Control Guidelines

CONTENTS
BASIC BOILER CONTROL GUIDELINES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2
Feedwater Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2
Single Element Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2
Two Element Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2
Three Element Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2
Combustion Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3
Single Point Positioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3
Parallel Positioning [1] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4
Fully Metered, Cross-Limited . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5
Oxygen Trim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5
Furnace Pressure Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-6

FIGURES
Figure 6-1. Single, Two and Three Element Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3
Figure 6-2. Single Point Positioning and Parallel Positioning Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4
Figure 6-3. Metered, Cross-Limited Combustion Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5
Figure 6-4. Oxygen Trim and Furnace Pressure Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-6

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Control Guidelines
BASIC BOILER CONTROL
GUIDELINES
General
One of the more complicated aspects of boiler design is the
control of burner combustion and feed water supply. Both of
these components can be controlled by a variety of schemes
and are often controlled independently from each other. This
section offers a brief look at some of these control schemes and
items to consider during boiler design.
Feedwater Control
The control of make-up feedwater to the boiler is a very critical
aspect of boiler operation. The boiler requires that the water
level in the steam drum be within a specific range to ensure
proper operation. If the level is too low, circulation problems
can develop and lead to localized tube failures. If the level is
too high, separation of steam and water can be impaired and
allow water to carry-over with the steam.
A boiler will typically use one of three following feedwater
control schemes to maintain the specified water level.
Single Element Control
This control system uses drum level as the single process
variable to set the water level in the drum. The system measures
the drum level to determine an initial demand for makeup water.
A differential pressure transmitter on the steam drum sends a
signal to a controller. The output signal is based on the error
between this level signal and the set-point value established by
the boiler operator. After a proportional plus integral action is
applied to the error signal, it is sent through a manual/auto
station to the feedwater control valve. The valve then moves in
the proper direction to eliminate the error signal. The manual/
auto station allows the operator to interrupt the automatic signal
and operate the feedwater valve manually, if required.
The Single Element Control scheme is simple and works well
for small units with slow load changes. However, in boilers
which experience wide load changes, simple drum level control
will not adequately respond to those changes due to the shrink/
swell phenomenon. For example, when the steam demand
increases, the header pressure will decrease (saturation
temperature will drop) and the firing rate will increase. These
two factors will cause a condition known as “swell”. Swell is
the apparent increase in water level due to increased steam
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bubble evolution in the drum water. Thus, as the steam demand
increases, the drum level rises, and the single element control
system will initially reduce feedwater flow. Similarly, when the
steam demand decreases the drum level will seem to fall
(“shrinkage”) and the controls will respond by increasing
feedwater flow. For this reason, the following multiple-element
feedwater control systems should be used on boilers with
varying loads.
Two Element Control
This control system uses two independent process variables to
maintain the water level: the drum water level and the steam
flow out of the boiler. Here, the steam flow transmitter output is
used to establish the initial demand for feedwater. This primary
signal is then modified by the drum level. The drum level
signal is compared to the set-point value, as established by the
boiler operator, to determine the magnitude of the error signal.
The drum level controller varies its output based upon the
error, but rather than a 0 to 100% output, it has a -50 to +50%
output. This output is added to the steam flow to establish the
actual feedwater control valve output. This output is sent
through the manual/auto station to the feedwater control valve.
The two element control system uses the steam flow signal to
anticipate water inventory changes, and to compensate for the
effects of “swell” and “shrinkage” to ensure proper system
response to changes in boiler load. Overall, this system is
capable of handling load changes effectively. For applications
with variable feedwater pressure, a third element may be
required.
Three Element Control
This control system uses three independent process variables to
maintain the water level: the drum water level, the steam flow
output, and the feedwater flow input. This system is very
similar to the two element control system except that the
feedwater flow signal is now considered. The basic idea behind
a three element controller is to modulate the feedwater flow
based on a comparison between the measure steam flow and
feedwater flow rates. Comparing just these two parameters will
not maintain proper drum level under actual conditions.
Blowdown, shrink, swell and other factors will affect the water
level also. In order to account for the errors resulting from the
use of only the steam and feedwater flow, the drum level signal
is also included in the system. The drum level signal will trim
the output signal up or down in order to bring the drum level to
correct value.
Nebraska Boiler Control Guidelines

