Engineering Geology 91 (2007) 16 – 24

www.elsevier.com/locate/enggeo

Stability of man-made slopes

J. Rupke a,⁎, M. Huisman b , H.M.G. Kruse c
a
International Institute for Geo-information Science and Earth Observation (ITC), Department of Earth Systems Analysis (ESA),
Hengelosestraat 99 P.O. Box 67500 AA Enschede The Netherlands
b
Bluewater Energy Services, P.O. Box 3102, 2130KC Hoofddorp, The Netherlands
c
Geodelft, P.O. Box 69, 2600 AB Delft, The Netherlands
Accepted 11 December 2006
Available online 20 January 2007

Abstract

The paper discusses three examples of man-made slopes that are affected by the specific geotechnical conditions of their
respective settings. Recognizing and respecting the imposed geotechnical boundary conditions in the design and construction
stages is shown to be vital for the long-term stability of these slopes. These conditions imposed by nature are often only marginally
investigated during the pre-investment stages of projects that include the excavation or construction of slopes. As a result, the
safety and economical viability of man-made slopes may not be guaranteed for their entire expected engineering lifetime.
© 2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Man-made slopes; Long-term stability; Site investigation; Road construction; Dykes

1. Introduction a) Engineering Geology map inventory;

Man-made slopes exist all over the world. In
mountainous areas natural slopes are adapted for
construction of roads and other infrastructure. In
deltaic regions man-made slopes are created by
construction of embankments and dykes. The qualities
posed by nature often are not well studied during the
pre-investment phase in a project in which stability
problems may threaten the safety and economy of
exploitation of the product during its engineering
lifetime. Design of man-made slopes should be based
on evaluation of the natural physical, hydrological and
rock and soil mechanical conditions. The proper
evaluation of these conditions should consider the
following topics:
b) Field investigation emphasised on mapping of
processes and phenomena having impact on stability
c) Developing and testing models resulting from the first
two topics. These models can be quite helpful in the
efficiency of e.g. drilling operations, shallow geo-
physical surveys and laboratory testing of samples as
it enables selecting locations to be tested already on
the basis of understanding the previous and expected
future behaviour of stability and materials of the
constructing site.
d) The study of natural hazards based on the above
mentioned topics may lead to adjustments in the design
phase. Due to consideration of natural hazards, the
design phase is better and faster integrated with the field
criteria and maintenance alternatives can be weighted;

