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Energy
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a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t
Article history: Energy and exergy analyses of native cassava starch drying in a tray dryer were carried out to assess the
Received 15 February 2014 performance of the system in terms of energy utilization, energy utilization ratio, energy efficiency,
Received in revised form exergy inflow and outflow, exergy loss and exegetic efficiency. The results indicated that for the starch
19 May 2014
with ash content of 0.76%, 0.85% crude protein, 0.16% crude fat, negligible amount of fiber, average
Accepted 24 June 2014
Available online 23 July 2014
granule size of 14.1 mm, pH of 5.88, amylose content of 23.45% and degree of crystallinity of 22.34%,
energy utilization and energy utilization ratio increased from 1.93 to 5.51 J/s and 0.65 to 0.6 as the drying
temperature increased from 40 to 60 C. Energy efficiency increased from 16.036 to 30.645%, while
Keywords:
Cassava starch
exergy inflow, outflow and losses increased from 0.399 to 2.686, 0.055 to 0.555 and 0.344 to 2.131 J/s
Energy and exergy respectively in the above temperature range. Exergetic efficiency increased with increase in both drying
Tray dryer air temperature and energy utilization and was lower than energy efficiency. Exergetic improvement
Improvement potential potential also increased with increase in drying air temperature. Model equations that could be used to
express the energy and exergy parameters as a function of drying temperature were established.
© 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2014.06.087
0360-5442/© 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
810 N.A. Aviara et al. / Energy 73 (2014) 809e817
significantly decrease the relative humidity of the drying air to in- Several other investigators conducted energy and exergy ana-
crease its moisture carrying capability and ensure a sufficiently low lyses on the drying of different agricultural and food products using
equilibrium moisture content [5]. The drying industry utilizes large different drying systems. Hepbasli [16] gave out a comprehensive
quantities of energy, making it one of the most energy-intensive review of the exergy analysis of renewable energy resources and
industrial operations. High energy inputs in drying operations provided two approaches for defining the exergetic efficiency as the
arise due to the high latent heat of water evaporation and relatively brute force and functional approaches. Panwar et al. [17] performed
low energy efficiency of industrial dryers [6,7]. Thus, one of the most a detailed review of energy and exergy analyses of solar drying
important challenges of the drying industry is to reduce the energy systems, Akpinar and Kocyigit [10], Sami et al. [18] and Saidur et al.
cost for obtaining good quality dried products [8]. Since energy is a [19] carried out energy and exergy analysis of different solar drying
major cost factor, it is essential to perform the energy and exergy systems, Prommas et al. [20] conducted energy and exergy analysis
analyses of a drying process to provide energy savings and optimum of porous media drying using heated air, and Aghbashlo et al. [21]
process conditions. According to Singh [9], energy analysis is useful (2013) conducted a thorough review of the exergy analysis of
in quantitative evaluation of energy requirements of energy gener- drying processes and systems. Studies on the energy and or exergy
ating and delivery systems and in the detection of mode and eval- analysis of food material drying in different drying systems
uation of energy loss. Information obtained from energy analysis can included solar drying of pistachio [4], pepper, yam slices, water leaf
be used for quantifying energy conservation practices. and okra slices in mixed mode solar dryer [22], olive mill waste
The first law of thermodynamics which stands for the principle water [23], mulberry [24], jackfruit leather [25], parsley leaves [26],
of conservation of energy is commonly used in engineering systems shelled corn [27], and red sea weed [28]. Others are on fluidized bed
performance analysis. Energy analysis, however, has some de- drying of wheat [6], potato [29] and eggplant plant [30]drying in
ficiencies. Fundamentally, the energy concept is not sensitive to the cyclone type dryer, drying of red pepper slices [31] and coroba
assumed direction of the process, e.g. energy analysis does not slices [32] in convective type dryer, mint leaves drying in heat
