ehara bha nga song of D ha r m a pujat ad
- -

dha ti is giv e n b elow

T h e n ( w e com e to the topic ) of D ehara
bha nga .

“
The K ho na k ar a is worshipping with his fac e to
wards the w est .

A A

Som e worship A lla som e A li a nd O th ers Ma mud a ,

sai ( th e sa m e word as Sa in m ea ning m a st er lord ) , , .

T he M i an ( ie a r esp ecta bl e M oh a mm ed an gentl e

. .
 I SLA M I N PO PU L A R H I N D U I SM 227

m an ) kills no living things nor does ea t dea d on es . He

is cooki ng his food ov e r a slow fir e .

“
T he Caste distinction will shortly b e brok en — for
-

behold there s a M oh a mme da n in a H indu fa mily

,
’

K h o da s R a ha m a n ( devot ee ) has called a meeting ( to

’

thi s effe ct ) .

“
T he crow is asking and D h arm a is d eciding wh e re
K hod a w as first born .

“
H e ( ie R ah a m a n ) is spitting on Brahma n as a nd
. .

thus viola ting their caste ( ie conv erting them to MO . .

ham m ed anism ) jajpu ra will ( soon ) be solely devot ed to

.

the se rvice ( ie worship) of H ass a n a nd H uss ain ( gra nd

. .

son s O f M oh a mm ed by hi s d aughte r Fa tima

) .

H e has a hors e n a m e d H a msa raj a ( ie king o f -

. .

ge ese ) a nd very prompt a nd ob edient to orders he put

,

on a turba n and looked like the moon .

“
With arrows a nd quiv er s in han d he set out to kill ,

th e H indu ghosts .

“
Be r eady ye brethr e n Ma mud a sais — ye M u ssal
,

m a n s— (for they ) h av e just st a rted to kill the H indu

ghosts .

T he K honakara s ta rt ed w estward — the M oh a m

m ed a ns enca mped th e mselv es round the gold t empl e .

set a rtisans to pull down the gold fortr ess ;

( )
“
H e

and th e y broke down t h e S ahi ghar a (a p articula r kind

of house) of gold .

T h ey pulled all the gold fortr ess with viol ent force
a nd they brok e it down to pi e c e s .

M e r e ct e d a Mas l d M
( e n ) a nd they j ( oh a mm eda n

t e mple of worship ) in its pla ce and bega n to p e rform

B akr I d (principa l Moha mm ed a n festival) etc with the
-
, .
,

s l a ughter of cows .

I n this w ay are pulle d down the fortresses of s ilv er ,

copp e r and ea rth in the south east a nd north r espec ,

t iv ely .
 T H E FO L K E L E ME NT I N H I N D U CU L T U R E
i

228 -

A fter the ea rth fortress is ra z ed to the ground ar e

-

re cit ed the following lin es

( T hey ) could not pull down Sahigha ra of ea rth and ,

Payga m bara ( ie Proph et an epith et of Moh amm ed )

. .
,

e st ablish ed hims elf about it .

T h ere w er e th e r e throngs of K az is ( M oh a mmedan

“

judges or lea rn ed m en) a nd Mollas ( Moha mmedan

teach ers or pri ests ) a nd a ll of th e m sat down to recit e
the K oran . With thi s the K hoda ( G o d ie the Pay , . .

ga mbara ) w as exc essiv ely pl eased .

“
T hou ar t O K hoda I know sup erior to all oth ers
, , , .

H o w I wish to h ea r the K or an from T hy lip s !

N ir a njana tr a n sform ed to All a will confer bl ess
ings . Ma y the en e mi es of Amin fa ll und e r the wrath
of K utub .

B a da J an ani (jan ani r eally m ea ning procla mation )

or the G r eat Proclama tion .

K ho nak ara is wor shipping with his fa ce towa rds

the w est : upon his two feet i s the e xcava ted trunk of

a tr ee u sed for a n O i l mill a s the re c eptacl e of the seed

-

a nd in hi s ha nds a r e t he blossoms of such pl a nt s as

th e ging er the turm eric et c

,
and with thi s bunch in
, .
,

h is h a nds he is offering the n a maz ( t he pray er of the

Moha mm eda n s) .

A hid in Sahid in K u tu b din a nd Bab u din Moll a

, ,

ask ed H eta ( the present life p ersonifi ed) th er e ( in

h eav en ) for a n a ccount of itse lf a nd se i z ed it firmly by
t h e h ead ( T h en ) H eta of gold colour go es to K hoda
dir ect .

Moth er Ma nga l a C handi started for tha t pl a ce a nd ,

coming th e r e she b eca m e known unde r the n am e of

T hak a r dev i ( th e re ) V i sa da Bibi ( u sed with r efer
e nc e to a Moha mm e da n l a dy ) w as cru shing pungent

Spic es to pulp a nd h ere t h e w hit e body of K hoda was

,

feeling the bitt e rn ess of thi s prepa ration .

2 30 T H E FO L K E L E ME NT I N H I N D U C U L T U R E
-

Ma h ayan a p anth eon unit ed in happy wedlock with

, w as
th e H indu Shiv a T he tra n sform ation w as compl et e
.
.

I n the tr eatise e ntitl e d D ha r m a puj d p

'

a ddha ti r e - -

cov ered from a D ha rma Pa ndit of Burdwa n w e find ,

tha t A dya w as ma rri ed to Shiv a T he repres enta tion .

of this m arri a ge sc ene is univ e rsally a dmitt ed by all

th e Pa ndit s ( p erson s w e ll v e rse d in D h a rm a lite r atur e
a n d th e d eta ils of D ha rm a worship ) a s a n indi sp en sabl e

ite m of D h arma s G aj an T h ere is a lin e— evid ently

’
.

a n int erpol a tion — i n the body of th e book to the effect

that the treatise w as writt e n by R am ai Pa ndit .

M ention is ma de h e r e of al l the v a ri eti es of V ana

foda ( pi ercing the body with a rrows ) such as jihv a ,

b hed a Pa ncha v edana etc ( expla in ed b efor e )

, , . .

“
I n pl a c e of the invoca tion to gods O ffered in the
G aj an w e h av e h er e
,

“
I invok e tha t G o d who is the wi eld er of K hat
tanga ( ie a leg of a b edst ead the n a m e of a weapon )
. .
, ,

who is s eat e d on the neck of a bull whos e sacred thread ,

is m a d e of a liv e sna k e whos e body is da ub ed with

,

a nd h enc e a dored ) by
ash es a nd who i s surround ed
(
the c el esti a ls C om e O L ord R udra ( Shiva) and sit
. , ,

motionless at the place of worship .

T he followi ng is the invoca tion to D urga

I invok e tha t godd ess w ho is the wi eld er of a tri
d ent who is the conferrer of succ ess a nd bl essings who
, ,

is seat ed ( on a lion ) a nd who is d ecorated with va rious

or na m ents whose colour is lik e tha t of bur nt gold a nd
,

who is surrou nd ed (a nd h ence a dore d ) by the c el estials .

C om e O D urga the mi str ess of all a ttribut es a nd sit

, ,

motionless a t the pl a c e of worship .

T hu s w e re R udra a nd D urga invok ed to a tt end the

S c en e of festiviti e s which w e r e h e ld with music song ,

a nd da nc e .

T h en a r e the nuptial c eremoni es consisting first of ,

 I SL A M I N PO PUL A R H I ND U I S M
’

23 1

A d hiv asa ( pr e limin a ry c eremonies of a great festiva l such

a s m a rriag e the inst a ll a tion of a king etc

, a nd s econdly .
,

of the holy wedlock c eremony to b e observ ed , .

"

T his I s don e in the following w ay :

T he wom en m a d e Ady a put on br a ce l ets of conch
she ll s a n d a ne w pi ec e of cloth A ft er the l a di es h av e
.

thu s welcom ed the coupl e a nd observ ed the tra dition al

c e r e moni es not enjoin e d in the Sh astra s but som ehow
or oth er a cc ept e d as inviol abl e by them ( a nd known as
str i ach ara
-

, lit fe ma l e custom ) th e B rahma n as com

.
,

m enced r e citing th e V ed a s .

“
T he pri est a ctu a t e d by a nobl e impul se ti e d to
,

g eth er the corn ers of the brid e s a nd brid egroom 5 C loth es

’

( as a S ign tha t th ey w er e united in holy w edlock ) .

“
S ea ting M a heshw a r a on a gold sea t ( ca ll ed p ata
a nd nic e ly d e cora t ed for th e purpo se
) the la di es join ed ,

togethe r in t a king him round Adya .

( T hen ) a hundred la dies seat ed Sh a kti on a

( simila r ) seat a nd with words of b en ediction on th eir
lips took her se v en tim es round Maheshw ara seat ed or
, ,

st a nding und e r a gold c a nopy .

T hu s w a s c el ebr at ed the m arria ge of Parvat i no w ,

n a m ed Adya with Ma h esha a nd thus w as t he Buddhist

, ,

Adya C ha ndika ma de to sit ( as his con sort ) on the l eft

s id e of S hiv a I t w as about this t im e that a joint
.

image of H a ra G a uri und er the n a m e of V ab hr av i kaya

- -

w as in a ugur a t ed in B eng a l a nd O ris sa a n d b e for e thi s ,

image t he G aj a n festiviti es in honour of Shiv a c a m e to

b e c el ebr a t ed from now H er e S hiv a w as m a d e to sit
.

’
with G auri I n S hiva s G aj a n w e see tha t a ll through
.

t he rou n d of festiviti es S hiv a has Adya on his l eft sid e

a nd ha s invit ed D h a rma N I r a nja na to a tt e nd th e m .

T hus in cour se of tim e D h a rm a N ira nja na ca m e to

b e ou st e d from his usua l pla c e in the G aj a n in fa vour
of S hiva who w a s ma d e to m arry as Parv ati Adya the
, , ,

da ught e r of Adi Buddha .

232 T H E FO L K E L E ME N T I N H I N D U C U L T UR E
-

SE C T I O N V I . A
— PR O PAG T I O N OF S H AI V A -
C UM

SH AK TA I SM .

B esides in the lit era ture of B enga l sinc e the thirteenth

,

a nd fourt ee nth centuri es w e m ee t with a mpl e proofs of

the preva le nce of the worship of S hiva and Sh a kti .

H u ss a in Sh ah ca m e to reali z e th a t the n a tiv e H indu

Princ es wer e the r ea l bulwa rk s of M oh amm edan rule in
I ndi a a nd a llowed th e m to d ev elop th eir str ength till
,

th ey b ecame like so ma n y ind ep end ent chiefs Most of .

the m w ere worshippers o f S h a kti ; a nd con sequently

a bout thi s tim e th e re w ere b e ing est a bli sh ed in town s

a nd ha ml ets t e mpl es of Shiv a K ali a nd D urga and

,

oth e r form s of S hakti with th e n ec essa ry images ; and

v a rious songs a nd hymn s we re sung a nd festivities held
in honour of Shiv a .

T he following legend is given in Chaitanya E hri

g ar/am :

O ne day i nger of songs r ela ting to Shiva came

a S

to b eg a lms a t the t emple of the L ord and bega n to sing ,

these songs by pl ayi ng on a D ar m aru ( a small drum a ,

favourit e mu sica l in strum e nt of S hiva ) a nd d ancing

wildly turning round a nd round H ea ring these songs
, .

re lati ng to his own virtues L ord V ishwam bhara ( Shiva )

,

hims elf a pp ea red th ere with fine ma tt e d locks .

The S hiv a songs of tho se tim es a r e ev e n now sung

in th e G a m b hir as T he Sa nnyasis of Shiva travell ed
.

from ha ml et to ha ml et singing the glori es of the god

a nd prop aga ting hi s worship T he con seque nce of this
.

w as tha t h e re a nd th ere t empl es of S hiv a spra ng up

a nnouncing the triumph of t h e S h a iva cult E v en now .

re ma in s of these t empl es ar e m et with in ma ny pla c es .

T h er e w as a Chan d i Ma n da pa ( lit a t e mpl e for the

-
.

worship of C ha ndi h e nc e a house of worship of Shiva

,

a nd S ha kti ) atta ch ed to t he hou se of e v e ry H indu

householder E v e ry y ea r C h a nd i was worshipped a nd

.
 C H A PT E R X V I I .

SAN SK R I T TE XT S O F SH A I VA FO L K L O R E -
.

S E CTI O N I .
—TH E S H I V A PUR AN A .

( ) a The L im g a , or P ha l l u s .

B EFO R E the univ erse w as creat ed or a t lea st when , , ,

merely the prelimina ri es o f creation we re in op era tion ,

th er e exi st ed only a huge pha llus as whit e as snow as , ,

t he embl e m of divinity p e rv ading t he whol e of spac e

, .

S hri V i snu and S hri Bra hma w ere n eith er of them

abl e to d efin e the h ea d base and sid es of this form
,
.

A lthough this embl em had a Sh ap e yet it had no limits ,

on any sid e p ervading as it did the boundl ess and

, , ,

e ndl es s void T hi s stup endou s god cov ering the en

.
,

t ir ety of spa c e is the first god of t he Sh a ivas

,
H e is .

the F irst L ord— the G o d of G ods ( Ma h adeva ) I t is .

from H im th a t this gr eat univ erse has emanated .

I n cours e of ages how ev er this huge form of Shiva

, , ,

co ext e n siv e with the univ e r se

-
ga v e pl a ce to smaller ,

a nd sma ll er forms ; a nd huma n n a ture gra dually in

v est ed him with hum a n qua lities— m a d e him the head
of a fa mily swa y e d by huma n pa ssion s
, .

O ne day T ra ilokya Sundari ( ie D urga so call ed

-
. .
,

from her pow er s of illu sion ) the repository of a ll attr i

,

but es went out for a stroll with her lord Mahadeva

, ,

a)
( S hiv both
, di sgui se d as hunt ers S ee ing th e ma l e .

hu nt er who looked lik e bea uty a nd elega nce e mbodied

, ,

a nd cha rme d with hi s sw eet words the wiv es of the ,

23 4
 SAN S K R I T T E XTS O F S H AI V A FO L K L O R E -
23 5

R i sis ( sag es) a ll

followed him de spit e the protests of ,

th eir hu sba nds A t thi s the sa ges cursed him sa ying :

.
,

T his ignora nt rogu e is d e priving u s of our wiv es a nd

the condign puni shm ent for such vill a in s as a r e a ddict ed
to adult ery is to cut o ff th eir gen era tiv e orga n s But .

since in thi s gr ea t forest of ours th e r e is no such king as

ca n inflict thi s puni shm e nt on him w e Sha ll t a k e the ,

l aw into our own h a nds a nd punish him fitt ingly

’
.

“
A nd owing to thi s curs e by the sa ges th er e
, ,

dropp ed down in the de n se for est the highly b ea utiful

pha llu s cov ering m any a yoj ana ( o ne yoj a n a four
, ,
‘
sev e n or e ight mil es
, ) — D h a r m a S a m hita . .

A lthough t he l e ngth 1 of the I ndia n ph all u s has

n owh er e b ee n de finit ely st at ed
yet the phrase cov e r , ,

ing ma ny a yoj a n a m a y b e t a ken a s su ffici ent proof

,

th a t t he ima ge w as ma d e a v e ry long o ne B elow is .

giv en a short a ccount of the i ncid e nts in t he worship of

t h e ph a llu s as the e mbl em of S hiv a .

O n tha t day of the light ha lf of the month on which

t he moon a nd t he pl a n ets that w e r e propitiou s to him
on t he day of his birth ar e in the asce nda nt the wor ,

shipp er will ha v e in a ccorda nce with the i njunction s in

,

t h e S hastras r el a ting to S hiv a worship to ma k e a lim ga -

( ph )
a llu s of a c e rta in m easurem ent T h en h a v e to b e .

a ppli e d the t est s of s a cr edn ess of ea rth to find out a

suit a bl e pla c e of worship H a ving thu s selected t he .

pla c e of wor ship a nd m a d e his phallus in a ccorda nce

with S hastr ic deta ils on the point he will h av e to offer ,

wor ship with t he ten it ems ( such as the smok e of

burnt resin a light a seat offerings of rice et c wa t er
, , , ,
.
, ,

b et e l rods etc ) la id dow n in the Shastras for the

-
,
.

”
purpo se .

H e r e follow the d etails of worship A t t he outset .

1
G r eek phallu s of Bacch u s is 60 yd s , Assyrian phal l u s is
. I 50 yds
.
2 36 TH E FO L K E L E ME N T I N H I N DU CUL T UR E
-

is to b e worshipped G an esha the confe rre r of success ,

( who r ec eiv es the first honour in conn exion with ev ery

T a ntric worship) and t he pla ce is to b e purifi ed with in
ca nta ti o ns T he ph a llu s has now to b e tak en to its
.

bath room where it will b e daub ed with the juic e of

-
,

sa ffron a nd p a inte d a ll ov e r T h e r eaft e r c ertain en .

gra vings will hav e to b e m a de upon it with a gold chisel .

T he lim ga with the a ltar und e r it will now h a v e to b e

worshipp ed a ft er b eing purifi ed with the wate rs (called
,

Pa ncham r it a conta ining as it do es the fiv e n ecta rin e

, , ,

sub st a nc es of milk curd s gh ee hon ey and suga r) of , , ,

e ight full ea rth en pitch e r s a nd a lso with Pancha gavy a ,

-

( i
.e .milk curd s gh ee a nd the two form s of excretion
, ,

of the cow ) T h en the ph allu s with it s alta r will have

.

to b e t a ken to a clear a nd sa cr e d t a nk a nd the ceremony

of a d hiv asa ( ie the prelimin a ry c e re mony of any great
. .

festiva l such as the worship of a god ma rriage the ln

, , ,

stall a t i
o n of a king et c
) mu st b e p erform ed T
,
he . .

doors and ga tewa ys of the purifi e d a nd b ea utiful house

wh er e this ad hiv asa ha s to b e c e l ebrat ed ar e nicely ,

d ecora t ed with ga rla nd s the kusha grass and paintings ,

a nd h e re ar e to b e pl a c ed im a ges of the eight m ytho

logica l elepha nts residing in t he e ight q u a rters of the

glob e imag es of the eight tut ela ry d eiti es of the eight
,

direction s a nd e ight ea rthen pitch e rs fill ed to the brim

, ,

with the pa ncham r ita wa t e r A nd in the c entre of the .

h all will b e in sta ll ed a n a lta r of som e meta l or wood ,

a nd having the p eculia r postur e in r e ligiou s me dit ation

known as pa dm asa n a represent e d on its surfa ce .

T he cer emo ny will now b egi n with the O ffering of wor

ship o ne a ft e r a noth er to S u b had r a V i
, b ha d r a Su nanda , , ,
1
a nd V i na nda the four gate k eep e r s a nd with t he pha llus
,
-
,

1
A ccord ing to the Shu ny a Par ana Dhar m a has fiv e gate keepers ,
-
.

T he U ll u ka o pened the fifth

” “
Cf. N ow i
the o pen g
n o f th e d o o r s ,

do o r
238 T H E FO L K E L E ME N T I N H I N D U C U L T U R E
-

( o) F estiv ities .

D a nc e song mu sic a nd oth e r auspicious p erform

, ,
”
a nces a r e to a tt end th e worship of the l i
m
ga of Shiv a .

— ‘
Vayav i y a Sa m hitci .

T ha t is, w e find th a t b esid es the kindling of the

sa crifici a l fi r e, da nc e song a nd mu sic w e re a l so a mong
,
’
the incid ent s of worship D ha rm a s G aj a n is p e rform ed
.

in a simila r man n er We h a v e a lr ea dy Spok en of the

.

D eh ara of D ha rm a as w ell a s of A dy a F o r the .

w orship of S hiv a , the Soul of Soul s it is essenti a l to ,

build a t e mpl e resembling a roy a l pa la ce and possessing

a ll th e a ttribut es th a t such a t e mpl e should hav e a ccord

ing to the Sh astras dea ling with Shiv a worship and -

with huge ga t ew a y s and b ejew ell ed pa n el s of gold It .

should b e furnish ed b esid es with two light whit e fly

, ,

bru sh es of the form of a ga nd er , a nd mirrors decorated

with bea utiful ga rl a nds of sw eet fragra nce a nd set with
gems on a ll the borders I n the G aj an of Shri Dharma
.

l o whit e fly brushes a nd ga rland s a r e n ecessary

a s -
.

“
D eta il e d a ccou nts ar e extant to show that keeping
a wa k e whol e night s w a s O bse rv ed with the p erform a nc e
of da nce song a nd mu sic on the occasion of the Shiva
,

worship T hus w e find in t he f u cina

.

The wi se S hould rep eat the na m es of the god a fter

worshipping him in the first of the e ight divi sion s into
,

which th e spa c e of day a nd night is divided with dance , ,

”
song a nd mu sic a nd a ctu at e d by the fee ling o f devotion .

The first pr a hara ( two hours a nd a h a lf) of the night

is to b e sp ent with v a riou s da nces songs and music and , ,

with the forma l a vowa l of the obj ect for the r eali z ation
of which the worship is o ffered A nd al l the rem aining .

ra haras ar e to b e sp ent in t he sa m e w ay
p .

“
T hen a vowing the obj e ct for the a ccomplishment
,

of which the worship is o ffered a nd singing v arious ,

 SA N SK R I T T E X TS O F S H A I VA F O L K L O R E -
2 39

songs a nd p erforming v a rious danc es a nd music

‘ ‘

f nana S a m hita .

It is furth e r l ea rnt
that eight S iddha s (a cl ass of de mi
gods ) ar e con st a ntly da ncing b efore him whose vota ri es
ar e now worshipping him crying A ll g lory to him
, .

I n S hri D h arm a festiv als a l so it is stat ed th at th e sa m

“
yata s in a body cry : G lory to D h a rm a ! G lory to
D h arm a !
C l ea r S ight ed m e n should o ffe r worship in such a
-

st a te of the soul a s is fr ee from d esires a nd is lost in de

v o ti o n in e v e ry p
,
r a ha ra with da nc e song a nd music ; ,

a nd should try with the r ecit a tion of v a riou s hymn s to

propiti a t e th e V r isab ha dhv aja ( lit he who is known

-
.

by his bull ie S hiva who ride s a bu ll )

, . .
,
The per .

form e r o f the vow ( of worshipping Shiv a ) should li st en ,

with a ll a tt ention to the r ecit al of the m erit s ( ie the

, . .

p e culia r obj ects and gr ea tn esses) reali z a ble through thi s

vow The night is divided into four praharas in every
.
,

o ne of which worship ha s to b e o ffer ed in this w ay .

T h en to k eep a wa k e th e whol e night holding grea t ,

‘
festiviti es — ] ndna Sam hita
. .

T he festiviti es in conn exion with the Shiv apuja ar e

brou ght to a close with danc e song a nd music , .

M usic and da nce should b e repea t edly p erform ed

till the a pp ea ra nc e of the morning sun ( a bov e the
hori z on ) .
1

K eeping awak e the whole night in the w a y d escribed

a bov e th e vot a ry should r e cite a t d aybreak his guru
,

m a ntra ( the mystica l word or formul a wh ereby to pro

p it at e h i
i )
s spiritu al prec eptor a nd sing r eligiou s song s .

T h e n he will h a v e to bathe and offer wor ship to

S hiv a .

1
Worshipis Offered in the d ay in connexion with the festiv ities
of D har m a, while it is off er ed at night in connexion with the Shiva
pu j a .
 240 TH E F O L K E L E ME N T I N H I N D U C U L T U R E
-

R eciting the b est of ma ntras a nd a ga in d ancing

”
a nd s — nc ‘
inging .
j
ina S am hita .

( c) Conv entiona l Cer em onies .

T he giving a way of cows etc is prescrib ed thus ,

.
,

A good t emp ered cow yi e ding a l a rge qu antity of

3225 333; l
f or -

aw y f a w m ilk
o co sshould b e g iv en a w ay With d ak sina i e
, , ( mon ey . .

given to a Brahmana as present ) .

P
i
r ocess on T he D ha rm a Sa nnyasi s ca rrying on th eir h eads the ,
W th Sh v ;
i i a
S ya i
a nn sa nda ls of Shri D ha rma a nd ca n e in hand proceed from
ss
A

, ,

$2 vill a g e to villa g e with da nc e song a nd mu sic S imil ar

1
.
,
:

O b se rv a nc es a r e a lso to b e found e njoin ed in the S hastras

d ea ling with the Shiv a festiviti es I nvoking the cel es .

tia l Pashu pata ( b elonging to Pashu pati ie Shiva ) , . .

w eapon worship it on a spacious m et a llic v ess el set

, ,

with gems a nd decorat ed with lotuses T hen placing it .

,

on the h ea d of a Brahm an a ca rrying an orn am ent ed

stick a nd st a rting out with da nc e song a nd mu sic and
, ,

various oth er a uspicious c ere moni es proceed n either , ,

v ery slowly nor v e ry quickly with lights flags etc to , , , .

,

the Mahap itha ( sa cred pla c e) a nd th e n with a V i ew to , ,

”
propiti at e the god go round it thrice E v en now the
,
.

Sanny asis of the G aj a n ar e see n to a dorn th e ir p ersons

with va rious or na m e nt s a nd go out dancing can e in hand ,

a nd c a rrying copp e r pl a t es on th e ir h ea ds -
.

T w
r ee hip
-
ors A p eculia r c er e mon y known as G amar k ata w as ob
.
-

se rv ed i n co nn e xion with the festiviti es of S hri D h a rma ,

in which the G am bhir a ( G am ara ) tree w as worshipp ed

a nd a ll the Sa n ny asi s of th e Sa m yata touch ed a nd

formally we lcom e d it We find in Vdyav iya S a m hita .

‘

m ention e d in the S hiv a P u r ana tha t this wor ship is

1
I n D ha r m a M a nga l a al so giv ing away o f
th e co ws is pre
scri
bed in connexion with th e wo r ship o f D har m a . In Shu nya
“
P ar ana al so it is j
en oi
ned : G iv e away r ice
( ie. . food) , cl o th i
ng

and co ws
242 T H E F O L K E L E ME N T I N H I N D U C U L T U R E
-

has b een orda ine d tha t S hiva should b e worshipp ed and

festiviti e s held in his honour ev ery month and the ,

m erits of th ese monthly celebration s hav e also bee n laid

down .

( )
d S a nction f or the M on ths
f
o Wor shi
p .

b est of m en th a t will fa st a nd worship Shiva

T he
in the month of C ha itra ( Ma rch A pril ) with undivided
-

d evotion will b e rewa rd ed with w ea lth in mon ey and

kind with p erson a l bea uty and with birth in a high
,
”
ord er .

“
The m a n th a t will fa st and worship in the month
of V a ishak ha ( A pril May) will be re wa rd ed w ith birth
-

in a high ord e r as w e ll as with wealth a nd honours

, .

S a nat hu m eir a S a m hitci .

T he hop es h er e h eld out ar e too much for the wor

shipp ers o f S hiv a a nd it i s for this r ea son m a inly th at
,

th e months of C h a itra a nd Va i shak ha s eem to b e es eci

p
a lly d edic a t ed to t he wor ship of S hiv a .

I t is furth er ord a in ed th at grea t festiviti es should be

h eld in the month of Phalgo o na ( F ebrua ry March ) when -

it is a ssociat ed with the twelfth lun a r m ansion , and the

s winging festival in the month of C h aitra .

A s orda in ed in the S h astra s the swinging festival

,

should b e h eld on the da y of the full moon in the month

(A nd ) on the day O f the full moon in
“
of C haitra .

t he month of V a i shak ha a l so t he sw ingi ng festiv al Should

,

b e h eld a nd a b ea utiful flOra l t empl e should b e made in

”
honour of Shiva Vdyav ij
.
y a S a m hita .

A mpl e r eferenc es ar e found in the a nci ent dramas to

the festiva l of Va sa nta ( the god of spring ) or Madana
e god of lov e ) b eing h e ld in the month of C ha itra
( t h .

A n a ccount of the merry m akings on this occasion with

-

coloured wat er is to b e found in the dra m a M al ati

M adhav a wh erein references ar e a lso to b e m et with
,
 SA N SK R I T TE XTS O F S H A I VA FO L K L O R E -
24 3

to the building of flow er t e mples in the month of V a i

sh akha in honour of Ma hadeva T his flora l t empl e is .

simply a n imita tion of the flora l cha riot a n a ccount of ,

which has b een re cord ed by H iu en T hsang in conn ex -

ion with c erta in Buddhi st festiva ls O n th ese occasions .

im ages o i Buddh a and Bodhi sattva w ere inst a lle d in the

cha riot S imila rly in the flowe r t emple a r e pl ac ed the
.

images of Shiva a nd his gat e k eepe r N andi A ccounts

-
.

ar e still e xta nt of t he da nc e music a nd oth er r ejo ic

,

ings indulged in by the devotees on both th ese occ a

sion s
.

We l ea rn from d hi hhanda that the m a n or A l p

— “
nnu a ro

wom a n who will fast on the third da y of the bright h a lf ggfgghggfi e fl

n

of th e month of C h a itra a nd at dea d of night worsh ip th t th f

,
e m on o
Ch a i ra
M a ngal a G a uri ( G a uri the B estower of Bl essings) with
,

o fferings of cloth es orn a m ent s a nd othe r articles of wor

,

ship a nd th en p ass the r est of the night with da nc e a nd

,

music will b e re wa rd ed with bl essings beyond his or her

,

e xp ect a tion s I t is furth e r sta t e d th a t o ne a nd a ll of

t he p e opl e of K ash i ( B en a res) should join in a n a nnu al
process io n in honour of S hiva on the third da y of the
bright half of the m onth of C ha itra a nd th ey should a lso ,

hold a great festiva l in his honour o n the day of full

moon of the sa id month T he following story is told in
.

thi s conn e xion O nce upon a tim e on the day of full

.
,

moon of the month of C ha itra the festiva l of Shiva w as

,

b eing h eld and the gods w ere cooking heaps of ric e

,

with oth er a rticles of food T he e xten siv e c e r emony of

.

giving a w a y ric e by Shri H a rsa Deva a nd the B uddhi st ,

festiva l held by him a r e exa ct imitation s of this C h a itra

,

festiva l T he pr es ent day G am bhir a of Ma lda a l so

.
-

fa intly r epr e s ents this festiv a l .

2 44 T H E FO L K E L E ME NT I N H I N D U C U L T U R E
-

S ECTI O N I I — H . A R I VA M SH A ON V AN AFO DA ( PH YSI C A L

A U ST E R I T I E S) .

The obj ect of H a r iv am sha seems to b e to diminish

by stratage m t he influe nce of the S ha iva cult and to ,

ra ise in high er est ee m t he Va isnav a worship of Shri

K r isna .I t conta in s th e Story of the t e rribl e d efeat of
V an a K ing of Sho nitapu ra a st a unch d evot ee of Shiva
, ,
.

T his p a rt of the l egend seem s to b e the San skrit basis

of the G aj a n of S hiv a or the G a m b hir a festiviti es I n
,
.

this work distinct e ffort s h av e b een m ade to place t he

Sha iv a s b elow the V a isnav a s and to Show a gen eral ,

degradation of the former .

( ) a D iscom fi tu r e f
o Vcina the Shiv a ite .

U sa d a ught e r of K ing V ana a staunch Sh aiv a fell

, , ,

s ecretly in lov e with A niru ddha a grandson of Shri ,

K t i sna K ing of D w arak a

, E nraged at this high .
,

s oul ed V ana imprison ed A nir u dd ha in a n iron cage .

T he la tt er implor ed the assist a nce of the goddess K ali ,

of complexion dark as collyrium ; a nd; plea sed with his

d evotion the goddess rel eased him at d ead of night on
,

t he fourt e e nth d a y of the bl a ck h a lf of the month of

jyaistha ( Ma y jun e ) O n the following night (ie the

n -
. . .

dark night of the new moon ) a formida ble conflict took ,

pl a ce b etween K ing Vana a nd Shri K r isna in which

-

, ,

a s soon a s the l att er had lopp ed off the a r m s of his

oppon ent with his discus nam ed S u dar sha na a nd pr e

pa red himself to cut o ff his h ea d Sham k ar a ( Shiva) ,
’ ’
cri ed out : D on t oh don t b eh ea d my Vana ; don t cut
‘

, ,
’

off Van a s h ea d rath e r withdra w your

’

,
‘
D ha r m a Sa m hita .

A t thi s the L ord Shri K t isn a id : th en

“
sa L et
your V an a live H er e do I reca ll my
. discus .
’
2 46 T H E FO L K E L E M E N T I N H I N D U C U L T U R E
-

B oons to Vana
’

(6) Shiv a
’

s .

Mahadeva lway s kind to his d e vot ees felt gr ea t

, a ,

commiseration at t he di stress of K ing Vana a nd w as ,

highly mov ed to see him d ance c ea s elessly in thi s almo st

unconscious sta t e T h en he sa id to V ana : M y C hild
. ,

I h av e b ee n touched to t he quick a t the S ight of your

distr ess I ha v e b een highly please d howev er with
.
, ,

your devotion N ow but ask for the boon of your

.
,

h ea rt and it sha ll b e gra nted to you

, .

V ana r epli ed : M y lord if thi s b e your pl easure

“
, ,

th en grant m e thi s boon th at I m ay ev er b e a bov e de ,

cr ep it u d e a nd d eath T hi s is my first pra yer. .

M a hadeva said : C hild I gra nt tha t equa lly with “

, ,

th e god s you will liv e for e v e r d efying d eath

,
You ,
.

a r e an obj ect of gr eat favour w ith m e A sk any other .

”
boon of m e a nd I sh a ll be glad to grant it
, .

v an a a dd ed I f so be your pl ea sure th en O L ord , , ,

gra nt m e thi s furth er boon that if ev er a ny of your ,

devot ees dance b efore you as I hav e don e afflicted with ,

gri ef wounded with a rrows and with my body bath ed

,

in blood he will atta in to the stat e O f your own child

,

Mah ad ev a repli e d : C hild tha t d e vot ee of min e

“
,

who is s impl e a nd stra ightforwa rd a nd ev e r d evot ed to

the truth a nd will thu s d a nc e b e for e m e ob se rving the
,

vow of fa st will obt a in th ese v ery rewards N o w ask

, .
,

for such a third boon as you like a nd I sha ll grant you ,

”
tha t a lso .

V an a s a id : O Bhav a ( lit th at which exi st s a .

,

n am e of Shiv a) m ay you th en b e pl ea s e d to assuage

'

, , ,
”
t he t erribl e p a in th a t the di scu s has c a u se d in my body .

N o t o nly w as this pra y e r gra nt ed but a l so t he G od ,

of G od s offer ed to gra nt him yet a noth e r boon A nd .

,

ove rjoy ed at this K ing Vana sa id : Be pl eased to,

“

gra nt m e th e n this boon tha t I m a y b e the chief of ,

 SAN SK R I T TE XTS O F S H A I V A FO L K L O R E -
247

your pra m atha s ( attenda nt s on Shiva ) , an d b e known

for ev e r unde r the n a me of Mahakala T hi s pra y e r
w a s a l so conc ed e d .

