Sand casting

Sand casting is defined as pouring of molten metal into a sand mold (molds are generally
provided with a cavity of the shape to be made) and allowing it to solidify inside the mould.
Various patterns are used to create cavity in the molds wherein, pattern can be said as the
replica of the final object to be made with some modifications. Depending on production
quantities, different pattern materials namely wood, aluminum, ferrous metals are used in
practice. These materials are used for low, moderate and high production quantities
respectively. Figure M2.1.1 shows a typical mould arrangement for a sand mold casting.

Pouring cup
Cope
Down sprue

Riser

Cast metal in
cavity

Core Drag

Figure M2.1.1: Typical mould arrangement for a sand mold casting

The composition of “sand” refractory is usually a mixture of high purity silica sand, bentonite
clay, organic additives, and water. The cavity is formed by packing the moulding sand around
a pattern by ramming and squeezing. Holes and internal cavities in the casting are produced
by placing an accurate strong component called cores. After the refractory has compacted or
chemically hardened, the mould is opened at the parting line and pattern is removed. The two
halves of the mould are placed together by using a pin called dowel pins. Metal is poured in
to the mould cavity through a previously prepared opening called pouring cup.
Table M2.1.1: Metal commonly used in sand casting (Source: Design for Manufacturability
Handbook by James G Bralla, 2nd Ed)

Common metals and alloys Tensile Remarks

strength,
MPa
Cast iron G1800 124 Used where high strength is not a
requirement; best machinability, damping
properties, and resistance to thermal stress
Cast iron G2500 172 Used for small cylinder blocks, pistons,
gear boxes, clutch plates, and light-duty
brake drums
Ductile iron (60-40-18) 410 Used for auto crankshafts, hubs, parts
requiring shock resistance
Magnesium AZ63A 200 Good castability; general casting alloy
having good strength, ductility, and
toughness
Copper alloys (Leaded semi 235 For low-pressure valves and fittings,
red) hardware parts, brass plumbing fixtures;

Leaded red brass 255 Good general-purpose casting alloy; used

Aluminum (C355.0)
Stainless steel (CF-8M)
Nickel CZ-100 alloy
forfire-equipment fittings, small gears,
small pumpparts;
248 Crankcases, gear housings air compressors,
fittings
550 Similar to wrought 316; used for aircraft
parts,chemical processing, electronics,
nuclear equipment, food processing,
mining, fertilizer equipment, missiles
345 Standard grade nickel casting alloy with
excellent castability; used for pressure tight
components, pumps, valves, equipment for
processing caustics at elevated temperatures

Typical characteristics of a sand cast part

 Complex castings can be produced by the use of sand moulds. For example: Intricate
shapes (under cuts, complex contours), both internal and external can be made in the
above method which is generally difficult to machine for achieving such shape.

 The metals those can be melted can be used for casting in this method. Table M2.1.1
shows the list of metal commonly casted in the sand molding process.
  Further, casting of any size and weight even as high as 200 Tons can be made in the
above method.

 Cast components are usually stable, rigid and strong as compared to products which
are produced in other manufacturing process.

 Generally sand mold casted products are somewhat irregular and grainy surfaces and
hence machining is required to get a better surface finish product.

 Sand casting processes are used in cylinder blocks, machine tool beds, pistons, water
supply pipes, bells etc.

Design considerations and recommendations

The following important recommendations are need to be considered while designing the
sand casted products.

 Shrinkage: As the molten metal cools and solidifies in the mould, the natural shrinkage
occurs. The dimension of the casted product gets reduced as compared with the mold
cavity. The amount of shrinkage depends upon the type of metal. In order to compensate
the shrinkage allowance for outer dimension, the size of the pattern is made over size
and for inner dimension like hole; the pattern is made under size. It has been observed
that shrinkage happens towards the material side. Table M2.1.2 shows shrinkage of
various metals commonly cast in sand mould.

Table M2.1.2: Shrinkage Allowance for Metals used in Sand Moulds (Source: Design
for Manufacturability Handbook by James G Bralla, 2nd Ed)

Metal Allowance (%)

Gray cast iron 0.83-1.3
White cast iron 2.1
Ductile cast iron 0.83-1.0
Malleable cast iron 0.78-1.0
Aluminum alloys 1.3
Yellow brass 1.3-1.6
Gunmetal bronze 1.0-1.6
Phosphor bronze 1.0-1.6
Aluminum bronze 2.1
Manganese bronze 2.1
  Parting line: The parting line is a continuous line around a part that separates two
halves of the mould. Straight parting lines are more economical than the stepped parting
lines as shown in the Figure M2.1.2.