The present article will deal with three case examples

⁎ Corresponding author. Tel.: +31 182 394102. of man-made slopes in various conditions and the
E-mail address: Rupke@itc.nl (J. Rupke). problems imposed by those conditions.
0013-7952/$ - see front matter © 2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.enggeo.2006.12.009
 J. Rupke et al. / Engineering Geology 91 (2007) 16–24
2. Case 1: slope stability in weathered phyllites,
Bhutan Himalaya
The first case study illustrates an example in the
Himalayan environment of South Western Bhutan. This
area is typical for a situation of slope development with
active mass movement processes; more information may
be found in Gyaltsen (2000, see literature list). The road
connection between the Bhutan/India border at Phuent-
sholing and the capital Thimpu rises from approximately
300 A.S.L. to 2200 m A.S.L. in the first stretch crossing
the water divide of the Wang Chu River.
The present road, commonly referred to as “western
highway”, follows an old trekking route. It crosses a
wide expanse of low-grade metamorphic phyllites
which is almost devoid of more competent materials
up to elevations of 1500 m, where overlying thrusted
orthoquartzites underlie the higher slopes. Previous
slope collapse of these quartzites near the catchment
border has resulted in spreading quartzite blocks over
the entire lower and higher areas; the conclusion is that
the encountered blocks do not stem from intercalated
competent units in the phyllite sequence.
We also know that rapid tectonic uplift coupled with
a high concentration of tropical storms are responsible
for the extreme scale of mass movement recurring in the
area. Before 60 years the tropical forest cover formed
a retarding factor, but since then many slopes have
been deforested leading to a further deterioration of
the situation.
In the above context a study of routing alternatives
by means of aerial photo-interpretation, study of docu-
ments and three weeks of field check was carried out.
Problem areas were given more detailed attention. A
particular problem area near the village Ale at
approximately 1400 m elevation was further studied.
Questions asked here were:
• What is the cause of the continuous need for repair of
the western highway?
• Do we have reliable flat terrain in this vicinity
suitable for housing development?
We now refer to extracts from the engineering
geomorphological maps and terrestrial photographs of
this site (see Fig. 1). It became clear that a major sliding
plane is cutting back and upslope from Ale (meaning
“flat area” in the local language) and crossing the road
above. The situation is further aggravated by spring
water, which enters into fissures associated with the
slide plane, and reappears as spring water a few hundred
metres downslope. Furthermore, the flat surfaces visible
17
at various levels downslope are not fluvial terraces but
instead top surfaces of huge rotational slump masses.
In conclusion, the advice was to reroute the road to a
higher path outside the slide scar, to stabilise the
underlying area by dewatering, and to refrain from
filling the subsiding tract with heavy materials. In
resumption we state that proper use of an engineering
geological approach entails a pre-investment study that
allows a proper further research. In this way the natural
constraints and the engineering conditions as posed by
the client can be brought together in a safe design. The
costs of such a study are minimal in relation to making
improvements in a false design and construction. In
other words: a man-made embankment is good when its
design takes all restrictions posed by its natural
foundation of the existing slope into account.
3. Case 2: stability of river dykes in the downstream
part of the Dutch delta
3.1. Introduction
The downstream part of the Dutch river delta
landscape has developed in response to river develop-
ment and human influence. The human occupation
modified drainage, which induced subsidence of the soft
soil areas. Nowadays, most of the surface lies below the
mean sea level in the western part of the Netherlands.
The low elevation of the larger part of the marshlands
due to drainage necessitated the placement of retaining
structures to prevent the water to flow onto the
cultivated land. The construction of small retaining
structures was the starting point of the history of river
dykes in the Netherlands.
The construction of dykes fixed the position of the
river, protected the hinterland, and decreased the storage
capacity for water flow during periods of high
discharge, which in turn increased the probability of
flooding. Therefore, accumulation of impermeable soil
material in order to make the dyke sufficiently high and
stable was required. The trend towards higher dykes
with steeper slopes resulted in problems of mechanical
stability, especially in periods of high river flood level.
Failure of dyke sections frequently resulted in dyke
collapse and consequently flooding of large areas.
3.2. Soil materials
The geological map of this area presented by the
Geological Survey of the Netherlands (1994) shows that
most of the Holocene's top layer of the Dutch delta
consists of peat and clayey deposits that cover the sand-
18 J. Rupke et al. / Engineering Geology 91 (2007) 16–24

Fig. 1. Geomorphological map and terrestrial photographs. Map length scale in km. Area covered by photographs indicated in map.