( )
c F a ith f
o M ode n Sha i
r v a s in Va na l e ena
g
’ ’
-
.

T hus h ere do w e find the origin of the fast s a nd

oth e r a uste riti es such as the pi ercing of t he body with
,

a rrow s a s w e ll a s of th e d a nc e a n d r ev e lri e s tha t ar e

,

pra cti sed on the occasion of the C h a itra festiviti es ,

oth e rwise known a s the Cha dak a puj a he ld in honour -

of Shiva T hi s will b e more cl ea r a nd a ppa r ent wh en

.

w e consid e r that the a uthor of the l ege nd has it pro

nou nced through the lips of M a h ad e v a him self tha t

thos e of his vot ari es who will da nc e like Vana ob se rving ,

t he vow of fa st will obta i n th e sa m e m e rit s a s V an a

, .

I t is a gr e a t t empt a tion for the ordin a ry follow e r s of

S hiv a to b e thu s a bl e to atta in to t he po sition of S hiv a s
’

so n and con st a n t a tt e nda nt b a sking i n the sun shin e of

,

his pr esenc e .I t is fo r this r eason th a t duri ng the

C ha itr a festiviti es the d e vot e es ar e seen to d a nc e fan
ta st ic a nd gh astly da nc es b efore th e im ag e of S hiv a ,

with th e ir bodi es pi erced with a rrows a nd bath e d in

blood Fa st s and mu sic a nd r ev elri es ar e al so obs erv ed
.

a s a ddition a l induc e m e nts to purch a se the fa vour of

S hiv a. I t is und e r the influ enc e of the a bov e persu a

f
s ion th a t e v e n n ow in a nt s a r e m a de to da nc e b efor e t h e

G am b hir a te mpl e of A dy a T he p eopl e firmly b eli ev e

.

tha t by this m ea n s th ey will att a in to longevity po sition ,

a nd w ea lth in this life a nd immort a lity in t he n e xt .

D H A R M A S A M H / TA
"
S E CT I O N I I I .
-
: R E FE R E N C E S To

MA SK S .

We sh a ll now proc eed to inquire into the rea son

why it has b ecom e a pra ctice with t he vota ri es of Shiv a
to da nc e a nd sing b efore his ima ge di sgui sing th ems elv es
248 T H E FO L K E L E ME N T I N H I N D U C U L T U R E
-

as K ali, Durga, C h amunda gho sts and app ar itions ,

.

Masks ar e put on in conn exion with the G aj an of

Shiv a in R adha ( W est B enga l ) the ma rri age of Shiva ,

in Sh antipur ( N adia) and the G am b hira and the Shiva

,

festivities of Ma lda and N orth Benga l a nd also on the ,

morning of the N ilapuja day at K alighat ( Calcutta) .

T ha t these song s a nd da nce s w e re in troduced on the

ba sis of myt hologica l ev e nts and incidents is borne out
by D ha r m a Sa m hita a pa rt of Shiv a Sam hita The
,
.

mask dances of G a uri K ali C h amunda C handi v asu li

-
, , , , ,

etc th at we now see in conn exion with the G am bhira

.
, ,

ar e in a greement with th e P u r ana s and in fa ct based

on them .

( ) D isg u ises Shiv a s A ttendants

’
a f o .

The god Shiva has be e n repr esented as Nat araj a or

lord of dance and rev elry N o wonder th erefore— rather .
,

it is n atural — th at his devot ees should have recourse to

these means to gain his fa vour .

W e read in D ha r m a S am hitci that one day while ,

diverting himself a ccording to his pleas ure Chandra ,

Shekhara ( lit one with t he moon on his forehead a

.
,

n ame of Shiva ) ordered his a tt e nda nt N a ndi with a glad

“
h eart : G o 0 Vana r anana (lit ha ving a face like that
, .

of a monkey an epithe t of N a ndi who had such a face)

, , ,

under my ord ers to the mountain of K a ilasa ( reput ed to

be t he a bode of Shiva ) a nd bring G a ur i adorned with ,
”
orna ments to m e Without de la y
, When Nandi had .

gone a wa y the A psa ras ( nymphs) b egan to indulge in

,

t alks like this Wha t woman is th e re s ave Dak sayani

( d a ughter of B ak sa ie G a ur i wife of S hiv a
,
) th at can
. .
,

dare touch his p erson ? U pon this stood up Chitra

l ekha daught e r of K u m b handa a nd addressing her
, , ,
“
sisters said : I ca n p erson at e G a uri and thus touch
,

him if any one of you will b ut b e a bl e to a ssume the

,
2 50 T H E FO L K E L E ME N T I N H I N D U CU L T U R E
-

(h) The Com edy of E r r or s

“

T h en he took Parv at i by the h and a nd comm enc ed

a round of a morou s div ersions T hi s w as follow ed by .

“
the di ssimul ating moth er s a ll d ancing a nd singing to

please Shiva— som e da ncing som e S inging som e smiling , ,

( a morous) smiles a nd oth ers div erting in other ways

,

T he fa l se moth ers set to d a ncing a nd singing round

merry S hiva Som e of th e m a dd ed to the joy of the
.

m erry couple by da ncing a nd Singing suitably to the

occa sion and a l so by the geni a l glow of th eir illuminat
,

ing smiles T he oth er thou sand a nd o ne moth ers made

.

va riou s sw eet sounds a nd a l so ma de som e strange on es, .

“
S om e a mong th e latt er sang d anc ed smiled and ev en , ,
”
w ept .

S hiv a lo st him self in this vortex of m erry making -

,

a nd w as utt e rly tra n sport e d with d e ligh t wh en th ere ,

a pp ea re d on t he sc e n e t he ge nuin e N a ndi with the

genuin e mothers clos ely follow ed by the real G auri
, ,

ch a rmingly dressed de scending from her aeria l car ,

with the ho st of her Spirit a tt enda nts T he surprise .

th a t gr e et ed t he la tt e r whe n the two s et s confronted ,

ea ch oth e r w a s b eyond d escription

, .

A ll the ( m e rry ) pa rty st art ed up thinking aga in ,

a nd a ga i n Who is thi s Parva t i— who is thi s goddess

‘
,

so richly dresse d a nd so b ea utiful ?

T h ere b eing no di stingui shing m a rk s— not e v en the

slight est — b e tw ee n th e g e nuin e a nd the count erfeit
Parva ti the whol e p a rty w a s lost in confusion
, .

N a y the confusion b e ca m e worse confounded wh en

,

it w as disco vere d that ev en the moth e rs and the other

a tt e nda nt s could no t b e set t h e r ea l a ga in st the sham .

T his w as howev er a source of infinit e secr et pl easure

, ,

to the count erfeit mi stress a nd she burst into a peal of

m erry la ughte r T he A psa ras a lso extre m ely a mused
.
, ,
 SA N SK R I T TE X TS O F S H A I V A FO L K L O R E -
2 51

ga v e vent to th e ir delight with their n atura l kilkil sounds .

The ghosts and goblins a nd the Y ak sas (demi god at -

t enda nts on K uv e ra employ e d in the protection of his

,

tr easure s) too beca me m a d with delight E ven S hiva

, , .

hims elf bec am e highly a mu se d with a nd greatly e njoy ed

“ ”
this comedy of e rrors H e was equ ally d elight ed
.

with the a ction s of the A p sar as .

( c) M ashs a nd Com edy of E r r or s in M oder n

Sha iv a L or e .

“
It is this com edy of e rrors which ca used so much
d elight to Shiva that m ay b e tak en to b e the origin of
the pra ctice tha t has obta in e d in Adya s G am b hir a with
’

the vot a ries of Shiv a to dre ss themse lves in va rious

disguise s for d a ncing in the hop e of thus propiti a ting
the go d . A nd the enjoy a ble diversion of putting the
husb a nd to confusion with rega rd to his wife has b e
com e one of the most e nt ert a ining pe rformances o f the
G a m bhira play ers-
T h en in course of time ca m e to be
.

introduce d by w ay of furth e r em bellishme nt the va rious

, ,

oth e r ma sk da nce s such as those of t he va rious forms

-
,

th a t a ccording to the T a ntrist t he goddess S at i

, ,

a uri in her pr e viou s birth a lso as the consort of Sh iva )

( G ,

a s sum e d to fright e n Shiv a i n to p ermitting her to a tt e nd

the gr a nd s a crific e tha t her fa ther Da ksa w as holding

but to which her husba nd had not been invited a nd ,

a lso of the t e rribl e C hamunda a nd oth er forms th at the

godd ess is sa id to ha ve assumed in the course of the

Shu m b ha N ishu m b ha war for the destruction of the
-

formida ble d e mons C h anda a nd Munda , .

The sa nction for all the incident s in the S ha iva

festivities of mod ern F olk B engal is thus to be found -

not only in vern a cular treatises speci a lly written fOr t he

purpose but a lso in the more a uthorita tive P u r dnas
,

composed in Sa nskrit la nguage I t is for this reason .

2 52 T H E FO L K E L E ME N T I N H I N D U C U L T U R E
-

th a t th er e has ever been in I ndia a community of

tho u ght b etwe en the m asses and the classes a nd a ,

n atura l a nd necessary conn exion of cultur e lore with

-

folk lor e T hrough all the rungs of the int ellectua l and
-
.

mora l ladder from the most nonsensica l supe rstition to

,

the most a bstract metaphys ic s there runs one increas ing

,

purpose which m akes the whol e H indu w orld kin .

 2 54 T H E FO L K E L E ME N T I N H I N D U C U L T U R E
-

but not till th en as the wife of R udra S he introduces .

Bra hm a to I ndra Wh en the gods w e re un abl e to.

r ecogni z e fir e a nd the oth er forms of Bra hma n th en it ,

w as thi s U m a th a t sang his glori es .

With the passi ng a w ay of the V edic age the forms

a nd a ttribut es of t h e god s su ffere d a C ha nge I ndra .
,

A gni R udra V ayu and A diti Sara swat i Sita K ali

, , , , , , ,

K a rali D urga U m a etc had now d efinit e forms

, , , .
,

a ttribut ed to th e m a nd w e r e m a d e to sh a re in the en

jo ym ents a nd sufferings of t he world Det a il ed a ccounts .

of the Post V e dic d eiti es ar e to b e found in the R am a

-

ya na , t he M a hdhhdr a ta a nd t he Sh r im a d B hag av ata ,

w ell as in t he M d r hana eya

as
’
, D ev i K dl ihd and many
,

oth e r P u r anas a nd Upapu r dna s .

T he great po et V almiki has furni shed u s in his ,, ,

R am aya n a with a v ery long li st of gods and god

d esses I ndra w as th en the K ing of H eaven and a
.

wa rrior H e u sed even to fight with m en H e used

. .

to rid e a n e lepha nt with four tusks n a m ed A irav ata , .

Bra hm a w as a four fac ed four ha nd ed god riding a -

,
-

goose H is wor ship w as now introduced

. R udra .
,

say a n a a nd Yask a a r e no longer the n a m es of fire .

T he R udra of t he V edic age who u sed to prepare ,

m edicin es has now b een tra n sferred to the K ailasa

,

mount a i n to liv e th ere .

G dd
o esses f o Shiv a has b een giv e n m a ny wiv es such a s Durga , ,
th Ma k an
h a ndika K al i C hamun da e tc T h ey h a v e b een ac
r
C
e
d y C h d i
.
, , ,
e a an .

corded a high er position tha n the gods a nd described

a s Ady a S h a kti (primordi a l e n e rgy ) Ya ma I ndra , ,

Brahm a a nd the oth er l esser g ods ha v e b ee n m ade to

a cknowl edge t he s u z era inty a nd bow to t he will of
D urga .

G d
o s of th e I ndra is endowed with a thou sand ey es a nd Yama , ,

M h abha t r a a.
the god of de ath is sa id to h a v e S prung from t h e pl an et
a
,

S ha ni ( Sa turn ) a nd to ha v e been pla c ed in ch arge of

 I N V E NT I O N O F GO D S A N D G O D D E SSE S 2 55

h ell H e rid es a buffalo a nd Vayu the god of wind a

.
, , ,

dee r A gni has b een conce iv ed a s riding a go at

. .

C h a rm ed by the d evotion of his vot a ri es S hiv a is found ,

t o h a v e cond e sc e nded to serv e th e m A nd it has b e .

come a pra ctic e to o ffer worship to I ndra a nd his wife ,

a n d to S hiv a a nd his wife .

With a vi ew to ha ving a son born to him V asud ev a G d f th , o s o e

H ’ mm
r etires into the h e rmitage of Vadar ik a and th ere sit s ar v a a'

down in m editation on Shiv a V asud eva V alar am a .

,

j
a n d A r un a h ave b ee n exalt e d to the r a nk o f gods .

V a lar am a has b een recogniz ed as o ne of the inca rn a

tions .

I ndra b ecom es a god of the Buddhists ja in as G d f th , o s o e

a nd K a al i
p k as S hiva now drink s the juic e of H ata ka i
.
ggg:g, a_

( gold ) a nd resid e s in the pl a c e of cr e ma tion U m a .

,

D urga a nd K ali a re his wiv e s Pa lm juice a nd oth er

.
-

kin ds of b ev era ge ha v e b ecom e fa vourit e dri nks of the

follow ers of Shiv a Da k sa has b ecome the fath er in law
.
- -

of S hiva K r isna is sa id to b e a n i n ca rna tio n of

.

V isnu I ndr a Brahm a a nd S hiva h a v e b ee n r el ega ted

.
,

to a low e r po sition tha n V isnu a nd subordinat ed to him .

I n N d r ad iy a a nd D ha r m a Pu r ana s etc the glori es , .

,

of V i snu hav e b een describ e d A lthough m e ntio n is .

m a d e in th ese of S hiva a nd his Sh a kti a l ess impor

t a nc e has b ee n assign e d to th em L a ksm i a nd Saraswa ti
.

h a v e b een includ ed in the family of Shiv a .

In L im g a , Shiv a D ev i a nd K dl ihd Pu r ana s,

t he ,

S hiv a a nd h is S h a kti h av e b ee n assign ed a sup erior

pl a c e to t he othe r gods I n Shiv a P u r dna Shiva is
.
,

sa id to h av e thousa nd n a m es
o ne .

I n Pa dm a Pu r dna w e h ea r of t he inte rruption a nd P d a m a

P i ur m“
brea king up of the sa crifice a rra nged by Da ksa ( fath er
of Shiva s wife Sa ti who sank down to dea th on the
’

, ,

s a crificia l ground on h earing of the v ilificatio n of her

husband by her fath e r) of D ak sa s ultimate rep enta nce
’

,
 2 56 T H E F O L K E L E ME N T I N H I N D U C U L T U R E
-

a nd pacifying Shiva by singing his glori es and of his ,

gaining boon s from the god in conclusion T hus the .

book is devot ed to the extollation of Shiva We find in .

it a lso a n a ccount of t he journey of gods with Brahma

a nd Shiv a to V ai k u ntha ( t he abod e of V i snu ) R efer .

enc e is m a d e in this a lso to th e story of the con struction

of a gold im age of Sita ( it is sa id in the R am ayana

that while p e rforming the A shwam edha sa crifice R ama
had a gold im age of Sita m ad e to t ake the place of his
wife by his s id e ) .

Th e G o ds in T h er e ar e sev e ra l S am hitas ( codes of law conduct , ,

th e S am hitas
.
etc.
) following the line of the Shiv a Pu r ana such as ,

D ha r m a Sam hita j ndna Sam hita S ana thu m ar a Sam

, ,
’

hitd Vdyav iya S am hita e tc I n th es e Sa mhitas w e h ear

, , .

of ma ny gods but the prefe r ence is giv en to Shiva and

,

S hakti .

L ike the oth er Pu r anas the Sha nda also contains

,

a ccount s of gods a nd godd ess es The sp eci al feature of

.

this work is that in it w e ar e told of K ala Bhairava and

of the sudden springing into exi stenc e of Bhadrakali
a nd V ira b ha dra out of t he spl een of S hiva .

I n the Va r dha P u r dna we find a ccounts of many

gods and of the construction of their ima ges .

I n the Uddisha D a m a r a N ahu l isha a nd the oth er

, ,

Ta ntr as preferenc e has b een giv e n to Shiva a nd his

Jl

Sha ktis and the v a rious mod es of th e ir worship hav e

b een d escrib ed A l so M a hakala S hiva Bha irava
.
, , ,

Bha ira vi the Dak inis a nd the Yogin is ( cla sses of female
,

d emi god s) hav e b een ele v at ed to the ra nk of gods

-
.

L ike the Puran as of the H indu s the ja inas a l so

2
,

ha ve Puran as of th e ir own I n th es e besid es their.

,

T ir tham karas the H indu deities a lso h av e bee n m en

,

o ned
ti .

Vide A v al on s Hy m ns to the G oddess and

’
1 o ther wo rk s on Ta ntr as .

Vide Stev enso n s A e f j a inism

’
2 f ar t o .
 2 58 T H E FO L K E L E ME N T I N H I N D U CU L T U R E
-

of N ila Sa raswat iT ara D evi T arais of da rk complexion .

a nd has thr ee ey e s T h e following d escription of Vajra

.

T ara is to b e found in d hana Sa m u chchaya Fo u r

fa ced e ight a rme d a nd a dorn ed with v a riou s orn am ents
,
-

L ik e the H indu T a ntric work s tho se of the Buddhists ,

a l so t e ll us of m a ny form s of S ha kt i .

de I n the Shu nya P u r dna a nd D ha r m a p j p

u a ad
Si
of the -

’ a
fg
pu g a and dhati of R am ai a mong oth er s w e m eet with the fol
,

de iti es : D h a rma N iranjana U llu ka i Brahma , , ,

V isnu M ah eshw ara Ya m a I ndra N arada with his

, , , ,

conv eya nc e the Dhenk i D am ar asain Mahakala Adya

, , , , ,

C ha ndi and D urga .

G o d s of I n the D ha r m a M a ng al a of G hanar am a Manik ,

D h arm a
Man gal a and G anguli a nd Y atr asiddhi R ay m ention is mad e of ,

l ater m ed l ae
D h a rm a H a num an and t he gods of Shu ny a P u r du a
, .

”
g gi
ng
i g I n the po etica l work s c a ll ed Chandi by K av ikam
ka na ( Mu ku nd a r am a) Manik Da tta a nd oth ers accounts , ,

a r e found of Ady a Ch a ndi Shiv a a nd the oth er H indu , ,

de iti es .

I n the Visaha r i Songs w e m eet with a ccounts of

Shiva Ma nas a ( the godd ess of sn a kes ) a nd m a ny other
,

H indu gods I n som e of th e s e L ays of M anasd m ention

.

is m a d e a lso of Ady a .

S hital d M a ng al a t ell s us of god N ir a njana Shiva ,

Brahma V isnu etc as w ell as of Adya I n the story

, ,
.
, .

of Shita la a lso w e find a n a ccount of her worship as anti

dot e again st sm all pox -
.

G ods a nd godd esses lik e th ese mor e or les s affiliated ,

to the S h a iva cu m S h akt a pa nth eon w ere inv ented by

- -

medie va l Folk B enga l principa lly to h elp m a n in the

-

battle of life T h ey a r e all embodime nts of Shakti

.

e n e rgy ) a nd a r e m ea nt ( I ) to do a w a y with en emi es and

( ,

Shitala— m entioned in Pichchhil d Ta ntr a

1 and Sha nda Par ana .

Bu ddhist go ddess H ariti resid ed in the tem pl e o f L ok eshwara The .

H ind u Shital a is identical with th is H ar iti .

 I N V E N T I O N O F G O D S A N D G O D D E S SE S 2 59

di fficulti es both n atura l a nd huma n a nd ( 2 ) to promot e G d

, , m o s as e
“
hea lth w ea lth succ e ss in life and gen er a l pro sp e rity 135
, ,
1
3 33 .
15

P a r i passu ther e w as b ei ng creat ed a noth er ord e r o f h f

g
eac ers o

“
my
diviniti es d esign ed m a i nly as G rea t E xempla rs from ,

whom could b e l ea rnt the duti e s a nd obliga tion s of life ,

individu a l dom estic a nd soci a l T he id ea l r e la tions

, .

b etwee n p a r e nt a nd o ffspring hu sba nd a nd wife broth e r, ,

a nd broth er friend a nd fri end rul e r a nd s ubj ect m a st er

, , ,

a nd se rva nt etc, we re the th e m es of the l it era ture a nd

.
,

a r t which brought into prominenc e thi s new class of

gods and goddes ses A nd the attribute chi e fly p e rson
.

a te d by th ese d eiti es i s bh a kti

( lov e ) th e emotion a l ,

el e m e nt in h um a nity .

T he bh a kti or d evotion a l lit era tur e has since a bout

the fifte enth c entury b ee n the in spira tion of the folk by

a pp ea ling m a i n ly to the sentim ent s of L ov e F a ith a nd ,

H op e as contr ast ed w ith the pra ctices of i nt ell ectua l

gymn astics a nd r atiocin a tive a rgum ent a tion T he .

deiti es of thi s lit e ra ture a r e ( I ) R ama a nd his con sort

Sit a as w ell as t h e a ncestor s a nd alli es of the gr eat h ero
,

a nd
( 2) K ri sn a a nd his s w eeth ea rt R adh a as w e ll a s ,

th eir pa r e nt s a nd p erson a l fri end s T he not e of lov e .

a nd fa ith i s a l so the ch a ra ct e ri stic of the M al si Son s

g
of R am apra sada the grea t sa int devoted to K al i or
, ,

T ara ( wi fe of Shiv a ) of the eight eenth c entury

, .

I t m ay b e sa id tha t the F olk B enga l of the nin e -

teenth c e ntury has not c a r ed much to i n quir e into the

Sa n skrit Vedas S a m hitas P u r anas Tantr as e tc for
, , , , .
,

the origins a nd l e gend s of its fa ith a nd d evotion but has ,

“
s ought for t he whol e duty of m an in B eng a li trea ti ses
’ ’
like K r it tiv asa s R am ayana Vid yapatia nd C ha ndidasa s
,

Vaisnav a Pa ddv al i and the K dl i Song s of Mukunda

,

rama a nd R am apr asada T hrough a ll this lit era ture

.

th ere has b een a st eady increase in the numb er of gods

a nd godd es ses sa ints and a v ata
,
r as I n som e cases a .

”
1 71
 260 T H E FO L K EL E ME N T I N H I N D U C U L T UR E
-

new int erpretation has been impa rte d to the older

deiti es and h eroes who have th ereby a cquired a n alto
,
’
geth e r fr esh significanc e in the p eopl e s thought and
a ctivity T h er e has b ee n no gen era tion of B enga li
.

history without its own mythology h agiology and ,

a nthology .

T his is p erfectly n a tura l : beca us e the H indu is

funda m e nta lly a n agnostic ie ha s n ev e r b eli ev ed in , . .

th e possibility of huma n int e llig e nc e e v e r to unra v el the

m ysteriou s et ern a l truth s of the univ ers e or to und er ,

st a nd e xc ept n ega tiv e ly

, t h e n a tur e a nd attribut es of
,

G o d a nd th er efor e he has e v e r felt to b e a t compl et e

lib erty to im agine a nd inv ent wh a tso ever G o d or G ods
he choo ses to a dor e H e has not fea red to conc e iv e t he
.

D ivinity a s H e She I t or T hey , H e has worshipped

, .

his D e ity as fa th e r moth er brother si st er sw ee th eart

, , , , ,

lov e r fri end a nd wha t not a nd ha s endowed his o wn

, ,

crea tion or inv ention with a ny a ttributes he lik es for

t he tim e b e ing H e has borrow ed his god lore from th e
.
-

M ongols he has t a ken his god lore from the hill trib es
,
- -
,

he has imbib e d his god lore from the sp eechl ess m es -

sage o f sun shin e a n d snow s a nd he ha s evolv ed hi s ,

god lor e out of his own h ea d and h ea rt H is polythei sm

-
.

or heino theism is based essentia lly on his agnosticism .

Mo th er l and as T he H indu te nd ency to d e ify t he en e rgi es N atur e ,

F orc es or p erson a l attribut es a nd e motio ns has con

struct e d a l l th e gods a nd godd esses of I ndi a pra ctically ,

sp ea king a s so m a ny e mbodim ent s of the v a riou s ph ases

,

of the Country it self a nd of the C ultur e it has dev eloped

throug h the ages A nd the inv e ntion of deiti es has not
.

yet c eased .

T he K night po et R ab indra nath T agor e probably

-

iconocl t in ocio —religious opinion s has b een how

an as s , ,

ev er p r e e min e ntly a n idol a tor na y a polyth e i st in and

,
-

, ,

through his a r t H is c el ebrated hymn (c 1 89 5) to Mother

. .
26 2 T H E F O L K E LE ME N T I N H I N D U CU L T U R E
-

w a s, as ha v e s een in t he foregoing pages o ne Of

we ,

the T aras E n e rgy of A v alok iteshwa r a Bodhi sa ttva in

( )
m edie va l Mahayanic I ndi a and still r ec eiv es wor ship as
T ara in Buddhist C hina a nd Buddhi st japa n is non e ,

oth er th a n M oth erla nd its elf with all its r esources a nd

forc es in natura l agent s and huma n a rt s T his synth etic .

int erpreta tio n cry sta lli z e d in the song Vande M dta r am
(c. is bound to r e m a in the gr ea t est hymn of Folk
I ndia during the twe nti eth c entury

H ail ! M otherland
Va nde M dta r a m I
T h ou art m y m u se, Th yself m y cr eed
I n T hee m y heart and sou l ;
A nd in m y l im b s the spirit Thou
In mi
ne ar m Thou art str ength (Shak ti)
T hysel f h ear t s dev otio n
’
(b hak ti)
T h in e th e im ages b o died fo rth
I n tem pl es one and al l , M other !

Towor ship D urga is to worship M oth erla nd or to ,

wor ship M oth erland is to worship D urga T hi s is the .

cult tha t in div erse form s has b een inv ent ed by the brain
a nd soul of I ndi a from the V edic a e of t he a doration of
g
World—F orc es down to the present epoch of neo T an -

t r ism r epr esented by Bank im cha ndr a and R am ak r i sna

V iv ekana nda 1
.

1
Vide M ax M ull er s R dm ahr ishna
’
H is L ife a nd Teachings

(Scribner ,
N ew York) .
 Ag i r cu l tur a l im pl em ents m anu fact u r ed
fo r Shiva 8 3
, .

Ab l ti
so u d ti l onf co n i ona On con ession, h ara cerem o n ies , 56 7 -
.

36
20 , 1 . Ak b ar ’s pro t ection of H indu ear nin
g l
Ad l y l d H i d p i h
u t er , o n u u n s m en t fo r , an d ar ts, 2 1 8 .

35 2 . Al ipana
Adya ( Ch dika G i D ga)
A

an , au r , ur M ur al painting w it h rice past e, a -

A n im per son ifi cat ion of pr im or dia l chara cter istic I ndian ar t, 1

9 .

ener g y, 1
99 , 2 23 . U sed in decorating G am bhira
A no th er n am e o f r ya T ar a, B u d A t em ples, 1 9 .

dhist go ddess, 8 7 ( no te) .

Wom en ex cel in this art a nd
pro b
ll
Ca ed Ad ya as r st or p rim it i e fi v ab l y inv ented it 1 9 , .

d eity, 63 , 68 . A nna Pr ash ana

l v
C ou nse s Shi a t o tak e to agr icu tur e, l Fir st p r esent a tio n o f r ice t o a chi d , l
223 . 61 .

Dh ar m a predicts h er m arr iage to A l

nim a s, etc in H indu Mytho o
gy and l
v
Sh i a in h er n e t b ir th , I gg x .
R itu a l
Dr ink in g seed of Dh ar m a , b ear s l
B u ffa o , r idden by Y am a, 3 0 , 8 3 ,
V isnu , Br ahm a, and Shi a, 1 99 , v 2 55.

222 . Bu ll , o x, the St eed of S hi a , 2 9 , 44, v

G o ds v
in ited to h ear m u sic in h er 46, 8 3 , 22 2 , 23 0 , 2 3 9
h ono u r , 1 2 6 . v
C o w , d i ine, feeds and pu r i es, fi 28 -
9 .

H indu iz atio n o f, sh o w n b y her m ar l

C o w s, s au gh t er o f, 2 2 7 .

r ia g e ce r em o ny, r st to Dhar m a, fi C rab , fet ches ear th fo r Dh ar m a , 27 ,

l
a t er to S hi a , 8 7 , 2 29 3 0 v -
. 32 .

H ind u iz ed a s Dur ga by R am ai, 20 0 . Cro codil e o f Shiva, 7 9 .

fi
I dent i ed w ith Ch an dik a, B h a ani v C r o w , 22 7 .

a nd D u r ga by Manik D at ta , 2 3 3 . Deer , steed o f V ayu , 2 55 .

ll
I nsta ed in M a d a G am b h ir a and l E l e pha nt , cr eated by Dhar m a to b ear
l
u t im a t e y w or shi l
pped a s C h an th e ear th , 4 2 .

dik a an d reg ar ded a s th e w ife of ridd en by Akso bhya , 1 46 .

Shi a, 68 , 69 v . I ndr a, 22 3 , 2 54 .

Marr iag e o f, conc u ded Dh ar m a’s l Fr og , cr eated as foo d f or th e S er

G a an , 9 9 j .
pen t, 4 3
to Sh i a, h ow p v
er for m ed , 2 3 0 1 -
. G ar u da, King o f Bir ds, r idden by
M entio n ed in Mahayanic B u ddhist V isnu a nd Am oghasiddhi, 1 46 .

w o r k s, 258 . G ibb on, a dviser of Dh arm a, 2 8 , 3 0 ,

d D
’
Pr esidin g g o d ess o f h ar m a s 40 (no te) , 41 .

G a an, 9 5 j . G o at, v ehicl e o f gni, 255 A .

Spr an g fr o m th e b ody, sm i e or sw ea t l G oats, off er ings of, 9 7 , 20 0 .

o f D h ar m a, 9 5 6, 1 9 8 , 2 22
A gnosticism , fund am enta in t he H indu ,
l
eads t o fr ee in entio n and im agi
-
. G oose, ridden by Br a hm a, 1 9 8,
l 2 5tl
v H am sa raja, K ing o f G eese, 22 7 .

v
nati e treatm ent o f gods, 260 . H o r se, r idden by Dharm a, 224 .
2 64 T H E F O L K EL E ME N T I N H I N D U C U L T U R E-

A l
nim a s, etc. , in H indu Myth o l o gy an d At i b
s a (or Dipam k ara S hrijnana)
R it u a — con t
l cont.
H orse r idden by R atnasam bhav a, C o nsu l t s T ara, his inspir er , as to a
1 46 j ou rney to T ibet, 1 90 .

t ak en b y I ndra , 29 . M eets T ara as yogini, 1 9 1 .

th e w hite, 3 0 , 3 1 . R eads th e m inds of r obbers and

L ion, gu ar dia n of th e F ou r Door s, hypnotiz es them thr ough the
4 9 50 gr ace o f T ar a, 1 9 1
-
.

1 idden b
y Du r ga, 3 0 , 3 9 , 23 0 War ships deceased a ncestor at
.

V air o chana, 1 46 .Tib et , 1 9 1 .

Mak ar a, st eed o f G am ga, 3 0 Y o ga feats o f a discipl e, 1 9 2

. .

Mo n key , fo ll ow er o f R am a, 3 5 ttitu d es, sacr ed . A

incar nat io n of B u ddh a, 4 0 (n ote) b haya , su ggesting hope and r eas. A
Mou se, r idden by G an esha, th e S u c su r a nce, 1 8 4 .

cess giver , 29
-
. Pa dm asan a, a sit ting postu re of
O w l , r idd en b y L ak sm i, 3 0 Bu d dha , 1 8 0 , 1 8 1 , 23 6
. .

Peaco ck ( or goose) , r idden by V yakhyana , in ter tw ining the fi n

A m it ab h a , 1 46 .
ger s o f b o th h ands in w orship,
ri dden b y Kar t ik a, G od of War , 181 .

29 . Au l a C h and
Saku l a fi sh , 58 . F ou n d l ing, and fou nder of a new
S er pent, cr e ated by Dh arm a , 43 , creed, 3 3 4 (note) -
.

I gno r ed cast e, 3 4 (no te) .

S n ak e s Per form ed m ir a cl es, 2 4 ( not e) .

H ayagriv a ’s, 1 7 9 , 1 8 0 Preach ed in B engal i, 3 3 4 (note)

.
-
.

M anasa, G o dd ess of, 2 58 S ect of, w orships Mak er al one, but

.

S hiv a ’s, 2 3 0 u ses ido l s, 3 4 ( note

.
) .

T ara s, 1 8 4
’
. Song in his ho no u r , 3 4 5 ( note) -
.

Tir t ha m k ar as , 257 Av al ok itesh w ar a ( Kh a sar pana L okesh

’
.

S w a n , r idden by Br ahm a, 3 0 w ar a) .

T iger, 1 9 2 . Mah ayanic Bu d dh ist god, 1 45 A .

T iger skin o f H ayagriv a , 1 8 0

-
T antr ic god : his attribu tes, 1 7 8 9,
. A -

T or toise , em b l em of for m l ess

Dh arm a , r oo . Distinct ly a Copy of Shiva , 1 8 1 .

l ast su ppo r t of th e ear th , 2 7, 42, E steem ed perh aps ab ov e Bu ddha,

1 77 8 -
.

U l l u k ai, Bir d o f D h ar m a, 4 1 (n ot e) , Firm l y estab l ished in H ar sa Vard

’
ha na s t im e, 1 78 .

A nth ro p o m or p hic ideas o f Fire go ds, M en tioned in B u ddhist T antr ic w orks,

-

th e or ig in of im a ge w o r sh ip , 1 2
-
257 . .

A
A
rat i, or w av e o ffer in , 2 7 , 44
g R esem b l ance to Shiva noted by H inen
.

A r t s, t h e fi ne T hsang, 1 8 6 .

H igh est w a ter m ark r each ed

-
in Wears m itab ha Bu ddha on his head, A
B engal in tw el ft h cen tu r y, 2 1 2 ca u sing H in du s to co nfou nd him
.

L o v e fo r k ind l ed by G am b hir a, 1 7 w ith Sh iva w ear ing G am ga, 1 78 ,

.

A sia tics, ch ar a cteriz ed b y a com m o n 1 80 .

m ent al ity, xi . Av a taras, go ds incar nate, 1 3 7 .

A ssam m o dern B u ddh ist fest i vities r e

sem b l e G am bh ir a, 6 .

A stro l o gica l d et a il in Sh iva w or ship ,

23 5 . B engal i
A tisb a (or Dip am k ar a Shrijnana ) ppreciated a nd m ade l iterary by A
A B u ddhist a scetic, ear l y el ev e n th M oh am m edans, 2 1 7 .

centu ry r ep v e of Tantr ic Despised by B r ahm anas and Raas,

r esent ati j
B u ddhism , 1 89 . 21 7 .

A pract iser o f T antr ic m agic him I m por t ant to fu ture h istorians, 25 6 -

.

sel f, b u t for bade it to o th er M SS , v iii, 26 , 3 1 . .

