STEAM TURBINE

UNIT I - STEAM TURBINE

Introduction:

Steam pressure acting directly on pistons is utilised for developing power in reciprocating steam
engines. Steam engines can even be operated without any pressure drop in the cylinder (non-
expansive steam engine). But the operation of steam turbines wholly depends on the dynamic
action of the steam expanded through nozzles.

In steam turbines, enthalpy of the steam is first converted into kinetic-energy in nozzles
or blade passages. The high velocity steam impinges on the curved blades which, change the
flow direction of steam causes a force to be exerted on the blades fixed on a rotor and power is
developed due to the rotation of these blades.

The steam turbine is universally used as prime-movers in all steam power plants. Steam
turbines are mainly divided into two groups

a) Impulse turbine

(b) Impulse-reaction turbine (in practice known as reaction turbine).

In both types of turbines, first the enthalpy of the steam at high pressure is converted into
kinetic energy by passing it through nozzles.

In impulse turbines, the steam coming out at a very high velocity through the fixed nozzle
as shown in Fig. (a) Impinges on the blades fixed on the periphery of a rotor. The blades change
the direction of the steam flow without changing its pressure. The resulting motive force (due to
the change in momentum) causes the rotation of the turbine shaft as shown in Fig.

The examples of impulse turbine are De-Laval, Curties and Rateau turbines.

In pure reaction turbine, the high pressure steam from the boiler is passed through the
nozzles as shown in Fig. When the steam comes out through these nozzles, the velocity of the
steam increases relative to the rotating disc. The resulting reacting force of the steam on nozzle
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gives the rotating motion to the disc and the shaft. The shaft rotates in opposite direction to that
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of steam jet.

In practice, we hardly find any reaction turbine as described above. The common type is
impulse-reaction turbine known as reaction turbine in practice.

In an impulse reaction turbine the steam expands both in fixed and moving blades
continuously as the steam passes over them. Therefore, the pressure drop occurs gradually and
continuously over both moving and fixed blades. The example of such a turbine is Parson’s
turbine.

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Impulse
Turbine Reaction
Turbine

The blade arrangements for impulse and impulse reaction turbines are shown in Fig. The
variation of pressure and velocity of steam passing through the turbine is also shown in Fig.

Impulse Turbine
Reaction Turbine
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Compounding of Steam Turbines

In order to increase the plant thermal efficiency and to reduce the size of the plant, the
steam pressure and temperature used in power plants has been steadily increasing. Presently
pressures in the range of 100-140 bar are commonly used in power plants.
If the entire pressure drop from boiler pressure to condenser pressure (say 100 bar to 0.1 bar)
is carried out in single stage nozzle, then the velocity of the steam entering the turbine blades
will be very high. The turbine speed has to be also very high as it is directly proportional to
the steam velocity, such high R.P.M. of the turbine rotors are not useful for practical

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purposes and a reduction gearing is necessary between the turbine and the equipment
(generator) driven by the turbine. There is also a danger of structural failure of the blades due
to excessive centrifugal stresses. Therefore the velocity of the blades is limited to about 400
m/sec.

The velocity of the steam at the exit of the turbine is also high when single stages of
blades are used as shown in Fig. (a). This gives rise to a considerable loss of kinetic energy
(about 10 to 12%) reducing the efficiency of the unit.

These difficulties associated with the use of single stage turbines for large pressure drops
can be solved by compounding. i.e., the use of more than one stage.

(1) Velocity Compounding. The arrangement of this type of compounding is shown in

Fig.. There is only one set of nozzles and two or more rows of moving blades. There is a row of
fixed guide blades in between the moving blades as shown in Fig.. The function of fixed blades
is only to direct the steam coming from first moving row to the next moving row. These are also
known as guide blades. The enthalpy drop takes place only in the nozzle at the first stage and it is
converted into kinetic energy. The kinetic energy of the steam gained in the nozzle is
successively absorbed in stages by the rows of moving blades and finally the steam is exhausted
from last row of the blades. A turbine working on this principle is known as velocity
compounded impulse turbine. The Curtis turbine is an example.