dominated Pleistocene subsoil. The average unit weight The majority of the older dykes in the Dutch delta
of the clay and peat layers ranges from 10.1 kN/m3 to consist of clay. In the early stages of dyke-building
about 15.0 kN/m3. local clay was used to construct impermeable
 J. Rupke et al. / Engineering Geology 91 (2007) 16–24
embankments. An example of a cross section of a river
dyke along the river Lek in the Krimpenerwaard
region is shown in Fig. 2. The peat layer is obviously
compressed by the weight of the dyke (Fig. 2). On the
landward side of the dyke the Holland peat achieves a
thickness of nearly 8 m. On the average, the vertical
compression of the emplaced material of the dyke
causes a reduction from the initial thickness of 8 m to
2 m.
3.3. Hydrological processes
Pore pressure measurements in the different soil
materials presented in Fig. 2 show fairly constant pore
pressures in the Holocene toplayer on the landward side
of the dyke. The pore pressures in the Pleistocene sand
aquifer however, increase rapidly during a rising river
level. The equation for the water pressure distribution in
the sand aquifer is based on reduction of pressure due to
leakage through a confining toplayer (Kruseman and de
Ridder, 1989):
−x
Ux ¼ U0 :e k ð1Þ
x Distance from the pressure generation [m]
ϕx Hydraulic head at distance x [m]
ϕ0 Hydraulic head at distance x = 0 [m]
λ Leakage factor of the confining top layer [m]
The pore pressure within the emplaced clay of the
dyke is controlled by the infiltration of rainfall or
flood water from the river. Precipitation infiltrates
along the entire surface of the dyke and induces a rise
of the phreatic level leading to the highest hydraulic
head in the centre of the dyke. For stationary
conditions with a constant precipitation flux the
elevation of the phreatic line can be calculated
analytically (Domenico and Schwartz, 1990). The
difference between the hydraulic head at the toe of the
Fig. 2. Cross-section of the river dyke along the river Lek.
19
dyke and the centre of the dyke can be calculated by
the following equation:
PW 2
Dh ¼ ð2Þ
2kd
Δh Difference hydraulic head [m]
P Precipitation flux [m/d]
k Permeability [m/d]
d Thickness of soil layer [m]
W Half the width of the dyke [m]
The variation in the geometry parameters of the dyke
sections in the downstream part of the Dutch delta is
relatively small. The value for the flux of stationary
precipitation is limited to a relatively narrow range of 0.8
to 1.0 m/year. Therefore, the elevation of the phreatic level
in the dyke is mainly determined by the permeability of
the clay body artificially emplaced in the dyke-body.
The shape and elevation of the phreatic line in the
emplaced clay of the dyke may partly be influenced by
infiltration of water from river floods, in contact with
the exposed slope of the dyke during a period of high
discharges (Shaw, 1988). However, due to the low
permeability of the emplaced clay of the dyke and the
relatively short period of high river flood levels, the
contribution of infiltration of water from the river to
the elevation of the phreatic level may be ignored. The
emplaced clay of the dyke illustrated in the cross
section of Fig. 2 is characterised by a very low
permeability. In case of higher permeability of the soil
material the influence of infiltration of water from the
river increases, whereas the influence of the precipi-
tation flux decreases.
3.4. Stability
The development of high pore pressures in the
Pleistocene sand provides an uplift force on the Holocene
20 J. Rupke et al. / Engineering Geology 91 (2007) 16–24
toplayer on the landward side of the dyke, which may lead
to complete failure of the dyke. This kind of uplift-
mechanism was first described by Cooling and Marsland
(1953). They described a failure that occurred along flood
banks in Essex and Kent in the United Kingdom during
high river flood levels. The failure mechanism has been
investigated further in detail using geotechnical centrifuge
models (Hird et al., 1978).
Uplift forces occur when the pore pressure in the
Pleistocene sand exceeds normal hydrostatic conditions.
The effective vertical stress due to the overburden is
reduced by the enhanced water pressure. This condition
results in a drop of potential shear resistance in the
contact region of the Holocene top layer and the
Pleistocene sand. In the case of further increasing pore
pressures, the Holocene strata may be lifted, causing a
complete loss of the shear resistance along the
geological layer boundary. The required balance of
forces in the soil mass can be maintained by the higher
shear resistance on the landward side of the dyke, where
the effective stresses at the Holocene–Pleistocene
transition are less affected thus preventing sliding
failure directed towards the landward side.
Gravitational forces on the dyke impose a horizontal
stress component in the landward direction. The active
part of the failure slip circle is connected to a horizontal
slip plane in the uplift zone (Fig. 3). Stability can be
calculated by considering the forces along this com-
bined slip surface and the passive resistance force of the
Holocene stratum on the landward side of the dyke. The
dyke and its adjacent landward area can be subdivided
into three sections (Fig. 3), each representing a resultant
force (Bauduin et al., 1987). The sections and their
corresponding forces are:
1. The dyke itself, which exerts an active horizontal
force in landward direction.
2. The adjacent uplift area at the landward toe of the
dyke, represents an area unable to develop resistance
forces. In case of a residual shear strength at the base
Fig. 3. Forces in the cross-section of the dyke.
of the Holocene overburden, a small shear force Fs
can be introduced.
3. The area without uplift on the landward side of the
dyke, provides the passive resistance force developed
by the entire Holocene stratum. The magnitude of
this passive force depends upon prevalence of either
drained or undrained conditions during the uplift
period.
The safety factor Ff is derived from the active
horizontal force Fa, divided by the sum of the passive
force Fp and the additional friction Fs in the uplift zone:
FaðmaxÞ
Ff ¼ ð3Þ
ðFpðminÞ þ FsðminÞ Þ
Ff Safety factor of forces [–]
Fa Active force [N]
Fp Passive force [N]
Fs Shear force in uplift zone [N]
The magnitude of the active force is determined by
the strength characteristics of the clay in the dyke and
the elevation of the phreatic line. The strength
characteristics of the clay can be considered constant,
whereas the elevation of the phreatic line depends on the
precipitation flux.
The cross section along the river Lek shown in Fig 2,
yields a safety factor of 0.92 for a river flood level of
3 m above mean sea level and an average yearly rainfall
intensity of 0.8 m/year (Kruse, 1998). The calculated
instability was confirmed during field inspections when
large cracks on the road on top of the dyke were found.
3.5. Hazard mitigation
The history of dyke building in the Dutch delta started
about 1000 years ago. The subsidence of the soft soil
areas and increasing sea level required the construction of
ever increasingly higher dykes resulting in steep slopes.
 J. Rupke et al. / Engineering Geology 91 (2007) 16–24 21