Bu ddhists, 1 9 2 . N ovel s, xv .
26 6 T H E F O L K E L E ME N T I N H I N D U C U L TU R E -

Bu ddhism — cont Bu ddh ism — cont .

A l
ssem b ies for de ni
tionfi of the faith , U nder l at er Pal as b ecom es sim ply
1 42 . nom inal in B enga l , th e su bstance
Br ahm apas as prim e m in ist er s o f th e b eco m ing identifi ed w ith Shaiv
Pal as fav ou r d ispl a cem ent of ism , 1 70 , 1 7 2 , 1 7 4 .

B u ddh ism b y Sh aiv ism in G au da , V ih aras, Buddh ist m o nasteries, cease

1 66 , 1 6 , 1 6 , 1 0
7 9 7 to b e bu il t u nd er N ar ayanap
. ala,
Chinese , K o r ean , japanese and I ndian w ho b u il ds tem pl es to Shiva in
fo r m s Sim il ar b ecau se of co m m o n st ead, 1 69 .

o r igin , xv xv 1 B u ddhism , Chinese and ap

-
. anese J
C onfu sion of H indu w ith B u ddhist A sin gl e ex pr ession o f a com p r ehen

go ds l eads t o confu sion o f t em siv e cu l t, xv .

pl es, 1 73 . kin to T ant ric a nd Pu r anic H indu A

C ongr esses attended by B u ddhists ism in I ndia , xi .

fr om differ ent co u n tr ies, 1 3 0 B u ddh ists, H indu iz ed, earl y u ntou ch .

u sed to
p r o m o te fr a ter nity am on g ab l es ,
”
20 1 .

B u ddh ist s o f al l sects, 1 3 1 Bu r m ese m oder n Buddhist festivities re .

Dhar m apal a’s to l era nce of H indu ism sem b l e G am bhir a, 6 .

hand icaps B u ddh ism , 1 66 .

D istinction b etw een B u ddhism and

Shaivism l ost u nder l ater Pal as,
72, I 7 3 ,
1
l
E ephan t w or ship, 43 ( n ote) C a ne o f H ea en, 3 8 . v .

v
Fest i ities in ssam a nd B u r m ah r e A
Canon, Bu ddhist :
sem b e G am bh ir a, 6l ssem b ies at R a agriha , 1 4 1 . A l j
v
in se en th centu r y d escr ibed by De nitio n o f th e T r ip itak a, o r Three fi
H inen T h san g and m ar k ing fo d C ano n , 1 42 l .

tr ansition fr om Bu ddhism to Sch ism s o ccu rr ing at the assem b ies, l

ne O H in du ism , 1 3 1 4,
-
1 42 -
.

1 3 1 , 1 54 8 T a ntrism
-
. eads t o di sregard of the l
j
G a an o f D h ar m a , 93 1 0 2 Canon, 1 50 -
. .

G o ds o f, in cor po r ated w ith H indu C aste

go ds, 1 46 , 1 65 I gnor ed in the G a an and G am bhira,
. j
l
I m per sona ity o f, cau se o f dispace I 33 4 l '

m en t by th e m o r e per sona N e er a disintegrating factor, l v x .

re i i l
g ons, V aisna ism an d Shaw v
N ot r eco gniz ed by Au a Chand, 3 4 l
ism , 2 3 .
(no te) .

L ok eshw ar a w or shipped as Shi a , 1 65, O r iginated in effor ts at so cia r econ v l

1 str u ct io n in S en a t im es, 2 1 1 .

Madhya m ik a sect , con n ectin g ink Pr ob ab y a r ecent instit u tion, at l l .

w ith H indu ism th rou gh Ta n Thirty Six castes, 1 9 5 -

.

tr ism , 1 7 5 C erem o ny an d R itua

. l
v
Mahade a s stea thy ent rance into
’
l
b u t ion of Bu ddh a, 1 1 9 , 1 55, 23 7 Al .

Bu ddhist pan theo n , 1 46 Dhar m a, 1 9 7 . .

fi
Modi ca tion o f r e ig ion by r epace l
Adhiv asa , pre im inary cer em onies of l l
m en t o f gods , 1 4, 8 7 ( no t e) an im p o rtant festi a , 1 9 6, 23 1 , . v l
R inging o f b e s and Sin ging o f hym ns ll 2 3 6, 2 3 7 .

v l l
in io ab e du ties, 1 2 4 g nijh am p ( u m pinto res) , 58 . A -
j fi .

Sects arising fr o m assem b ies defi n no in ting t h e i m age, 1 25 l A .

ing t he C anon , 1 42 shes, dau b i n g w ith , 9 , 45, 23 0

. A .

T antr ic form of, gr eat y pr om o ted A v abh r ith a B ath , 1 1 6, 1 3 0 l .

by Dipam kara Shr ijnana , B ada T am asa pr ocessions, 53 .

1 72 . B u rning o f r esin o r incense, 53 , 56.

si l
m i ar to that o f S h a i ism , 58 , 64. 8 6, 8 7 , 1 97 . 23 5, 241 v
C o nfession of sins, 1 3 6, 1 56 ( note) ,
T or t o ise w orsh ip, 43 ( no te) , 1 0 0 1 58 . .

T r inity , 1 3 , 3 2 , 1 3 5 Cr ossin g th e Vaitar ani, 9 9, 1 96, 1 97

.
.

U posatha , Buddhist sabbath s, 1 46 Dehara b h anga, 99 , 2 26 9 . - - .

 I NDE X S U BJ E CT S 2 67

C erem o ny and R itu al — cont . Ch am u nd a ( C ha ndi) — co nt .

Dh ar m apada , 1 00 , 1 3 6 , 1 9 5 . Mentio ned in M ar ka ndeya Chandi as .

Dhar m apad uk a, 9 8 , 1 0 0 , 1 20 , 1 3 6, a w ife Sh i a , 2 54 of v

1 9 5. Protecto r o f Bu ddh a’s r e igio n , 1 73 l .

Dh ar m a w o r sh ip, ist o f cer em o nies

-
l l
T ant ric r it u a s o f descr ib ed in M d l a ti
fr om S h u ny a. Pu r d pa , 1 9 6 7 -
. M ddha v a , I S7 A .

or d er of , 9 8 . h andi ( C h andika, dya, Ch am u nda, A

Dhenki Ch u m ana, or R eceptio n of D u r ga, G au r i)
N ar a da o n his Dh enki, 59 60 , -
v
Di in e e ner gy in fu spendou r , 3 9 , ll l
60 —
1 . 68 .

D v arayaga an d Par iv ar av al i, 24 1 . l
F ou r ish ed a s Pr ach anda in C h andi
F o u r G a tes, 3 0 1 -
.
pu r a , 20 6 .

j
G a an w or ship, o r der o f , 7 4 5 -
. ll
I n st a ed as Adya a nd t h en as
G am ar k ata, t r ee w or sh ip, 1 33 , 2 40 1
- -
. Ch andika in G am bh ira tem pe, l
G am b hir a w o r ship, or d er o f , 51 . 69
G hata sthapa n a , insta atio n o f th e
-
ll M ent io ned in S hu ny a Pu r i na , 2 58 .

G ha ta , 51 2 -
. N ar a srm hi, a for m o f, 1 1 2 .

G riha darsh ana ,

-
ook ing in side a l R epresent ed a s th e dau ghter o f a
h ou se to pr o tect it f ro m e i ih vl l
H indi ( ow est c ass o f H indu ) , l
fl u ences, 9 7 .
31 .

H indo l an a, Sin ging H indo l a, 9 7 T em pl e of , att ach ed to ever y H indu .

jagarau , passing sl eepl ess nigh ts, 1 3 , h ou se u nd er Moh am m edan ru l e,

7 6 s 7 9 , 9 0 , 1 1 7 9 1 2 4, 1 2 6 1 23 2 .

K u nd a seva, w o r ship
-
ping a pit o f Worsh ipped as V a r a T ar a by j
sacr ifi ci l fi re, 9 7 M ah ayanist s, 1 8 4
a . .

M ar r iage o f dya, 9 9 , 2 3 0 1 A C har ity or al m s giv ing -

.
-

Mash ana nach a, dance o f K al i, 55 6 so k a s fea st o f atonem ent and -

. A ’

M att ed h air , w ear ing, 9 , 1 3 2 ch ar ity, 1 56 (n ot e) . .

Pash chim a U daya , 9 9 F eeding of w or shipper s, 56 , 1 55,

.

Pha ll u s o f Sh iva , th e m aking , 235 6 1 57 -

. .

t h e w o r ship, 2 3 6 7 , 23 8 G ifts o f m o n ey and pear l a t G am bh ir a

-
.

Phu l a bh anga, b r eak in g of fl ow er s,

-
a nd G a an , 1 59 j .

H ar sa V ardh a na s spl endid gifts t o

’

54 5 -

Phu l kh el a, fl ow er pl ay (fir e cer e m en o f r el igion and t h e p

-
oo r ,
1 57 8
)
m o ny . 1 55 -
.

R akh i V a ndh ana, thr ead tying, 1 3 3 , C hil dr en -

2 4 1 ( no t e) . D ance b efore th e tem pl e , 4 , 247 .

R am a tar pan a , 9 9 V ow s and O b serva nces o f, H indu iz ed

.

Sfim sol e Chhada, l oosing th e sacred u nd er Pal a kings , 20 2 .

fi sh , 58 . hr istm as Day, H indu eq u ival ent of,

S ing in g, 44 s 4 8 : 49 , I 2 7 1 34 ‘ .

S pr rnk l m g w it h h o l y w ater , 1 2 3 Chur ning of th e O cean by the G o ds, 29 . .

Stf ach ar a, tr aditio na l cerem onies at C ivil iz at io n , H in d u

-

m arr ia ges, 2 3 1 Misu ndersto od by su per fi cia l ob

.

Wine drinking, 9 , 1 1 , 255

- ser ver s, 1 1 4 . .

C ey l o n Th ree e p o chs o f, 2 1 5 .

Dh a r m a high l y rev ered in, 6 C ol o ur no cr it er ion o f ra cial statu s, 2. .

V ana Path a a nd Par itta , festivities C om e dy o f er r or s in Sh a iva l egend,

sim il ar t o G am bhir a, 6 2 48 51 .
-
.

Ch aitr a festivit ies o f O r issa, a l o cal C o m m er ce gr eatl y dev e l oped u nder

ed itio n o f the B enga l G am b hir a, 5 t h e Pal as a nd C h o l as, 1 62 . .

C h am u nda ( Ch andi) Concent r at io n, o f th e L or d o f G ods, 2 8 .

A H ind u T a ntr ic go ddess w orshipped C onfessio n

b y Bu ddh ists, 1 88 A n essential to ab so l u tion in G am
.

D escr ipt io n of, 1 8 8 b hira r itu al , 20

. .

Ma sk dance of, based o n Pu r dna s,

- Fail ing confession , ex posu r e, 2 0 .

2 45, 2 48 F est iva l for ato nem ent fou nded by

°

par apher na l ia o f, 1 1 1 sok a , 1 56 (no t e) . A .

26 8 T H E F O L K E L E ME N T I N H I N D U C U L T U R E -

C o nfession —cont .

G am bhira pr act ice of confessio n b e

for e S h iv a prob ab l y r el ic o f Da ces and dancing
A so k a s
’
festi a , 1 58 v l l idh a , . 24 5 sh oo tin g post u re, .

H in ayana B u ddhists h e d tha t co n Ch ar t dance, 24 5l .

fession ab so ed from fo u r k indslv C hi dr en , 4 , 247 l .

o f sin , 1 6 j dance o n
’
3 . E ff ec t o f N il an asa s
Pra ct ised bi m o nth y by Bhiksu s o r
-
l Risab ha De a, 1 23 , 1 3 7 v .

Bu ddhist ascetics, 1 56 (no te) F a se go ddesses d a nce to Shi a,

’
. l v
C o opera t io n , pr actica y incu cated by
-
ll l
t he G am b h ir a, 2 0 .G am bhir a m ask dances fou nded on -

-
v
C o o per at i e w o r sh ip, 1 3 r K ing V ana’s, 245
. .

Co r ps , dances and r itu a , 8 1 , 9 0 , 1 8 7 , l

M ask dancing fou nded o n cl assrc
g
-

1 3z d escr iptions, 245 .

C o sm o go ny , H ind u , descr ib ed in ru st ic M o der n dancing dif er s but s ight y l l

h ym ns, 2 6, 2 7 , 3 2 . fro m traditiona , 245. l
Co tton , sow n by S h i a , a nd spun by v Pr a m u kh a , 24 5 .

his w ife, 3 8 . Pra tyanik a da nce, 245 .

Co w and its pr o du ct s S h ak in g th e h ead, 1 22, 245 .

A sh es o f dr ied cow d u n g u sed in S h a i and Sthana Panchaka, 245

-
l .

ado r nm ent o f S h i a , 4 5 S hi a a s patr on god o f dancing, 1 23 v . v .

in pr epar atio n f or t h e V ina s d ancin g b efore Shi a, 1 0 6 7,

’
v -

v anafoda , 1 0 5, 1 0 6 1 2 2 , 2 44 7 .
-
.

Co w d u n g as fue , 1 0 5
-
l Viv idh ak ar a, cu tting m any
.
gur es, fi
u sed to b esm ea r t h e cou r t ar d o f 245
y
th e tem pe, 8 8 l D ancing h a (panda )
. its decoration -
ll l
-
v
Panch a ga ya , m i t u re of m i k , cu r d s,x a nd i gh tin g, 6 2 5 l l -
.

x
gh ee and t he tw o e cr et io ns o f D ates, T im es an d S ea sons
th e co w , u sed in r itua p ur ifi ca { fgd dh a ( u ne u y) l J -
J l
t ion, 2 3 6 .
S o w ing o f Sh i a , 3 8 v .

S acred co w ( K api a) , w h ich su ppor ts l str o o g ica y ausp icu ous date t o b e A l ll
th e w or d , 28 9 l -
.
se ected for m aking the p ha us l ll
U r in e o f cow u sed in pu r i cation, o f S h i a , 23 7 fi v .

1 9 6, 1 97 .
C hgitr a (M a rch p r i) -
A l
v
C o w s, gi ing away o f, 240 A di ina , ninth day o f dar k ha f,
.
J l
C ow r ies ( conch sh e s) , sm a est cur
-
ll 1 1 7 , 1 40 ll .

r eney, 1 9 0 .
C h adaka post cer em o ny, ast day of -
l
C r ab , fetch er o f ear th for th e Cr eat io n, m ont h , 51 , 8 1 .

27 , 3 2 G a an fest i a , ast Six days, 7 5 j v l l .

C r eatio n G am bhir afest i a , ast fiv e days, 51 v l l

C r ea tor afr aid to cr eate the w or d, 88 l .

Mar r iage of Shi a , ab ou t end o f v

crea t es him se f, 40 , 1 9 7 , 2 22l m o nth , 8 7 .
.

E ar th , cr eat ed fr o m th e th o f the fil
Par sh w a nat h a s conception, four th
’

b o dy, 40 ( no te) , 1 9 8 d ay o f dark ha f, 1 3 9

.
l .

E ffected by m ed itatio n , 40 i u m inatio n, forenoon of four th

. ll
l
Story a s t o d in G am b h ir a hym ns , 2 7 , d ay o f dark h a f, wh en m oon l
3 2, 3 9 h ad enter ed V ishakha, 1 3 9 .

Water , th e sa i a of Dharm a, 40
lv S ih iyatr a, day o f fu m o on, 9 1 .
ll .

l
C u t u r e, H indu S hi a ’s festi a , day o f fu m oon, v v l ll
C o m m u n ity of t h ou gh t b etw een 2 3

g
.

l
c asses an d m ass es , 2 52 Sw in ing cer em ony , day of fu. ll
l v l
D iff er ent y de e o ped in N or th and m oo n , 2 4 2 .

S o u th , 2 1 6 7 -
.
T hir d d ay of br igh t ha f, au spicm us l
G am b hir a effecti e y r a ises stand ard v l for asking b oons fro m G auri,
of in B enga , 1 6 l . 243 .

Mak ing o f co ntr ib u t ed t o by m asses C onfession , o n fu m oon and new ll -

l
no ess than c asses, l x
m oo n da ys, 1 56 (n ot e)
. .
2 70 T H E FO L K E L E ME N T I N H I N D U C U L T UR E -

Dh enki, popu l ar rev er ence for , 61 . D u rga ( C h andi, Adya)— cont .

D h enk im angal a and Dh anki C h u M o st popu l ar m odern goddess of

-

maria , 59 61 -
. H indu Benga , 261 l .

D ining as a socio re igiou s fu nction, 5, -

l
Mo th er o f K am adev a and sends him
1 29 , 1 3 0 , 1 3 1 , 1 2 , 1
3 33 a ft er Dhar m a , 1 9 8 9 .
-
.

Dinner par ty of th e go ds, 5, 1 3 2

-
Pr ocession o f a t ab u tio n cerem ony, . l
v
D i ina tion cerem onies 1 20 1 -
.

Mediu m ship, 8 9 , 9 0 R ides a io n and h as ten hands, 3 0

. l .

Paddy cu ti atio n, 57 l v T ar a, h er T antr ic Bu ddhist shadow ,

.

Pat b han ga, 8 6

-
1 71
. .

l
Phu k adh an, 7 8-
Worship of, prom oted by H indu
.

Door s of th e tem pe l
pr inces u nder the Moh am m edans,
j
G a an : O penin g cerem ony, 44 23 2 . .

l
sa u tation ser ice b efo r e, 49 v
Du stin g the tem pe with the hair , 48 9 . l -
.

G am b hira— fou r in nu m b er , 7 0 .

Dr am at ic w o r k show ing T ant ric ih

fl u ence :
M al a ti M d d ha v a ( eigh th centu ry) , in E c ecticism , R e igiou s
-
l l
w hich th e h ero seek s a id o f T an C u m inat ed in th e r eign of H ar sa l
tr ic m agic in h is o e m ak ing, Vardh ana , 1 52 3 l v - -
.

1 87 8 -
. H e ped forw ar d u nder I s am ite p r es l l
N rig d na nda (se enth centu ry) , in v
sure , 2 1 8 .

w h ich Sh i a a nd D u r ga r esto re v ’
H inen T h sang s testim ony to in con
th e dead t o ife, 1 8 6 l
n ectio n w ith H ar sa s re i
’
gious. l
Dr inking, so cia , 1 2 9 l festi a s, 1 54 5, 1 59
. v l -
.

D r u m s, Dr u m st ick s Mahipal a endow s Br ahm anas to pro

Dam ar u , sm a h ou r g ass sh aped ll
pitiate B u ddha, 1 7 2 -
l -
.

dr u m fa ou red b y Sh i a, 9 , 3 9 , v N ar ayanapal a , a stau nch Bu ddhist , v

4 51 1 2 5, 2 23 e nd o w s Sh ai ism , 1 67 8 v -
.

l
Dh ak a , o ng dr u m , m a de o f m ango b u i ds tem pes to Shi a , bu t p ro l l v
w o od a nd cow h id e eather , 3 7 , ides th at th ey sha be free a so l v ll l
52, 53 , 1 2 6 to B u ddhists, 1 69
. .

Dh ak a stick s, m ade o f kar av i w o od,

-
Ram ai Pandit int r oduces H indu -

36 . a o ng w i th Bu ddh ist d eities and l

Mr idangas, sm a dr u m s, 9 a dap ll
ts H indu for m s, 1 9 4 . .

Dr u nk enness as a co ndition of w orship, Pa a kings ec ecticism pa ed the w ay

’
l l v
9 . fo r absor ptio n o f Bu ddhism by
D u r ga ( Chandi, Adya) S h ai ism , 20 2 v .

A nam e o f fi r e in th e M a nda k a Up a E gypt

m m d , 2 53
'

E gyptian gods sim i ar to I ndian, 7

. l .

As w ife o f S hi a in po st Vedic itera v

F esti ities he d sim i ar to G am bhira, -
l v l l
ture h as de nite fo r m and r u es 7 fi l .

th e go d s, 254 E ephan t . l
v
C rea ti e e ner gy o f G od , and w ife o f C r ea ted by Dharm a to bear u p the
v
Shi a , 8 4 , 13 4, 1 9 8 , 254 ea r th , 4 2 . .

I denti ed with fi d ya b y R am ai, 1 98 , A

H er ds o f, said to ha e sa uted Bu ddha, v l
42 (note) .

M oth er l and
b y B ank im chandra W orsh ipped by B u ddh ist Tantrists,
Chatter i, 2 61 2 j -
.
4 2 (note) .

ll v
I u si e pow er s of, 2 3 4 . E ndo w m ent of a nd for th e ser ice of l v
v
I n oca tion to at m arriage cer em ony, v
S hi a , 1 67 8 -
.

23 0 . E n er gy ( Sh ak ti) em b o died in the gods

J S hi a in restoring to ife th e
o ins v l an d go ddesses, 258 -
9 .

B u ddhist Jim u tav ah a na, 1 8 6 .

Mentioned in aina A r ista nem i J F .

P u r d gia , 257 .

Mentioned in Mahayanic Bu ddhist Fa l se Mothers l egend of th e, ,

1 22, 248

w ork s, 2 58 .
51 .
 I N DE X : S U BJ E CTS 27 I

Fast ing F ire Wor ship— cont .

A l
b so u te ab stinence, 8 0 Sh i a th e G o d o f Fir e in V edic tim es,
. v
Av oid ance o f fi sh and m eat 7 5 8 , . .

l
E ating b o i ed r ice and gh ee o n y, 76 , V igrah apal a’s coin s su ggesti e of fi re l v
77 w or sh ip, 1 67 .

fr u it on y, l Worship co ndu cted w ith arge sca e l -

l
F eastin g . 8 . 9 , 1 0 . 56 1 3 2 3 , 1 55 cer em o ny and p o m p, 1 1 .

F irst C au se
v l
F esti a s (a nd see G a an , G am bhira, j
Dh ar m a as, 2 7 .

Sah iyatr a) prays to , 63 (note) .

Adi ina Risabh a (jaina) , 1 1 7

J Fo k . l
Bab y o n, 7 l . Base Shi a w or ship o n Pu r dg ms as v -

B acchic ( G reece) , 6 7 w e as on m o dern t reat ises, 251

-
. ll .

C ar ( H ind u ) , 1 47 . Dom inat ed m at ters o f fait h in Pa a l

C ar , or Ch ar iot ( Bu ddhist) , 1 3 , 1 1 9 , days, 1 69 .

1 2 4 . I 47 . 2 E ecte d G opa a , 1 65 l l .

Chaitr o t sav a ( B u ddh ist) , 1 3 , 1 1 9 , 1 24 , K ing s an iety to pea se, 1 66

’
x l .

1 54 6 -
. I n en t e d de eit i s fo r h e p in ife
’
s v l l
l
Do a yatr a ( Bu ddhist) , 1 56 (no t e )
-
b att e, 253 , 258 . l .

F ir e (V edic) , 1 1 2 -
F ol k E l em ent
. in H indu C u l tu r e, -

of N edapoda , M edh apo da and The

A gch i ( Bu ddh ist) , 1 56 (note) ssist ance ack now edged , v ru , iii . A l x .

l l
F o ra ( Sh aiv ist) , 2 42 3 B ased on fir st h a nd st u dy , v ii, iii
. -
v .

l
F ow ery C ar ( S h aiv ist) , 1 1 7 B ib io gra p hy , x ii iii . l -
x .

l
T em pe (Sh aiv ist) , 1 1 7 , 2 42 , 2 43 Com pem entar y t o Positiv e B a ck . l
v
H ar est (V edic) , 1 0 1 1 g r ou nd , v ii
-
. .

I d ( M o h am m ed a n) , 7 D iacr itica m ark s, xu i l .

M adana, G o d of L o e, 2 4 2 v
L im it ed to stu dy o f Shai a cu m
. v -

M ad an otsav a 1 87 S h aktaism re atio ns w ith B u d

. l
M ara V inash ak a ( C ey on, B u ddh ist) ,
-
dhism l in B en g a i speak ing l -

1 47 . E astern I n dia , iii v .

N a ndish w ar a ( aina) 1 4 0 (note) J O b ser a tio n s su ggested by .th e v

O si is ( gyp ) , 7
r E t . u t h or
’
s stu die s, x x i A -
.

Pa r itt a ( C ey o n) , 6 l Po itica d et ai s and dat es pu r pose y

. l l l l
Par inirv ana ( Bu ddhist) , 1 40 , 1 47 , 1 52 restr i cted , xi . .

Q ui q l
n u ennia ( B u ddhist ) , 1 3 1 4 , 1 56 9 R esu t of pr e im inary spadew or k in -
. l l
Sh ak yasim ha s b ir thd ay ( B u ddhist) ,
’
dat a o f H indu socio o gy, l x .

1 1 8 9 ! I 2 3 ' 1 3 59 1 52
‘
R u es ob ser e d in u otat io n a nd t e
° l v q
Sh ash am k a s (S h aiv ist S au ra) , 1 59 ference, xi
’
-
. .

’
v
S hi a s in Phal go o n ( Sha iv ist) , 1 1 7 Side igh ts for stu dents, .
-
l xv .

Sk andag ov in d a (Sh aiv ist) , 1 1 7 S ou r ces of in fo r m a tio n, xii, iii, xiv . x .

Spr in g ( aina) , 1 1 7 , J 1 52 St u dies of Mr H aridas Pa it, iii . . l v .

Sw ingin g 24 2 V a isnav a cu t no t inc u ded in scope, . l l

Tir th am k ar as, bir th and em ancipation vui .

J
of ( a ina ) , 1 1 7 , 1 3 8 Fo k ore , H in du , as an int er pr etation
. l l -

V é na Patha ( C ey o n ) , 6 l o f tr anscen dent a concep tions to l

V asa nta , S p r ing G o d , 2 42 th e p eo pe , , xi
. l x .

l l
F i th , w o r d cr eated from , 40 ( no te) Fo k l or ists . l -

F ir e, sacr ed, in w or ship, 23 7 , 2 3 8 Beng a , Viii . l .

F ire feats, co m m em o ra ting th e bu rning I nitia tio n a m on g the fo k a necessary l

of a p a i io n, 1 55 6 vl -
ua i catio n , i
. x q lfi .

ir e go ds and t heir w i es, th e r ea

-
v
Pa it, Mr H ar idas, specia stu dies of , l l . l
o r igin o f id o atry, 1 2 l iii, ix, . v x
F ir e Wo rship F o k r e igion l -
l
F ire w or shipped u nd er ar iou s form s Par ent o f cu t of Wor d Forces and
v l l -

a nd nam es, 1 1 , 1 2 , 253 it s de e op m ents, xv i . v l .

K u nda se a cerem on s
-
iv
e o f D h ar m a
’
s Sti acti e in creatio n , adap tation ll v
G ajan, 9 7 . and re int er p ret atio n , xv i -
.
27 2 TH E FO L K E L E MENT I N H I N D U CU L T UR E -

j
G a a n C erem onies— cont .

5th D ay Fa sts and Ni a l -

puj a
j
G a an C er em onies cant.
1 5 t D ay
.
S annyasi dhar a, -
or Sel ec
Pat bh anga, scr am b l e for fr uit, -

tion 86 .

Marking v ol u nteer vo tar ies w ith S ongs an d hym ns to S hiva , 8 1 5 -

sand a l
paste , or by shavin g , 7 5
-
C u l tiv ation so ng, 8 2 4 .
-
.

M usical pr ocession and bath in g, Par vati’s b ra cel et s song, 84 5 -

75 T o r tu r es, or physical au sterities,

S u pper avoiding m eat a nd fish , as in G am bh ir a, 8 1 , 8 5

75 B anti jham p, um p in
g 0D j
2 na D a
y : N ijhad kam An, or S b av k niv es or spik es, 85
-
.

in
g Dh u n a Po dana, inhal ation of
E ssen tia l to accept ance, 76 r esin sm ok e, eith er seated or
.

Per fo r m ed o n l atest d ate fo r a c ha nging h ead dow nw ar d (cf .

ta nce o f sannyasis, 7 6 a gnijhém p

? 58 9 ) 86 7
cep . P1
.
- - -

R it es ob l igator y on sannyasis, K antajham p, j u m ping on -

76 . th o r n s 8 6 , .

3 r d D ay : H a v isya 6 th D ay Ch adak a pu a -
j
Br ahm ana (pr iest) b egins his Day of exciting cer em o nies, such
o ffi ce, 7 6 . as V é nafo da, no w f or bidden,
j
G a a ne Brah m ana init ia t es 87, 1 0 3 1 08
j
G a an e sannyasis, 7 6 7 Marr ia ge of Shiva celebrated in
-
.

Sh iv a , su b stitu te for per m an som e p l aces, 8 7, 99 , 20 0 1 , 229 -

ent id o l , 7 6 (no te
) 31 . .

G ar l and s o f t h r ea d b all s (u t ta Origin o f V anafoda— l egend of

ri ya) , 7 6 7
-
. ana , 1 0 6 7 , 2 44 7 v -
.

Ghata sthapana , install ation of G a an of D har m a j

S h iv a ’s w a ter jar , 7 6 -
for m of w or ship introdu ced by
. A
Worship and singing of hym ns, R am ai Pa ndit, 1 9 5
77 A di B u d dh a
’
s w orship call ed

4 th D ay : Ma h a ha v isya Dh ar m a s G a an, 225

’
j .

Day of fu ll cer em o nia l w or ship, nnu a l and occasional form s, 9 6 A .

77 B ased o n co des m o r e ancient than

Divination by th e Phu l kadhan R am ai’s, 9 3 -
.

8 B u l
i d i D l e to song
’
n
c em o y, 77 , 7
er .n g of h ar m a s tem p
J
agat a n , pa ssing of sl eepl ess and m u sic, 2 25 .

n igh ts ( 1 e w ith festivities an d

. . B u il ding song , 2 26 .

m err y m ak in g) , 7 6, 79 , 2 3 8 9
-
Caste differ ences ign or ed by D harm a, -
.

L igh t ing o f N il a s tem pl e , 8 0

’
1 95 . .

Processio n r o u nd the d istr ict 7 8 C er em o n ies cover tw elve days, 96 , . .

V erse m aking com pe tit io ns, 7 9

-
Deh ara b h anga (pu ll ing d o w n the . -

Wor shipof Shiva’s cr ocodil e, 7 9 al tar ) , de l ightfu l and b istori

80 . ca ll y int er est ing cerem ony, 9 9 .

5th D ay Fasts and N il a puj a D ehd r d bhang a, song o f I sl am iz ed

-

Abso l u te fast , 8 0 . Bu dd hism , 224, 226 9 -

.

Assistance o f p ain ter s in m aking Dhar m a , b eing for m l ess, r e r esented

p
u pfor p r o cessions and dances, by th e im age of a tor to ise, 1 0 0
80 . Dh ar m a N ir anja na, p r esidi ng deity,
Fancy dr ess processio ns, 8 0
-
the sa m e a s A di ( Pr im itiv e)
.

H indu s J oin w ith M oh am m edan s, B u ddha. 9 3 4 . 1 9 4

80 . Dhar m a ’s aw ak ening, g8 , 9 9 .

Mask dances l ike th ose o f G am

-
Dh arm apa du k a , sand a l s of Dhar m a,
b hira o f M al da, 8 0 m o der n for m
. o f Dh ar m ap ada,

N il av ati puj a, l ighting Shiva s

'
-
foot p r int s o f Dh a r m a , 9 8 , 1 0 0 ,
tem p l e with l am ps b ur ning 1 95 .

gh ee, a cer em ony op en ing D har m a m a ng a l a gives d etail s of -

h eav en s ga tes to w om en , 8 7 w or ship, 20 0

’
. .
274 TH E FO L K E L E ME N T I N H I N D U CU L TU R E -

G am b hir a, Adyé ’s— conh G am b h ir a, A dya s— cont

’
.

C a ll ed G a m bhir a in N o r th , G aj an in Ph u l kh el a and o th er fi r e diver sions

West, N il a in E ast B engal , 2 , co m m em o r a ting th e b u r ning of

5, 61 2 -
. th e pav il ion at K anau , 1 55 6 j -
.

G am bhir a prob ab l y everyw h er e Po tent factor of m ass edu cat ion, 1 4 -

.

o rigin a ll y, 62 . Pr actised to pl ease t he god a nd to

Sahiyatra in O r issa and M idn a o b ta in h is fav ours o f h eal th and

por e, 61 2 -
. l o ng l ife, 4 , 53 .

C ast e r u l es ignore d , 1 3 3 4 Pr ohib itio n o f co ndu ct disr espectful

-
.

C o nfession of sins b efo r e Sh iv a pro t o th e go ds, 5, 56 7 -

.

A
b ab l y r el ic of sok a ’s a to n em ent Pr o m o tes national spir it, 1 6 .

festiva l , 1 56 (no te) , 1 58 R aises t o ne o f th ou ght and standard

.

C o nnected w ith t h e w or shipof Sh iva, o f cu l t u r e, 1 6 .

41 S ev enth centu r y cel eb r at ions de

C onno ted al l th e G a an festiV ites o f j scr i b ed b y Ch inese visitor s, 1 3
West Bengal , 5 . 14 .

A
Devote es o f u l a C hand pr om inent, Sh a iv a infl u ence p redom inant , b ut

33 5
-
T a ntr ic Bu ddh ism th e backbone,
j
E n oyed by S hiv a, his fam il y and 1 69 .

o ther g o ds, 4 . S im il ar festiv ities form er ly held in

E nr ich es l angu age and l iteratu re, C eyl on , G reece, Babyl on, E gyp t,
16
. et c , 6 7 .
-
.

E xtends al l ov er Ben ga l a nd O r issa Specim ens of th e sal u ta tion songs,

a nd ev en t o A
ssam , B u rm a an d 2 7— 44
B h u ta n ex t end ed pr ob ab l y to S pr ead o f, fr om sia to E uro p e and A
T ib et , 5 6 -
. Afr ica , 6 .

F ou n ded on th e S a nsk rit Pu r ana s a s S tu dy o f, rev ea l s h ow Shaivism has

w ell as o n v er nacu l ar tr eat ises, a ssim il at ed b o th B u ddhi sm and
2 51 . ainism , 2 5 J .

G eographica l distr ib u tion— genera ll y sh ow s t h e im p o r tance of v erna

E ast o f th e G a nges as G am b hir a, cu l ar l iteratu r e in histor ical r e
and el sew her e u nd er o th er nam es, sear ch , 2 5 .

61 2
-
. Ta ntric in fl u en ce am ply traceabl e in
G erm s of the w orshipto b e fou nd in t h e cerem o nies, 1 88 .

Bu ddhist fest iv ities h el d in G am bh ir a cer em on ies

ho nour of b o th H indu and r st D ay : G h ata B har a
B u ddhist d eit ies, 1 47 , 1 55, 1 58 9 F ill ing t he ja r w ith water a
-
. ,

G ol dsm ith s o f o l d G au da , m igr ating sym b o l o f th e in fil ling p ow er -

to K u dm u n in Bu r dw an, took o f t h e go d to b e w orship ped,

w ith t h em th e G am b hir a, 6 2 51 . .