The variation of the velocity, pressure and specific volume of the steam along the axis are
also shown in Fig.. The specific volume of the steam remains constant as the steam flows along
the axis of the turbine therefore the blade height is small in all rows.

(2) Pressure Compounding. A number of simple impulse turbine stages arranged in series
as shown in Fig. is known as pressure compounding. In this arrangement, the turbine is provided
with one row of fixed blades (works as nozzles) at the entry of each row of moving blades. The
total pressure drop of the steam does not take place in a single nozzle but is divided among all
the rows of fixed blades which work as nozzles.

The velocity, pressure and specific volume variations of steam along the axis of the
3

turbine are shown in Fig.. As the pressure of the steam gradually decreases, the specific volume
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of the steam gradually increases therefore the blade height has to be increased towards the low
pressure side.

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Velocity 4Page Compounding

Pressure Compounding

(3) Pressure and Velocity Compounding. This is a combination of pressure and velocity
compounding. The total pressure drop of the steam from boiler to condenser pressure is divided

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into a number of stages as done in pressure compounding and the velocity obtained in each stage
is also absorbed in several stages. The arrangement is shown in Fig.

Pressure and velocity compounded steam turbine

This arrangement requires fewer stages and a compact turbine can be designed for a
given pressure drop.

Governing Of Steam Turbines: Governing of steam turbine is required for controlling and
regulating the output of a turbine according to variable demands in service. This regulation of
turbine is done by maintaining accurate and positive control of speed, pressure and flow by
employing governors. Governing of turbine maintains the speed of turbine at constant level
irrespective of load. Governing of steam turbines can be of following types depending upon the
mechanism of regulation.

(i) Throttle governing

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(ii) Nozzle control governing

(iii) Bypass governing

(iv) Combined governing ie,, Combination of above as ‘throttle and nozzle control governing’ or
throttle and by-pass governing’.

(i) Throttle Governing: Throttle governing of steam turbine bases upon the throttling of
steam up to suitable pressure and regulate the mass flow of steam through the turbine
so as to control the output of turbine. Here in throttle governing, aim is to alter the

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mass flow rate as for example by reducing it, the available energy gets reduced and
hence lowering of output

Throttle governing on h- s diagram

In throttle governing the steam entering is regulated by opening and closing of valve. As
the valve is closed, the throttling or constant enthalpy process occurs across the valve with an
increase in entropy and corresponding decrease in availability of energy per unit mass flow of
steam. Also due to throttling.

The state of steam entering turbine stage gets modified and the modified expansion line
for each load is obtained. It may he noted that even when the governor valve is full open the
pressure drop does occur and thus it can be said that throttling is evident at all loads on turbine.
Representation of throttle governing on h-s diagram shows that the steam is available at state ‘0’
at p0 pressure in the main steam line. At the inlet from main steam line when the governor valve
is full open the throttling results in modified stale I from where expansion occurs following path
1-3 under isentropic expansion and non-isentropic expansion occurs following path 1-3’. When
mass flow rate is reduced for reduced load on turbine then this partial closing of valve causes
throttling as shown by 1—2. Now as a result of this throttling from I to 2 the modified expansion
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paths are 2—4 and 2-4’ for isentropic and non-isentropic expansion in turbine. Thus it shows that
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as a result of throttling the available energy gets reduced from to Δh 1-3 to Δh2-4 and Δh2-4 < Δh1-
3.Hence this lowering of available energy causes reduced output from turbine.