object if heat is considered to be transferred spontaneously in the pump dryer [33], green olive [34], palsey [35] and olive leaves [36]
direction of the increasing temperature [10]. It gives no information drying in tray dryer, spray drying of fish oil encapsulation [37],
about the inability of any thermodynamic process to convert heat microwave drying of sour pomegranate arils [38]and pasta drying
into mechanical work with full efficiency [11], nor does it provide in an industrial dryer [39]. These investigations show that energy
any insight into the reason why mixtures cannot spontaneously efficiency is higher than exergy efficiency. Energy utilization, en-
separate or unmix themselves. It also does not distinguish the ergy utilization ratio, exergy inflow and outflow, exergy loss, en-
quality of the energy, e.g., 1 W of heat equals 1 W of work or ergetic and exergetic efficiencies, all varied with product, drying
electricity. Energy analyses on their own can incorrectly interpret conditions and type of drying system. Van Gool [40] noted that
some processes, e.g., environmental air, when isothermally com- maximum improvement in the exergy efficiency of a process or
pressed, maintains its energy (enthalpy) equal to zero, whereas the system could be achieved when the difference between total
exergy of the compressed air is larger than zero. exergy output and total exergy input is minimized. Consequently
Exergy is defined as the amount of work that can be obtained he suggested the concept of exergetic IP (improvement potential)
from a stream of matter, heat or work as it comes to equilibrium as a useful tool in the analysis of different processes and systems.
with a reference environment, and is a measure of the potential of a The rate form as given by Hammond and Stapleton [41] is
stream to cause change, as a consequence of not being completely commonly used in computing improvement potential.
stable relative to the reference environment [5]. It is the combi- Information on the energy and exergy analyses of starch drying
nation of the property of a system and its environment because it appears to be scanty in the scientific literature. The main objective
depends on the system and its environment. Unlike energy, exergy of this study was to investigate the energetics and exergetics of
is not subject to a conservation law; rather it is consumed or native cassava starch drying in a tray dryer and establish the vari-
destroyed due to irreversibilities in real processes such as drying, ation of the efficiencies with the drying conditions of inlet and out
with the exergy consumption being proportional to the entropy temperatures.
generation produced by the irreversibilities associated with the
process. Exergy analysis is a method that utilizes the conservation 2. Materials and methods
of mass and energy principles together with the second law of
thermodynamics for the analysis, design and improvement of en- 2.1. Starch extraction and characterization
ergy and other systems. It is a more useful tool for assessing the
efficient use of energy resources [12] as it provides a more realistic The cassava tubers used for starch extraction were obtained
view of process, sometimes dramatically different in comparison to from a farm at the Amina Way in the University of Ibadan, Ibadan,
standard energy analyses. Dincer [13,14] highlighted the impor- Nigeria. Starch extraction from cassava was carried out at the In-
tance of exergy and its essential utilization as follows: dustrial Chemistry Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, Univer-
sity of Ibadan, Ibadan.
It is a suitable technique for furthering the goal of more efficient The cassava tubers were peeled and thoroughly washed in clean
energy resource use for it enables the location, types and true water. The peels were discarded and the peeled tubers were
magnitudes of wastes and losses to be determined. crushed in a rasp bar ‘grating’ machine. The resultant pulp was
It is an efficient technique revealing whether or not and by how mixed with sufficient amount of water to form slurry. The slurry
much it is possible to design more efficient energy systems by was sieved with the aid of a muslin cloth and 75 mm mesh size
reducing the inefficiencies in existing systems. sieve. The fiber was thoroughly washed and discarded. The starch
It is a primary tool in best addressing the impact of energy milk obtained was allowed to settle and the supernatant was
resource utilization on environment. decanted. The starch was resuspended and washed several times
It is a key component in obtaining sustainable development. with distilled water to remove the impurities and protein debris.