I nspires u nl etter ed po e ts, 1 7 G enerally hel d the day befor e

.

K now n per so nall y to th e au tho r for t h e C hhota T am asa, 51 .

tw enty y ear s, x iii . G h ata (jar , pitcher ) , em b l em of

L o tus o ff er ings in, 41 (note) th e w o r ship
.
ped god, 51 .

M ak er of poet s, 1 5 . filled after du sk , then in

M al da G am bh ir a b est preser v es ori st all ed , 52 .

gim al ch aract er , 62 z a d D ay : Chh o ta T am asa ( L esser

.

Masking or disgu ise as god s favou red F estivities)

b y r oyal ty, 1 3 N o fo rm a l cerem onies, 52
. .

l egendary origin of, 1 22, 1 48 Wor shipof H ar a Parvati begins -

51 . and vo l u ntary Bhaktas take

sp read of, 1 4 . u ptheir vow s, 53 .

Milt o n’s Cam u s dances su ggestive of 3 r d D ay Bada Tam asa ( G reater

G am bhir a, 6 7 (note) -
F est iv ities).

O r ganiz ers pay great a ttentio n to B egin w ith H ara Parvati w or -

th eir secu l ar int erests, 3 ship . 53 .

Pal it , Mr H ar idas, describ es his fi r st

. D ancing pr ocession of Bhaktas
im pr essio ns of, ix . in fancy dress, 53 .
 I N DE X : S UBJ E C T S 27 5

G am b hir a cer em onies— cont G am b hir a o f th e ru stics in V arendr a ,

.

Ba d a T am asa ( G r eat er o r N o r th er n B e n ga l
3 r d D ay
F est iv ities) — cont . b so l u t e ab sence o f l u xu r y, 8 8 A .

D ar t s in ser ted in th e bo dy and C h ief sa nnyasi, or G u ni, acts as

th e o u ter end s set on fi r e , 53 pr iest , 8 8 . .

Dr essing o f H anum an , 54 am b iir a h o u ses o ften d il ap

é
. idated , -

o f K al i, 55 6 -
. 8
M ash an a d ance of K al i, 55 6 G h o st w orship pr ev ail s, a nd a t th e
-
.

M ask pl ay o f H an u m an ’s b u rn
-
G am b hir a o u tshin es th at of
ing o f C eyl o n, 53 4 -
Shiva , 8 9
. .

M inor m ask dances, 55 -

G h o sts and sp
. ir it s su ppo sed to a t
Pr o cession a nd cer em ony of ten d t h e ja garana ( nigh t ce l e
Ph u l a b hang a, 54 5
- -
b r at ions) , 8 9
. .

Son gs cr it iciz in g Sh iv a , 55 M ashan, o r C o rpse D ance .

d en ou ncing the w ick ed , 55 w ak enin g t he cor pse , 9 0 . A .

U se o f incense to appease K al i, Bring ing it into th e tem pl e, 9 0 .

56 . M ediu m ship, o r possession by gh o st

Wav e offer ings and ill um ination
-
o r go d , 8 9 90 -
.

o f t h e t em p l e, 55 .Possession by the l oca l d eity, 90 1 -

.

ay : Ahar a p S h v a s cu l tiv atio n cerem o ny, 90

i ’
th D ujaz
4
- .

-
j
h ar a pu a, o r w or sh ipo f a b am So l o m a sk da ncm g , 9 0 -
.

b o o post h u n g w ith m a n go , G am bhir a organiz atio n

b anana b l osso m s, e tc , 5, 51 , Bh ingan, th e b u dge t a nd su b scr ip
.

t ion l ist o f t h e G a m bhir a, 68

56
-
. .

Cerem o ny o f hom a, 56 C ontro l of each G am b h ira b y a M an

.

Dh enk i ch u m ana , advent of the

- d al a (headm an of V ill age) , 66 .

sa ge N ar a da on a E ndow m en ts or g rants of l and t o

dh enk i, or h u skin g o l d G a m bhiras by z am indar s,

peda l , 59 60 66 7 -
- .
.

descr ib ed in S hu ny a Pu r w h ich fo rm er ly paid for th e w or

’

d aa , 60 .
ship ,
n ow insu fricien t , 67 .

sim il ar to th e D henk i F ines fro m social cu l pr its and l egacies

m a ng al a cer em o ny o f fr om those dy ing W itho u t h eir s
Dhar m a ’s G a an, 59 h el pto fi n ance the G am b h ira, 67
j .

A
.

F eeding o f Br ahm a nas and vir G ener al ssem b l y

( C hh atr isi) o f
G am bhir as, 66
gins, 56 . .

I nh a l a t io n o f sm ok e o f b u r nin g Moder n G am bhir as no t o ften en

r e S in w h il e hanging h ead dow ed , 67 .

A
do w nw ar d ( g n ijh am p) , 58 9 -N ew G am bhiras du e to Spl its in M an -
.

S acre dness o f th e gr o u nd after d al a fam il ies, 6 7 8 -

.

ar e cer em ony, 56 7 of an am ateu r n a t u r e call ed

-
.

sam sol e C hh ada, rel ease of th e S akh er , or pl easure G am

sam so l e fi sh , 58 b hiras, 68
.
.

sim il ar t o t h e G a a n cer e j
Vaithak a, or genera l m eet in g and
m o ny o f cr ossing th e co u r t o f th e G am b hir a, 6 6, 68 .

V ait ar a n i, 59 G am bhir a T em pl e
.

Sh iv a s cu l tiv at io n o f paddy (r ice)

’
ppo int m ents of in t he past A
en acted a nd t h e p rosp ect o f dorned by paper l ot u ses for A
t h e y ear s cr op div in ed , 57 practical reaso ns, 63 4
’
-
. .

V ol v ah i, special im pr ov ised song s ig h ted by ea r th en cu ps bu r ning

t o ap pro pr ia te m u sic, 57 8 m u star d o il , 64
-
. .

5th D ay : C h ad ak a puj a (sw inging O pen ir on l am ps ( cho m a ck as)

-

o r w hir l ing) su s ended or o n st ands, 64 5

p .

H el d for m er l y o n l a st day o f th e Pictu res draw n o n cl o th s, 6 5 .

G am b hir a or G a an , 51 , 8 7 j Sack cl o th cou ch for the Mandal a

.

N ow ill ega l , 8 7 , 1 0 8 . and other g en tr y , 64 .

O rigin of— l egend o f V ina, 1 0 6 S eats no t pr ov ided fo r th e pu b

71 l ic, 63 , 64 .
2 76 T H E F O L K E L E ME N T I N H I N D U C U L T U R E -

G am bhir a T em pl e— cont . apesh a (G o d o f S u ccess)

A ppoin tm ents o f in th e past— cont . Disgu ise as G az i, 2 24 .

Sh ad e canopies gr a du a ll y in tr o
-
F irst deity t o b e h o no u red in every
du ced, 64 T an tr ic w orsh ip, 23 6, 241 (note
.
) .

T ob acco and pipes pr ov ided, Rides a m ouse, 2 9 .

64 . Wor sh ipped in connexion with the

T o r ch es o f o il dr enched rags o r -
w orshipo f o th er go d s, 97 , 220
j
,

l
b u nd e s of dr ied u te pants, l G anges
64 . A b l u t io n in , o f Bu ddha , 1 1 9 , 1 55 .

V a r ind distr ict st i pr eser es ll v E ast er n side the l o cal ity of G am bhir a
,

v
pr im it i e condit io ns, 65. f estivities, 6 1 2 -
.

Appo in tm ents o f in th e pr esent Mah ad ev a s city o n it s b anks, 2 1 0

’
.

L u u r iou s a nd ar tistic— g a s igh t,

x l M ahipal a b ath es in, 1 72 .

l
e ab o r ate pain tin gs, ch airs, M ar m el o s l eaf dr enched in its w ater
b enches and b ed s, sp r ays of p l a ce d o n S h v
i a
’
s h ead , 78 .

r o se w ater , co ou r ed t o rch es,

-
l Wa ter o f, dr u nk by vo tar ies, 77 .

etc —al l add i

. ng en or m ou s y l o ffer ed t o Mash an K al i, go .

t o the cost o f decor a t io n, 65 . t o Sh iva , 3 4 .

l
G ener a det ai s l sp r ink l ed o n fl ow ers, 8 6 .

I n O r issa Sh i a s im age insta ed

’
v ll u sed in p u r ifi ca t i
on , 3 6 .

v
in a ery d ark inner apar tm en t , G a tes, t h e fou r , O pening of, 3 0 1 -
.

l
or h o y o f h o ies, ca ed th e l ll G aru da ( K ing o f Bir ds)
Gh or a— G am bh ir a, 7 1 . C onveyance o f V isnu , 1 46 .

l
T em pe co nta ins four door s, 7 0 . H o l ds th e J hati a nd J h a gada, 1 0 8 .

N am e : Pill ar of, set u pb y G u r av a Mishr a,

G am b h ira , a na m e o f Shi a, v 1 67 .

72 . G au d a
in m edie val tim es m eant a A ncient cap it al o f Bengal , 62 .

h ou se o f m ed ita t ion or Bu ddh ist in eighth centu ry, 1 63 .

w or ship, 68 9 , 7 0 , 7 1 -
. C onqu er ed by Y ashov arm an, 1 63 .

nam e o f the o tu s, u sed in de l E ffor t b y Shura lu ngs t o reViv e V ed

co r atio n, 70 . ism , 1 63 4 -
.

H e nce , em pe pr ob ab y ca ed
t l l ll E l o q u en t l y describ ed by Dhoyi, 2 1 0
G am bhir a a fter G am bhir a F ail u re o f Sh u ra dynasty br ings in .

v
( S hi a) w h o w as w orshipped th e Pal a s, 1 64 5 -
.

in it ; and th e festi ities ca ed v ll G radual displ acem en t of Bu ddhism

G am bh ir a a fter th e pace in l b y Sh aivism u nder t he Pal as,
w h ich th ey w ere h e d and l 1 65 9 .
-

w h ich w as a dorned w ith G am Mora l d ecadence on ev e o f Mosl em

bhir a fl ow er s, 7 2 . q
co n u est , 2 1 2 -
3 .

T r ansition R am ai Pa ndit a resident, 1 1 9 .

G am b hir a h ou se fo r m er y u sed
-
l Sh asham k a , ce eb rated bo th Shai a l v
fo r w or sh ip o f B u ddh a or and Sau r a festi a s, 1 59 v l .

D h ar m a , 69 . q
con u er ed by H ar sa V ar dhana,
I nt ro d u ct ion o f dya pr epar ed A 1 49.
t h e w ay for Shi a , 69 v . T a ntr ism ( Bu ddhist and Shaiv ist) u n
v
Shi a w o r shipsu ppanted th at o f l o pposed in ear l lv
y e e enth cen
B u ddha and th e G am bhir a he t u ry , 1 89 .

cam e t h e t em pe o f Shi a , 69 l v su pr em e u nder L a k sm ana S ena

70 . l
in tw e ft h centu ry, 20 8 .

G an apati, L o r d o f G ho sts a nd G o b ins, l Tar a w or sh ip especia y in ogue ll v

a n am e o f G anesha , 9 7 . u nd er th e S enas, 20 5 6 -
.

G am ga V at m a n dynasty encou r ages Sh aiv

Pr esid ing d eity o f the G anges and ism , 20 3 .
Wife o f Shi a, 3 0 v . A
au r i ( dya, C h andi k a)
Spins cot ton handed her by Shi a , 3 8 v . B estow er of b essin gs, 243 l .

Wor n by Shi a o n h is head , 45, 46,

v F it ted w ith b r a ce et s b y Shi a , 84 l v .

71 , 1 78 . Joint im age of wit h Sh i a, 69 , 21 0 , 23 1 v .

27 8 T H E F O L K E LE ME N T I N H I N D U C U L T UR E
-

H anu m an (Mo nk ey god -

er al dry ( K ul inism )—cou t .

Br ings sto nes for buil ding Chandi’s Mer cantil e castes par tially restored
t em p l e, 3 5 . thr ough Br ahm anas, 2 0 5 .

I ntr o du ces m ango into C eyl on, 3 7 Precedence prob l em s m u ch discussed

.

M ask pl ay o f, 53 4, 1 1 1
-
- . b y th e peopl e, 20 5 .

Mentioned in D har m a Ma ng u l a , 2 58 H erm ita g es .

Jai n a Pad m a Pu r d a , 2 57
u shram as, ai.na h erm ita ges or re A
a

J
O ccasio nal ly a disgu ise of U l l uka treats, 1 40 , 1 4 1 .

40 ( note) . Vadar ika, 255 .

R am aya na stor y o f his l eaping acr o ss H eroes, fr ater nal r eunions of, 1 3 0 .

th e sea a nd b ur ning Ceyl on , 54 , H inayana Bu ddhi sm

11 1 . E ar ly origina l or orthodox phase of
H ar sa V ardhana, E m peror (60 6 647 B uddhism , 1 3 6, 1 42
-
.

A D )
. . H el d th at em ancip at io n ( salv ation)
A r u l er w h o brou ght gl ory to his cou l d be attained by the m onk s
dynasty in w ar and peace, 1 49 ( Bhiksus) only, 1 42 . .

C o nq u er or of G au da and n e ar l y I n cu l cated w orshipof Bu ddha on his

a l l E ast er n I ndia, 1 49 50 s eat or foot p
-
.rints, 1 3 6 -
.

E sta b l ish es Ta ntric B u dd hism in N ick nam ed H inayana ( foll owing a

E aster n I ndia in pl ace o f T an l o w a nd narrow w ay) by l ater
t ric S h aivism , 1 50 1 -
sect o f Mahayana, 1 42
. .

F ou nder of inns, hotel s, diS pen Practised confession as a co ndition of

sar i e s hosp
, ital s and pl aces o f ab sol ution, 1 3 6 .

war sh ip, 1 53 . Sim il ar practice in G a an and G am j

H im se l f of m ixed r el igiou s bhira p rob ab l y p ro v e Bu ddhi st
an cest ry, h e p r ofessed sever al origi n, 1 3 6 .

cr eeds in turn, bu t his real p re H indi

ference r em ains u ncertain, and I m por tant to future historians, 25 6 -
.

h e all o wed e u al r igh ts t o his R esearches in, vii .

B u d dhist , J
aina and H ind u H in du ism
j
su b ects, 1 51 3 -
. An am bigu ous term , xv .

H inen Theang, an honou r ed An ecl ectic and ever expansw e socio -

g uest a t cour t , f o u nd h is r el i
gious system , 11 .

h ost deepl y atta ch ed to Bu il t u p throu gh assim il ation during

Buddhism , 1 53 su ccessi. ve ages, x .

descr ibes tw o grand Co nnected w ith B uddhism throu gh

festiv al s, at which th e the Madhyam ika sect w hich de
r el igiou s ecl ecticism of v el op ed Tantr ism akin to H i ndu
king and peopl e T antr ism , 1 7 5 .

fu ll y d isp l ayed, 1 1 9 . Establ ished in Benga l throu gh indu

1 24 , 1 3 1 , 1 54 8 ence of the Br ahm an
-
. a m inist er s

Perfor m s the ab l u tion of Bu ddh a of the PAl a ki ngs , 1 66, 1 69 , 1 70 ,

,

Poet and patron I ncor porat ed Buddhism u nder the

of poets , 1 52
(no te) . l ater Palas, 1 72 .

R eign o f, m arked cl im a x of r e I nterch ange of gods w ith B u ddhism ,

ligiou s ecl ecticism in I ndia, I 4G, I G4 . I 7 3
1 52 3 -
. R eco gniz ed Bu ddha as an incarnation
H ar vest festiva l s in Vedic tim es, p re of Visn u , 220 .

cursor s of G am bhir a, 1 0 Tantric a nd Puranic, sim il ar to the

.

H e ll , in ch ar ge o f Death , 254 5 Buddhism of C h ina and apan, xi

-
. J .

H er a l dry (K u linism ) H indu s

A r t or science of social grades, attr i A race w ell versed in m aterial as well
b u ted to Vall al a Sena, 20 4 as sp iritu al affairs, 1 1 4
. .

G hatak as, professional m atch m ak ers, ffairs of, m ust all have religious as
- A
20 5 well as secu l ar m er it , 3 .

M ercan til e castes degraded by V all al a , g no sticism of, e x l ains th eir im agi A
20 5 . native p ol ytheism , 2 60 .
 I N DE X S U BJ E CT S 279

H indu s— cont . N ara K am ak ur a epoch in

E ngineer in g skill , 1 1 4
j
E n oym ent of secu l ar l ife, 1 1 5
L itera tur e o f arts, sciences and pol i
t ics , 1 1 4
-
J apan ,
. xi.
. H iu en T h sa ng
A l
pio u s and ear ned C hinese Bu ddhist
. v
w ho isited I ndia in 629 A D , . .

N o t distingu sh ed fro m i M oh am m e 1 53 .
dans by u l a C h and, 3 4 (no t e) A . Al m o st th e on y w itn ess t o l I n dia n
S cr iptu res, 2 8 , 1 1 4 . histo ry of th at t im e, 1 54.
Social l ife o f, has l esson s for m oder n A ssisted at th e C haitr a festi a v l
socio l ogists, 1 1 5 . fou nded by H ar sa V ar dh ana .
H istory B enga l i
, 54 5 1 -
.

C aste system o r iginated in effor ts at S aw the great u in u enni a festi a Q q l v l

so cia l r eco n st r u ct ion in Sena at ah ab ad , 1 56 9 A ll -
.

t im es, 2 1 1 T ra e ed in N o r t h Ben ga , 1 59
. v ll l .

Mos em co n u est of N or th and West

l q Witness to r e igiou s ec ecticism , 1 56 l l
B enga no t fu y a ccoun ted for , l 9 ll .

21 3 , 21 4 . H om a cerem ony , 56 , 9 7, 1 9 7 , 23 7 .

vl
N o e s, hist or ica , l xv
H or se dance o f O rissa , 9 2 , 1 1 1
.
-
.

l l
O r a fo k hist ory co ected by M r H orse sacr i ces
- ll fi
l v
Pa it , iii . Ashw am edh a , 8 , 1 1 1 , 1 1 6 .

l
T w e ft h century t he high est w ater Ch atu rm asya , 1 2 .

m ark in science , a r t and it er at u r e , I ntro du ced th r ou gh necessity for m eat , l

2 1 2. 11 .

Work s Pr of R akh al das Ba ner i,

of . j H um anB u ddhas ( Bodhisatt as) v
sh e ddin g igh t o n internat ion a l l Mahayan ic B u d dhist saint s, 1 7 6 .

l
re a tio ns, x iv -
xv . Men w h o by th eir spiritu a cu tu re l l
H istory I ndia n
.
v
h a e att ain ed go dh ea d , 1 7 7 .

l
D eta i s and dates of, pu r po se y r e l l
R esem b ance of to n eo H in du deit ies -

str ict ed in p r esent w o rk , xi 1 77 no te) . .

D isint egr a tio n per io ds no t pecu iar to H ym ns an sa cred songs l

I ndia n histor y , 1 60 D iffer in differ ent i ages, bu t
.
v ll
E ar ly H istory of I nd ia , by V incent u nd er ying id ea th e sam e in all l
S m ith , r e at es h ow th e Pa as a nd l 27 l .

S en as m ade B enga a gr ea t pow er G ayat ri to Dharm a, 1 9 4 5 l -

.

in I ndia , xiv H y m n
.
t o M oth er I ndia , T agore
’
s,

H indu per iod do es not en d w ith H ar sa 2 60 1 -

.

V ar dhana , b u t w as car r ied on by H ym ns by Bh ak tas

th e Pa as and Cho l as, 1 6 1 l w ak enin g o f Shi a , 4 5 .
A v .

L esso ns fo r m o der n socio o gists, 1 1 5 D ai y na or d ers, 50 l .

l fi l .

l l
Pa a Ch o a per io d of gr ea t im por ta nce
- D hu a sapa ta , 4 8 9 l - -
.

in I ndia n d e e o pm e nt , 1 62 Do or s, fou r , o f t he t em pe , 49 50
v l .
l -
.

r ea y th e a st p ll
ha se o f H ind u lop enin g o f, 44 .

I m peria ism , 1 63 , 2 1 5 l
a a sap ata , 49 J l -
.

Q
.

Pau city o f detai s o f po itica changes lu ar ters, the t en , 46 47 l l -

.

o bstr u ct stu d y o f th e sp r ea d o f T o S ada Shi a, 48 v .

I ndia n thou ght , 2 4 H ym ns to Dh arm a , 9 4, 9 5, 1 0 1 ,

.

l fl
Popu ar in u ence t o b e stu died , V ii 102 .
.

R ecent r esea r ch pr o es t he Pa as and L istening to hym ns o f e u a m er it to

v l q l
l
C ho as w o r thy t o r ank w ith th e ist eni n g to s er m ons, 1 46 l .

V ar dh anas , G u ptas and Ma u rya s, M editatio n o n N ar asim hi, 1 1 2 3 -

.

1 60 .
R e ect sectar ia n co ntr o er sies , 1 47 fl v .

l
R eh abiitation of th e Pa a s a nd C ho as Sa u tat io n so ngs l l l -

x d f I d i hi t O f t h e C r ea tio n by Dh ar m a N iran
e t en d s r am a o n a n s o r y,
1 61 J a na i 3 9 43,
-

A l
.

Va r dha na Pa a Ch o a ep-o ch lsyn -

l
d e o t ees of u a, 3 2 9 v -
.

ch ro no u s w ith T ang Su ng p erio d To D h a r m a , 1 0 0 1 -

-
.

in C h ina, u gu sta n a ge in Midd e A N ar a sim hi, 1 1 3 l .

K ingdom (7th 1 3 th cent ) a nd th e Sh i a , 2 7 3 1

-
. v -
.
280 T H E F O L K E L E ME N T I N H I N D U CU L T U R E
-

H ym ns and sacr ed songs— cont I ndr a ( K ing of G o ds) — cont

. .

Shu uy a Pa r ana , set t o m us1c a nd at S u bor dinated t o Visnu in S hr im a d

tended with dance, 1 9 7 (n ote) B hag a v a ta , 255 . .

Va nde M d ta r a m , greatest m od er n T akes th e U ch ch aisr av a horse, 29 .

fol k h ym n, 262
-
. V ajra pani Bodhisat tva— a Madhya
m ik a d eity a ccept ed by Brah
m anas as I ndr a , 1 46 .

Worshipped in R ig Ved a w ith m usic,

so n g and d ance, 1 2 1 .

I d fest iv ities, E gyptian Sim il ar to , 7 I n to l er ance , r el igio us .

I m age m ak ing
-
C on fined t o a n “ insignificant frac
A n a r t fostered by th e G am bhira, 1 8 tion in H ar sa Vardhana’s tim e,
.

M agnifi cen tl y d ev el o ped in Pal a 1 53 .

C h o l a tim es, 1 62 . I ncend iar ism attr ib u ted to that fr ac

M u st co nform t o o r th odo x d escr ip tio n , 1 55 .

tion s , yet gives sco p e to th e im O f ido l atr y, by Moh am m edans, 2 1 9,

a ginat iv e ar ti st, 1 8 . 2 20 .

S h iva s cro co dil e, h ow m ade, 79 80 V eil ed Bu ddhism , b y Br ahm anas,

’
-
.

I m a ge w or sh ip
-
2 1 9 , 22 1 .

D evel op m ent o f th e ear ly p erso nifi Sh ash am k a s a ll eged per secu tion of
’

cat io n o f go d s, 1 2 . B u ddhism no t pr oven, 1 59

F irst pra ctised prob ab l y With o r so o n ( not e) .

aft er th e m aking o f im ages o f I ro n im pl em ents for sel f w ou ndin

g
-

g ods in E pic t im es, 8 ( V anas) , 1 0 3 6

.
-
.

j
G a ane S hiva , sto ne car r ied ab ou t I sl am in I nd ia
in pl ace of th e perm anent im a ge , dvent o f, initiates third epoch in A
76 7
-
. m ak ing o f m o dern H indu ism ,
I m ages o f n ew gods to repl ace tho se 21 5 .

of o l d , 1 4 . At fi r st r egar ded sim pl y as al ien, 2 1 5 .

O ppo sed b y Mo h am m edans, 2 1 9 Co nq u est by, eaSy in N or th , d ifficu lt

.

Pr actised by Au l as, 2 4 (note) in So u th, 2 1 6

. .

T r ir at na ( T r inity ) im a ges, 1 47 sl o w l y real iz ed by H indus, 2 1 5 6

.
-
.

I m itatio n fru its a nd fl ow er s E asy I sl am iz ation o f Bengal , 2 1 7 .

A fam ou s pro du ct of m ediaeval M al da , Facil it ated th e tra nsform ation of neo

18 . B u ddh ism int o T antric H indu
An ar t encou r a ged by the G am b hir a, ism , 2 1 8 .

18 . I nstances o f r ap p r ochem ent o f H indu s

Cl ay, I ndian cork and w ax l arg el y an d Mosl em s, 2 1 7 8 -
.

u sed , 1 8 . Pr ot ect ion o f H indu ar ts and l ear ning

I ndia : by kbar , 2 1 8 A .

H oary b ir thpl ace o f var iou s so cia l M o h am m edan gods and saints as
co nv entions a nd institu tions, m ask s for Buddhists and H indu
1 15 . de ities, 2 1 9 20 -
.

S choo l o f A
sia in Pal a Ch o l a t im es, -
hatr ed o f ido latry dr ives Bu ddhists
1 62 . and H ind u s t o su bterfu ge, 2 1 9 ,
S till o ne in so u l , despite r ecent d if 22 0 .

ferentiation and n arr ow in g, invasion song added to Shu nya

4 23 -
. P u r ana , 22 4 5 -
.

I ndr a ( Kin g of G ods) U r du , an I ndo I s am ic -

l l angu age ,

A tt end s aina festi i

ties,J v 1 23 , 1 37, 21 7 .

B eco m go d o f t he Bu ddhists,
es a
J
ainas a nd K ap al ik as, 255 .

L eases l and t o S hiv a , 8 2 . J agannatha

Par t of, pl ayed by K ing H arsa , 1 3 , L or d of th e U ni erse, 3 0 v .

22 3 . l
S tea s spiritu ou s i u or , lq or w ine,
R id es an e eph ant , 254 l .

Shu rapal a com p ared to , 1 67 . the C ane o f H ea en, v

282 TH E F O L K —
E L E ME N T I N H I N D U CUL TUR E

L iterary academ ies o f Benga , iii l v

L o e and R om anticism , R e igion o f . v l
L iterature, B enga i l cont .

G rew and e p x
an ded ha nd in h and G rew o u t o f th e cu t of or d Fo rces l W l -

w ith r e igion, 1 5 l co m m o n to R ita ists, Ta oist s

l
Moder n re igiou s treatises prefer r ed and S hintoists, xv i
’

to Sansk r it c assics, 2 59 l .

N at u r al ness in , pr om o ted b y G am M .

b h ir a fol k so ngs, 1 1 6 .

Po et s o f, 450 m entioned in tw el fth Mahak al a

centu r y , 20 9 .
go d w or sh ipped b y the T antric A
S enas, au th or s and patrons of l it er a B u d dhists b efo re t err ific im ages,
tu re, 2 1 1 . 1 71 .

Wr iters of, in tw el fth centu ry, 20 8 nam e of Shiva , as Dh a rm a s arden

’
g A
12 . k eeper , 2 2 5 .

L iterat u r e , I ndia n Dem i go d b efor e the Ta ntr as, then a -

Deserves a tt entio n of m oder n so cio go d , 2 56 .

l o g ists, 1 1 5 . K in g V ana a ppoin ted S hiva’s chief

H as fl ou r ish ed as h andm aid of r e a ttend a nt u nder th e nam e of
l igion , 1 5 . Mah ak al a, 246 7 -
.

H igh ly im pr ov ed u nder B u ddhism R ecog niz ed b y H indu Ta ntrists, 1 9 3

15 . Man gal a Ch andi, Do m estic G oddess -

L o keshw ar a G u ardian a ngel of B engal ee hom es,

A neo B u ddhist d eity,
-
r esem b l ing 1 27 .

Shiva , and w or shipped b y b oth Songs of, h ow accom panied, 1 2 7 .

Sh a iv as and T an trists u n der th e indisp ensab l e, esp ecially in m ar

Shu ra kings, 1 65 r ia ges , 1 2 7
. .

A sh a do w o f Sh iva , w i th T ar a as a M ah ayana B u ddhism

sh a do w of D ur ga, 1 7 1 sect p r ocl aim in g salvatio n for al l ,
. A
G ener a lly asso cia ted w ith Tar a, 1 8 2 l ear ned and u nl earned al ik e, 1 42 . .

K ha sar pana L okesh w ara (see va l o A

Av al okitesh w ara , or K hasar pa na L o
k iteshw ara) . k eshw ara, god especiall y as
Shivas l ik e L ok eshw ara a nd L okesh t eem ed b y M ahayanists , 1 77 8 -
.

w ar as l ike S hiva , 1 69 , 1 73 im age o f, w it h m itabha Bu ddha

. A
V ar iou s for m s of, 257 .on h is h ead , regar ded by H in
Wor ship of, not consider ed T antr ic d us a s Sh am kar a (Sh iva) w ith
by Dipam k ara , 1 9 2 G am ga, 1 78
. .

Wor shipped by Ta nt ric Bu ddhists Based on m ercy and com passion as

u nd er t h e Pal as, 1 9 3 w ell as o n r el igiou s devo tion,
.

L o tu s 142 3
-
.

C reation o f, 40 (not e) , 4 1 . v
Bo dhisatt as, m en w ho h a e r isen to v
l
H igh y esteem ed in Sh i va w orship, b e Bu ddh as, 1 77 .

2 41 . Bu ddh as, Bu ddh a Shak tis and Bod

S ea t of Dharm a or B u ddha , 40 ( note ) , h isat tv as, 1 7 6 7 -
.

4 1 , 42 , 63 ( no t e) . Bu ddhist ado ption of Vedic e em ents, l

U se o f, in decora ting th e G am bhir a
h ou se, 63 4 -
. and H indu deit ies m i ed in x
in m ask da nce o f S hi a Par ati,
-
v -
v R am ai s T r inity, 1 9 4
’
.

1 1 1 2. -
Co m prom ise W ith I s am u nder Mo l
in w o r sh ip, 4 1 (no te) . h am m edan r u e, 2 1 9 , 2 26 9 l -
.

v
L o e ( Bh ak t i) Contr ibu ted ar ge y to l
pr opagate l
E m bo died in th e go ds, 2 59 . th eo r y o f Sh u nya or t he Void,
E xem p l ifi ed (w ith F ait h and H o pe) 1 42 .

in H indu d e otio na itera tu re by v ll F o u nd ed by dissenters fr om the nar

R am a and Sit a, K risna and ro w er ort h od y of the H ina
R adha, 259 .
yan a, 1 42 .

v
L o e and R o m anticism , R e igio n of l p r o b ab y b yl A shw agh o sa ab ou t

x
E p r essed in H i ndu ism , B r ahm anism , 1 0 0 A D. system atiz ed by Na
.

Bu dd hism , etc , . . xv garju na , 14

3 .
 I N DE X : SU BJ E CT S 28 3

Mahayan a Bu ddhism — cont . Mandal a headm , vill age an of

I nfl u enced by Sh a i ism throu gh N a v A king in his ow n V ill age 66 , .

a
g jr u na
’
s w or sh ip of C hand ik a, A Mandal a for each com m u nity or
1 43 . caste, 66.
I nter ch an ge of deities w ith H indu ism , Co ntr o l s th e G am bhir a o f his vill ag e
or l ocal sect or cast e , 66 .

M adhyam ik a O r der— su b sect of -

. E steem ed by th e z am indar o r and l
Mahayanism — and its v iew s l
o r d, 66 .

N ir ana , 1 44
On v . l
F orm er y m a naged a ll i a ge a ffair s , v ll
as i l
nk b etw een H ind u ism a nd 66 .

B u ddh ism b ro u gh t ab ou t t e N o w par t y su persed ed l

by t h e
l igio u s u ni ca tio n b y de fi S ah atana , 66 .

v el op in g a T antr ism in w hich Pu nish es so cia cu pr its, 66 l l .

Bu ddh ism w a s u tim ate y l l l

S pits in M anda a fam i ies r esu t in l l l
l o st ,
1 75 . sep ar a te G am b hiras for th e
inspir ed R am ai’s Shu ny a seceders, 6 7 8 -
.

Pu r d u a , 1 4 5 . l
T it e and system sti ho d am o n g ll l
M ahayanic V o id sam e as H in du Poda s and sim i ar l ow c ass l -
l
Br a h m a , 1 4 5, 1 7 6 . v ll
i ager s, 7 4 .

Mantr ayana iew o f B u ddhist deities v M an go tree, acco u nt o f its gro w th and
-

intr o d u ced b y R am ai, 1 9 6 . u ses , 37 .

l l
M u t ipicatio n o f g o ds b y th e
Mahayanists, 1 7 6 , 1 77
l
P easan t r e at io ns o f H indu Brah
Mantr as ( incantations)
. l
Com pet e k no w edge of necessar y fo r l
l effecti eness, 2 0 7 v .

m anas w it h B u ddhist M ab ayan Dh ar m a N iranjana ob ta ins a boo n

ists, 1 44 . t h r ou gh m editatin g m ant r a s, 4 1 .

v
Pr o isio n for ido w orsh ip, 1 45 6, 1 77 l - -
. G u r u m antr a, m ystic w ord o r fo rm u a l
Q l
u arr e s w it h H inayana B u d dhists, to p ro pit iate a spir itu a pr ecept or , l
I 7S 23 9 .

S ects O f S hu ny a P u r ana : su ng aft er e er y v

1 M adhyam ik a (O r gan iz ed M a
. fu nction o f Dh ar m a w or sh ip,
h ayanism ) , 1 4 4 , 1 4 5, 1 7 5 tho u gh n ot essent ia 1 9 6 . l .

sect s o f M91 M anu scr ipts

Co ected by Mr Pa it , Viii, ix ll l
g
if i g:
n . .

2 . G u hya Dh ar m a
t O f S a u t atio n so n gs, 26 , 3 2 l
i
-

Mantr ayana
.

ism “ M ar athi
1 75 I m por ta nt t o f u t u r e histo rians, 2 5 6 .
-
.

T an tr ic sects O f R esear ch es in , v ii

{
.

3 K a ach a kra
V aJraya na
'
l
M a n t r a y an Mask dances h o w dr essed for and per -
,

ism , 1 45, 1 75 fo rm ed .

Tantric Bu ddh ism a n o ffsh oo t fr o m B ear , 1 1 1 .

th e M adhyam ik a b r an ch , v ia Ch am u nd a, 1 1 1 , 251 .

Mantrayanism , 1 45, 1 75 H anu m an, 1 1 1 . .

fl
in u ence o n , a b ou t e u a to th at H orse, 9 2, 1 1 1 q l .

o n H indu ism , 1 65, 1 7 1 K a i, 1 1 1 . l .

pract ices fo rbidd en by M ah ayanic N ar asim h a , 1 1 2 .