Schematic of simple throttle governing in steam turbines is shown in Fig.. Here a centrifugal
governor is used to sense the change in speed of shaft. The relay system has a pilot valve and
servo- motor. The displacement of servomotor piston either upward or downward decides the
opening of throttle valve C. Servomotor piston is actuated by the high pressure oil entering from
pilot valve 10 upper or lower half of servomotor piston D. Under normal operation the
servomotor piston occupies middle position and pilot valves keep the inlet and exit ports in
closed position. When oil enters the upper half of servomotor then servomotor piston lowers
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down and the throttle valve starts closing causing reduction of steam flow rale and so the output
till the speed is maintained to normal running speed. Simultaneously, the oil from Tower half of
servomotor gets drained our through pilot valve port. When oil under pressure enters lower half
of servomotor then servomotor piston gets lifted up causing lift of throttle valve

ii. Nozzle Control Governing: Nozzle control governing is the one in which steam flowing
through nozzles is regulated by valves. Nozzle control governing is generally employed at first
stage of turbine due to practical limitations. The nozzle areas in remaining stages remain
constant. If some how the nozzle governing is provided for all nozzles in each and every stage
then an ideal condition of turbine flow passage areas conforming to mass flow rate at all loads
shall exist. Under such ideal conditions the pressure. Velocities and nozzle and blade efficiencies
would be constant with load. For such ideal condition the Willans line would be straight line as
indicated for throttle governing of turbine.

In nozzle governing the nozzles of turbines are grouped in two, three or more groups up to six or
eight groups. When nozzle governing is employed then the pressure and temperature of steam
entering first stage nozzles are independent of load. Figure shows the schematic of nozzle control
governing.

As the valves are being regulated for actuating nozzle control governing so there occurs some
throttling of steam at each valve. However, the amount of throttling is considerably lesser and
the decrease in availability of energy to turbine is not too much. In order to avoid this occurrence
of throttling very large number (infinite) of nozzle and governing valves maybe put.
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Nozzle Control Governing

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iii. By Pass Governing: In case of by-pass governing arrangement is made for by-passing
surplus quantity of steam without allowing total steam quantity to contribute in turbine output
when load reduces. Arrangement of by pass governing is shown in Fig.

Diagram shows that steam from main line enters the main valve which is controlled by speed
governor. Steam from main valve enters the nozzle box or steam chest. By pass valve is also
provided on the nozzle box. By pass valve is connected to a passage which delivers steam being
by passed to later end of turbine, By pass valve is actuated when load varies, thus allowing only
part of steam entering main valve to contribute in power output. By pass valve is controlled by
speed governor for all loads within its range. In this kind of governing depending upon turbine
and its’ application there may he more than one by pass valves.

Arrangement in by pass
governing

Losses In Steam Turbines:

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The causes for the losses in steam turbine are listed below.

1. Residual Velocity Loss. The steam leaves the turbine with some absolute velocity.
The energy loss due to absolute exit velocity of steam is equivalent to V2ae/2gcJ kJ/kg,
where Vae is absolute velocity of steam leaving the turbine.
The residual velocity loss may be about 10 to 12% in a single stage impulse turbine. This
can be reduced by using multistage.

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2. Loss Due to Friction and Turbulence: Friction loss occurs in nozzles, turbine blades
and between the steam and rotating discs. The friction loss in the nozzle is taken into
account by introducing the factor “nozzle efficiency’. The loss due to friction and
turbulence is about 10%.

3. Leakage Loss: The leakage of steam occurs at the points mentioned below. -
(a) Between the turbine shaft and bearings
(b) Between the shaft and stationary diaphragms carrying nozzles in case of reaction
turbines
(c) Leakage at the blade tips in case of reaction turbine.
(d) Leakage of steam through the glands.
The total leakage loss is about 1 to 2%.

4. Loss due to the Mechanical Friction: The loss due to friction between the shaft and
bearing comes under this category. Some loss also occurs in regulating valves.
This friction loss can be reduced with the help of efficient lubricating system.

5. Radiation Loss: Heat is lost from the turbine to the surroundings as its temperature is
higher than the atmospheric temperature. Usually the turbines are well insulated to
reduce this loss. This loss due to radiation is negligible.

6. Loss due to Moisture: The steam passing through the last stages contains water
particles. The velocity of the water particles is less than that of the steam and
therefore the water particles have to be dragged along with the steam and
consequently part of the K.E. of the steam is lost.