Not recommended

Straight parting line

Recommended

Figure M2.1.2: Recommended straight parting line

 Draft: For easy removal of pattern from the moulding sand, some degree of taper or
drafts are provided. With the provision of little or no draft, there are chances that the
pattern may damage the mould rather than slipping out smoothly. Various factors
responsible for selecting the proper drafts are: method of moulding and drawing of the
pattern, pattern material, surface smoothness and degree of precision. Table M2.1.3
summarizes the recommended draft angles for outside surface of the sand moulded
casting. Often risers are provided to compensate the shrinkage. Figure M2.1.3

Taper surface
Pattern Pattern

Figure M2.1.3: (a) Pattern withdrawal problem for no draft (b) smooth withdrawal of pattern
from Mould
 Table: M2.1.3 Draft angle for outside surface for sand molded casting (Source:
Design for Manufacturability Handbook by James G Bralla, 2nd Ed)

Pattern material
Wood Aluminum Ferrous
Pattern-quality level
Ramming method Normal High Normal High Normal High
Hand 5° 3° 4° 3° - -
Squeezer 3° 2° 3° 2° - -
Automatic - - 2° 1° 1½° ½°
Shell molding 1° ¼°
Cold cure 3° 2° 2° 1° - -

 Placement of risers: Risers are generally attached to the heaviest section. Heavier
sections are closer to the riser and the thinnest sections are farthest from the risers due to
faster solidification in thinner section. This minimizes the chances of getting voids.
(Refer Figure M2.1.4.)

Not this This

Risers Risers

Not this This

Figure M2.1.4: Incorrect and correct designs of castings and riser location

 Ribs and webs: In case of heavier sections, rib intersection with the casting wall can
cause hot spot shrinks. The number of intersecting ribs should be minimized to avoid
hot spot shrinks. Whenever it is necessary to bring all the ribs to a single point, a cored
hole would help in faster solidification, thereby avoiding hot spot shrinks. (Figure
M2.1.5. to M2.1.7.)
 Not this This

Figure M2.1.5: Incorrect and correct casting-rib design.

Poor Much Improved Much Improved

Figure M2.1.6: Reduce the number of reinforcing ribs that intersect at one point

Best
Better
Poor
Figure M2.1.7: Design alternatives to prevent hot-spot voids at rib and casting wall
intersections.
• Corners and angles: Hot spot are most common defect in corners and angles of
casting design. Use rounded corners having same radius for both internal and external
corner. Again too much rounding promote shrink defect in the corner. In particular, in
case of T sections, larger inside radius can be used to minimize stress concentration and
hot spots. Use of dished contours one on each side of the center legs are also affective.
Further, intersection of two walls of the casting should be at right angles to each other if
possible to minimize heat concentration. This feature is clearly shown in Figure M2.1.8
& Figure M2.1.9.

Figure M2.1.8: Sharp corners cause uneven cooling

 Sharp
Corner

Void

Cold spot

Severe hot spot

Not this This

Figure M2.1.9: Avoid sharp-corner and acute angles that cause areas of uneven cooling

 Wall thickness: If the metal is flowing for a longer distance in the mould, then the
section should be heavier. But heavier sections also cause problem with voids and
porosity. Keep the wall thickness as uniform as possible (Figure M2.1.10).
 Internal porous area

Original Design Preferred Design

Figure M2.1.10: Keeping wall thicknesses uniform promotes sounder castings

Table M2.1.4: Recommended wall thickness. (Source: Design for Manufacturability

Handbook by James G Bralla, 2nd Ed)

Section length To 300 mm To 1.2 m To 3.6 m

Aluminum 3-5 mm 8 mm 16 mm
Ductile iron 5 mm 13 mm 19 mm
Gray iron, low strength 3 mm
Gray iron, 138-Mpa 4 mm 10 mm

Gray iron, 207-Mpa 5 mm 10 mm 19 mm

Gray iron, 276-Mpa 6 mm 13 mm 25 mm

tensile strength
Gray iron, 345-Mpa 10 mm 16 mm 25 mm
tensile strength
Magnesium alloys 4 mm 8 mm 16 mm
Malleable iron 3 mm 6 mm
Steel 8 mm 13 mm 25 mm
White iron 3 mm 13 mm 19 mm
 Section changes: Abrupt changes in the section must be avoided. The relative thickness
of the adjoining section should be less than 2:1. If heavy section is unavoidable then a
taper of 4:1 is advisable.(Figure M2.1.11)

Bad t Good
t
>2t <2t
Bad Good
T L= 4 (T-t)
t

>2t

If heavy section is unavoidable use 4:1 taper

Figure M2.1.11: Design rules for areas where section thickness must change

 Interior wall and sections: These members should be 20% thinner than the outside
members, since they cool more slowly. ( Refer Figure M2.1.12)

Not this This

Figure M2.1.12: Design for interior walls (20 % thinner than exterior walls)

 Lightener holes: To reduce the weight in low stressed area, lightener holes can be
added.

 Holes and pockets: The draft on the inside of a pocket must be twice as on the
surrounding outside surface. The depth of hole or pocket should not be more than 1.5
times its narrowest dimension if it is in the drag half of the mould and this depth should
 be no more than the narrowest dimension if the hole or pocket is in the cope half of the
mould.(Figure M2.1.13 to M2.1.14)

Figure M2.1.13: Recommended hole drilling after casting (diameter less than 19 mm)

Figure M2.1.14: Extra material around the hole as reinforcement in a highly stressed section.