T a ntr ists in e e enth cent u ry , Peaco ck , 1 1 1 l v .

1 92 . S a ti, 2 51 .

T eachings sim iar to tho se of ib er a l

Shi a Par a ti, 1 1 1 2 l l v -
v -
.

H indu ism , 1 42 , 1 44 V u da V u di, 1 1 2 .

- .

T r ir atna ( T r in ity) , r espect fo r , 1 47 M ask dancing , o r dancin g in dis .

-

V o id en dow ed w ith for m by M ah a gu ise

y an ist s, 1 7 6 ,
1 9 4 , 1 9 7 8 A p ar t o f S h i a w o r shi p b ased o n th e
-
. v
sou r ce o f all th e go d s, 1 9 3 4 Pu r ana s as w e a s o n fo k tr adi -
.
ll l -

th eor y O f, th e k er ne o f t h e t io n , 2 4 5, 2 47 8 , 2 51 2 l - -
.

Mad hyam ik a re igio n , 1 7 6 l

D ance , disgu ise and r e e ry pecu iar y . v l l l
Mak er s u p, th eatr ica o r pr ocessiona ,
- fa ou r ed b y Sh i a, 1 22 3 , 2 4 8 ,
l l v v -

80 .
2 51 .
2 84 T H E F O L K E L E ME N T I N H I N D U C U L T U R E -

Mask dancing,
-
or R ap pr ochem ent O f to H indu s in
dancing in disgu ise
cont . Beng a after the con uest, l q
L egend o f th e F a se M others : a ttend l
21 7 8 -
.

v
a nt s of Sh i a w ho , in d is u ise as Mo na ster ies
g
goddesses, am u se th e god u n ti N a anda, 1 78 , 1 8 3 l l .

v l
th e ar ri a of th e r ea go ddesses V ik r am ashil a, fou nded by Dhar l
cr ea tes gr eat co nfu sion and m ap a a , 1 65 l .

m err im ent , 1 2 2 , 24 8 51 m ade a cent re o f Tantr ism b

y
-
.

l
Th is egend pr ob ab y su ggested m ask l
D ipam k ara , 1 7 2 .

dan cing as a for m o f w o rship Months o f festi a v l

a gr eeab e to S h i a , 251 l v
C haitra ( March pri ) and Vaishakha .
-
A l
Mask s ( Apr i May) , especia y dedicated l -
ll
Al w ays of w o od fo r m er y , esp ecia y to Sh i a w o r ship, 242 l ll v .

n eem w oo d 1 0 9 -
w or shipin , r ewar ded w ith w ea th,
, . l
v
C ar ed an d painted a ccordin g to pr e beau ty and high bir th , 242 .

C ise r u es, 1 0 9 l w or ship o f G auri in, r ew a r ded

.

E ar then m ask s m a de b y po tt er s, W ith b essings b eyond e pecta l x

109 . t io n , 243 .

v
F a ou r ite gods and oth er s r ep resent ed Ph al goon ( F ebr uary March) , great -

by m ask s, 1 0 9 festi ities in, 2 42

. v .

H eadgear o f ar ti cia ow ers, 1 0 9 1 0 fi lfl

M ora degeneracy in Benga on the -
. l l
H o w th e m ask is se cur ed , 1 1 0 ev e o f Mo s em co n u est , 2 1 l q
3 . .

yd g r a ta , or i ing m ask s, 1 1 0 lv M o r a tr aining . l

fi
Pu ri cat ion a nd fast in g b efo r e w ear G a m b hir a a schoo for, 1 9 l .

ing m ask s, 1 1 0 so ngs u sed to e p

. ose hidd en sins, x
Wor shipo r co nsecr ation o f the m ask , th u s p ow er fu
y pr om oting re ll
1 10 . for m , 20
M atsy a N yciy a (Stru gg e for ex t each es ear nestness and trains inl
ist ence or a narchy) or state o f co o p era ti e effor t , 20 -
v .

n at u r e ,
”
1 64 M o th er and identi ed w ith Durga, the
. l fi
Matted hair , an attr ibute o f gods inspir atio n o f I ndian theo ogy, l
Bhr ik u t i, 1 7 9 . 2 61 2 -
.

l
K a i, 56 . Mu nis ( H indu ascetics) disguise them
L ok eshw ara , 1 7 8 , 1 8 0 , 1 8 1 se es as Fak irs ( Moham m edan . lv
v
Sh i a , 23 2 . sannyasis) , 22 5 .

T ar a, 1 8 2 , 1 8 4 M u sic
.

M atted h air , w ear in g o f, an act of wor Akb ar s enco u r agem ent of H indu
’

ship , 9, 1 32 . m u sic, 2 1 8 .

v l
M edie a r es ear ch Chhal ik ya , m ode in ented by Pancha v
l
Ch ro no o gy and identity o f m ost ch u da, 1 2 2 .

v l
m ediae a w or k s a nd a u thor s n ot Dhr u pad , a H indu in ention, en v
fi ll
na y sett ed, xi l grafted up on . M o ham m edan
M ediu m shipin w o rsh ip m u sic, 2 1 8 .

Po ssessio n by a gh ost , 8 9 9 0 H ind o a , a pecu iar a ir su ng at -

. l l
od
g , 9, 9 8 0 1 Dh a-
r m a
’
s G a an , 9 7
. j .

l
Mi k , o cean of, 3 8 K hya , a Mo ham m edan in ention,
. l v
Moh am m edan s gr ea t y u sed in H indu m usic, l
All ow se f ru e l to -
l
H ind u pr inces, 21 8 .

r esu t i l
n g in t h e p r o tection and M anga a, a m ode o f m uSic, 1 24 l .

incr ease o f Sh ai ism , 2 3 2 v

M atan a, not e o f stirr ing u p, or ex .

E nem ies o f ido atry, 2 1 9 l cit em ent , 56 .

.

v
I d fest i ities o f , a na o gou s to G am l
Mu tu a b orr owing by H indus and l
bhira, 7 . Moh am m edan s, 2 1 7 8 -
.

J o in w ith H i n du s in G a an N i a p u a j
R av ar i, a m o de O f m u sic, 1 24 l -
j .

v
festi ities , 8 0 , 1 3 4 S criptu r es, H indu , m ost y com posed
. l
N o d istinction b et w een th em a nd as songs, 1 2 8 .

H indu s r eco gniz ed b y Au a V o l v ahi so ngs, ch aracteristic tu nes l

C hand , 3 4 (no te) t o r 57 .
~
2 86 TH E FO L K E L E ME N T I N H I N D U C U L T U R E -

j
Ob ects of w orship —cont Pal a C h o l a per iod, l a st phase o f inde
.
-

Thu nder bo l t 1 0 7 , 24 1 , pendent H indu I ndia, 1 63 , 21 5

. .

Tr ident , 1 0 7, 24 1 Pal a K in gs
.

v anas , 1 0 5 . An u nd er rat ed grou p of m onar ch s -

O ccu l t R el igio n (G uh ya Dh arm a) , a sect u n t il r ecent l y, 1 60 .

o f M ah ayana Bu dd hi sm , 1 7 5 As r u l ers not infer ior to th e fam ous .

O cean ch u r ned by th e G ods, 29 V ar dhan as, G u p tas and Mauryas,

.

O ffer ing s to th e G ods 1 60 .

B etel r ods, 23 5
-
. Carr ied o n t he h igh est tr aditions of
Bu rnt resin, 245 . H in du nationa l cu l tu r e, 1 61 , 1 62 .

C l oth es, 2 43 . Dhar m apal a and R a endr a Chol a j

C ow s, 22 7 . w orthy to r ank w ith t heir m ost
Dr ink , 1 2 . em ine nt p r edecessor s, 1 60 1 -
.

F l ow er s, 1 24 , 1 4 7 , 1 9 7 E ar l ier Pal as stau nch Bu ddh ists

.

F oo d , 1 2 , 1 48 . l ater gave w ay to Shaivism and

F r u its, etc , 1 4 7 8
.
-
. Vaisnavism , 1 7 0 .

G h ee , 1 2 , 56, 9 7 , 1 9 7 , 23 7 H indu Wives o f Bu ddhist kings,.

G oat s , 9 7 , 20 0 . 1 74 .

G o l den orb s, 1 9 0 I m a ges of Mah ak al a fou nd am ong

.

H or ses, 8 , 1 1 , 1 1 1 , 1 1 6 Pal a r el ics, 1 9 3

. .

I ncense, 2 7 , 1 4 7 . Madanapal a , a Bu ddhist, in an ih

L ight s, 27 , 2 3 5, 24 1 scr ip. tio n gl o r ifi es Shiva, 1 74 .

M eat , 1 0 , 1 2 . Mahipal a m ak es gr ants o f l and to

Mil k an d w at er , 3 4 5 Brahm ana st o pr opitiate B u ddh a,
-
.

O r na m ent s , 2 43 . 1 72 .

R ice , 52 , 9 8 , 23 5, 241 Mahipal a’s m inister , Dipam k ara,

.

m il k and su gar , 1 3 2 , 1 68 sp read s T antr ic Bu ddhism

.

So m a—r asa , 1 0 , 1 1 . th r o u gh ou t G au da, 1 7 1 2 -

.

Water , 99 , 1 9 1 , 2 3 5, 241 Nar ayanapal a, a stau nch B u ddhist,

.

Wine, 1 2 . endow s and p rot ects Sh ai vism ,

Om 1 67 9 , 1 70 -
.

A m ystic syll ab l e, sign of th e V edic Pal a kings chosen b y th e peop l e and

Tr inity , 1 1 2 , 1 1 3 , 1 9 4 th eir ecl ectic r el igiou s
.
pol icy
A do pt ed by Bu dd h ists, 1 9 4 d om inat ed by th e peopl e, 1 65,
.

B egins prayer s and hym ns, 1 1 2 , 1 1 3 , 1 6g .

1 95 . Pal as m ade Bengal one o f the gr eat

D estro ys sm , 1 94 .
pow ers in I ndia , xiv , 1 63 (note) .

O or iya l angu age, M S S in , viii said t o be descended fro m the

. .

O siris O cean go d, 1 66 7 - -
.

L ik e Shiva in character ; l ike Ma R ajyapal a p r ob ab l y onl y a nom i nal

hak al a in fo rm , 7 em p er or , 1 7 1
. .

A
Rides pis as S h iva r id es th e b u ll , 7 R am apal a b u il ds tem pl es to Shiva, .

Wife a ppar ently th e I ndian Sh ak ti, 1 73 .

7 R el igiou s ecl ecticism of the Pal as in

G a u da , 1 65 9 -
.

r evo l u t i on am o ng the p eop le fol

l ow ed by th eir r u l er s, 1 70 .

Shu rapal a a s a Vedic fi r e w or sh ip per , -

Painting 1 67 .

Ar t o f, m uch encou r aged by th e Paper cu t ting -

G am b hira fest iv al s, 1 8 A n exq u isit e o l d I ndian ar t , m u ch

.

C anvas paintings o f K al ighat , 65 u sed in G am bh ira decor ation, .

D ecor at iv e, w ith r ice paste, 1 9 18 9 -

. -
.

E m u l a tion am o ng art ists constant l y Paper l otu ses as t em pl e decorations,

im pr ov es w or k , 1 8 63 4 .
-
.

H indu , patro niz ed by kbar , 2 1 8 Par shw a nath a A .

Pict ur es by R avi V ar m a, 65 A aina saint or dem i go d, 1 3 9 . J -

.

Pict u r es o f gods, 1 8 , 49 ( no te) Bor n in th e pu rpl e, 1 39 . .

 I NDE X : S UBJE CTS 28 7

Pdrshw an é th a—conL l
Physica auster ities cont — .

E xcitem ent in h eaven o er v his bir th , Pier cing w ith th or ns, a re ned edi fi
1 39 . tion of v anafoda, 1 0 8 .

F esti val of his bir th and em ancipa l

Popu ar w ith all ranks, 233 .

l l
'

t ion , 1 3 9 , 1 40 . Pr act ised in K ai w or sh ip, as a m i i

Jo u r ne ys as pr eacher to redeem th e tary cu t , 23 3 . l
fa en, 1 3 9 ll . Pr istha V anafoda b ack ( pier cin g the
l
R ea iz es d i ine kno w edge, e er ts v l x w ith b ook s for su spension to th e
su p er na t ur a pow er and r m y l fi l C hadaka Post ) , 106 .

estab ish es Jainism in th e Pu n l Sannyasis r ecru it ed fro m a m i ita ry l

dra s, 1 40 . c ass, 1 0 8 l .

v
Par ati ( C handi, Durga, G aur i, Spear , scim itar a nd spad e d ances,
Adya) z 108
As S hi a s wi
’
v
f e in M a hd bhdr a ta , 8 . T ongu e and b ack pier cin g V inafod a
l
C ou n se s Shi a to take to agr icu tu r e, v l not now p r actised , 1 0 8 .

82 . T r ishu l a V inafodé (piercin g t h e side .

Fitted w ith br a ce et s b y Shi a, 8 4 5 l v -

. w ith a trident shaped V ana ) , 1 0 4 -
.

I m age of, set up by N ar ayanapal a, l

V e a k anta, piercing im pem en t , 1 0 5,
-
l
1 68 ( no t e) . 106 .

I m per sona ted b y Chitral ekha, 2 4g ll l

Vi a e b ack sm ith ’s im por tant fu nc
g
50 . tions, 1 0 3 , 1 0 5.
Mar r ied to S h i a, 2 3 1 v . Worshipof the vanas cl eansing fr om ,

Mask da nce o f Shi a Par ati, 1 1 1 2

-
v -
v . r ust and preparatio n for u se , 1 0 5,
l
R epaced b y Arya T 51 3 by Bu ddhists, . 1 0 7.

4 I Pier cings, th e five, 9 7 .

Parvati s brace ets, so ng of, consider ed

’
l Pi gr im a ge, incr eased r isk of after Mo s l
l
h o y by H ind u m arr ied w om en , l em con u est, l ed to b u i din g o f q l
84 5 -
. h om e t em pes, 2 1 3 l .

ll
Ph a ic Sh ai ism v Pithas, shr ines or ho y paces, 20 6 l l
First go d of the Shai as, a ph a u s v
P a nt s in H indu m ytho o gy and ritu a ll l l l
fill
in g al l space, 2 3 4 B am b oo, 56, 1 2 1 . .

l
G r adu a h u m aniz atio n of the or igina Banana, 54 , 56, 8 5, 223 l .

pha ic Shi a , 23 4 ll v
Bo d hi, 1 65, 1 7 8 , 1 8 1 , 1 8 2
. .

L egend of th e fa ing of th e ph a u s, ll
Ch am pa, 50 ll .

23 4 5 C o t ton, 3 8 .

L eng th as co m par ed with G reek a nd D hataki, 1 40 .

A
ssyrian form s, 2 3 5 F o wers, 1 24, 1 47 , 1 9 7 , 2 4 1
. l .

Making o f th e em b em o f S hi a , 2 3 5 l
Gin ger , 2 2 8 v . .

Perfectin g a nd pu r ifying, 23 5 6 H atak a, 255 -

. .

Pr ocession in Shi a s G a an, 1 20

’
v
H em p. 54 j .

l
T em pe and a tar , 2 3 6, 2 3 8 l a ck . 54 . J
Worsh ipce ebr ated with dance, so ng l a a ( China r ose) , 1 0 4 , 1 0 8 , 2 0 0 J v .

an d m u sic, 2 3 8 u t e, 64 . J .

ri l
t u a , 1 55 (note) , 23 6 7 K ar a i, 3 6. . v
sim i ar l
to B u ddh ist festi ities, K u sha , (no te) v .

23 7 L o tu s, 40 (note) , 4 1 , 42 ( no te) , 63 , 64 ,
Phonta, sectar ian m ark on for ehead , 40 1 1 2 , 1 51 , 1 80 ,

1 85,
(no t e) . 45. 7s. 9 6 24 1 .

l
Physica au ster ities : M ango, 3 7 ,
C er em ony o f v anafoda, or pier cing M ar m e os, 27, l
with t h e v ana ar row , dar t or Myroba ans, 1 3 2 l
é
.

need e , p r actise l
at G a an and N eem , 1 0 9 j .

G am b a, 8 7 , 1 0 3 , 1 0 8 Oda , 50 . .

Fire h ol ding or tr ident Vana, 1 0 4

‘ Paddy ( r ice) , 57 , 82 4
- .
-
.

Jihv a v anafo da (piercing the to ngu e) , Pal m , 9 9 255

104 5 - Pari ata , 3 8 j .

l
K apa a v anafoda (piercing th e for e R ice, 52, 24 1 .

head) , 1 0 3 4. Saffr on, 2 3 6, 241 (note)

- .
2 88 T H E FO L K E L E ME NT I N H I N D U C U L T U R E -

P l ants in H indu m ythology and r itu al Pro cessio ns— cont .

cont .
G a a n o f D har m a , r u es by R am ai j l
l
S anda , 3 4 , 3 6 , 1 25, 1 65, 2 1
4 1 1 9 20 .
-
.

Scr ew pine, 3 6 -
. o f Sh i a , p h a ic, 1 20 , 2 3 7 v ll .

S esam u m , 2 7, 1 0 5 G anapati, 1 2 1
. .

Som a , 8 , 1 0 . ina De a s, 1 1 8
’
J v .

T am ar in d, 7 9 .
’
K am sa s, 1 1 6 .

T u r m er ic, 228 . K t isna s (V aisnav a) ,

’

V aheda, 1 3 2 . Pash u pat a s ( Sh ai a ) , 240

’
v .

Poetry R am al il a , 1 2 1 .

F o ster ed a nd insp ired by G am bhir a R efer ences to in Bu ddh ist w ar ks,

15 . 1 18 g -
.

l
Tw e fth centu r y B enga i po et s, 2 1 0 1 l
D h ar m a m a ng a l a , 1 20 -
.
-
.

ll l
V a a a a nd L aksm ana S ena , poets Pu r dnas , 1 1 6 8 -
.

and p atr o ns o f et ter s, 2 1 1 l

S a m hitris, 1 1 7 . .

V erse m aking com pet itions at the

-
Ved as and E pics, 1 1 6 .

G a an, 7 9 j . w o rk s o f Ram ai Pandit, 1 1 9 20 -

.

Po ets of t h e G am bh ir a i
R sabh a e D a
’
s jaina , 1 1
( ) 7 v .

E p xr ess th e i l
fe of th e poor an d l ow y, Shak yasim ha s ( Bu ddhist) , 1 1 8 9, 1 23 ,
’
l -

17 . 1 35 .

fl
Mo r e in u entia and “ im m or ta l
Shi a’s, 1 1 7 , 243 l v .

t h an poets o f th e edu cated Sk andagov inda, 1 1 7 .

l
c asses, 1 7 . S u m u kh a
’
s, 1 1 7 .

l
Mu sica pow ers o f, fostered by t h e T ir th am k aras (jaina) , 1 1 7
’
.

G am b hir a, 1 5 Va su de a s ( aina) , 1 1 7 8
.
’
v J -
.

l l
Po itica or ganiz ation P a r da us, go ds of, m ore de nite and fi
G am bh ir a a fl or ds pra ctical po itica
'

h u m a niz ed th an t hose of Vedas, l l

tr a inin g, 2 0 1 -
2 54 6
.
-
.

v ll
I nd ian i age com m u nities ana ogu es
o f R u ssian m in , 2 2
l
Manda a, or h eadm an, 2 1
go ddesses of, higher in status than l
gods ; deifi ca tio ns of pr im ordia
. l
en er gy, 2 54 . .

l
Manda ika syst em of or ganiz ation, a Pu r i cat io n fi
m iniatu re r oya cou rt , 2 1 l
N o distinction o f pur ity in the ho y . l
Panchayet, or cou nci of fi v e, 21 , atm osp l
h er e of th e gods, 28 , 3 1 .

22 . O f otar ies by th e w ords of the L ord v

U sed for t ria of o ffenders and to ar l o f G o ds, 2 8 .

r a nge G am bh ir a busi ness, 21 2 With a m ark , 1 9 6 -

. .

V ir ik a , o r Par am anik a, Manda a s

’
u r ine o f t h e co w , 1 9 6, 1 97 l .

m an o f a f a irs, 2 1 Words of pur i cation, 3 7

. fi .

l
Pott er , or B a ck sm it h ( K a a) , assists l
a t th e C r eat io n , 2 7 , 3 2 .

l
Pr akrit angu age, 1 63 .

Pro cessio ns Ram a ( her o of th e R dm dyagia )

Arr anged fr om ery ear y tim es, 1 20 v
r m y o , f e m b r alces Ra an a
’
s ar m y . A v
A shw am edh a, 1 1 6 aft er th e w ar , 1 29
. .

Av ab hrit a, 1 1 6 . C e eb r ates Spr ing F esti a , 1 1 8 l v l .

Ayo dh ya, 1 1 6 . H a s go d im ag e o f Sit a m ade, 2 56 l .

Bhar a tm il ap, 1 2 1 H ead o f, im per v 10 u s t o a saw , 1 0 7

. .

R a m a t a r pana, o ffering w ater to his

’
B rahm a s, 1 1 6 .

ir it , 99
’
Bu ddh a s, 1 1 8 9 , 1 23 -
sp . .

C h aitro t sav a ( Bu ddh ist ) , 1 1 9 , 1 24, U su a y m entioned w ith L aksm ana, ll

1 56 4 6. 55. 1 0 9 . 1 1 8 . 257 .

W
.

Ch ar io t (Bu ddhist) , 1 1 9 , 1 24 o rship s ina, 1 1 8 . J .

C hitr ak u ta ( aina) , 1 1 8 J R am ai Pandit .

Dharm a Paduk a, 1 20 , 24 0 pos e o

t f Dh a r m a
’
.s G a an, 1 95 A l j .

r
’
Du ga s, 1 20 1 -
.Bro therhoo d of h is discipes, 1 3 1 2 l - .

l
F o w er y Car ( S hai a) , 1 1 7 v
C hief pr iest of Dh arm a , 9 7 . .

T em pe ( Sh ai a) , 1 1 7 l v
C r ea tion story, R am ais, 1 9 7 9
.
’
-
.
29 0 T H E FO L K E L E ME N T I N H I N D U C U L T U R E
-

R itu a l accesso ries and r e a

g l ia of gods
S a lv atio n, pl an of, ro cl aim ed by the
cont . M ahaydna Bu d h ists, 1 42 3 -
.

j
U k as, tor ch es of dried u te pl ants, 64 S an nyas is (see Bhak tas) .

U tensil s m ade by the gads 3 2 3 G ener al term for ascetics ; technical

V finas, 1 0 3 6 -
. t er m fo r v otaries o f G am bhira
Wine, 9
.

. and G a a n, 75 (not e) j .

R oar ing and gr inning, acts of w orship I gnore caste r u l es in the G a m bhira -

by th e Aula sect , 3 4 (note) and G a an, 1 3 3 4 . j -

.

R u dr a ( Shiva ) Mu l a Sannyasi, or chief votar y of th e -

A fi re go d in th e Vedas , fi gu red as
-
G a an, an her editary post, j
w earing a crown and oth er or na 74
m en ts , w iel di ng b ow s and arr o w s lead er of th e G ajan cerem o nies,
and p r ep ar ing m edi cines, 2 53 5 . .

H u m aniz ed a nd fur nished w ith w ives S el ection and initiation cer em onies,
in Post V edic l iter atur e, 2 54
-
.

S el f tortu r es, or p hysical au sterities, -

8 1 , 85 7 -
.

S ansk r it
Sacr ifices (see a l so O ffer ings) L ingu a f r a nca of edu cat ed I ndia
A gni da iv ata , 1 2
-
. thr ou gh th e ages, 2 4 .

A shwa m edha (h or se) , 8 . 1 1 , 1 1 6 , 2 56 M S S , v iii . . .

Becom ing m or e co m pl ex w hen M a T r ansl a tions fr om , into I ndian ver

h db hd r a ta w as w r itten, 8 nacul ars, has im part ed local
.

B ow , 1 1 6 . co l our ing to all I ndian tradi

Ch atu rm asya (h or se, ex tending o v er tio ns, 2 4 .

fou r m onth s) , 1 2 T w elfth century th e

. ugustan Age A
Dak s of Sanskrit l earni ng in Bengal ,
’ "
a s, 2 51 .

Dar sh a (new m oon) , 1 1 , 1 2 21 1 . .

G oat , 9 7 , 1 9 7 (not e) , 20 0 V all al a Sena , a royal au thor , 2 1 1

. .

H u m an , 1 8 7 . S ar asw ati
I ncreasing com p l exity of, appa r ent Ved ic goddess, 253 A .

in V edic l iter atu r e, 1 0 , 1 1 G oddess of l earning , 261 . .

Moh am m edan (cows) , 227 I ncl u ded in fam il y o f Shiva, 255

. .

M usic and d ance inseparab ly associ Sau bhr atra m il ana, Or H indu m tentes
a ted w i th , 1 2 1 . cor d ia l es, 1 29 , 1 3 0 .

Pau r nam as a ( fu ll m oo n) , 1 1 , 1 2 S ects, denom inations or ch urches of .

R ajasu ya , 1 2 2, 1 29 . H indu rel igion, 1 20 .

R enu nciation of by Bhiksu s, 1 44 S ecu lar inter ests, infiu ence o f, on H indu .

Ta ntr ic, o f anim al s, 1 7 1 l ife and thought , x

. .

T o ancestors , or the dea d, 71 , 1 9 1 S el f crea tion of th e Cr ea tor , 40 .

-
.

T o Fir e g ods, 1 1 , 1 2
-
S ena E m p
. erors
U sed as occasions of social en oy Dynasty of strong I m per ial adm inis j
m ent and fr aternal gath er ing s, tr ator s in B engal , 2 1 2 .

1 29 . E stab l ish ed a U nited B engal ear l y in

Sfihiyatra o f Or issa tw el fth century, 1 73 (no te) .

A ce l eb r at io n l ik e th e G a an a nd j
F a il ure of b efor e Mosl em s not fu lly
G a m bh ir a festivities o f o th er
. exp l ained, 21 4 .

places and with sim il ar cer e L ak sm ana Sena appoint s H alayu

m o nies and d ances, 9 1 d ha his r el igio us m inister,
.

Do u b t as to p r esiding deity ow ing to w ho endeavou rs to regul a te

gh a ta (w ater jar b eing gen er the dom inant T antr ism ,
-

a ll y th e so l e em b em , 9 1 20 8 . .

I m age o f goddess r esem b l ing S hak ti fi rst Shaiv ist, then Vaisnav ist ,
u sed in m any v ill ages, 9 1 20 8
—
. .

L o ca l dances Chait G hoda ( horse -

possib ly conver ted by so ngs of
dance) , dances of sp arro w s , o l d J ayadeva, 2 1 0 .

m an and his ol d w ife, etc., 9 2 poet and patron o f l iteratu re, ,

1 11 . 21 1 .
 I NDE X : S U BJ E CTS 29 1

Sena E m per ors—cont . v

S hai ism (or Shaiva cu m Shaktaism )
- -

V all él a Sena , au th or , 2 1 1 . cont .

banish es Br ah m anas for o p
pr essio n 20 7 8
d egr ades the go l dsm ith caste,
R oot ed in B enga l befor e Pal a tim es,
-
. 1 70
.

S hak ti, C h andi o r Du r g a id enti

fied w ith th e Bu ddhist Adya,
3
20 .

fo u n er of K u l inism , 20 4 5 -
. 23 3 0

o ffends high er castes, 20 Sim il arity o f go ds l eads to indiscri

4 .

Vij aya S ena , m il itary g eniu s and m inat e u se o f tem p l es by Sh aivas

q
co n uero r , 2 1 1 . a nd B u ddhists, 1 73 .

st au nch Shaiv ist , 20 3 - 4 . Sp r eads t o Pal a q u eens, 1 7 4 .

Serpent to t he inscrip tions o f Bu ddhist

Created to b ear the thr ee wor l d s, r u l ers , 1 74 .

43 T antr ic for m o f, sim il ar t o T antric

Fed with fr ogs, 43 . Bu ddhism , 1 7 1 , 1 72 .

Made im m orta l , 43 . Tem ple attach ed to ev ery H ind u

Sh aivism ( o r Sh a iv a cu m Shak ta h o m e, 2 3 2 .

ism ) o f Sh iv a , p al at ia l , 2 3 6 , 23 8 .

A faith of centu r ies in al l par ts o f Under I sl am , th e fav ou r shown to

I ndia, 23 . H indu pr inces, m ost l y w orship
A ssi m il at ed both B u ddh ism and er s o f Sh ak t i, giv es im p
p
etus to
J
ainism in Benga l , 2 5, 1 69 . haiv ism , 23 2 .

Bu ddhism im pl icit in, xv i. W ander ing Sannyasis sing th e gl ori es

Ch equ er e d co urse o f, in I nd ian o f S h iva and p r op agate his
h istory , 2 . w or sh ip, 23 2 .

Dh ar m apal a s r el igio u s tol er atio n Shakti ( Parv ati, w ife of Shiv a)

’

act s in fav ou r o f H i Aw her ver b a l sym bo l : co m bined

“ ”
nduism as
a gainst Bu d dh i sm , 1 65 6 -
. with th e Maw o f Shiva m akes
su ccessors show incr easing r esp ect th e m ystic O m ,” 1 94 .

for Brahm anas and their r e Divine en er gy per sonifi ed, 1 2 .

l igio n, r esu l ting in th e gr ad u al M arriag e o f, to Shiva, 23 1 .

displ acem ent of B u ddhism by Mentioned in Bu ddh ist T antr ic

Sh aivism in B engal , 1 66 9 -
. w ork s, 2 58 .

Div ersity o f rit es and cer em onies ob sahiyatr a o f O r issa hel d in m any
scur es underlying u nity, 2 5 . vill ages b efore an im age of
Doctr ine o f a personal G o d gives ad Sh ak ti, 9 1 .

vantage over Bu ddh ism and Wor shipped w ith Shiva in el eventh
J
ainism , 2 3 . centu ry, 1 72 .

Dru nkenness o f ear ly vo taries, 9 Sh ak tis, or go ddesses, wiv es o f go ds

.

E st ab l ished in Benga l u nd er th e Im p ersona tio ns of divine energy,

l ater Pal as and al m ost u ndis 1 i6 .

tingu ishab l e fr om Bu ddhism , Buddl ist , in co rporated with H indu

go ds b efor e Pdl a tim es, 1 65
l
1 2 . .

E stab ish m ent in th e capita ls l eads to I n Bu ddh ist T a ntr as , 1 88 .

g ener al adoption in th e co u ntry , M ah ayanic B u ddhists as cre at or s o f

1 74 . S hakt is or Wiv es for the B u ddhas,
I nco rporates Buddhist go ds, 1 46, 1 65, 1 76 7 -
.

1 73 . T ara im agined as sur r ou n ded by

Moder n com pl ex w orship ev o lved S hak tis, 1 8 7 .
fr o m o r iginally sim p le rites , Shastr as , or Scr iptur es and Sciences
10 . dap ted to co nditions of t im e a nd A
O fficial l y encouraged u nder th e Pal as pl ace, 2 4 .

and Ch o l as, 1 62 , 1 7 0 G ov ern social and rel igiou s life,

.

Protectio n of, u nder N ar ayanapal a 2

favou rs grad ual sp
Pal a territory , 1 70
read o ver al l Mostl com posed as songs, 1 28
V arieties of , 1 1 4
.
y .
.

R elatio ns o f with Bu ddhism th e su b Shaving , ob l igatory o n devotees in the

j cet o f p r esent book , vii v iii G a an. 7s. 7 6
- . j
29 2 T H E FO L K E L E ME NT I N H I N D U C U L T U R E -

Shiva '
va— cont
Shi .

A pl bl d p p l H i d
aca e an o u ar n u d eity, Qu arrel and r eco nci iation l w ith
3 s 9 Daksa , 255 6 -
.
. »

Ad t f 44 4 5
ornm en s o , , . R epl aced in Bu ddhism by Bodhisattva,
A i t V i hw k a t k
ss s s s a ar m o m a e im pie 1 4.
t f g i lt
m en s o 83 a r cu ur e , . R ep roa ched for inacti i ty , 2 9 v .

Att d Dh
en s G aj n arm a s
’
a as a gu est , Sacred t hr ead, a i e snak e, 23 0 lv .

223 . l
Sa u tes Dh arm a, 222 .

G am bhir a w ith h is w ife a nd h

S iv ar ata , re cit a o f Shi a
’
s r ewards l v
fam i y , 4 l . to his otar ies, 4 v .

v
B e er ages o f, 2 55 . S h iv a ratri, night of Shi a , 3 v .

Bhadr ak al i and V irabh adr a b orn from l

T em pe of, to b e ik e a pa ace, 23 8 l l .

his speen , 256 l . T h r ee ey es of, 46, 1 99 .

B oon s granted by, to K ing ana , 1 0 6, v v l

T r a e s fr o m door to do o r as a b eggar,
2 46 7 -
. 22 3 .

C oncern at th e pight o f V ana, his l

V isits Par a ti as a se er of she v ll ll
v
de o tee, 244, 24 6 br ace ets, 8 4 5 . l -
.

C rocodie o f, 7 9 l Wi es of , 2 54 , 2 55
. v .

v
Decei ed and enter tained by nym p h s Shi a, o ther n am es o f f or p ag es see v
disgu ised as goddesses, 1 22 , 2 4 8 Proper N am es I nde ) x
51 . r dha ch and r a A -
.

D escr ib ed as a m an in E pic iter a Ar u r a V aidyanath a l .

tu r e, 8 . Ashu to sa .

v
D e o tio n t o , of his w ife, S ati, 2 55 Bab a I sh aneshw ara . .

Disgu ises h im se f as dam , 224 l

Bh a a A . v .

ll
F o ow s hi s w ife
’
s ad ice in ag r i Bhim a v .

l
cu tural m at ter s, 8 2 , 8 3 4 , 2 23 Bh im a K edara -
. .

l
F o r m ess a t r st , 48 fi Bh o a M ah eshw ara . l .

G r ow s co tto n, 3 8 B hol anath a

. .

paddy, 57 : 8 2 4 t 9 0 C hand r a Sh ekh ar a

’
‘ .

G row th o f in im por t ance in Pu r anas. Datanatha .

S a m hitd s and Ta ntr a s, 254 8 D iga m v a r a -

. .

l
H ir es a nd of I ndr a , 8 2 G am b hira . .

l fl
H o ds a ow er a nd ow er s ador n his G am gadh ara fl .

head , 50 . H ara .

I m ag e of, confou nded w ith t hat of M adh av a ( m ost y K r isna b u t som e l

L ok esh w a r a B u ddha , 1 65, 1 7 1 , tim es S hi a) v .

1 73 . M ahade a v .

l
pr ob ab y b egan t o b e m ade w h en Maheshw ara .

th e E p ics w er e w r itten, 8 Mr ityunjaya . .

I m a ge w or ship o f, pr ob ab y began
- N ata ra a l -
j .

ab ou t t h e sam e tim e, 8 N r itya pr iya .

-
.

v ’
I n ited to Dh arm a s G a an , 222 , Nia j l .

23 0 . Pash u p a ti .