The cassava starch obtained was divided into two portions and
Dincer and Cengel [11], Dincer [5] and Dincer [15] provided utilized as follows:
excellent treatises on energy and exergy analyses of the drying The first portion was dried in open air and used for proximate
process. composition and pH determination, scanning electron microscopy
N.A. Aviara et al. / Energy 73 (2014) 809e817 811
and x-ray diffractometry. The second portion was sealed in poly- drying chamber. This continues until the reduction in product mass
ethylene bag and stored in a freezer for use in carrying out drying becomes negligible and equilibrium is assumed to have been
experiments at different temperatures in a tray dryer. attained with the environment and the drying process is stopped.
Moisture, ash, crude protein, fat and crude fiber content of the The moisture content at which drying terminates is then taken and
starch were determined using the AOAC [42] method. Amylose termed the dynamic equilibrium moisture content.
content and pH of starch were determined using the AACC [43] and (1). Drying chamber (2). Tray (3). Baffle plate (4). Tray support
AOAC [42] methods respectively. Starch granule micrograph was platform (5). Insulated drying cabinet wall (6). Perforated plate (7).
obtained using a JSM 35 Genie Scanning Electron Microscope Inlet air duct (8). Insulated air duct wall (9). Air inlet perforated
according the method of Nwokocha et al. [44]. The x-ray diffraction plate (10). Heating elements (11). Air supply fan (12). Fan drive
pattern of starch was obtained using an MD10 2.04 diffractometer motor (13). Motor mounting (14). Motor mounting support frame
that produced monochromatic CuKa radiation, and the degree of (15). Tool frame (16). Dryer mounting (17). Dryer door (18). Exhaust
crystallinity also known as relative crystallinity of starch was air outlet.
determined using the method reported by Wang et al. [45].
Fig. 1. Schematic diagram and part list of the laboratory model tray dryer.
812 N.A. Aviara et al. / Energy 73 (2014) 809e817
Table 1
T
EX ¼ Cp ðT T∞ Þ T∞ ln (14) Proximate composition of cassava starch.
T∞
S/N Parameter Value
X X X
EXL ¼ EXi EXo (16) 2.5. Statistical analysis
where EXi and EXo, EXL are the inlet and outlet exergy and exergy The drying curves (moisture content versus time) of native
loss respectively in J/s. cassava starch were plotted at different drying temperatures. Data
Exergy inflow to the drying chamber was calculated using obtained from the energy and exergy analyses of the drying process
Equation (13) stated as follows at different inlet and outlet temperatures were subjected to
regression analysis using Statistix 9.0. Regression equations were
T used to express the relationships existing between the energy and
EXi ¼ Cpa ðTai T∞ Þ T∞ ln ai (17)
T∞ exergy parameters and process variables.
Substituting Equation (7) into Equation (16) yielded the exergy 3. Results and discussion
inflow as
Exergy loss
or Exergy efficiency ¼ 1 (22)
Exergy inflow
Equation (22) can be stated as
EXl
hEX ¼ 1 (23)
EXi
,
, ,
IP ¼ ð1 hEX Þ EX i EX o (24)
,
where IP is exergetic improvement potential in J/s. Fig. 2. SEM (Scanning electron micrograph) of cassava starch, 2000X.
814 N.A. Aviara et al. / Energy 73 (2014) 809e817
From this Figure, it can be seen that the moisture content decreased EU ¼ 0:1789T 5:319; R2 ¼ 0:9978 (25)
with increase in time until the dynamic equilibrium moisture
where EU is energy utilization in J/s, T is drying air temperature in
content at each of the drying temperatures was attained. Drying C and R2 is coefficient of determination.