WD for SINGLE RAW IMPULSE TURBINE

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Let

Inlet velocity Diagram

C bl =Linear velocity of moving blade m/ sec

C 1=Absolute velocity of steam entering moving blade
C W 1=Whirl velocity at inlet
C r 1=Relative velocity at inlet
C f 1=¿ Flow velocity at inlet
α = Angle between C 1∧Direction of motion also called nozzle angle
θ=¿Angle between C r 1 & Direction of motion also called moving blade angle

Outlet velocity Diagram

C bl =Linear velocity of moving bladem/ sec

C o= Absolute velocity of steam entering moving blade
C Wo=Whirl velocity at outlet
C ro=Relative velocity at outlet
C fo =¿Flow velocity at outlet
β= Angle between C o∧Direction of motion also called nozzle angle
φ=¿Angle between C ro & Direction of motion also called moving blade angle

WD on Blade

ForceTangential on Wheel
m× ( C W 1+ CWO )

WD /sec=m × ( C W 1 +CWO ) × Cbl

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m× ( C W 1 +CWO ) × Cbl
Power= kW
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103

WD /sec
Blade efficiency ∨Diagram efficiency=
Energy Supply

m × ( C W 1+ CWO ) ×C bl
Blade efficiency ∨Diagram efficiency=
1
×m ×C12
2

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2 × ( C W 1 +CWO ) × Cbl
ηbl =
C 12

C ro=k Cr 1

k =blade velocity coefficient

Condition for maximum ef ficiency ¿ fig

C W =PQ=MP+ MQ

C W =C r 1 cos θ+C ro cos φ

Cro cos φ
[
C W =C r 1 cos θ 1+
C r 1 cos θ ]
C W =C r 1 cos θ [ 1+ kZ ] …………………………..(1)

C r 1 cos θ=C 1 cosα −Cbl

C W =( C 1 cosα−Cbl ) [ 1+kZ ]

2 ×C W ×C bl
ηbl =
C12

2 ×C bl × ( C1 cosα−C bl ) [ 1+kZ ]
ηbl =
C 12

C bl
ρ=
C1

ηbl =2× ( ρcosα −ρ2 ) [ 1+ kZ ]

for Maximum efficiency differenciate ηbl wrt ρ∧equate ¿ zero

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d ηbl
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=0
dρ

2 cosα−4 ρ=0

ρ=cosα /2

Value for Maximum efficiency

ηbl =2× ( ρcosα −ρ2 ) [ 1+ kZ ]

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k =1∧Z=1 When there is no friction∧blade are symetrical

Put ρ=cosα /2

cosα 2
ηbl max =
2

WD
of steam is given by
kg

WD /kg=( CW 1 +C WO ) ×C bl

WD /kg=C W ×C bl

WD /kg=( ( C1 cosα−C bl ) [ 1+ kZ ] ) × Cbl

k =1∧Z=1 When there is no friction∧blade are symetrical

WDmax =2 C bl2

WD Two raw velocity compounding

Consider first raw

WD /kg=( CW 1 +C WO ) ×C bl

WD /kg=C bl × ( C r 1 cos θ +Cro cos φ )

WD /kg=2 C bl ×C r 1 cos θ

W 1=2C bl × ( C1 cosα−C bl )……………… (1)

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Consider Second raw raw

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C 1' =C o

C w 2' =0

β ' =90

WD /kg=( C w' ) ×C bl

WD /kg=C bl × C w1'

WD /kg=C bl × ( C r 1' cos θ ' +C ro' cos φ' )

θ' =φ' C r 1' =Cro '

W 2 =2C bl × Cr 1' cos θ'

W 2 =2C bl × ( C 1' cos α ' −Cbl )……………..(2)