J o m t im age of, w ith G auri, 2 3 1 Pha n i b h u sana . -

.

K hattanga , pecu iar w eapon of, 7 1 , l

Pradyu m neshwara .

230 . Pu Spapani .

L egend of th e ph a u s, 2 3 4 5 R u dra ll -
. .

Mar r ied to the dau gh ter o f Dh arm a, S adash iv a .

th ereb y t ak ing ch ief pa ce in Sh am k ara l .

Dharm a s G a an, 2 3 1
’
S hiv agn i j . .

l
Midd e position in th e H indu Tr inity, S hiv anatha .

28, 32 . T r ipur ar i .

Pa tr on of dancing, 1 22 3 Vishw am bhar a -

. .

l
P ays h is sh im ga and dam ar u and Vishw anath a .

l
a so o n h is ch eek s, 1 25, 2 2 3 Vishw eshw ar a . .

v
Presides o er Sh iv al o ka in E pic tim es, V risabh a dhv aja -
.

9 0 Y ogindra .
29 4 T H E FO L K E L E ME NT I N H I N D U CU L T UR E -

Songs, co ll ections o f S pir itu al ism , r u stic

B hdsd na of M a nasa, 1 27 8 Po ssession by gh osts, 8 9
-
. .

Bhogipal a, so n gs of, 1 25 th e l ocal go d , 90 1

.
-
.

D har m a M a ng a l a , b y G h anar am a ,
-
Pr edict ions b y l oca l gho sts l ess r e
1 25 . l iab l e than those by stranger
by Manik G angu l i, 1 26 gh o sts, 8 9 .

by Y atr asiddhi Ray, 2 58 Pr escr ipt io ns by gh osts, go . .

D har m a p ujd , by G au deshw ar a , u ar r el s of v ill ag e gho sts, 8 9 Q .

1 26 . V ill agers prefer gh ost s to gods, 89 .

G opipal a, songs o f, w idel y cir cu l ated, Stru ggl e fo r exist ence (m atsy a ny dy a)
1 25 . b et w een V edists and Bu ddhists,
G ov inda Chandra , L ays of , su ng in 1 64 .

to to, 1 2 5, 1 8 g . S u n a nd Moo n w or ship _

yag ajjiv an a , 1 2 8 . B ow ing to S u n and Moo n, 3 7 .

M ah ipal a , so ng s o f, 1 25, 1 8 9 G l o r io u s Su n go d,” inter pretation

.
-

M d l si S ong s, 2 59 . o f B h anu B h ask ar a Raya, 3 1 .

M a ng a l a C ha ndi, by K av ikam k ana,

-
Pr abhak ara V ard h a na and K eshav a
1 26 7 -
. Sena, S u n w or shippers, 1 51 , 2 1 4 -
.

by Manik D atta , 1 26, 1 2 7 Su n, represent s the Creat or , 1 9 4 . .

M d m k acha nd r a , L ays of , 1 8 9 S u n go d a nd Moon god, becom e

.
-
-

Pa dm a, S ong s of , b y V ipr adasa , foo t so l dier s a nd str ike u p a -

1 28 . co ncer t, 22 5 .

Su n god , dr ies ear th en v essel s, 3 3

'
Shiv ag itd , 8 2 .
-
.

S hu nya Pa r ana , b y R am ai Pandit , w orsh ip o f, 9 8 , 1 3 1 , 1 51 ,

al l su ng in D h arm a w or sh ip , 1 24 ,
-

1 89 . w or shipped in V edic tim es, 1 0 .

Tantr a v ibhu ti, 1 28 . Su n gods, th e t w elve, 9 7 -

.

Vriu l a s, L ay s of , 1 9 3 (note) Syll ab l es, m ystic or au spicious

.

Y ogipal a, so ngs o f, 1 25 Aw , M aw , N aw , Saw , 1 9 4

. .

S ongs of th e G a an j H o om , 1 8 1 . .

C om pe tit iv e v er sifying , 7 9 O m , 1 1 2 , 1 1 3 , 1 9 4 , 1 95
. .

D ehar a b h anga ( Br eaking dow n o f

-
U l u , u l u , 59 , 60 , 1 25, 1 3 9
-
.

th e T em p l e) , 22 4 , 22 6 9 -
.

R u sm a ( Wra th) o f N iranjana , o r I n T .

v a sion Son g , 2 2 4 5 -
.

Shiv a’s Cu l tiv atio n Song, 8 2 4 T al ent foster ed by t he G am bhira, 1 7

-
. .

Br acel et S ong, 84 5 -
T am il
.

So ngs o f th e G am b hir a I m por tant t o fu t u re histor ia ns, 25 6 -

.
'

R esear ch es in, v ii
’
A poe s tr ibu te to , 1 6
t . .

C om par ab l e w ith E ng l ish m iracl e V al u e of, d em onstrated by Mr S K . . .

plays and ap anese J no pl ays , Aiya ngar , 26 ( note) -

.

26 . T antr ic Bu ddh ism (or n eo Bu d

Co m positio ns of V ill age poets, 26 dh ism ) .

Co v er alm o st ev ery d epar tm ent of An o ffsh oo t fro m th e M adhyam ika

h u m a n l ife, I 7 . b r anch o f Mahayanism , 1 45,
I nsp iration and fine q u al ity o f, 1 5 1 75 . .

Po ets o f, 1 5 . nim al sa cr ifi ces o f, 1 7 1 A .

Q u a l ity of a so ng dep endent u p o n its tisb a ( Dip am k ar a Shr ijnana) , re A

m u dde i ( th em e) , 57 .
pr esentative T antr ic Bu ddhist of
U sed for ex po sing sinn ers, 2 0 E ast ern I ndia abou t 1 0 40 A D ,
. . .

V erse m ak ing co m pet itions, 7 9

- 1 8 9 92 .
-
.

V ol v ah i, special songs im prov ised by Bro u gh t a b ou t r ap pr ochem ent of

ex p er ts, 57 8 -
. Mah ayanists and Puranists,
Sou l , devotio na l state of necessary in 1 86 .

w or ship, 23 9 . Diffi cu l t to dist ingu ish fr om T antr ic

Spir itu a l ideal s asso ciated w ith secu l ar H indu ism , 1 51 , 1 52 , 1 7 1 .

inter est s in m ou l ding H indu l ife Dram at ic w ork sho wing Tantric
and th ou gh t , x , 1 1 4 5
-
. infl u ence, 1 8 6 8 -
.
 I ND E X : S UBJ E C TS

Tantr ic Bu ddh ism (or neo Shaivism

Bu ddhism ) Tantr ic (or Shaiva cum
-
-

con t. S h aktaism , a phase of n eo H indu -

l
E sta b ish ed by H ar sa V ar dh ana in ism )
E ast er n I ndia , 1 51 .
Accep t ed as p er so na l rel igion by
fl
I n u ence of , contr ary to B u ddhist Sh asham k a and o th er k ings of
h u m ane do ctr ine , 1 8 8 . E aster n I ndia , 1 50 .

Pr actices o f, th e ba ckb o ne o f the Diffi cu l t to distingu ish fr om T antr ic

v
Sha i a G am bhir a, 1 69 . B u ddhism , 1 51 , 1 52 , 1 7 1 .

l
Principa deities o f Fir m l y estab l ished u nder t h e l ater
Av al o k it eshw ar a , o r L o k eshw ar a Pal a and the V ar m an k in gs,
Bu ddh a , sh ining , h o ding a 20 3 l
A
.

l
o tu s, w ith m it abh a seat ed L ik eness o f go ds, r it es a nd cer em o n
o n hi l
s on g m a tt ed h air , 1 8
7 9, ies assists S h ai ism t o ab so r b -
v
1 8 0 , 2 57 . B u ddh ism , 20 2 .

Bh r ik u ti, w ith fo u r h ands and M adh av a Sena a Sh aiv ist , 2 1 4 .

thr ee ey es, carr yin g tr id and a , Su prem acy o f u nd er a t er S ena kings, l

w at er po t -
and r osar y, 1 7 9 , 21 3
1 80 . T antric im ages fou nd in B enga m u ch l
Ch am u nda, b ood r ed, l w ear in g
-
o u tnu m ber al l o t h er s, 2 0 6 .

l
gar ands o f h u m an h ea d s, a nd T ant rism and T ar a w orship in g r eat
w it h eigh t , ten or si t een o gu e in G au d a , 2 0 6 x v .

hands, 1 8 8 . ead s t o n eg ect o f th e Veda s and l l

H ar iti, id entica w ith l
H indu d ecay o f Br ah m anica ear ning, ll
Sh ital a, 2 58 ( no te) 20 7
. .

H ayagr iv a , cr im so n co o ur ed , T antr ism l

l
sh ort , ong b e ied , t h r ee e ed ,
-
ll
y A u nifying pr incipe in H indu r e
-
l
1 79 , 1 80 . l igion , 1 51 2 -
.

Jam ar i, of dis gu red face a nd fi Com m o n faith in , l ed d iffer ent cr eed s

taw n y h a ir , ho ding c u b , l
and sects to ap l
pr o im at e in form s x
1 81 2 -
. of w or ship , 1 52 3
-
.

L ok esh w ar a B u ddh a , im age in M ah ayanic B u dd hists and H indu s o f

M ayu rbhan , with fo u r h an ds j Sh ai a and o ther cu ts a m ost v l l
an d th r ee eyes, a co p y of t h e e u a y addicted t o T ant r ism , q ll
H indu Mahade a ( Sh i a ) , 1 8 1 v 1 65 v . .

Mah ak al a , ter r i c im ages o f, 1 7 1 ,fi M a tsy a S u kta , w r itten by H al ayu -

1 93 . dha to ch eck T antric e cesses, x

M a nasa, G o dd ess o f sn ak es, 2 58 20 8 . .

M anju shr i, ye ow co m pe ioned , ll l x

Pr edo m inant in Bu ddhism in m idd e l
a dor ned w ith ew e s, h o din g a j l l
of se en th cen tu r y , 1 75 v
l
o tu s, 1 8 1 . S u pr em e in tw e fth centu r y in G au da , l
l
Potalak a , ean , W ith arge b e y, l
20 8 ll .

I 79 S w a ow ed u p in a co m m o n phi o ll l
Sh ak ti, m any fo r m s o f, 2 58 so p h y M ah ayana Bu ddhism and
.

Su dh anv a K u m ara , ye o w as go d , ll att er d a y B r ah m anism in Pa a l l -

l
l
h o ding a b o ok u n der his eft Cho a tim es, 1 62 l l .

ar m p it, 1 7 9 , 1 8 0 , 1 8 1
-
T a ntr as r u e socia affairs in tw e fth
. l l l
T ara, d ar k , in fu b o om of you th , ll l century , 20 7 .

l
h o ding a o t u s, 1 7 9 , 1 8 0 ,
. l U nopposed in G au da ear y in th e l
1 8 5, 258 . e e enth centu r y , 1 8 9 l v .

o th er typ es o f, 1 8 2 6 , 2 57 8 Y o ga , a feat u re of T antr ism , 1 9 2

- -
. .

Sh u nya, o r V oid , m edit at io n o n in T ar e, ch ief T antr ic goddess

tro du ces w orship, 1 93 go ddess gr eat y esteem ed by h e
.
t A l
Steady Spr ead o f, fr om t im e of F a M ah ayanists, 1 8 3 .

H ien to tha t o f H iu en T h sang , G ener a y im aged as o n th e eft side ll l

1 86 . o f L ok esh w ara Bu ddha , 1 8 2 ,
Tr an sfor m at io n int o T antr ic H indu 257
v
ism fa o u r ed by ad ent o f I s am , v l
H iuen T h sa ng describes her im a ge
21 8 . at N a anda, 1 8 3 l .
29 6 T H E FO L K E L E ME N T I N H I N D U C U L T U R E
-

T ar a, chief T antric goddess—cont T em pl es ( chur ch es, pl aces of worship)

.

H er var io u s nam es a nd fi gu r es cont .

Ar ya T ar a, o r dya Devi, or A
G am bhira M a ndapa, 4 , 1 9 , 26, 46, -

Dh ar m a Devi, etc , presid 557 563 57 , 58 , 59 : 60 ! 6 1 : 6 2: 63 ,

.

ing go ddess of th e G am b hir a, 6 4 . 65. 6 8 . 69 . 7 0 . 7 1 . 7 2 . 8 8 .

im aged as thr ee eyed and 1 1 0 , 1 1 2 , 1 3 6 , 2 47
- .

dar k b l u e, tw o hands o n l y , G am bh ir a panda l , fr o nt or d ancing -

1 8 5. 2 57 h ou se o f tem pl e, 1 8 , 53 , 54, 55,

J
anga l i Tare, al l w h ite, w ith tw o 62 , 20 0 .

or fou r h and s and seate d tem p l es in w hich the sam e festi

o n cou ch o f tru th , 1 8 4 v ities are h el d u nder other
.

w or sh ip ped in th e w il der n am es, 6 1 , 6 2 .

n ess, 1 8 3 H igh r oom ed, b u il t by Rajyapal a,

.
-

K u ru ku ll a D ev i, or T ar a, cr im so n, 1 71 .

w ith fou r h a nds, 1 8 5 H indu , noticed by H iu en Theang,

.

M ahottari T m , sim il ar to Arya 1 59 .

T ar a, 1 8 5 . I m par tia ll y favou r ed by H ar sa Var

N il a S ar asw ati T ar a, rev er enced dhana , 1 51 , 1 53 .

by th e Y o gach ara sect of K al i, 8 0 .

Tibet , 1 8 2, 2 58 L ok eshw ar a, 2 58 ( no t e)
. .

V a ra j T ar a, chief M ahayana Mas id, Mo ham m edan, 2 27 j .

goddess, in som e par ts N il a , 8 0 , 8 7 .

know n as Ch andi, 1 8 4 Shiv a, decor atio n and appointm ent s .

fi gu r ed w ith eigh t hands, of, 62 , 23 6 , 2 3 8 .

four fa ces, each w ith T ara, 1 9 0 , 1 9 1 .

thr ee eyes , and in the V a su l i, 20 7 .

b l oom of you th , 1 8 4, 258 V ih ar as, Bu ddhist or a ina m onas . J

Puran ist go d desses anal o gu es or d u p t er ies, 1 3 8 , 1 53 , 1 69 , 1 73 , 1 78 , 1 8 2 .

l ica tes o f T 3 1 6, 1 86 T h eo l ogy, H indu

.

Sim il ar t o K al i, T ar a, Ch am u nda A na n ta v a ibha v a K a iva ly a jm ina , -

and o ther H indu Tantric

god k now l edge l eading to oneness
desses, 1 88 . w ith G od a n d th us to fi na l
Wor ship of , tends tow ar ds and d e em anci pat ion o f the sou l , 1 40 .

v el Op s i n to th e Sh aiva G am T hr ead tying ( R akhi V andhana) , -

bhir a, 1 8 3 . ancient cer em ony of friendship ,

T em pl es ( chu r ch es, pl aces o f w or 1 3 3 , 2 41 ( no te) .

ship ) Tib et : m ask dances per form ed in, -

A nt a r gam bh ir a, or Ghor a gam bhir a,

-
sim il ar to G am b hira, 6
-
.

inner apar tm ent of t em pl e, 7 0 , 7 1 Tirtham k aras, dem i gods and p ioneers

.
-

B aro yar i
-
M andapa, t em por ary of ainism , 1 3 7 J .

t em pl e. 63 . 1 54. I S7 T or to ise
Bh andara , sto r e hou se o f t h e tem pe,
-
L a st su ppor t o f the ear th , 27 l .

3 6 (no te) . 3 7 . Sym b o of th e fo r m ess Dharm a, 1 0 0 l l .

Bu ddhist , 1 8 1 , 1 9 2 T r a nscendenta conceptio ns popu ar iz ed

. l l
Ch and i M andapa , 3 5, 37 , 68 , 69, 70
-
in fo k ore, x xi l l - -
.

Tr ansfo r m atio n of Bu ddhist into H indu

Cham u nda, 1 8 7 , 2 0 7 d eities, 2 0 0 1
.
-
.

l l
Deh ar a, a t ar o r tem pe of Dharm a, Tr ee w or ship( G am ar k ata) - -

9 8 , 2 24, 2 25, 22 6 9 Dh a r m ic cer em o ny, 240

-
. A .

Dh ar m a , 2 2 3 . C o nsists in o ffer ings to b ea u t ifu and l

l
E c ectic, fou nded and endow ed by de ica te pants in a t em pe, 240 1 l l l -
.

N ar aya n apal a, 1 68 , 1 69 Worsh ip of G am bhira or G am ara .

l l
F or a , 243 . tr ee , 1 3 3 , 240 1 -
.

j
G a a n, 48 , 49 , 60 Tr inity ( Tr ir atna, T riratna m u rti)
.
-

j l l
G a a n ta e, pace or tem pe of G a a n,
- l
Br ahm a, V isnu a n d Maheshw ar a j
7 6. 7 8 1 99 .

G am bhira, show n t o m ean a tem p e Bu d h a , Dh ar m a and S am gh a (Bud l

of S hi a, 63 7 2 v -
. dhist) , 1 35 (note) , 1 93 .
29 8 T H E FO L K EL E ME NT I N H I N D U C UL T UR E
-

V er nacu l ar s, I ndian— cont .

L it eratu r e in, pow erfu lly gov erns

so cia l a nd r el igi o u s l ife, 2 4 Water .

Par ent s o f, encou r aged and p r o tected Cr eatio n of from th e sal iva of Dharm a ,
in Pal a Cho l a tim es, 1 62
-
40 . .

Dh ar m a s fl oating on for four teen

’
R ecent r esearch in , v ii .

T r ansl a tions into fr om Sansk rit im ages, 41 .

par t l ocal co l ou r to A
ll I ndia Pitcher of repr esenting a god (ghata) ,
-

traditions, 2 4 .
49 , 51 , 52 , 7 5. 9 1 . 9 5. I 97
V erse m ak in g com petitions (S a ng er
-
White G od, the, 3 3 , 3 9 40 (note) -
.

kr ieg ) Wine, sto l en by agannatha, 1 0 0 , 2 29 J .

An inst itu tion in B enga l , 7 9 (n o t e) Wines in w or ship .

Chapan, Chiten and J av av , ch arges F ou r kind s, 9 .

j
and r e o ind ers, 7 g . I ndu l ged in t o excess by earl y votar
V ihar as, B u ddhist m o nasteries ies , 9 .

B u il t b y B u ddhist kings, 1 69 Wo ods, r etir em ent to by ascetics,

.

N ar ayanapal a, a stau nch B u ddh ist , 1 44 .

bu il ds t em pl es to Shiva , to b e Wor l d F or ces, r el igion o f -

op en , h ow ever , t o B u d dh i sts , 1 69 Born o f folk rel igio n, xvi .

V ij aya, th e I ndian C hr istm as Day, 1 3 4 C o m m o n to V edist s, pr e Confucian -

Visnu (or N ar ayana, t he Pr ot ector ) C h inese and w or shippers of

A fi r e go d in V edic tim es, 1 2
-
K am i, xv i
. .

L ak sm i, G o ddess o f F or tu ne , his G ave bir th to r el igio n of l ove and

w ife , 2 9 . r o m anticism , xv i .

T hird ( or rear) po sitio n in the H indu I n Vedic a ge, 2 62 .

T rinity, 2 8 , 3 2 .

Tak es precedence o f I ndra in S hr i

m a d B hag a '
-
v a ta , a nd N d r a di ya
and D h a r m a Pu r ana s, 255 .

V o id , th e Y o ga
Dharm a spr ings fr om , 1 9 7 8 , 222 Ar t m agic associated w ith T antr ism
-
.
-

E v o l u tio n o f g o ds fro m , 1 94 , 2 2 2 ill u str ativ e feat of a discipl e o f

.

G iven form b y th e Mahayanists, 1 7 6 At ish a, 1 9 2 . .

M aha sh u nya , or G r eat V oid, 1 7 6,

-
C hitr al ek ha, dau gh ter of K u m bhanda,
1 97 . assu m es for m of Parv ati by
M edita tion o n , introduces T an tr ic V aisnav a tm a Y oga, 249 - A .

w o rship, 1 9 3 . Disciplines of, w el ded in the V aisnava

Myst ery o f, 2 7 , 3 2 . a nd Shaiva sch oo l s With b el ief
S hu nya vada, t heory o f the Void , a
-
in a nd l ov e of G od , 2 3 .

l ink b etw een B u ddh ism and N ym phs, practising V aisnav a Y oga,
H in du ism , 1 45 . assu m e for m s of goddesses,
th e k er n el o f t he Madhyam ika 249 .

r el igio n, 1 75 6, 1 9 3
-
.
 I NDE X I I .

PR O PE R N A M E S A N D L I TE R AR Y R E FE R E N CE S .

All a (G o d in I sl am ) , 99 , 22 6, 2 2 8 , 2 29 .
All h b d 3
a a a , 1 , 13 1, 1 56 , 1 57
Abhaya
.

, 1 27 . A i m an , 100.
Achal odara , 1 7 9 .
A aj
m ar66 a, 1 .

Achism at i 1 1
Adam a ,
, .
A av ti (T
m ar a ree of Par adise, M an go) ,
37
A d bhu ta sdg a r a , z 1 x.
Adi Bu ddh a ( Fir st or Pr im itiv e Bu ddh a ,
A b 33 (
m ar , 2 no te ) .

a A i im er ca, x v , 2 .
or Dh m ) 4° ( note) , 94s 9 5 I 47 : A i 8m n, 22 .

1 7 6, 2 1 8 , 2 2 1 , 2 25, 23 1 .
Am itabh a Bu ddha, 1 46, 1 77 , 1 7 8 , 1 80 ,
Dh ar m a Devi, 1 8 5 .
1 s2 .

Jina R isab h a , 1 1 7 .
Am 0 ghasiddhi, 1 46, 1 7 7 , 1 8 2
Adi P ar ana , 2 57
.

Am r iti, 1 73
.
.

AdiShiva, 74 .
Anadya , 1 3 2
Adishur a, 1 63 , 20 4
.

.
A ndhr a s, 2 , 23
Aditi, 2 53 , 2 54 .
A n gira, 1 1 .
.

Aditya, 2 A l
n i as, th e tw o, 1 9 7 .

Adityas ( Su n go ds) , th e twelve, 97 -

. Aniru ddh a, 1 0 6, 2 44 .

Adyaraja ( Dhar m a) , 1 0 0 . A pis, 7 .

Adya ( fi r st G oddess, C handik a) , 4 1 A psar as ( N ym phs) , 1 2 2 , 2 48 , 2 51 .

(note) , 46, 63 , 68 , 69 , 8 5 (note) , 8 7 Ar dh a ch andra ( Sh i a ) , 7 1

- v .

( no te) .9 5. 9 6.9 7 ( no te) .9 8 .9 9 . 1 2 6. G aurishw ar a, 2 1 0 .

1 55 ( n o t e , 1 9 3
) (note) , 1 9 8 , 1 99 , Ar ies, 1 7 2 .

2 0 0 , 20 1 , 2 1 8 , 2 20 , 2 22 , 2 23 , 22 9 , Ar ir aja su dans sh am kar a, 20 8

- -
.

23 0 , 2 3 1 , 23 3 , 2 3 7, 23 8 , 2 47 , 2 51 , A r ista nem iPu r d na , 1 1 7 , 1 2 3 , 1 3 7 (no te) ,

2 58 1 3 8 (no te) , 1 3 9 (not e) , 2 57 .

Aj
.

Ch andi, 2 58 .
r u na , 8 , 1 2 2 , 2 55 .

Chandik a, 2 3 1 .
Ar u r a V aidyanath a ( Shi a) , 4 7 v .

Devi, 1 73 , 1 8 5 . A rya Av al okiteshw ara , 1 8 0 .

Shakt i, 2 2 2, 2 54 . T ara, 1 4, 8 7 (note) , 1 73 , 1 8 2 , 1 8 3 ,

Adyanath a, 1 3 2 . 1 8 5, 1 8 6, 20 6 (no te) .

A fr ica, 6 .
A ryan s, 1 29, 253 .

Agam a, 2 8 . Aryav arta,

d
21 6 .

Ag h oragh anta, Bha irava , 1 8 7 . A ryy a S afitasha ti, 20 9

- .

A gni ( F ir e god) , 1 1 , 1 2 , 253 , 2 54, 2 55

- . Ashw a ghosa, 1 43 , 1 45 .

A b idin , 2 28 . A shwa sena, 1 3 9 .

f fhm ka p
'

a dd ha ti, 20 9
-
. A sia , 6, 1 62 .

Air avat a ( I n dr a s el epha nt) , 2 23 , 2 54

’
. C entral , 1 53 .

Aiyangar , S Kr ishnaswam i, Ancient . Asiatic Society of B enga l , x iv , 21 4

I ndia , 22 , 26 (note) . ( note) .

Ajm er e, 1 6 1 A i ti
s a 5 cs, 2 1 .

A k 3 56 (n t )
.

A ksobhya , x iii, 1 81 so a, 1 0, 1 o e , 1 61 .

A m 6 3 3 73 (
.

Al a ksm i, 2 53 ssa ,
1 ,
1, 1 not e ) , 21 3 .

Ati b Sh ij an ( Dip
,
.

Al a u d d in K h il i, 1 6 1
- -
j . s a r n a am k ara) , 1 7 2, 1 8 9 ,
Al i, 9 9 , 226 . 1 90 , 1 9 1 , 1 92.
30 0 T H E FO L K E L E ME N T I N H I N D U CU L T U R E
-

Atisini, 48 , 49 , 50 . Bh aga , 253 .

Au a C hand (Chandra) , 3 3 , 33 4 ( note) ,

l Bh agav an, 3 2 .

3 5. 3 6 B hdg av a ta , 9 , 1 1 6 .

Mahapr abhu , 3 4 ( note) . Bh a gav ati (Chandi or Du rga) ,

Av a l o k iteshw ara ( K h asarpana L ok esh 9 9 ( no te) 1 .

w a r a) . 1 4 5. 1 7 3 . 1 80 . 1 8 1 . Adya, 2 23 .

1 8 6 , 2 57 , 262 . B hag a v a ti S u tr a , 257 .

Av l
a o n , xiv . Bh agini, 1 0 0 .

Pr incip l es of Ta ntr a , 1 88 ( no t e) Bhaira a ( B u ddh ist god) , 1 73 , 256.

. v
H y m ns to the G oddess, 2 56 ( not e) ( Sh i a) , 2 0 6 . v .

Avarna , 1 0 0 . Bh aira as , th e eigh t , 1 0 0 v .

A yo dhya, 1 1 6 . Bh a ir a i, 256 v .

Bh akt iv ino da , K edar nath Datta , 7 0 .

B h and ar k ar , Sir R G , Va isna v ism , . .

S h aiv ism a nd M inor R elig iou s

Sy s tem s, xiv , 23 (note) .

B aba I sh aneshw a ra (S hi a) , 44 , 62 v
Bh an u Bh ask ara R aya ( G oriou s S un
. l
B ab u din M o a , 228 ll .
go d 31 .

l
Baby o n, 7 . Bhar a tagni, 1 2 .

Bacchu s, 6 , 7 , 23 5 (n ote) Bh ar a t achandra , 1 5

. .

B a d a yd nd ni, 2 1 9 , 2 28 . Bh ar ati, Mu ku nda , 43 (no te) .

B ad en Pow e , 22
-
ll . Bhargadev a, 1 9 5 .

B ak h tiyar, 2 1 4 . B hdsrina of Ma nasd , 1 2 8 .

B akr I d , 22 7
-
. Bhatta , Amand a , 20 4 .

B anab h at ta , 1 52 ( not e) . A nir u ddha , 20 4 .

v
B and dh a D e i ( T ar a) , 20 6 ( no te) Bhattasal i, N al ini K anta, xii
.
.

j
Baner i, Pr of R akh ald as, xii, xiv ,
.
,
Bha a ( S h i a) , 246 xv v v .

1 59 (no te) . Bh a abh u ti. 1 8 6. v

H istory of B eng a l , xiv , 1 49 Bh a ani ( First deity, or entir e di ine v v
(note) , 2 1 4 . en er gy) , 2 8 , 2 3 3 .

Pal a s of B eng a l , 88 ( note) , 1 74 Bha a ru dresh wara , 50 v -

.

(not e) , 2 1 4 (no te) B haw anipu r , 79 .

.

B a ng a da r sha na , xii . him a ( S hi a) , 3 1 v .

B a ng iy a Sd hity a Pa r isa t Pa tr ika, iii, x

K edara ( Sh i a) , 47 v
2 1 0 ( no te) . Bhism a (o r Bhim a, one o f fiv e br other s
Bankim chandr a C hatter i, 2 6 1 , 262 j in the M a hd bhd r a ta ) , 8 4, 1 0 6
. .

B ank uda R aya ( Dhar m a) , 1 0 0 Bh ogipal a , 1 25

. .

B ank u r a, 5 . B ho a, M ah esh w a r a , 5, 47 l .

Benares, 3 6, 1 1 8, 1 3 9 , 1 40 , 2 1 3 , 243 Bh ol anatha ( Shi a) , 2 8

. v .

l
Ben ga , V iii, xii, x iv , , xv
5, 6, 7 , 1 5, Bh rig u , 1 0 .

1 6. I 7 . 25. 6 1 . 6 2 . 7 3 . 79 ( no t e) . 8 0 . Bh r i k u ti, 1 7 9 , 1 80 .

9 8 , 1 20 , 1 2 7 , 1 2 8 , 1 40 , 1 4 1 , 1 49 , Bhr ingi, 3 6 .

I SO . 1 54 . 1 63 . 1 7 2 . B h u m igar bh a , 1 9 1 .

1 73 (no te) , 1 7 8 , 1 8 9 , 1 9 2 , 1 93 , 1 9 6 , Bh u m isam

gha , 1 9 1 .

2 0 2 , 2 0 3 , 2 0 4 , 2 0 6, 2 0 8 , 2 1 1 , 2 1 2 , B h u t an , 6 , 1 9 6 ( n o te) , 20 7 .

2 1 3 , 2 1 4 , 2 1 7 , 2 3 1 , 2 3 2 , 2 3 3 , 251 , B hu v a neshw ar a , 2 1 3 .

2 58 , 2 6 1 . B ihar (or Beh ar) , 1 65, 1 7 3 ( not e) , 1 7 8 ,

E ast , 2, 1 7 2 , 1 73 ( note) , 2 0 3 , 20 5, 1 93 .

2 1 4 . 23 3 . B ir bh u m , 5, 62 .

v
N or th , iii, 2 , 1 6 , 1 7 , 7 0 , 8 8 (no t e) Bo dhisa tt a , 2 4 3 v
1 40 , 1 4 1 , 1 4 7 , 1 59 , 1 65, 1 7 3 ( not e) B o dhisattv as, 1 46, 1 7 6 , 1 77 , 2 57 .

2 1 4, 2 48 . Bo dh isatt a Manju shr i, 1 4 v .

S ou th , 23 3 . B o gr a , 1 4 1 .

W est , v
iii, 2 , 5, 43 ( no te) , 59 , 68 , 7 0 , B rahm a ( or Br ahm a n) , 1 1 , 1 3 , 28 , 30 ,
8 5 ( tu n e) ; 9 3 9 4 , gsr (no w) : 3 2 . 3 3 . 4 1 . 45.53 ( no te) , 1 0 2.
2 1 4, 2 48 I 44 . 1 4 5. 1 7 6. 1 7 7 ( not e . 1 99 . 222. 22 3 .
.
)
Bengal ees, 2 , 2 3 . 2 3 4 . 2 54 . 2 55. 256. 2 53
Bhadr ak al i, 2 56 . B r ahm ana sa r v asw a , 20 7 . -
30 2 T H E F O L K E L E ME N T I N H I N D U C U L T U R E -

Dasa , K r isna, 3 3 (not e) .

9 , 1 9 5 (no te) , 1 9 6, 1 99 (note) , 1 1
Mahadev a, 2 2 2 . 2 25, 2 26 , 2 3 0 , 2 58 .

Sh r idh ara, 20 9 . D ha r m a P a r d h a , 2 55 .

V al ar am a , 222 . Dha r m ar aja ( Dh ar m a) , 1 0 0 .

Visnu . 3 3 (no te) . 3 4 ( note) . 3 6 D ha r m a S a m hitd , 1 0 7 , 1 1 7, 1 22, 23 5,

D as G u pta, H em ch andra , iii x
244. 245. 248 . 2 49 . 2 56 .

J N , Mu ku n d ar am , 1 2 7 , 2 33 (no te) Dh oyi, 2 0 9 , 2 1 1

. . .

Dat anath a (Sh i a) , 2 9 v Dhyani Bu ddha, 1 4 5

. .

D att a , Ak sayaku m ar , R el igiou s S ects of Bu ddh as, 1 7 6 , 1 77 .

I n dia , 3 5 (no t e) , 1 56 (note) Par sh w anatha, 2 57 . .

Chakra pani, 1 7 2 . S hi a, 2 57 v .

K au sena (or K arnasena) , 3 7 , 3 8 D igam va ra ( S h i a) , 8 2 v .

(note) . D ina p u r , 5, 1 7 , 6 1 , 69 j .

M a h am ada , 3 8 ( note) D ip ak al ik a, 20 9
. .

M anik . 3 9 . 40 (no te) . 43 . 63 (no te) . D ipam k ara Shrijnana, 1 7 2 , 1 8 9 , 1 90 ,

8 7 ( note) , 9 5, 1 2 6 , 1 27 , 1 9 8 ( not e) 1 92 .

1 99 (no t e) . 2 3 3 . 2 58 Dr a idians, 1 67 (no te) v .

N a yanasena ( or L au sena) , 3 7 , 3 8 Du r ga ( C h andi, G au ri) , 3 0 , 55, 8 4, 1 1 1 ,

(no te) . 1 2 0 , 1 3 4, 1 7 1 , 1 8 6 , 1 9 8 , 21 8,
S u kh a , 1 2 0 . 2 20 . 2 2 2 . 2 3 0 .2 3 2 . 2 3 3 . 2 3 4. 248 . 2 53 .
D e V isser , M W , xiv . . 2 54. 2 55. 2 57 . 2 58 . 2 6 x. 262
.

l
De hi, 1 49 , 1 6 1 . Du tt , E conom ic H istory of I ndia , 22
D ev ap al a , 1 66 , 1 67 .
(note) .

D ev asth ana ( b od e o f G ods) , 2 23 A Dw arak a, 1 3 0 , 24 4 . .

D ev i Pu r d na , 20 6, 2 54 , 2 55 Dw ar av ati, 1 1 6 . .

D ev im dhd tm y a cha ndi, 1 99 ( not e) .

Dh antal a, 2 7 (no t e) , 58 , 59 ( no te) .

D h aram agu r u Mah ash aya , 3 4 (n o te) .

Dh ar m a. 5. 6 . 27 . 3 8 (note) . 44 . 4 7 . 57 E ast ern I ndia iii, 2 6, 1 50 , 1 59 , v xv

, ,
(no t e) . 59 . 6 1 . 63 . (not e) . 8 7 1 60 , 1 6 1 , 1 64 , 1 67 ( n o te) , 1 7 0 , 1 7 8 ,
(no te) . 9 1 . 9 3 . 96. 1 8 9 , 20 1 , 20 4 , 2 1 2 , 2 1 3 .