The trend to raise dyke-levels combined with social–
economic factors, such as the restricted space for dyke
building and the high costs for improvement of large
dyke sections, has led to a large number of unstable dyke
sections along the principal rivers in the Netherlands.
The method of ancient dyke building is the primary
cause of the present stability problems of many dyke
sections. The failure conditions of these dyke sections
are mainly determined by two types of hydrological
processes, which are in turn dependent on long-term
processes influenced by possible climate change.
Predictions of increasing precipitation intensities and
higher river discharges in the near future are expected
to result in a growing number of dyke sections with
stability problems.
The elevation of the phreatic levels in the dyke-
bodies , induced by infiltration of rainfall and the uplift
force on the Holocene toplayer at the landward side of
the dyke, generated by river flood levels are the main
causes for failure of the dyke. The high phreatic level
results in a reduction of the mobilised shear resistance
of the active part of the slip circle and induces a
considerable horizontal force. The uplift force during
periods of high river discharge leads to reduction or
absence of shear resistance at the base of the Holocene
on the landward side of the dyke.
Prevention of hazards initiated by failure of dyke
sections aims at reconstruction of particular dyke
sections by performance of stabilising measures. The
objective is to reduce the impact of the two mentioned

Fig. 4. The slope setting in the local geology. Slope location: N45.57.935/E03.20.469. Indices: Ca, D, and Ggd pre-mesozoic, Tb Buntsandstein, Tm1
Lower Muschelkalk, Tm2 Middle Muschelkalk, Tm3 Upper Muschelkalk, Tk Keuper. Map length scale in km. The photo shows an oblique view of
the slope looking NNW, with interpreted cross-section. Road visible in lower right-hand corner of photo.
22 J. Rupke et al. / Engineering Geology 91 (2007) 16–24
types of hydrological processes. The following stabilis-
ing measures can be applied:
Stabilising measures aimed to decrease the horizontal
force:
• Lowering the elevation of the phreatic line by
drainage of the emplaced clay using sand-drains or
synthetic drains;
• Lowering the elevation of the phreatic line, replacing
the earlier used clay by sand;
• Increasing the mobilised shear strength by replace-
ment of the present clay by a sand-body;
• Catching the horizontal force by construction of
sheetpiles or grout piles in the slope on the landward
side of the dyke;
• Reduction of the slope angle of the landward slope;
• Increasing the stability of the dyke by applying
geotextiles; and
• Increasing the stability of the dyke by grout injection.
Stabilising measures aimed at preventing uplift of the
Holocene toplayer on the landward side of the dyke:
• Emplacement of “heavy” soil such as sand or sandy
clayey on the toplayer on the landward side of the
dyke:
• Replacement of the Holocene light-weight toplayer
by “heavy” soil; and
• Construction of sheet piles in the dyke to increase the
flow distance and to reduce the pore pressure on the
landward side.
The dyke section along the Lek in the Krimpener-
waard region has recently been reconstructed. An
increase in the stability of this dyke section has been
achieved through a reduction of the slope angle of the
landward slope of the dyke and the lowering of the
Fig. 5. Differential erosion and weathering: undercutting of competent layers by erosion of shales, followed by toppling failure.
elevation of the phreatic level by drainage of the
historically emplaced clay of the dyke using horizontal
sand-drains.
4. Case 3: Slope stability in Keuper marls and
limestones, Spain
4.1. Site description
The example described here is located along the
N420 road, near the town of Falset in the province of
Tarragona, Spain. The slope length and height are 225 m
and 40 m, respectively. The slope faces approximately
east (110°) and was constructed using an average slope
angle of 70°. The initial excavation for realignment of
the N420 was made in 1988; since then, the slope
geometry has changed somewhat because of erosion and
mass movement of weak layers and rock fall.
With regard to its geology, the site is set near the
boundary of Mesozoic and pre-Mesozoic formations,
the latter of predominantly Carboniferous age (Fig. 4).
The slope itself consists of marls, limestones and
dolomites of the Keuper formation. The Keuper
sequence in this area is typically developed as red and
greenish shales, with regular intercalations of dolomite
and limestone. These harder layers may have a
considerable thickness, as in the study slope, where
the thickest dolomitic limestone bank measures about
7 m. Fig. 4 also shows an oblique view of the slope with
a cross-section indicating the dolomite and limestone
layers and the shales.
4.2. Degradation of the rock mass
The climate in the area is Mediterranean, character-
ized by dry and hot summers (15 °C to 35 °C) and
moderate winters (10 °C to 15 °C). Rainfall may be
 J. Rupke et al. / Engineering Geology 91 (2007) 16–24 23