 Bosses and pads Bosses: pads and lugs should be minimized as it creates voids and
hot spots.(Figure M2.1.15)

Figure M2.1.15: Design suggestions for minimizing material thickness at bosses

 Cores: It is recommended to avoid the use of cores as it is expensive to make and

handle. Often use of cores are unavoidable and are used to make holes. In such case,
the core diameter should have at least equal to the surrounding wall thickness and
preferable twice the wall thickness or more. If possible, side bosses and undercuts
should be avoided. In case internal cores are used, addition of venting holes are
required for removing the gases that are generated while the core comes in contact
with the molten metal.(Figure M2.1.16 to Figure M2.1.18)

Figure M2.1.16: Minimize the need for cores as much as possible by eliminating
undercuts.

Figure M2.1.18: Avoid small cored hole

 Incorrect Correct

Figure M2.1.19: Internal pockets in castings to facilitate cleaning after casting.

 Gears, pulleys, and wheels: To minimize the stress proper balance between the section sizes
of the rim, spokes and hub must be attempted. It is recommended to have odd number of
spokes with curved in shape. Excessive surface variation is to be avoided.(Figure M2.1.20
to M2.1.21)

Figure M2.1.20: Incorrect and correct proportions of elements of pulleys and gear blanks.

Figure M2.1.21: An odd number of curved wheel spokes to dissipate cast-in stresses.
  Lettering and other data: Any lettering should be parallel to the parting plane. These
data need to be placed in such a way that these will not interfere with the machining.
These can be either sunken or raised above the surface.
 Weight reduction: Casting weight is minimized by removing the metal from low
stress region and adding to high stress area by the use of simple inexpensive pattern
change.(Figure M2.1.21)
 Insert of different metals: It is sometime desirable in casting to incorporate a section
of different material either harder or softer than the base metal depending on the
purpose and is proves to be economical.(Figure M2.1.22)

Aluminum casting

Cast iron insert

Figure M2.1.22: A cast-iron wear-surface insert in an aluminium aircraft-brake casting.

 Design to facilitate machining: Sharp corners and edges are avoided by making
sufficiently rounding edges and corners.

 Machining allowance: After casting, machining is required to achieve better surface

finish. Table M2.1.5 provides the guidelines about the machining allowance.
Table M2.1.5: Guidelines for machining allowance (Source: Design for Manufacturability
Handbook by James G Bralla, 2nd Ed)

Allowance(mm)

Casting size (overall casting length), Drag and sides Cope surface
mm
Gray iron Up to 150 2.3 3
150-300 3 4
300-600 5 6
600-900 6 8
900-1500 8 10
1500-2100 10 13
2100-3000 11 16

Cast steel Up to 150 3 6

150-300 5 6
300-600 6 8
600-900 8 10
900-1500 10 13
1500-2100 11 14
2100-3000 13 19

Ductile iron Up to 150 2.3 6

150-300 3 10
300-600 5 19
600-900 6 19
900-1500 8 25
1500-2100 10 28
2100-3000 11 32

Nonferrous Up to 150 1.6 2.3

metals 150-300 2.3 3
300-600 3 4
600-900 4 5

 Dimensional factors and tolerance recommendation: Different factors which

influence the variation of dimension of cast pieces are: use of different methods,
pattern inaccuracies and difference in mould hardness, internal stress and many more.
Table M2.1.6 provides the guidelines about various tolerances.
Table M2.1.6: Recommended tolerances are provided in under average condition. (Source:
Design for Manufacturability Handbook by James G Bralla, 2nd Ed)
Location Dimension Tolerance
One side of parting line 0-25 mm ± 0.6 mm
25-75 mm ± 0.8 mm
75-150 mm ± 1.2 mm
150-230 mm
± 1.5 mm
230-300 mm
300-400 mm ± 2.3 mm
400-500 mm ± 2.6 mm
500-600 mm ± 2.9 mm
600-760 mm ± 3.2 mm
760-900 mm ± 3.5 mm
± 3.8 mm
Area at parting line
Additional tolerance for 6-65 cm² ± 0.5 mm
dimensions across 65-320 cm² ± 0.9 mm
parting line 320-650 cm² ± 1.0 mm
(tolerance to be
650-1600 cm² ± 1.3 mm
added to that above)
1600-4000 cm² ± 1.5 mm
4000-6500 cm² ± 2.0 mm
Dimension
Between two cores 0-75 mm ± 0.8 mm
75-150 mm ± 1.5 mm
150-230 mm ± 2.3 mm
230-600 mm
± 3.0 mm
600-1500 mm
Over 1500 mm ± 4.5 mm
± 6.3 mm
Cores: shell, hot-box, 0-25 mm ± 0.15 mm
cold-cure, etc. (one side 25-50 mm ± 0.30 mm
of core box) 50-75 mm ± 0.45 mm
75-150 mm ± 0.75 mm
150-230 mm ± 1.0 mm
230-300 mm
± 1.3 mm
Over 300 mm (over 12 in)
± 1.3 mm plus 0.2%
Shift, mold or core; largest 0-200 mm ± 2 mm
casting dimension A 200-450 mm ± 3 mm
greater than smallest B 450-900 mm ± 5 mm
900-1500 mm ± 6 mm