time and dynamic equilibrium moisture content decreased from
480 to 270 min and 7.70 to 1.70% (db) respectively as the drying
temperature increased from 40 to 60 C. Similar results were ob- 3.4. Energy utilization ratio
tained in the drying of eggplant [30], potato [29] and coroba slices
[32]. The variation of EUR (energy utilization ratio) with drying air
temperature during the drying of cassava starch in a tray dryer is
presented Fig. 6. Observation from the Figure shows that the energy
3.3. Energy utilization
utilization ratio decreased from 0.65 to 0.6 as the temperature of
the drying air increased from 40 C to 60 C. Akpinar et al. [29] in
The variation of energy utilization in the drying of native cassava
the energy and exergy analysis of potatoes dried in a cyclone type
starch using a tray dryer with air at temperatures in the range of
dryer reported that EUR decreased with increase in temperature
40e60 C is presented in Fig. 5. The Figure shows that the energy
and air velocity. Similar results were reported by Akpinar [30] on
utilized increased with increase in drying temperature and ranged
eggplant drying in a cyclone type dryer, Erbay and Icier [36] on the
from 1.93 to 5.51 J/s. Similar results were reported on olive leaves
drying of olive leaves in a tray dryer and Motevali and Minaei [38]
drying in a tray dryer [36], eggplant and potato slices drying in a
on the drying of sour pomegranate arils in a microwave dryer. Corzo
cyclone dryer [30,29], coroba slices drying in convective type dryer
et al. [32] however, noted that the EUR in the drying of coroba slices
[32] and sour pomegranate arils drying in a microwave dryer [38].
in a convective type dryer increased with increase in drying tem-
Energy utilization was found to have linear relationship with drying
perature up to a point and decreased with further increase in
air temperature that can be adequately expressed with the
temperature.
following equation:
The relationship existing between EUR (energy utilization ratio)
and drying air temperature was found to be polynomial of the
second order and can be represented by the following equation:
Fig. 4. Drying curves of native cassava starch at different temperatures in a tray dryer. Fig. 6. Energy utilization ratio at different drying temperatures.
N.A. Aviara et al. / Energy 73 (2014) 809e817 815
where henergy is energy efficiency in %, T is drying air temperature in Exin ¼ 0:0018T 2 0:065T þ 0:1206; R2 ¼ 1:0000 (28)
C and R2 is coefficient of determination.
Fig. 8 shows the variation of exergy inflow, exergy outflow and Exloss ¼ 0:0014T 2 0:0504T þ 0:1112; R2 ¼ 0:9999 (30)
exergy loss with drying air temperature in the drying of cassava
starch. Exergy inflow, outflow and losses increased from 0.399 to where Exinis exergy inflow in J/s, Exout is exergy outflow in J/s, Exloss
2.686, 0.055 to 0.555 and 0.344e2.131 J/s respectively, as the air is exergy loss in J/s, T is drying air temperature in C and R2 is co-
temperature increased from 40 to 60 C. Similar result was reported efficient of determination.
on the solar drying of pistachio [4], eggplant drying in a cyclone Fig. 9 shows that exergy inflow, outflow and losses varied with
type dryer [30], potato drying in a cyclone type dryer [29], coroba energy utilization in a manner similar to their variation with drying
slice drying in a convective type dryer [32], olive leaves drying in a air temperature. Each of them increased with increase in energy
tray dryer [36] and fish oil encapsulation drying using a spray dryer utilization and had relationship with energy utilization that was
[37]. Colak et al. [33] noted that exergy loss increased with increase polynomial of the second order for exergy inflow and exergy loss,
in temperature in the drying of mint leaves using a heat pump and linear for exergy outflow. The relationships were expressed
dryer. Motevali and Minaei [38] reported that exergy loss decreased with the following equations:
with increase in temperature and time in the thin layer drying of
microwave pretreated sour pomegranate arils and Akpinar [26] Exin ¼ 0:0196EU2 þ 0:4961EU 0:6362; R2 ¼ 0:9997 (31)
observed that exergy inflow, outflow and loss decreased with
time in the solar drying of parlsey leaves. Polynomial relationship of
Fig. 7. Variation of the energy efficiency with drying temperature. Fig. 9. Variation of exergy inflow, outflow and loss with energy utilization.
816 N.A. Aviara et al. / Energy 73 (2014) 809e817
Fig. 11. Variation of exergetic efficiency with energy utilization. Fig. 12. Variation of exergetic improvement potential with drying temperature.
N.A. Aviara et al. / Energy 73 (2014) 809e817 817
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