heavy and sometimes even torrential during the winter; tion, the subjective causes are thus the first to be
this may even occur during the spring season (Hack, appraised:
1998). In this climate, several degradation processes act
on the rock mass exposed in the slope, as outlined in • Slope location: one important objective cause for the
Table 1. problems is the simple fact that we find significant
With an eye on slope stability problems, the pro- shale layers in the slope — if all would have been
cesses listed in Table 1 result in sheet wash producing limestone or dolomite the slope could have been
shale material on the road and into a ditch, at the stable at a much steeper angle than is possible now.
foot of the slope, which in itself is not troublesome. Linked to this is the subjective cause of the slope
A hazardous effect of this erosion is, however, the location: by making the choice that the road would
undercutting of dolomitic limestone banks. In these cut into the hillside at this site, the whole problem of
layers a joint set is present running almost parallel to the differential erosion and weathering was introduced in
slope face (orientation 128°) with a dip of 80°. The the first place. The natural slopes and farmlands
undercutting results in toppling (Fig. 5); the large size nearby show the presence of the shales and a cross-
of the toppling blocks presents a potentially hazardous section made through the slope such as it existed
situation. before the realignment (now on the opposite side of
the N420 from the new cut) would have indicated
4.3. Hazard mitigation that the shales would be exposed in a future cut.
• Slope orientation: this more or less results from the
When looking at Table 1, we can differ between existing topography and the desired road alignment.
“objective” natural causes for the relative instability of The orientation has some influence on the degrada-
the slope (such as climate), and “subjective” man-made tion of the shales since it affects the amount of
causes. The subjective causes are of course the ones heating and cooling and to some extent wetting and
that can be influenced in a design or construction stage, drying; the differences between ultimate physical
whereas the objective causes more or less follow from conditions will be greater in sun-exposed slopes. The
given site conditions. When looking at hazard mitiga- orientation is not a completely free choice and can be
varied only over a limited interval; in this case
probably little could have been avoided by changing
Table 1 the orientation within the boundary conditions
Degradation processes recognized in the study slope resulting from the road alignment.
Unit Process Affected by: • Slope angle: this parameter is, within financial
restrictions, a free choice in the design and has a
Shales • Wetting and drying as well as • Rainfall
heating and cooling of shales lead • Temperature bearing on the degradation of both shales and
to disintegration into ever smaller differences limestones:
flaky particles. • Slope ○ Shales: adjacent to natural slopes belonging to this
orientation and unit all have an angle of approximately 35°, which
aspect
seems to be the highest angle at which slopes in
• Erosion of flaky particles leads to • Amount of
a decrease in slope angle of disintegration the shaly material are still stable. A man-made cut
layers in this unit; the ultimate • Surface runoff in the shales exceeding this slope angle leads to
slope angle is approximately 35° • Slope angle rapid erosion, sliding, and a receding slope,
(observations from nearby natural • Method of resulting in undercutting of the otherwise resistant
slopes). excavation
limestones and dolomites.
Dolomitic Undercutting of the otherwise • Spacing,
limestones competent dolomitic limestone orientation and ○ Limestones/dolomites: the toppling failure ob-
banks resulting from degradation dip of joint sets served in several layers could be avoided by
of underlying shale layers may • Degradation choosing a lower slope angle.
cause toppling (Fig. 5). and mass Considering this site geology, a differential slope
movement
angle in the limestone/dolomite and the shale
of shales
• Slope layers should have been chosen. Although this
orientation would not have prevented all the problems, it
and angle would certainly have improved the situation.
• Method of • Method of excavation: the method of excavation has
excavation
an important influence on the initial degradation. The
24 J. Rupke et al. / Engineering Geology 91 (2007) 16–24
study slope was excavated by blasting, which has
caused fragmentation of the shales, in turn increasing
the erodibility and instability of these layers. Apart
from this, there is indication of overblasting in the
limestone/dolomite layers which has led to a decrease
of the discontinuity spacing and an increase in the
vulnerability for toppling.
5. Concluding remarks
Few case histories are found in literature treating the
application of large scale geomorphological mapping.
We may mention: Brunsden et al. (1975), de Graaff et al.
(1987), Rupke and de Jong (1983) and Seijmonsbergen
(1986). These are all examples of geotechnical solutions
arrived at by large scale inventory and reconstruction of
surface geological phenomena in high relief terrain.
The cases described in this paper show results of
projects where such an approach, studying the existing
natural hazards, was not followed from the start. It is
clearly demonstrated that adjustments during the
construction phase or much later were required because
of this neglect. Incorporation of study of natural hazards
right from the pre-investment to the design phase could
have prevented such time-consuming and expensive
adjustments.
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