Drum Drum Steam Drum Steam Feedwater

Level Level Flow Level Flow Flow

LT LT FT LT FT FT

A K
A A K

P I
P I P I

P I

T A T A T A

FCV FCV FCV

Feedwater Feedwater Feedwater

Valve Valve Valve

Figure 6-1. Single, Two and Three Element Control

Combustion Controls Single Point Positioning

The boiler combustion controls ensure that the fuel and air
supply arrive at the burner in the proper ratios for safe, efficient
combustion. This portion of the overall boiler control is
independent from the feedwater control systems previously
discussed. It is theoretically possible to have any combination
of feedwater control system and combustion control system
paired together on a boiler. Just as in the feedwater control,
however, the range of combustion control system complexity is
wide. The choice of system will depend on the size of the
boiler, the firing requirements (fuel changeover, etc.), burner
arrangement, and boiler load swings.
The single point positioning control system (SPP) is the
simplest available. The function of the system is to control
steam pressure in the boiler by modulating the fuel and air
supply in unison. In this system, the fuel control valve(s) and
air control damper(s) are linked together through a common
jackshaft. This jackshaft is controlled by an actuator which
adjusts the shaft position based on the steam header pressure. A
decrease in steam header pressure is interpreted as a demand
for increased boiler production. The actuator will move the
jackshaft to allow more air and fuel flow. This system is best
suited for use on smaller boilers designed to operate at nearly
constant supply conditions. Since it is not likely to make the
most efficient use of air and fuel, a more sophisticated
combustion control system may be desirable. The supply
conditions of the fuel and air should remain consistent since
changes will affect fuel:air ratio. The linkage drive
arrangement also requires that the unit be fairly compact,
preferably with an integral fan, for proper operation. This
control system is not suitable for simultaneous firing of
multiple fuels.

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Control Guidelines Nebraska Boiler

Steam Header Steam Header

Pressure Pressure

PT PT

Steam
Pressure A
Set-Point

PID

PID f(x)

A T A T A T A

f(x) f(x) f(x)

Fuel Valve Fuel Valve Air Flow

(jackshaft to air) Actuator Actuator

Figure 6-2. Single Point Positioning and Parallel Positioning Control

Parallel Positioning [1] encountered with a fixed relationship control is that the fuel
system may react at a different rate than the air supply system.
The parallel positioning (PP) combustion control system
As time passes, the system will require re-tuning to match
regulates the steam pressure in the boiler by modulating the
current process response. The open loop control of the fuel and
fuel and air flow. As in the SPP, the demand signal is obtained
air supply also limits the system. The system does not measure
from a single plant master pressure controller. A change in the
the flowrate of either the air or the fuel. It relies upon the
steam demand results in a change in the fuel and air supply.
actuator position alone for a change in flow. If the supply of
Unlike a SPP, however, this system operates the fuel control
either of these combustion materials is deficient, an improper
valve and air control damper with independent actuators. This
mixture will occur. A shortage of air could easily result in an
allows the start-up personnel to “characterize” the actuators for
unstable mixture and subsequent “puff” in the boiler. One way
the two supplies in a non-linear fashion to approach an ideal
to control proper fuel:air ratio with the simple PP system is to
air:fuel relationship. This allows better control of the air:fuel
introduce oxygen trim controls to the system. It should be
ratio than the jackshaft system in the SPP system. The
noted, however, that oxygen trim will not respond fast enough
relationship between the two actuators, however, is still fixed
to maintain proper fuel:air ration during load swings, but will
and thus cannot take full advantage of combustion
correct for changes in fuel Btu content, air density changes and
optimization. The fixed relationship makes this system
other seasonal long-term supply variations.
appropriate only for small to medium applications that do not
experience large or sudden load changes. One of the problems

[1] It is not recommended that parallel positioning be used without utilizing an oxygen sensor with O2 deviation
alarms and lockout.