99 , 1 0 0 , 1 0 1 , 1 0 7 , 1 0 8 , 1 20 , 1 2 4 , E ast ern er s E astern I ndians , 1 62

1 3 , 3 , 33 , 35 (
( ) .

1 1 2 1 1 n o t e) , E gy t, 7
1 3 6, 1 55 ( no te) , 1 56 , 1 8 5, 1 9 2 , 1 9 3 , p .

E ph inst one , 22 l .

1 9 4 . 1 9 5. I 96. 1 9 7 . 2 0 0 . 20 1 . 2 1 8 .
E ncy cl op e dia I nd ica , xii .

2 1 9 , 2 2 0 , 2 2 1 , 2 22 , 2 23 , 2 2 4 , 2 25,
of I ndo A ry a n R esea r ch , x i v -
.

2 2 6, 2 27 , 2 2 9 , 2 3 0 , 2 3 6 ( not e) , 23 7 ,
E n g and, xiv l .

2 3 8 , 2 3 9 , 240 , 2 4 1 (not e) , 2 58
E ur ope, 2 , 6, 2 3 3
.
.

A dh ik ér i, 48
E u r o peans, 2 1 5
.

v
D e i ( G o ddess Dharm a) , 1 47 , 1 8 5,
.

1 93 .

G u ru , 3 7 .

N ir anja na . 3 3 . 3 9 . 40 . 4 1 . 42 . 43 . 9 3 .
F a H ien, 1 3 , 1 1 9 , 1 2 3 , 1 2 4 , 1 3 1 , 1 58 ,
1 1 8
9 5. 1 0 1 . 1 0 2 . 9 7 . 9 . 99 . 3 . I 2 1
1 78 , 1 8 6
2 3 3 . 2 58
.

Far idpu r, 5, 62
D har m a g ita, 94 , 9 5, 96
.
-
.

F at im a , 2 2 7
Dhar m a M ah a S am gati, 1 42 .
.

D ha r m a M a n a l a ( o f G h anar am a ) , 3 5 F a u sb o l l s
’
I ndia n My thol ogy, 253
( not e)
( ot e 3 (
8 n t ). 39 ( n o t ) . 44. .
n o e e

8 1 66 2 0 Fire god, 8 , 9 , 1 0 , 1 1 , 3 3 -
.

5 , 1 20 ,
1 2 5, 1 33 , , 4
8 Fir e go ds, 1 1 , 1 2 , 2 53 , 2 54
( o ), 4 ( ), 5
-

t n t .
n e 2 1 o e 2 .

(of Manik G ang u i) , 63 (no te) , l

(o f Y atrasiddhi R ay) , 2 58 .

Dh ar m apal a , 1 60 , 1 65, 1 66, 1 7 0 G am bhir a ( Shi a) , 7 2 . v .

D ha r m a p ujd (of G a u d eshw a r a) , 1 26

- G am ga (w ife of Shi a) , 3 0 , 3 8 , 45, 46, . v
D ha r m a pnjd p a ddha ti, 59
-
(no te) , 8 7
-
7 1 , 1 78 .

(
no te .93 . 95. ) 1 0 1 . 1 0 2 . I 0 8. (a dancer) , 2 1 2 .
 I NDE X : NA ME S A N D R E F E R E N CE S 30 3

G am gadhar a ( Shiv a) , 46 , 7 1 . j
G ur ara -
Pratih ar as, 1 63 ( note) , 1 67
G anapati ( G an esh a) 9 7 , .
(n o te ) .

G anesh a ( Su ccess giver) , 2 9 , -

45, 9 7, G j
u r ar as, 1 71 .

20 0 ( no te) , 22 0 , 22 4 , 2 3 6 , 2 4 1 ( n o t e) . G yé tson, 1 9 2.
G anges 3 0 . 3 4. 3 6 (not e) . 45. 6 1 . 7 r . 77 .
78 . 8 6. 1 55. 1 57 . 1 72 . 20 4.

G an gu l i, K u m u dini K anta , xiii . H ackm ann, B u ddhism as a R el ig ion,

Manik , 3 9 (not e) , 63 ( note) , 258 . 13 5 (not e) .

G anis ( or G anas) , 1 3 8 , 2 49 . H adipa, 69 , 1 8 9 .

G ar u da ( K ing of B ir ds) , 1 0 7 , 1 46, H d ka nda P a r d na , 9 6, 9 8 , 2 2 5 .

1 67 . l l
H a aha a L o k esh w ar a , 257 .

G a u da , ix, 6 2 , 1 1 9 , 1 26, 1 49 , 1 59 , H al ayu dh a, 20 7 , 20 8 , 20 9 .

1 63 , 1 64 , 1 65, 1 66 , 1 68 , 1 7 2 , 1 7 4 , j
H am sa r a a ( K in g o f G eese) , 22 7
-
.

1 8 9 , 2 0 3 , 2 0 4 , 2 0 5, 2 0 6 , 20 8 , 2 0 9 , H an u m in ( Mo nk ey sod) . 3 5. 3 7 . 3 9 . 40 -

2 1 0 , 2 1 2 , 21 4 . (note) . 46. 47 . 1 0 0 . 1 0 9. I n .
G au da Pu n dr a ( Ben gal ) , 1 63
-
. 2 57 . 2 58 .

G a u da v a dbu , 1 63
-
. H anu m anta, 50 .

G au deshw ar a , 1 2 6, 1 66 . v
H ara ( S hi a 69 , 8 0 , 8 2 , 85, 1 2 6, 22 2 .

G au ra Ch a ndr a , 3 4 (n o te) . H ara— G au r i Sh i a D ur ga) , 53 , 55, 2 3 1 v -

.

G au r i (Adya, Chandik a) , 4 5, 69 , 7 1 , 8 0 , v
H ara Par ati ( Shi a and his w ife) , 52 ,
-
v
8 4 , 1 22 , 1 8 4 , 1 8 6 , 2 1 0 , 2 3 1 , 2 4 3 , 2 4 8 ,
2 49 , 2 50 , 2 51 . H ari (V innu , K r isna) , 45, 1 21 , 1 26 ,
G aya, 1 66, 1 7 8 , 1 93 (note) . 2 20 .

G ayatr i, 2 49 . H aridasa, B rah m a, 1 99 (no te) .

G ayeshwar i, 1 8 5 . H ar i hari har i V ih an odbh av a L ok esh

- -

G az i, 2 24 . w ar a , 2 57 .

G etty, Mr s A , G ods of N or ther n B u d

. . H ar im o h ana , 1 5 .

dhism , xiv , 1 45 (n o t e) , 1 7 6 ( no t e) , 1 77 H ar isch andr a (o r H arish Chandra) , 1 0 7,

(no te) , 1 8 1 (note) , 2 57 (no te) . 1 9 6, 22 5, 2 2 6 .

Gh anar am a, 3 5 (no te) , 1 20 , 1 2 5, 1 2 6, H ar iti, 258 (no te) .

1 3 3 , 1 66, 2 58 . H a r l v a m sha , 1 0 6, 1 1 6, 1 2 2 , 1 3 0 , 24 4,

G h o sh , Pr o f R abind ranar ayan, xii

. . 255.

Gita g ov inda , 2 1 0 , 2 1 1 .
( J aina) , 1 23 , 1 3 7 , 1 3 9 (note) .

G od (in an im perso na sense) , 2 , 23 , 3 4 l H ar sa D e va ( H ar sa V ar dhana ) , 23 7 ,

( no t e) . 49 (not e) . 8 4. 1 0 9 . 1 3 4. I 43 . 24 3 .
1 44 , 1 66, 1 9 7 , 2 2 3 , 2 60 . H ar sa V ar dh ana , E m peror , 1 2 , 1 3 , 1 1 9 ,
l
G opa a , 1 65 . 1 2 4 . 1 3 1 . I 4 9 . 1 50 . 1 51 . I S3 . I S4 .

G o pal ana gar , 7 4 . 1 55. I 56 . I S7 . I SS. 1 59 . 1 6 1 . 1 62 .

G 0 pipal a , 1 25 . 1 7 8 , 1 8 6 , 2 1 1 , 2 1 5, 22 3 .

G o r ak san atha , 1 40 . H asa , C h andr a , 1 0 7 .

G o sain (Au a C h an d) , 3 4 ( no t e)
l . H assan, 22 7 .

A
G ov ar dh an a, ch aryya , 2 0 9 , 2 1 1 . H av el l s I ndia n
’
A r chitectu re,
G ov indach andr a , 69 , 1 2 5, 1 40 .
( no t e) .

G ovind a cha ndr a g rim , 69 , 1 2 5, 1 89 - . H av ism a ti, 1 1 .

G ray, 1 7 .
H aya ( H a a, or E i) , 2 25 v vl .

G reece, 6 .
H ayagr iv a , 1 79 , 1 8 0 .

G r ihas th a , xii, 1 7 . H eta , 2 28 , 22 9 .

j
G u rat, 1 49 , 1 6 1 .
l
H im a aya (fath er o f G au r i) , 8 4 .

G u pta , Y o gendr anath , xii . im al ayas, 8 , 26 1 .

G u ptas ( K ings) , 1 2 3 , 1 50 , 1 60 , 1 61 , 2 1 5 H indu B enga , 261 l .

I ndia, 1 63 , 2 1 5
i
iG
no te .

Cl andra u pta I I , th e G u pta (Vik H indu s, 3 , 28 , 3 1 , 3 4 ( no te) , 8 0 , 1 1 4,

aditya ) , 1 1 9 , 1 3 1 , 1 61
r am . 1 1 5. 1 2 8 . 1 29 . 1 3 4 . 1 4 1 . 1 4 6. 1 52 ,
Mau rya, 1 6 1 . I GS, x69 : 1 7 2 , 1 7 8 , 1 96 ! 20 9 , 21 1 ,

Sam u dr a G u pta, 1 6 1 . 2 1 4 , 2 1 6, 2 1 7 , 2 1 8 , 2 1 9 , 22 0 , 226 ,

S h ash am k a N ar endr a G u p t a, 1 49 , 2 56 .

59 H ind usth an, 1 21 , 1 61 , 21 6

50 9 I
.
1
30 4 T H E FO L K E L E ME N T I N H I N D U C U L T U R E -

H ir an yakashipu , 1 0 9 , 1 1 3 .
yonr na l f
o the
Asia tic Society of
H iu en Thsang, 1 3 , 1 1 9 , 1 24 , 1 3 1 , 1 53 , B enga l . xii, 9 3 (no te) , 2 1 1 ( note) .

I S4 . I S6 . 1 59 . 1 5. 1 8 . 1 8
7 7 3. 1 86 f the R oy a l A sia tic S ociety , xii,
o
2 23 . 2 43 °
95 (no t e) , 1 4 3 ( note) , 1 7 8 (note) .

H u ghl i, 5, 62 , 68 , 8 1 . J u m n a , 1 57 , 2 61 .

H u ns, 1 49 , 1 67 (n o te) , 20 3 . J w al am u kh i, 2 1 3 .

H u ssa in , 22 7 .

Sh ah , 2 3 2 . K .

K ail asa M ou ntain, 46 , 7 1 , 1 3 7 , 1 3 8 ,

2 1 0 , 24 8 , 2 54 .

K al a ( Div ine B l ack sm it h or Pot ter) , 28 ,

I b adat K hanah , 2 1 8
-
.

I ndian O cean, 6
I ndian T h ou g ht S er ies,
.

xiv , 23
Bh aira a , 2 56 v .

K al ach andr a (Dhar m a) , 1 0 0 , 1 0 1

.

I ndra (King of G o ds) ,

.

10 ,
1 3, 29 , 47 , K al esw ar a, 4 3 ( no t e)
8 2 . 1 21 . 1 23 . 1 3 7 .
.

38. 1
K a i ( War G oddess) , iii, 56 , 65, 80 ,
l x
22 3 . 2 53 . 2 54 . 2 55. 2 57 . 2 58
1 0 9, 1 1 0 , 1 1 1 , 1 44 , 1 66,
I sh ana, 20 9
1 88 , 20 6 (no te) , 2 0 7 , 2 3 2 , 23 3 , 2 44
.

l
I s am ( Mo ham m edan w or d , Moham l 24 5. 2 4 8 . 2 53 . 254. 2 55. 259
,

m ed anism ) , 99 , 1 0 0 , 1 61 , 2 1 5, 2 1 6 ,
.

K al i S ong s, 259 .

K al id asa , 20 9
I yengar , Pr incipa P T l . . Shr iniv as, 23 .
.

K aligh at , 53 , 65, 7 9 , 80 , 24 8 .

'
l
Ka ik a, 1 0 0 , 1 0 9 .

K al ikd Pu r dna , 254, 255 .

l
‘
K a indi, 1 3 8 (note) .

J a gadal a 1 7 3 , . K al pa taru , 1 66 .

J agaddhatr i 2 61 ,
. l
K a u R aya ( Dh arm a) , 1 0 0 .

J agajjiv ana 1 2 8 , . K am a , 1 47 .

J ag annath a, 30 , 3 1 , 3 8 , 47 , 100, 21 3, K dm a S hastr as , 1 1 4

- .

2 29 . K am a d ev a ( G o d of L o e) , 1 0 0 , 1 98 , v
7 aga nnd tha Vij ay a o f Mu ku nda B har 1
99 .

ati 4 3 ( no t e) 1 9 3 (no te) 1 9 8 (note)

, , , . K am akh ya (Ch andi) , 28 , 3 1 .

J ahnav i , 26 1 . K am andaki, 1 8 7 .

J aipu 2 3 3 (not )
r, e . K am a ru pa, 3 1 , 2 1 3 .

J j p a 2 5 22 7
a a ur , 2 , . K Am b ojas (Mongo s) , 1 7 1 l .

Jam a i 8 1 8 r ,
1 1 2. K am inya, 9 7.
J anak ( Sit ) 1 3 2
a a , . K am sa . K ing , 1 1 6 .

J anashr i , A char yya , 1 9 0 , 1 91 . K anak a m u ni, 1 7 7 .

J ang li T ara 1 82 83
a , , 1 . K anau j .1 3 . n o. 1 2 4 . 1 54.
J pn i i 6 16
a a , x , xv , 2 , 2 , 23 3 , 2 62 . 1 61 , 1 63 , 1 64 , 1 67 ( no te) , 1 71 , 1 8 6,
J ashor esh w ar i, 23 3 . 20 3 , 2 0 4 .
J at k 4 (not )
a a, 0 e . K anisk a , K u shan E m pero r , 1 43 .

J npu 2 8
au r, 1 . anya k u bya ( K anau ) , 1 54 , 1 56 j .

J v 1 62
a a, . ap l
a a K u nda a, 1 8 7 l .

J ya 9 8 2 22 249
a ,
1 , , . l v
K a pi a ( D i ine C ow ) , 28 , 29 , 3 7 .

J ayadeva 1 5 , ,
2 1 0 , 21 1 . l
K ar a i, 2 53 , 2 54 .

J ayanta 1 63 ,
. K d r ikd , 1 66, 1 67 .

J esso 62 , 233 .
re, K ar na , K a i, 7 1 v .

J etar im uni, 1 65 . K ar tik a (o r K ar tik eya , G od of War) ,

J h a, Dr G anganath , 23 (note)
. . 1 09. m . 1 7 9 . 20 0 ( note) .
J im u tav ahana, 1 52 (note) , 1 8 6 . 22 5.
J v
ina De a (F irst ina) , 1 1 8 , 1 3 7 , J 1 3 8, K ashi ( B enares) , 3 6, 243 .

1 40 . d hi K h anda , 24 3
-
.

J in as, 1 3 8 , 1
39 , 1 4 1 . K ashipu ( H ir anyak ashi pu ) , 1 1 3.

J inendr a, 1 3 8 . K ashishw ar a ( Shi a) , 3 6 v .

23 8 , K ashm ir , xiv , 1 43 , 1 8 6
ynd na Sa m hitd , 1 1 7 , 1 22 , 23 9 , .

2 40 , 2 56 . K ashm iris, 2 , 2 3 .
30 6 T H E FO LK E L E ME N T I N H I N D U C U L T UR E -

Mah esh w ar a (or Mahesh a Shiva) 3 2 , M ayana, 1 20 2 41 (note ) , , , .

7 0 , 1 1 2 . 1 44 I 4S. MG 1 51 . 1 65. 1 69 . Mayu rbhanj 1 8 1 1 8 2 ( not e) , 1 8 5

, , , , .

1 7 6, 1 9 9 20 0 2 1 8 222 22
,
, 3 23 1 , 258 M ecca, 2 1 6
, , , . .

Mahipal a 1 25 , . M eg ha du ta , 2 0 9 .

M a hip d l a L ays of 1 8 9
, M em oir of the Asia tic S ociety of Ben
, .

M ahipal a I , 1 7 1 , 1 7 2 , 1 7 4 .
ga l , x iv .
M ahottari T ar a, 1 8 5, 257 . M enak a ( Moth er of Parv ati) , 8 5, 2 49 .
Maine 2 2 , . Meru ( Pam ir) , 1 8 2 .

Maitr eya 2 57 , . v
De i, 1 3 7 .

A
Maitr a, k shay K u m ar xii , . M idnapo r e, 5, 62 .

Malati 1 8 7 1 8 8
, , . l
Mi ton, Cam u s, 6 7 (note) -
.

M al a ti M adha na 242 , . M im am sa S a r v a sw a , 20 8
-
.

Mal da ix 5, 1 5 1 6, 1 7 1 8 2 7 (no te )
, , , , , , Minanatha, 1 3 2 .

3 2, 3 9 . 4 1 ( note) , 58 . 59 . 6 1 . 6 2 . 65. M ishr a, G u rav a, 1 67 .

6 8 . 69 , 7 3 , 7 9 . 8 0 , 8 2 . 1 2 8 . 1 41 . H ari, 1 66 .

I 7 3 ! 2 0 6, 2 43 : 2 48 ° K edar a, 1 67 .

D istrict Cou nci o f N ationa E du ca l l Mitr a (S u n go d) , t o , 2 53

-
.

t io n , V in, iii, 2 5 ( no t e) x . Bar adach ar ana, 1 6 .

ll
Ma ik , Durl abh a, L ay s of G ov inda Dr R ajendr al al , xii
. .

C h a ndr a , 1 2 5 . M od er n W
or l d , iii x .

M el l si Song s, 2 59 . l
Mo ghu , th e G reat, 2 1 1 , 2 1 6, 233 .

l
Ma w a, 1 49 , 1 61 . l
Moghu s, 2 1 7 , 2 1 8 .

M alyav ati, 1 52 ( note) , 1 8 6 . M oh am m ed , 2 2 4, 22 7, 228 , 229 .

Mam n i, 1 77 , 1 8 2 . Moham m ed ans, 7 , 3 4 ( note) , 1 3 4, 21 3 ,

Mam uda S atin, o r sai( Moh am m ed) , 99 ,
‘
2 1 4 , 2 1 7 , 2 1 9 , 224 , 22 8 , 229 .

2 26 . Mok du m pu r , ix .

S ais ( Mu ssalm an s) , 2 2 7 . l
Mongo s, 88 ( no te) , 1 67 (n ote) , 20 3 , 2 60 .
M an Singh , 233 ( note) . M ook erji, Dr R adhaku m u d, xii . .

Manasa ( Mo ther of S er pents) , t oo, 1 28 , Mo on, 3 7 .

2 1 8 , 2 58 . Moon god, 1 67, 2 25

-
.

M a na sa, L ays of , 1 9 3 (note) , 2 58 . Moo r shidabad, 5 6 1 , 62 , .

M anasi, xii . M other I ndia , T a gor e's, 2 60 r -

.

Mandar a , 20 6 . Mrityu njaya ( Shiva) , 49 .

l
Man ga a Ch andi, Mother ( Dom estic
-
Mu h am m ad G hor i, 1 6 1 .

G o ddess) , 1 0 0 , 1 2 7, 21 8 , 22 8 . Mu k h en, 1 9 0 .

M ang a l a Chandi o f K av ikam k ana , 1 26, Mu k erj ee, Pr of R adh ak am al , xiii . .

1 27 , 1 2 8 . M u k u ndar am a (K av ikam k ana) , 1 27 , 2 58 ,

o f M an ik Da tta , 9 5, 1 2 6, 1 2 7 , 2 59 .
1 2 8 , 1 9 8 ( not e) , 1 99 (note) . M u k a ndar dm , by Das G u pta , 1 27 ,

l
Manga a G au ri, 243
-
. 23 3 (not e) .

Man i, I OO . Mu ll er , Max, R a m a kr ishna H is L i

fe
M dnika cha ndr a , L ays of , 1 8 9 . a nd Tea ching s, 262 .

Manjushri Bu ddha, 1 45, 1 46, 1 7 8 , 1 8 1 , M u nda (a dem on ) , 251 .

1 8 2 , 257 . M u ndu k a Up a nisa d , 2 53 .

M anojav a, 2 53 . M a ni S u vr a ta Pa r ana , 1 1 8 , 1 23 .

M a nn, Cod e of , 2 0 8 . M u rray, 2 1 7 , no te .

M ara, 1 47 . Mu ssal m ans, 1 61 , 2 1 6, 2 1 7 , 22 7 .

M ar athas, 2, x2 1 Mu ttra , 1 78 .

Mar ett , Pr of R R F ol kl or e a nd Psy

. .

chol o ix .

M d r ka ndey a Chand i, 9 7 .

Pa r ana , 1 9 9 (no te) , 2 54 . N ahbi, 1 3 7 .

M ash an Ch am u nda K m , 8 9 . N a dia, 5, 3 4 (note) , 6 2, 8 7, 248 .

K il l , 9 0 .
n dnanda , 1 52 ( note) , 1 8 6 .

M atanga, I O O . N ag ach o, 1 92 .

Matr ik as, 1 8 4 . N agarju na, 1 43 , 1 44 .

M a tsy a S a lem , 20 8
- . N a ku lisha T a ntr a , 256 .

Maur ya s, 1 60 . N al anda, 1 7 8 , 1 8 3 .
 I NDE X : N A ME S A N D R E FE R E N CE S 30 7

N anda, 1 1 6 .

N andi. 3 6 2 43 . 2 4s. 2 48 2 49 . 2 50
Sandh yakar a, 1 67 . Pabna, 5 .

l
N a po eons, I ndian, x6 r . Padm a, 1 22 , 1 8 4, 249 .

N ara da ( Sage and Singer o f the G ods) Pad m d , L ay s of , 1 2 8 .

1 2 2 , 22 3 , 2 2 5, 2 58 . Pa dm a Pa r ana , 1 1 7 , 20 6, 2 55, 2 57 .

N dr a diy a P u r d na , 2 55 Padm anar tesh w ara L okeshw ara, 257 .

N ar asim ha ( V 1snu as m an io n) , 1 0 9 , -
l Pa dm a pani, 1 46 .

n o, 1 1 2, 1 1 3 . Av al o kiteshwara, 1 7 7 .

(pr oper ly N arasim hi, Ch andi) , 1 1 2, Padm av ati, 2 25 .

1 1 3 . 245 l
Pa a s ( Kin gs) , xiv , 1 3 1 , 1 60 , 1 61 , 1 62 ,
N ar ayana (Visn u ) , 2 1 , 29 , 1 66, 2 20 . 1 63
(not e) , 1 66 , 1 67 , 1 69 , 1 7 0 , 1 7 1 ,
N d r ay a na , xiv . I 73 . I 7 4. I 93 . 20 0 , 20 2 , 20 3 , 21 2.
N ar ayan apal a, 1 6 7 , 1 68 , 1 69 , 1 70 . 2 1 8.
N ar otta m a Vil c isa , 2 33 . Deva pal a, 1 66, 1 67 .

j
N a tara a ( Shiv a) , 1 23 , 248 . D harm apal a , 1 60 , 1 65, 1 66, 1 70 .

N atio nal ist S cho ol o f I ndian Ar t , xv . G opa a, 1 65 l .

N av adw ipa ( N adia) , 8 7 . M adanapal a, 1 74 .

N em inath a , 1 40 . M ahipal a I , 1 7 1 , 1 72 , 1 7 4 .

ayap al a, 1 7 2 . N arfiyanapal a, 1 67 , 1 68 , 1 69 , 1 70 .

N epal , 1 62 , 1 8 5, 20 7 . R ajyapal a , 1 7 1 .

N ih sh am ka S h am k ara G a u deshw ar a, R am a pal a , 1 73 .

20 5 . Vigr ah apal a (S h u r apal a) , 1 67 .

N il a ( Sh iva ) , 8 0 , 8 7 . l
Pa it , M r H ar idas, iii, ix , , . v x xv .

—q S ar a sw ati T ara Dev i, 1 8 2 , 2 58 . Adyer G a m bhir d , ix, 2 5 (no te) ,

N il ai, 1 8 9 . 21 7 .

N il ajih v a , m o . Pam ir , 1 8 2 .

N il ak anth acharyya L ok esh w ara , 257 . Panch a ch u da, 1 2 2 -

.

N il anjasa, 1 23 , 1 3 7 . Panch ajanya , 1 2 .

N il fiv ati, 7 5, 8 7 . Panch av at ism i, 48 .

N ir anjana ( Dh arm a) , 3 3 , 3 9 , 40 , 4 1 , 42 , Pandara, 1 77 , 1 8 2 .

4 3 . 9 3 . 9 5. m t . 1 0 2 . 1 9 4. 1 9 5. 1 9 7 . Pand a as, th e fiv e, 8v .

1 9 8 , 1 99 , 2 1 8 , 2 2 0 , 222 , 22 4 , 2 28 , 2 58 . Pan dit, Mr N alinira njan , .x1 1 . .

N ishu m bh a , 251 . Pa nd it S a r v a swa , 20 8 .

N it ai, 3 8 . Panini, 20 9 .

N iti Shastr a s, 1 1 4
- . Parad ise , 3 7 , 3 8 , 47 .

N iv edité , S ist er , K d l i the M other , 1 88 Par am a Sau ra M ah arajadhim ia

(note) . G h atu k a Sham k ara G au deshw ar a
Dr C oo m ar asw am y, My ths
a nd . 21 4 .

f the H indu s a nd B u ddhists, Par am a V aisnava ( L aksm ana S en a) ,

o -

, 2 53 ( xv
no te) 20 8 . .

N iyatag'ni ( Perm anent Fir e) , 1 2 Parash ara , 2 1 1 . .

l
N or th B enga L iter a ry C onfer ence, 1 6 Par ganas, th e tw enty fou r, 5, 7 4 , 7 9 -
.

I 7 Par i ata ( F o w er o f Par adise) , 3 8 j l .

N or t h er n I ndia, 1 3 , 1 49 , 1 57 , 1 63 , r 7 o , Par shw anath a, 1 1 8 , 1 3 9 , 1 40 , 2 57 .

2 1 6, 2 1 7 . Par a ti, 8 , 1 4 , 8 2, 8 3 , 8 4, 8 5, 1 1 1 , 1 1 2 , v
N or th -
W
ester n I ndia , 2 0 3 , 2 1 3 1 68 ( n ote) , 23 1 , 249 , 2 50 . .

N ritya p riya ( Sh i a) , 1 23
-
vPash u pati (Shi a) , 8 , 1 68 , 1 70 , 2 2 3 ,
. v
N u ra ( L igh t) , 22 5 . 2 40 .

(au tho r ) , 20 9 .

0 Pashup a tip
. a d d ha ti, 20 9 -
.

Pata a (N eth er R egions) , 42 , 47 l .

O cea n god, 1 66, 1 67

-
Ch andi, 20 6
. .

O m ( H indu T rinity) , 1 1 2 , 1 1 3 , 1 9 4 , 1 9 5 D e i, 20 6 . v .

O r issa, 5, 6. 3 0 . 6 1 . 62 . 7 1 . 9 1 . 9 6. 1 7 3 Fatal ipu tra ( Patn a) , 1 1 9 , 1 24 , 1 3 1 , 2 1 5

( no t e) , 20 7 , 2 1 3 , 2 3 1 ( note) . .

O sir is, 7 . Path ans, 2 1 7 , 2 1 8 .

O stasia tische Z eitschr i f t, xiv Patna, 1 1 9 . .

30 8 TH E F O L K E L E ME N T I N H I N D U C U L T UR E -

Pav ana Wind god) , 3 5, 1 97 -

. j
Ra agr ih a, 1 42 .

Pa nam a u ta , 2 0 9 . j
Ra endra C hol a, 1 60 .

Paygam bar a ( Pr op het, Moh am m ed) , j

R a pu t S tates, 1 61 .
22 4, 228 . j
R a pu tana, 233 (note) .

Paygam baras, 2 1 9 . R aj p t 2 23
u s, , .

Per sia, R j h hi ii 5
a s a , x , , 61 , 20 3 (note) .

Phakir ul a Chand) , 3 4 (no te) . R ajyapal a , 1 7 1 .

Phanibhu sana ( Parshwa nath a , R ak sh it , H em endra K ishor , iii. x

Shiva) , 1 3 9
L okeshw ar a, 1 65.
Pichchhil d Ta ntr a , 258 ( note)
Pindar aka, 1 1 6, 1 22, 1 3 0 .
. R ak tam itt i, 1 59 .
R am a ! 3 51 46. s3 i 55» 99 ’ 1 0 7, 1 0 9 , 1 1 8 ,
. 1 29 . 2 56. 2 57 . 259
R am a C h arita, 67.
-

Pir Paygam var a ( Moham m ed ) , 229 . Ram ai Pandit, 6, 4 1 (note) , 60 , 96, 97 ,

Pith as, the fifty one, 20 6 -
.
9 8 , 1 0 7 , 1 0 8 , 1 1 9 , 1 3 1 , 1 3 2 , 1 3 3 , 1 45,
Polih as, 88 . 1 58 : I 59 i 1 8 9 , 1 9 2, I 93 , x9 4m I 9 5.
Potal aka , 1 79 . 1 9 6, 1 9 7 , 1 9 8 , 1 99 , 20 0 , 2 2 1 , 222, 223 ,

Prabh ak ara, V ar dhana, 1 51 . 22 4 , 22 5, 2 29 , 23 0 , 2 58 .

Pr acha nda, 20 6 . Ram akr isna Vi ek ananda, 262.
-
v
j
Pra na param ita, 1 8 5, 22 1
-
. R am apala , 1 73 .
Pr am atha s, 9 . R am a pr asada, 1 5, 259 .
Pr am nochi, 249 . Ram ava ti, 1 73 , 1 7 4.
Pr ash antag ni ( Setting Su n or Pacifi ed R am aya na, K r ittiv asa’s, 259 .

F ire) , 1 2 . v '
al m ik is, 8 , 54, 1 1 1 , 1 1 6, 1 2 1 , 1 29 ,
Pratapaditya, 23 3 . 1 3 7 . 2 54. 2 56
Pr a tibhd , iii x . R am pu r Boa ia, 20 3 (note) . l
Pr d tim oksa , 1 3 6 . R ang pu r, 5, 6 1 , 69 .
P r ovasi, xii, 220 (note) . S é hitya Parisat, iii. v
Pra yaga ( A ll
ah ab ad) , 1 3 1 , 1 56, 1 57 . R a ngp u r S dhity a Par isa t Pa tr ikd, ii i x .

Pr etas, 1 9 1 note)
(
. R anjav ati (w ife of K arnasena Datta) ,
Pr iy a dar shi d, 1 52 (note) .
38 (no te) .

Pu ndr a V ar dh ana, ix, 1 59, 20 6 . R atnapéni, 1 77 .

Pu ndras, 1 40 , 1 4 1 , 1 59 . R atnasa m b hav a, 1 46, 1 77, 1 8 2.

j
Pu n ab, R a tnd oa l i, 1 52 (note) .

j
Pu n abis, 2 , 23 , 20 3 . R avana, 8 , 9 2, 1 29 .

Pu r anas ( H indu ) , 1 5, 28, 3 8 , 1 1 2, 1 1 6 8 , -

R ay, C h an d, 233 .
1 2 1 . 1 2 3 . 1 3 7 . 20 8. 2 48 . 2 51 . 255. K edar a, 233 .

2 56, 259 . Y atr asiddhi, 2 58 .

P u r an as ( ai J
na) , 1 1 7 8 , 1 23 , 1 3 7 , 2 56 -
. R ibh us, 1 0 .

Pu r i ( Pur u sottam a) , 3 0 , 3 4 ( no te) , R ig Veda , 1 2 1 , 1 9 8 (note) , 253 .

22 9 . v
R isabh a D e a , 1 1 7 , 1 23 , 1 3 7 , 1 3 8,
Pu m a Chandra , 3 3 ( note) . 2 57 .
Pu r u sotta m a De a, 20 9 v . R isis, 1 3 2 , 23 5 .

Purv apara, 49 . R oy, D w ijendral a l , 26 x.

F il ed, 2 53 . R u dra , 48 , 1 2 2, 23 0 , 249 , 253 , 254.
Puspap ani Shi a) , 4 g. v R u dr a Y d m a l a , 20 6 ( note) .

Pusyabhu ti ar dh ana, 1 51 .

S .

R .

v
Sada Shi a , 3 3 , 48 .

R abindr anath Tagor e , 260 , 26 1 . s adh ak a , 1 5 .

v
R adha , iii, 2 , 5, 4 1 (note) , 68 , 70 , d ha na ka lp a l a td , 1 93 (note) .

1 2 7 . 1 49 . 2 0 7 . 2 4 8 . d ha na m d l d Ta ntr a , 1 7 8 , 1 80 ,
-

R adha ( G oddess) , 2 59 .
(
1 8 4 , 1 8 5, 1 93 note , 257
) .

R adh anagar , 3 2. ddha na S a m u chchay a Tantra ,

v
R agna a, 1 27 . 1 93 ( no t e) . 257 . 2 58 .

Ra gh u , 1 27 . S ah ajanya, 24g .

R ai, Binod Behar i, x11 . S éh apu r , 1 5 .

R aiv ataka , 1 30 . Sah asrayata na, 1 68 .

3 10 T H E F O L K E L E ME N T I N H I N D U CU L T U R E -

Sh rijnana ( Dip am k ara, tisb a) , 1 89 , A S waru pa nar ayana ( Dh arm a) , 1 0 0 ,

-
1 3 2.
1 9 0 , 1 9 2. S w a tantr a T a ntr a, 1 82, 1 8 5, 257 .

S hr im ad B hdg a va ta , 2 54, 2 55 .

Sh u bhasth ali. 1 66 .

Sh u l a pan i, 20 9 , 224 .

Sh um bha, 2 51
Ta ba kd t i N asir i, 21 4.
.
- -

S hu nya (Void) . 42. 9 5. 1 0 1 . 1 45. 1 76.

T ago re, R abindranath, 260 , 261 .
1 93 , 1 9 4, 2 29
T él iganj. 7 4. 79
’ .
.
S hu ny a Pu r dna o f Ram ai Pan dit , 6, 3 5
T antr a, 42 (no te) .
(note) , 3 6 (note) , 3 9 ( note) , 40 (no te) , Ta ntr a s, 20 7 , 20 8 , 256, 259 .