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α ' =β

C 1' cos α ' =C o cosβ

C 1' cos α ' =Cro cos φ−Cbl

k =1∧Z=1 When there is no friction∧blade are symetrical ieθ=φ

C 1' cos α ' =C1 cosα−C bl −C bl

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C 1' cos α ' =C1 cosα−2 C bl

put value of C 1' cos α ' ∈eqn 2

W 2 =2C bl × ( C1 cosα−2 C bl −Cbl )

W 2 =2C bl × ( C1 cosα−3 C bl )………………… (3)

Total W =W 1 +W 2

W =2C bl × ( 2 C1 cosα−4 Cbl )

W =4 C bl × ( C 1 cosα−2 C bl )…………….(4)

ηbl for two stage impulse turbine

W 4 Cbl × ( C 1 cosα−2C bl )
ηbl = =
1 1
×C 12 ×C 12
2 2

ηbl =8 ρcosα−16 ρ2

C bl
ρ=
C1

for Maximum efficiency differenciate ηbl wrt ρ∧equate ¿ zero

d ηbl
=0
dρ
2
d ( 8 ρcosα−16 ρ )
=0
dρ

8 cosα−32 ρ
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cosα
ρ=
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For first stage

cosα cosα
ρ= =
2 1 ×2

For Second stage

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cosα cosα
ρ= =
4 2 ×2

For n stage

cosα
ρ=
2× n

Value for Maximum efficiency

ηbl =8 ρcosα−16 ρ2

cosα
ρ=
4

cosα cosα 2
ηbl (max) =8 cosα−16
4 16

ηbl (max) =cosα 2

For first stage

WDmax =2 C bl2

For second stage eqn 4

W =4 C bl × ( C 1 cosα−2 C bl )

C bl cosα
ρ= =
C1 4

WDmax =8 C bl2

For n stage

WDmax =2n C bl2

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REACTION TURBINE

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C ro ≥C r 1 for reaction turbine

C ro ≤C r 1 for impulse turbine

Degree of reaction (Rd) : The degree of reaction of a reaction turbine in a stage is defined as ratio
of heat drop over moving blade to total heat drop in a stage

Heat drop∈moving blade

Rd =
heat drop∈a stage

Δ hm
Rd =
Δ hm + Δh f

Heat drop in moving blade is equal to increase in relative velocity of steam passing through the
blade

C ro2−C r 12
Δ hm = … … … … … … … … … …( 1)
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2
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Total heat drop in a stage is equal to WD in a stage and it is given by

Δ hf + Δ hm =Cbl ( C w1 +C wo ) … … … … … .(2)

C ro2−C r 12
Rd =
2C bl ( C w 1 +C wo )

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Cro
=cosecφ C ro=Cfo cosecφ
C fo
Cr 1
=cosecθ C r 1=C f 1 cosecθ
Cf 1

Flow velocity generally remain constant

C f 1=C fo =C f

C w =C w 1+C wo =PM + MQ

C w =C f 1 cotθ+ C fo cotφ

C f 2 ( cosecφ2 −cosecθ 2)
Rd =
2C bl Cf ( cotθ+ cotφ )

C f 2 ( cotφ 2+1 ¿−(cotθ 2 +1) )

Rd =
2 C bl C f ( cotθ +cotφ )

C f ( cotφ 2−cotθ 2 )
Rd =
2C bl ( cotθ+ cotφ )

C f ( cotφ−cotθ )
Rd = … … … … … ..(3)
2 C bl

If the turbine is designed for 50% reaction Δ hf =Δ h m then equation 3 becomes

1 C f ( cotφ−cotθ )
=
2 2C bl

C bl =C f ( cotφ−cotθ ) … … … … .(4 )

Also C bl can be written as

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C bl =C f ( cotφ−cotβ ) … … … … .(5)
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C bl =C f ( cotα−cotθ ) … … … … .. ( 6 )

Compare equation 4 5 & 6

Which
means
that
moving &

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fixed blade must have the same shape if the degree of reaction is 50%. This condition give symmetrical
velocity diagram. This type of turbine is known as Parsons Reaction turbine. The velocity diagram for
parsons reaction turbine is given by

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