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Nebraska Boiler Control Guidelines

Fuel Flow Air Flow

FT FT
Firing Rate Air/Fuel
Demand Ratio

f(x)

P I P I

T A Low Limit T A

A T Low Fire Low Fire T A

Purge T A

FCV f(x)

Fuel Valve Air Damper

Figure 6-3. Metered, Cross-Limited Combustion Control

Fully Metered, Cross-Limited Oxygen Trim

The fully metered, “cross-limited” combustion control system
is the most thorough method. This system uses closed loop
controllers for all fuel and air supplies. Not only does this
method improve the system’s response to loss or failure in one
of the supplies, it also ties the response of the controllers
together. This prevents either controller from getting too far
from the ideal fuel:air ration when the load changes. For
example, in a steady state condition, the boiler master pressure
control signal is constant and the fuel and air flow controllers
are holding their outputs so that their error signals are zero. If
the master controller asks for increased boiler output, the
system will respond by increasing fuel and air flow but will
limit the fuel output so that it does not get too far ahead of the
air. The system responds in a reverse manner when the master
controller signal is reduced; the air flow is not allowed to
reduce more than the fuel. These built-in links between each
controller are what give this system the “cross-limited” name.
The cross-limiting nature of the system provides some inherent
safeguards as well. This system alters its response based on the
actual dynamics of the boiler by using closed-loop controllers.
Oxygen trim is an additional control loop which can be added
to combustion control systems which have independent
actuator(s) for air flow. This control loop senses the oxygen
remaining in the flue gas leaving the boiler and generates a
signal based on the difference between the measured signal and
a pre-determined set-point. The set-point given to the oxygen
controller is a function based on load. The set-point based on
boiler load will allow the controlled oxygen level in flue gas to
smoothly ramp up or down as the load decreases or increases.
This will automatically maintain the proper air:fuel ratio
determined by the burner manufacturer. Typically, the oxygen
set-point is around 10 to 15% for very low loads and reduced
down to as low as 2 to 3% at full load. The oxygen controller
signal modifies the master control signal sent to the air
controller, thereby adjusting the total air flow.

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Control Guidelines Nebraska Boiler

Steam Flow Flue Gas O2 Air Flow Furnace

Controller Pressure
FT AT
PT

f(x)
T A A

T P I

P I
f(t) K

Impulse

T A

A T A
f(x) f(x)

ID Fan ID Fan
Damper Damper
Air/Fuel Ratio

Figure 6-4. Oxygen Trim and Furnace Pressure Control

Furnace Pressure Control control), based on a pressure reading taken at the flue gas
outlet. On units with an economizer, the damper is located
For proper boiler operation, a slightly negative boiler outlet
downstream of the economizer with the pressure sensing point
pressure is desirable. However, in some installations, it is
between the economizer, is considered by many to be better at
possible for conditions to create a more negative pressure at the
pressure control), based on a pressure reading taken at the flue
boiler outlet than desirable. This can be created by stack effects
gas outlet. On units with an economizer, the damper is located
in a single boiler installation or by flue gas flow from other
downstream of the economizer with the pressure sensing point
boilers in a multiple boiler installation with a common stack. In
between the economizer and the damper. When no economizer
order to control the boiler outlet pressure more closely, a
is supplied, the damper is located at the flue gas outlet with the
pressure control scheme can be added to the flue gas outlet.
pressure sensing point between the damper and boiler. The
Pressure control is achieved by throttling a boiler outlet
pressure sensing point in the duct is compared to the
damper, usually a parallel blade type (an opposed blade design,
atmospheric pressure for reference.
however, is considered by many to be better at pressure

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