4 1 (note) 42 ( no te 43 ( note) , 4 4 T a ntr asdra 20 6

( “0 te) 1 49 (no w) : 57 no w) : 59 1 60 1 93 1 Ta ntr a o ibhu ti, 1 28
.
,

9 5 (note) . I 0 7. I 1 9 . 1 24. 1 2 5. 1 3 2 , T fir fi I I 1
, 1 46»
, 4 4 1 65, I 69 v 1 7 5 1 7 2 7
1 89 9 I 90 1 1 93 » I 9 41 I 9 51 1 9 6 1
,
1 4 5,
1 73 , 1 7 7 , 1 79 , 1 80 , 1 8 2, 1 8 3 , 1 8 4 ,
20 0 , 2 2 1 , 2 22, 2 23 , 224 , 23 6 ( no te) ,
1 8 5, 1 8 6, 1 88 , 1 9 0 , 1 9 1 , 20 3 , 2 0 5,
240 (note) , 2 4 1 ( not e) , 2 58
2 57 . 2 58 . 2 59 . 262
.

Shur apal a, 1 67
T ar as, 1 8 6, 2 62
.
.

Shuras, 1 63 , 1 65.
T ar a Bo dh isatt va, 1 83 .
S hw etds h w a Up anisad , 1 4 5
D ev i, 20 6 ( note) , 2 57 .
.

S idd hadev a ( Perfect G od) , 1 9 5

T arak eshw ar, 80 .
.

Siddhi A i, 1 2
T ar ak esh w ar a Shiva, 8 1 .
-
.

Sikh M isl s, 2 1 6
T ar tars, 1 6 7 (n ot e)
.
.
S ikhi, 1 77
T ath agata ( Bu ddh a) , 1 48 (note)
.
.
S im ga, 1 3 2
T au ru s, 1 72
.

S im h agiri, 2 0 4 ( no te)
.

Th a k ardev i’, 2 28
.
.
Sim h anada L o keshw ar a, 257
hak u r ( Au ia Ch and) , 3 4 (note)
.
.
Siniv al i, 253 .
h ak u ras (G o ds) , 50 .
S ita. 3 5. 46. x3 2. 2 53 . 254 . 2 56. 2 59 .
Th anesw ar , 1 4g .
S ha nda Pnr dna , 1 1 7 , 256, 2 58 (no te)
.
Thib au t, D1 , 23 ( note)
.
.
Sm ith , V incent , Asoka , 1 23
.

T ib et, 6, 1 62, 1 7 2, 1 8 2, 1 9 0 , 1 9 1 , 20 2
.
.
E a r ly H istory of I ndia , x1i, xiv ,
Tir tha m k ar as, 1 1 7 , 1 3 6, 1 3 7 , 1 3 8 , 1 3 9 ,
1 49 ( note) , 1 63 (no te) , 2 1 4
(no te) .
Tr ail o kya S u ndar i (Du rga) , 23 4
-
.

Sou th ern I ndia, 1 60 , 2 1 6, 2 1 7

T r idiv a ( H eaven) , 60 .
.

S ou th er ner s ( Sou thern I ndians) , 23 ’

Tr ikd nd as hesa , 20 9 .

T r im u r t i ( T hr ee Figures, Tr inity) , 1 92 ,
Sphu l ingini, 2 53 .
1 94
S tevenso n, Mrs , H ea r t of f a inism ,
.

Tr ipu r a, 4 5, 4 6 .

1 1 7 ( note) , 1 3 8 (no te) , 1 4 1 ( no te) , 2 56

T r ip u r ar i ( S h iv a) , 45, 4 6 .

(no te) .
Tr ir atna (Th r ee ewel s, Trinity) , 1 3 5, J
S tyx , 59 (now) , 1 96
I 47 . 1 93
S u bh adra, 23 6
T r o il okya bh ayam k ara L okeshw ar a,
.

S u dh anv a K u m ara, 1 7 9, 1 8 0 , 1 8 1 , 1 8 2 .
2 57 .
S u dh um r av ar na, 253 .
T u karam a, 24 .
S u kti ka r ndm rita , 20 9
T u l asi ( H o ly B asil ) , 4 6
-
.
.
S u l ch ita, 2 53
T u l sid asa, 24
.
.
Su m uk h a, K ing, 1 1 7 .

S u n, 3 1 , 3 71 461 l :s7t 1 581 I 9 4

S u n god. 1 0 . 1 4. 3 1 .33 . 9 7 . 9 8 .
-

22 5 .

S u n gods, 9 7
-
. U chchaisr av a ( Mythical H or se) , 29 .

S a mand a, 23 6 . Uddisha T a ntr a , 256 .

S u rya p r abh a,1 8 2

-
.U grada nta , 1 0 0 .

S u ryya ( Su n) , 1 0 , 1 0 7, 1 3 1 , 1 51 , 20 3 l a, 3 3 ( no te) . .

S u t ayoni, 3 2 . ll u ka ( G 1bbon of Dharm a) , 28 , 40

S u tratm a, 1 1 .
( no te) , 4 1 , 1 0 0 , (note) , 253 .

S u v a r naji r a bha , 257 ll u k ai ( E n d of Dh a1 m a, al so call ed

.

Su vr ata, 1 23 . U l l u k a) , 4 1 (note) , 1 9 8, 222, 258 .

 I N DE X : N A ME S A N D R E FE R E N CE S 31 1

U m a, 2 53 , 2 54 , 255 . V ar ind (V ar endra ) , 65 .

U m apati (or U m apatid har a) , 20 4 , 2 1 0 . V arm a, R av i ( r tist) , 65 A .

U nited Prov inces, 1 2 1 . V at m a n, N ar ayana ( G en e ral ) , 1 66 .

Up p
‘
a zcr a na s, 2
54 . Var m ans ( K in gs) , 1 73 (not e) , 2 0 3 .

U pper I ndia, 1 51 , 1 6 1 , 1 8 6 . Bh ask ara V ar m fi. ( K u m aradev a) , 1 3 .

U rddh a, 3 6 . Shyam al a Varm a, 20 3 .

U rv ash i, 2 49 . V iru i ( F am il y of) , 1 20 .

U sa, 1 0 6, 2 44 . V aru na , 1 0 , 253 .

U satpu r , 1 20 . Vasanta, 242 .

U tk al a, 20 7 . V ashist h a , 20 6 .

Vdstu- Shdstr a s, 1 1 4 .

V a su , M r N agendr a nath , xii, 1 7 0

. .

A r chwol og ica l S u r v ey of M ay a r
V ibhravi K aya ( Sh i a Adya) , 23 1
-
v -
. bha ni, 9 4 ( not e) , 1 8 1 , 1 8 2 ( note)
V a dar ik a, 2 55 . H istory of B eng a l C a stes, 1 64 .

V ad asah i, 1 8 5. M od er n B u ddh ism , 9 3 (no te) , 1 45

V igish a , Agam a , 20 6 .
(note) .

V ah u ti V ah u Par e, 50 . Vish w a kosa , 25 (note) .

V aiku nth a, 2 56 . v
V asu de a , 1 1 7 , 2 55 .

V air och an a, 1 46, 1 7 7 , 1 8 2 . V iisu k i ( K in g of Ser pents) , 43 , 45, 47 ,

Va isna v a S a r v a swa , 20 8 .
-
1 0 0 , 1 9 6 ( n o t e) , 1 9 8 , 2 22 .

Pa dd oa l i, 2 59 . Vasu l i, 8 0 , 1 0 9 , 1 1 0 , 2 0 7 , 2 4 8 .

V aitar an i, 59 , 9 9 , 1 9 6, 1 9 7 . V a su m at i (E ar t h) , 3 7 , 4 2 , 1 9 8 .

j
V a ra T ar a, 1 8 2 , 1 8 4 , 1 9 0 , 1 9 1 , 2 0 6, V atagr am a , 1 2 8 .

2 58 . V ateshw ara Sw am in, 1 7 4 .

V ajr adh atw ish w ar i, 1 77 . V atisini, 48 .

V ajr apani B odhisat t a , 1 46, 1 7 7 v . Vciu l a s, L ay s of , 1 9 3 (note) .

j
V a rasa n a , 1 9 0 .
d a v iya S a m h itci, 1 1 7 , 2 3 8 , 240 , 2 42 ,
V ik pati, 1 63 . 2 56 .

l
V a ai (V a l ar am a) , 8 4 . V ayu ( Wind god) , 253 , 254 -
.

V a l ar am a , 2 55 . Veda s, 8 , 1 2 , 2 8 , 2 0 7 , 2 0 8 , 2 3 1 , 24 1
V 311, 1 29 .
(note) , 2 59 .
Va l l d l a cha r ita , 2 0 4 . V edic M ag a z ine, iii x .

ll l
V a a a S en a , 20 6, 20 7 , 21 0 , V eh u l a , 1 2 8 .

21 1 . V esta ( Par adise) , 22 4.

V a ll u k a S ea (or R i er) , 48 , 1 9 8 , 1 9 9 v . Vibh adr a, 2 3 6 .

l
V a m iki, 2 54 . V idyapa ti, 2 59 .

v am a De i, 1 3 9 v . V idyu tpr ab h a , 2 1 2 .

V an a R aja , 4 , 3 5, 1 0 6, 1 0 7 , 1 22 , 2 44 , V igr ah apal a ( Shu r a pal a) , 1 67 .

j
V i aya (G o d dess) , 2 49 .

V inar an ana, 248 . S ena, 20 3 , 20 4 , 2 1 1 .

Va nd e M d ta r a m , 2 62 . V iyaya naga r a, 2 1 6 .

v angal s, 6 5, 88 , 8 9 . V 1jayap ur, 93 .

Va r d ha Pa r d a o , 2 56 . j
Vi ayapu r a , 2 0 3 , 2 1 0 .

V ar dhanas ( K ings) , 1 3 1 , 1 50 , 1 51 , 1 60 , Vik ram aditya, 1 1 9 , 1 6 1 , 2 1 5.

V ikr am ashil a, 1 65, 1 7 2 , 1 9 0 .

H ar sa V ardhan a, 3 , 1 1 9 , 1 24, 1 2, 1 Vikr am pu r a, 1 7 2 , 2 0 5, 2 1 4 .

1 3 1 . I 4 9 , 1 50 1 1 51 1 I 53 . I S4 . I SS. Vin a n da, 23 6 .

1 561 I S7 1 1 58 1 I 59 9 1 6 1 1 1 62 1 Vinayak a ( G anesh a) , 20 0 , 2 49 .

1 7 8 , 1 8 6, 2 1 1 , 2 1 5, 2 2 3 , 2 3 7 , 24 3 . ll
V indhya H i s, 1 8 7 , 2 1 6 .

Pr ab h ak ara V ar dh ana, 1 51 . V ipashyi, 1 7 7 .

Pu sya b h u t i V ar dhan a , 1 51 . V ipradasa , 1 2 8 .

j
R a ya V ardh an a (bro th er of H ar sa) , V ir abh a dr a, 256 .

49 , 1 51
1 . Vir at a, 1 1 , 1 22 .

R ajyash r i (sister of H ar sa) , 1 51 . Vir yyachandr a, 1 9 1 .

Var endr a, v
iii, 68 , 7 0 , 88 , 1 4 7 , 1 65, v
Visada, V i i (o r Bib i) , 1 0 0 , 228 .
2 0 7 , 20 9 (note) . Visah ari ( M anasa, G o ddess of Snakes) ,
R esear ch Society, x 1 i, 2 0 3 (note) . 1 5, 1 28 .
31 2 TH E FO L K E L E ME N T I N H I N D U CUL T UR E
-

Viga har i, L ays o f, 1 5. 1 98 ( note) ,

1 99
no te
V isai, 226 .
Waddell Dr , 111 1
, . .

Vish wabh u, 1 77 .
I ndian B u ddhist Cu l t of A v a l okita ,
V ishwa karm a, 83 .
etc., 1 7 8 (no te) .

Vish w a kosa , 25 ( no te) . Western I ndia, 1 6 1 , 20 7 .

V ishw am bha ra ( Shi a) , 23 2 v . West erners 20 7 , .

Vishw am itra, 1 2 1 .
Wind god 3 5 1 9 7
-
. . . 254
V ishw anath a ( Shi a) , 8 4 v .

V ishwap ani, 1 7 7 .

V is hwaru pa Sena, 2 1 4 .

Vish wa ru pini, 2 53 .

V ishw eshwar a (Shi a) , 29 v . l

Y adu ( Fam i y of ) , 1 22 .

V isnu , xv
, 1 2, 2 1 , 2 8 , 29 , 3 2, 45, 8 4, 8 9 , Y ak sas, 2 51 .
1 1 2, 1 3 2 , 1 44, 1 4 6, 1 50 (note) , 1 66, Ydjna va l ky a S a m hitd , 20 9 .
7 (
1 67 , 1 6 , 1 7 7 no te , 1 99 , 20 3 , 20 8
) Y aju r Veda , 1 67 .

220 . 22 2 . 2 124. 23 4. 255. 258 Y am a ( G od o f Death ) , 3 0 , 8 3 , 8 4, 107,

l A l
B hai Au a ( u a Chand ), 3 4 ( note) , I 96. 2 53 . 2 54 . 2 58 .

36 . Y a m a Pur dn a , 1 96 .

Visnu Pu r d n a, 1 1 6 . Y ash ov arm an, 1 63 , 1 86 .

V o id , T h e, 2 7, 3 2 , 42, 9 5, 1 0 1 , 1 42, 1 45, Y aska, 2 54 .

1 4 7 . I 7S. I 7 6. 1 93 . 1 9 7 . 1 9 8. 220 . 2 2 1 Y ogesh wara , 2 1 4 .

V r iddhinaga ( Dh ar m a) , 1 0 0 . Y o gindra ( Shi a) , 1 0 1 v .

Vr iha nnil a Ta ntr a , 2 0 6 . Y o gini, Y oginis, 1 90 , 1 9 1 , 256.

V r ih asp ati, 1 1 Y o gis, 1 0 1 .

V r isabh a dhv aja ( S h i a) , 23 9

-
v . Y o gip al a, 1 25 .

V risab h a Sham kara G au desh war a, 20 3 , Y u dh isthira , 8 , g, 1 1 6, 1 22, 1 29 .

20
4 . Y u ga AdiBu ddh a , Dharm a) , 9 5
( .

V uda R aya ( Dhar m a) ,

. 100.

PR I NTE D I N G R E AT BRI TAI N BY T H E UNI V E RSI T Y PR E SS, ABE R DE E N

 A D V E R T I S E ME N T S

28 . l p l
Ph i oso hica and L iterary E ssays ( N a e V idhana O flice, C a cutta) . Pr of: B N Sen. v l
A
- . .

Ch inese R e igio n th r ou gh H indu E yes—A study in th e tendencies of siat ic Menta ity ( L uza c
l l _

29 .
Prof. B K Sar lra r
A A
. . .

30 ddresses, L iterar y a nd cadem ic ( Ca cu tta) . Sir Asutosh Monkerl i L ate V ice Chance or. l -
ll
A
. .

31 . Few T hou gh ts o n E duca tion ( C a cu tta 3s Sir G D . Baner i L ate V ice Ch ance or . l j -
ll
All
. . .

32 . H ind u R ea ism ( I ndian Pr ess , l ah a bad) . C h atter i j .

33 T he Pedagogy of the H ind us a nd th e Message o f I ndia ( Panini O fi ce Prof B. K . Sarlra r . .

34 . E ducatio n in B ar oda T. R . Pandya, Ph D ( C o u m b ia) . . . . l

35 l
R e igion a nd Dhar m a ( L ongm ans) N iv edita.
Ap
.

36 . s ect s o f th e Vedanta ( I nd. R ev .

E C O N O M I C S A N D PO L I T I CS .

E ssays o n I ndian E conom ics ( I ndian R e iew Of ce, M adr as as u stice R ah ede v fi . J .

v
Po erty a nd Un B ritish R u e in I ndia ( L o nd on)
- N aoro i l . .

E cono m ic H ist ory of B r itish I ndia ( L o ndon, 2 u tt .

The E co nom ics of B r itish I ndia ( C a cu tta Pro fz j N S arkar l . . .

I ndian E conom ics ( Ma cm i an 3 s Pr of Baner i ll . j .

I ntr odu ction to I ndian E co no m ics ( C a cu tta) D r R K Mooker 1 l . . . . .

l
I ndian I ndustria and E conom ic Pro b em s ( Poona , 1 s Pr o K al e l
A
. .

l l
gr icu tura I nd u stries in I ndia ( I ndian R ev iew O fiice, Madr as 1 s 4d Sayani . .

Th e Swadesh i ( O ne's own C ountr y o r H o m e I ndu str y) Mov em ent ( I ndian R e iew r s
- - -
v .

R ecent I ndian Fina nce ( I ndian R e iew O mes, M adra s) acha v W

A
. .

p l
T h e I m er ia G a zetteer of I ndia ( L ondon) Vol on E cono m ics, V ol on dm inistration . . . .

T he Foundatio ns o f I ndian E conom ics ( L ongm ans) P rof M uker ee . . j .

I ndian N ationa C ongr ess ( I nda l

i n R e iew omce. Madr as N a tasa n v
A
.

I ndians of Sou th fr ica ( I ndian R ev iew Of ce, Madr as r s Po ak fi l

fi All
. .

p p
R e or t and S eeches of th e So cia C onfer ence ( L eader O f ce , ah ab ad) l
Ch intam ani . .

The? ositio n of I nd ian om en ( L ondo n) W

Mah ar ani B ar od a . .

l l p l
Po itica S eeches of Pu b icist s ( I ndian R e iew O flice) : ( a ) H o n N aor oji ( as 8d ( b) H on v . . .

j
B aner i, ( c) H on G okha e l
( d ) Sir Meh ta, ( e) H on Malav iya, (1) Mr L a m ohan Ghosh l
J
. . .

(g ) Mr oshi, ( h) Mr P5], ( 1 ) Sir R ashbeh ar i Gh osh

. .

1 8. Th e C ongr ess D iar y ( Bee Press, C a cu tta l

1 9. p l
R e or ts of I ndian I nd u str ia C o nfere nce ( R N M u dh o kar . m r ao ti, C P I nd ia) . . l A . . .

20 The G row th of C urr ency O r ganisa tions in I ndia ( H igginb oth am , Ma dr as Dhar i .

21 . v
L i es o f E m inent I ndia ns ( I ndia n R e iew O f ce) 50 bo ok et s 4d each v fi . l . .

2 2. H istor y of I nd ian N at iona E o u tion ( I ndian R e iew Ofiice 2s l vl

Maz u m dar v . .

23 0 R o m esh D u tt ( D ent , L ondon 3 5 G u ta . p .

24. l
T e a ng ( I ndian R e iew , r s N aik v . .

25. l
G okh a e a nd E cono m ic R efor m s (Po o na 25 Pr of K a l e . . .

A N C I E N T H I N D U P O L I T I C A L S C I E N CE .

r T he A K au til ya ( Mysore)
r tha sastr a of-
Tr a ns ated by Sham asastr i fr om Sanskr it . l .

e Th e N iti sastr a of Kam andaka ( C a cu tta)

-
T r ans a ted by D u tt fr o m Sa nskr it l l .

fi
.

e Th e N it i sastr a of S u ltr ach ar yya ( Pa nini O f ce 8e

-
Tr ansla ted h B K 8 11e from Sanskr it
A
. . .

e Stu dies in ncient H indu Po ity ( L o ng m a ns 3 s N ar endra ath L awl .

e l
Science of S ocia 0 1 anisatio n b ased o n Sanskr ti M an“ S a m hitd . Bhagav an Das.
s A l '
b u Faz l s Ay een A bar i G l adw m
A
.

s W ar far e in ncient I ndia ( I ndian R e iew jaganna th asw am i v .

C L AS S I C AL S A N S K R I T L I T E R AT U R E I N E N G L I S H V E R S E .

1. p
T h e H er o and t h e N ym h ( Modern R e iew O llies , C al cu tta r s ) Aur ob inda G h osh v
2. A
L ays of ncient I nd . R C D u tt .
. .

fi
.

l l
.

3. N a a and Dam ayan ti ( PaniniO f ce M i m an

ll Water fiel d
.

s I nd ian B a ads ( PaniniO flice 2s ) .

ll
.

e I dy s fr o m th e Sanskr it ( Pa nini O ffice as G r ifiith . .

s Scenes from th e R am ayana ( Pa niniOfi ce) Gr iffi th .

fi
.

n p
S ecim ens o f Ol d I ndian Poetry ( Panini O flice G r if th .
e l
Sha k unta a, an I ndian D r am a by K a idasa ( Dent 81 Sons. L ond on Pr of R yder l .

l l
.

s Megb ad u ta or C ou d Messenger o f Ka id asa ( Panini O dies r s

“
S ar kar
v l
.

I O. U t tar a—
Ch ar it am , a Dr a m a ( H a r ar d O r ien t a Ser ies) Bel v alkar .

I I . H istor y of S anskr it L iter a tu re ( R e r int, Panini O fi ce Max M u er p ll .

1 2. H istor y o f S anskrit L it er atu r e ( L ondon) M acdone . ll .

1 3. H ist ory o f I ndian L itera tu r e ( L ondon) eber . . W

C U L T U R E H I S T O RY .

1. A
E ssay o n t h e rch itectu re of the H indu s ( R oya sia tic So ciety) R am R az lA .

l x pl
.

2. S e ected E a m es of I nd ian Ar t ( L u z ac C c , L ondon) C o om ar asw am y

A
.

l
. .

3 Th e r ts a nd C r a fts of I nd ia an d C ey on ( Fou l is , L ondo n C oom araswfim y .

4 . S ou th I ndian Bronz es ( L u z a c 0 C G angoly . .

p p
.

5 . H indu I conogr a hy ( Madr as 1 G o inath R ao .

WO R K S RE L A T I N G T O I N D I A A N D H I N D U CU L T U R E
0

1M
o

6 . H indu Mu sic ( L ondon Str ongways .

7. lp
I ndia n Scu ture and a inting ( L ondon) Ha e v ll
v ll
. .

8 I ndian Ar ch itectur e L o ndon) Ha e

.
(
H istor y of Fine Ar t in I ndia and C ey o n ( C ar endo n Press , O for d)
.

l l x
9 .
Vincent Sm ith
0.
l
l
T he Fo k E em ent in H indu C u tu re
-

nstitu tions ( L ongrna ns)

l contr ib u t ion t o So cio r e ig io us Stu di
B K S ar kar a nd H K R ak sh it
l
es in H indu F o k . A -
.

l
.

l
. . . . . .

n . v
The Positi e B ack r o u nd of H ind u S ocio o gy ( L u z ac gs 6d B K Sar kar l . . .

l
.

1 2. T he Fundam enta nity o f I ndia ( L ong m a ns 3 s 6d ) D r R K M oolterji . . . . .

1 3. Modern B u ddhism in O r issa ( Pr o bsth ain L ondo n ) N N Vasu . . . .

fi
,

1 4. . l
Panini H is P a ce in Sa ns kr it L iter at u r e ( R e r int , Panini O f ce 58 G oldstucker p .

rs. The A shtdd hydy ! o Pdm m The g r eatest w or k o n S a nskr it L ingu istics ( Panini O f ce.
.
. 1 700 , fi .

pp
l
Trans ate fr o m th e Sanskr it te t of the si th centu r y B C by V asu x x .

l l
. .

xG. O r issa and h er R em ains ( C a cu tt a) M G a ng u y . . .

1 7. The Songs of I nd ia ( L uz ac I nayat Kh an .

1 8. Th e O r ion ( B om bay) Ti ak . l .

1 9. I ndia n Myth o ogy ( L uz ac) l

Fau sb o l i
—
A
.

v
.

so. I ndo rya ns , 2 ols. S tanfor d , L ondon) Mitr a . .

ax. l
H istory of Medie va ndia n L ogic ( C a cu tta U ni ers it y) Prof Vidyabh u sh ana l v . .

l l
.

as. Medie va Sinha ese Art ( L ond on) C o ornaraswam y

A A A
. .

as. I ndian rtistic na tom y ( L uz ac) N T a gore

Aj
. . . .

24. anta Fa u tin l

( L u za c [4 H er r ingh am
x
.

as. Bro nz es from eyl o n ( O for d ) C oom ar asw fim y . .

26. Study of I ndian Music ( L ongm ans) C em ents . l .

V E R NA C U L A R L I T E R A T U R E I N E N G L I S H .

r. T he Abb y e of l
v l by B nkim Ch tt j i nt i ing the n tion l ong Vand e Mdtam m
B iss ( a no e a a er , co a n a a s
( C l c tt l t d by S n G pt f B ng li ,
a T u a as. ran s a e e u a r om e a .

2. Poem f K bi ( M cm ill n 4
so a T n l t d by T g
r a f m H indi a s. ra s a e a or e ro
V idyap t ( L ov T n l t d b y C m a w am y
.

3. a i L nd ) e oem s , o on ra s a e oo r as
A
. .

4. T h R am ay n o T l ida ( G
e a nm nt P
a ll h b d) T n l at d by G ow e ( f m H indi)
u s s ov er e r ess, a a a . ra s e r s ro
) T n l ted by F
.

s. Th P m e o f T k A am
oe ( C h i ti n L it
s t S c ty M d
u r nd r s a er a u r e o ie , a r as . ra s a r as er a
M th ( f m M
ara th ) e ro ar a i .

6. Ti ruva g m f M anikk V i g
sa a ( Clo nd n P O f d) T n lat d by Pop ( fr m Tam il )
a sa ar ar e o r ess, x or ra s e e o
ng— p
.

p p m n th y t f l f ( M cm ill n) T an l ted f om th
.

7. T he P n f S
as si o ri a r ose - oe o e m s er ies o
g i e a a r sa r e
B eng l of M
.

D W th nt d
a i i n by T g rs. as. i i ro u ct o a or e.
8 . C ltu f D vot n ( C l tt )
ur e o T e l t d b y S n f m A wini D tt B en ll
io a cu a . r an s a e e ro s u
’
s a
( C l tt U n v
.

H to y of B ng li L ng nd L t t ty 3 i er a u r e a cu

L ov in H ind f it at e g
9 r a ua n a a 1
et y C t m ) ( M
. is e i er si 8. e .

10. e u n C
er T okyo
or B K S k i er ar r i icis ar u z e o ., , . . ar ar .

H I ST O R Y .

p l
I m er ia Gaz etteer of I ndia ( L ondon) Descr i tiv e V o u m e H istor ica Vo u m e . p l l l
l l
, .

E ar y H ist or y of I n dia ( C ar endon Press, O xfor d) V incent S m ith

A
. .

ncient I ndia ( H istory of So u th ern I ndia) , ( L u z a c) S K Aiyan g ar

A
. . . .

p
Pee into th e E ar y H istor of I ndia ( Bom b ay) lS ir R G Bhfindé t kfir . . . .

l
Th e E ar y H istory of the De an ( B o m bay) Sir R G Bhandar k ar . . .

pp
H istory of I ndian S h i in and Ma r it im e A ctiv ity ( L ong m an s 7 s Dr R K Mookerji
g
. . . . .

Q T h e Cam br id e H istor y 0 I nd ia ( 5 o s 3 vl .

H istor y o f I n is ( G hadiali Po e. Bar o da 7s Da a l ll

J
. .

H istor y of Au r angz ih ( L uz ac C c , L ondon os 4d Pr of N Sar kar

A J
. . . . .

l
.

xc. necdo t es o f Aur an gz ib and H istor ica E ssay s ( L u z a c Pr of . N Sar kar

A
. . .

n . H istory of th e Sar acens ( L on d on) m eer Ali . .

i s. Prom otion of L ear ning in I ndia, by M uha m m adan R u er s ( L ong m ans) . Nar endr a N ath L aw l .

1 3. The Ar ctic H o m e in th e Vedas T i ak . l .

x4. Rise of Mar atha Po wer ( Pu na l eliar , B om b ay) Ranade

A l
. .

1 5. H ist ory of the Pun ab bd u L a tif j . .

1 6. Th e M u ndas a nd th eir Co u ntr y ( C a cu tta S C R oy l

p
. . .

1 7. T he O raons of Ch ot a N ag u r ( C a cu tta) S C R oy l
Al . . . .

r 8. H istor y o f th e R eign of Shah am ( c 1 7 59 Fr ank in ( R e r int. PaniniO fi ce 28 8d. ) . l . p .

r g. The Beginning o f H indu C u tu re as or ld Power ( A D l

( Com m er cia Pr ess, Shanghai. W -
. l
Prof B K Sar kar
A
. . . .

no. Th e ntiq u it ies o f O r issa Mitr a . .

21 . T he Madras Presidency ( Ma cm i an as Th urston ll

A
. .

l
T he Pfil as of Ben a ( siatic S o cie ty, C a cu tta R D Baner i l j
g
as. . . .

23 . B m s of Ben a Cal cutta B B aner i j

i
. .

24. Mu ndar am : g inpse of Benga in th e si t eenth cent ury ( Ca cutta Univer sity as. Sc
'
i) Pr of l ‘

x l . .

Daa G u ta p .

RE L I G I O U S M OV E M E N T S .

r. Vedic I ndia (L ondon) R a oz in .

a. Buddhist I ndia ( L ondo n) YS DaV I dS

Ay
.

l
.

Vaishnav isrn, Shaiv aism and Minor R e igiou s System ( E ncycI Opaedia of I ndia- Research ,
‘ .

s r an
3 .

Strassb urg) . Sir R G . Bh andar kar . .

 A DVE R T I S E M E N T S

e Sankar fichar yya ( Madr as iyar and T attv a bhush ana A .

w L ife of R a'm AnuJa ( Mur th y, Madr as) Gov indfich ar ya . .

l
a Chaitanya s Pi gr im a ges and Teachings ( L u z ac 8: Co , L ondon as Prof N Sar kar . . .
J . .

l
s T he Sikh R e igion ( C ar endon Press , O for d) Maca u litiel x . .

m H istor y of Br ah m o Sam a ( C a cu tta) Sistr i j l

e W
or ks of R am am ohan ( Panini O flice , ah ab ad)
.

All .

10 . W
orks of Sw am i V i ek ananda ( M ayav ati E dition) v .

n . W
or k s o f R am T ir ath ( D e h i E dition
) l .

r ya Sam e] and Swam i D ayananda L on m ans s R ai

12 .
( g 3 . .

13 p
S eeches ( Ca cu tta) K esh ab Sen l
A
. . .

14 H indu ism , ncient and M oder n ( PaniniOfiice

. B ai nath j .

I S I ntr odu ction to H induism ( Panini O f ce as Sen fi

All
. . .

16 . l
The E ssen tia s of H indu ism ( L eader O fiice, ah ab ad
17 . l
The Dai Pr actice o f the H indus ( Panini O n ice r s V as u .

v W l
.

18 Pra na a ada
. T he S cience of the Sacr ed
. or d ( B enares) T r ans ated from Sansk r it by Pr of . .

B hagav a n D as .

19 . p
T h e A u to biogr a hy o f Mah ar sh i Dev endr anath Tagore ( Macm i an 7s ll .

20 T he Ca techism of H induism ( Pa niniO fi ce)

. .

21 H indu ism and I ndia ( B ena r es) G o inda D as . v .

T h e M aster as I saw h im ( L ife of Sw am i V iv ek Ana nda N iv edita ( M iss M ar garet N o bl e)

b
22 .

23 R am kr ishna H is L ife a nd Teach ings ( Scr ibner , N ew or k) Max M u er ll

A l .
0 .

24 pl
Pr in ci es o f T an tr a ( L uz ac) va on
Av l
. . .

25 T antra o f the G reat L ib er at io n Tr ans ated fr om Sa nskr it ( L u z ac) a on l

Av l
. . . .

26 H ym ns to the G odd ess ( L u z ac)

. a on . .

27 . l
K a i the M other ( Udb odh ana O fiice. Ca cu tta) N iv edita l . .

28 My ths of H indus and B u ddh ists ( H ar r a , L ondon

. N iv edita and Coom ar aswam y p
l
.

29 H indu Psa m s and H ym ns ( I nd R ev

. R am aswam i . . .

30 Te n T am i Saints ( I nd R ev l Pi ai ll
A
. . . .

31 . v
g gr essi e H indu ism ( I nd R ev N ivedita . . .

32 Vaish navite R efor m ers ( I nd Rev is

0 R ajagopal ach ar iar . . .

l
.

'
33 I ndia s U ntouch a b e Saints ( I nd R ev R am aswam i . .

j
.

34 K a sh m ir Sh aiv aism ( L u z ac 2s C h atter i . .

3 5 R am anuja ( I nd R ev Aiya ngar . R angach ér ya , etc

A
. . . .

Madhw a I nd R ev is ) iyar and R ow

36
(
. . . . .

37 B u ddh a ( rid R ev Dhar m apala

. .

FO L K L O R E -
.

I . l -
l
Fo k T a es of B enga ( L ondon) L al B ehar i D ay . l .

2. L egends of the Pu n ab ( L ondon) T em e j . pl .

3 O l d Decca n D ays ( L ondon) Frere

A
. . .

4. W ide wake Stor ies, B o m bay ( L o ndon) S tee a nd Tem e. . l pl

5 . l -

'
l
Fo k T a es of K ashm ir ( L ondon) K now es . l .

6 . I ndian N igh ts E ntertain m ent ( L ondon) Swynner ton . .

7 . I ndian Fair y T a es L o nd on) Stokes l .

8. l
T he Fo k T a es of l
indu sth an ( Pa nini Ofiice 2s. V asu
Av
-

fi
.

9. Th e d entur es of G oor oo N ood e ( Pa nini O f ce Bab ington l .

i n. L egends of V ikr a m adity a ( Pan ini O h

t ee as. S ingh
ll l
.

it . Fo k or e of the T e ugu s ( Madr as 4d ) .

1 2. l
T a es of Tennal i R a m an ( M adra s

I N T E R PR E T AT I O N O F I N D I A N L I F E BY F O R E I G N E R S .

T he Web of I ndian L ife L ongm ans) Sister N iv edita ( Miss Mar gar et N ob . l
e ) .

S tu dies fr om a n E ast ern om e ( L ongm ans) .

ll
F oot Fa s o f I ndian H istor y ( L ongm ans 7 s.
l l
C rad e T a es of H indu ism ( L ong m ans 55
-

I ndian S tu dy of L ov e and Death ( L ongm ans 2 5 .

v l
Ci ic I dea s ( L ongm a ns) .

N ew I ndia ( L ondon) C otton . .

Im p r essm ns ab out I ndi a ( L ondon) K eir H ar die . .

p
Th e N ew S ir it in I ndia ( L ondo n) . N ev m so n
lA
.

The N a tiona wa kening in I ndia ( L ondon) . J . R am say Macdona d, M P l . .

E ssays on I ndian Ar t. I ndu str y, and E du cat ion ( I ndia n R e iew , Ma dr as Ha e . v v ll

M y I ndian R em iniscences ( I ndian R e iew Deu ssen v .

I ndia ( L au r ie, L ondon) . Pier e L oti.