IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 18, NO.

3, JULY 2003 1079

Review of Harmonic Load Flow Formulations

Sergio Herraiz, Luis Sainz, and Jordi Clua

Abstract—This paper is a review of the different single and During EPS operation, three-phase voltage at terminals of the
three-phase harmonic load flow formulations of the bibliography. loads is expected to be symmetric; for this reason, the harmonic
It presents the data, unknowns, and equations of these formu- load flow problem study, in balanced conditions, was the ha-
lations in balanced network consideration. The influence of the
main harmonic load flow hypothesis (harmonic interaction and bitual procedure, but a more accurate harmonic load flow study
fundamental power consumption consideration) in the final load must consider the network unbalanced conditions.
flow results is studied in an example. The great number of unknowns to solve in the harmonic
Index Terms—Harmonic interaction, network harmonics, power studies leads authors to tackle the problem in several ways
flow studies. in order to reach a compromise between the simplicity and
reliability of the formulation.
The simplest way assumes no harmonic interaction between
NOMENCLATURE network and nonlinear devices [3], [7], [8].
EPS Electric power system. The well-known iterative harmonic analysis is the first mod-
CLF Conventional load flow. ification when considering harmonic voltage influence on the
NR Newton–Raphson. nonlinear device behavior [4], [5], [9]–[12]. There are other
NLD Nonlinear device. studies that aim to improve convergence in the iterative har-
HP Harmonic penetration. monic analysis [13]–[17].
CLF Conventional load flow (modified). A limitation of the method mentioned before is that the fun-
VN Voltage nodes method. damental voltages are assumed to be unaffected by harmonic
IHP Iterative harmonic penetration. voltages; therefore, other formulations are developed to solve
IHA Iterative harmonic analysis. this problem [18]–[21].
GS Gauss–Seidel. Originally, reformulations of the conventional load flow in
SHLF Simplified harmonic load flow. order to include nonlinear devices on it were implemented
HA: Harmonic analysis. [22]–[24]. This formulation is a natural modification of the load
CHLF Complete harmonic load flow (fundamental). flow where the nonlinear device treatment and the harmonic
CHLF Complete harmonic load flow (harmonic). voltage calculation have been included [25]. In this way, it can
NL1 Nonlinear load 1 (6-p ac/dc converter). be assumed that fundamental and harmonic voltages produce
NL2 Nonlinear load 2 (three-phase uncontrolled recti- power consumption.
fier). A comparison between the last two formulations was ana-
lyzed in [26].
I. INTRODUCTION The paper provides a bibliography review of the above formu-
lations under balanced and unbalanced conditions developing
L OAD flow is the procedure used for obtaining the steady
state voltages of electric power systems (EPS) at funda-
mental frequency. Much effort has been expended in research
the data, unknowns, and constraint equations in the balanced
harmonic problem.
An example to show the influence of the harmonic interaction
and development of the formulation of this problem in the bib-
and fundamental power consideration in the final results is also
liography [1]–[4].
analyzed.
In the last few years, there has been a growing interest in
obtaining steady state network voltages at harmonic frequen-
cies due to the increase of nonlinear devices in electric power II. CONVENTIONAL LOAD FLOW
networks. The procedures for analyzing the harmonic problem
could be classified into frequency domain [3]–[5] and time do- Steady state network voltage calculation at fundamental fre-
main [6]. Frequency domain methods are the most widely used quency from the constraints on power and/or voltage is essen-
for the harmonic problem formulation. They are a reformulation tial to determine the static operating condition of an EPS. This
of the conventional load flow in order to include the nonlinear method is known as conventional load flow (CLF).
device treatment and the calculation of harmonic voltages. The CLF is performed in power-system planning, operational
planning, and operation/control; therefore, it has been studied in
the bibliography widely [1]–[4].
Manuscript received December 7, 2001. The resolution of the CLF aims to obtain the fundamental bus
The authors are with the Department of Electrical Engineering (Barcelona voltages of network from generation and load (slack, PV, and PQ
Division) of the Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya, Barcelona 08028, Spain
(e-mail: herraiz@ee.upc.es; sainz@ee.upc.es; jordi.clua@upc.es). buses). The data and unknown variables for a bus system are
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TPWRD.2003.813604 summarized in Table I.
0885-8977/03$17.00 © 2003 IEEE

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1080
TABLE I
CLF FORMULATION
The PV bus constraints are
(1)
The PQ bus constraints are
(2)
where is the element of network fundamental admittance
matrix .
The numerical resolution of the above set of nonlinear equa-
tions provides us with the unknown variables. The algorithm of
Newton–Raphson (NR) being the most generally used proce-
dure in the bibliography.
III. HARMONIC LOAD FLOW
The “recent” appearance of nonlinear devices (NLD) in the
EPS provoked harmonic distortion in the network voltages.
This fact and the increasing number of applications with NLD
has led us to analyze the steady state harmonic problem. CLF
must be replaced to calculate
• the fundamental bus voltages;
• the harmonic bus voltages;
• the parameters which characterize the NLD state.
starting from CLF and NLD behavior data.
The procedures used for analyzing the harmonic problem
could be classified into two groups: time domain methods and
frequency domain methods.
There are hybrid methods too. They work in both domains to
benefit from the advantages of each one of them.
Time domain methods, such as the EMTP [6], are based on
the numerical resolution of the differential equations that rep-
resent the system behavior. These methods are very useful for
the NLD treatment but the calculation effort necessary to reach
the steady state solution could be considerable and they do not
allow the inclusion of power consumption in the definition of
the problem.
Frequency domain methods are a reformulation of CLF,
which includes NLD. They are the most widely used methods
for the harmonic problem resolution [3]–[5].
First, a nonlinear set of equations must be outlined to obtain
the unknown variables as in CLF.
The resolution of these equations could present several dif-
ficulties such as long execution time, numerical convergence
problems, and considerable PC-memory effort due to the ele-
vated number of unknowns.
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IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 18, NO. 3, JULY 2003
Fig. 1. HP flowchart.
TABLE II
HP FORMULATION
This fact leads authors to tackle the harmonic problem in the
frequency domain in several ways in order to reach a compro-
mise between the simplicity and reliability of the formulation.
A. Harmonic Penetration
The first and simplest method is harmonic penetration (HP)
[Fig. 1], which assumes no harmonic interaction between net-
work and NLD (i.e., it considers that harmonic voltages have no
influence on the NLD behavior [3], [7], [8]). This consideration
is extended to the power definition (i.e., ).
The no interaction hypothesis allows the NLD treatment to
be approached considering the fundamental voltages and NLD
data dependence, thus facilitating their incorporation to the
CLF. Once the fundamental steady state network and the NLD
behavior are characterized with the modified CLF (CLF , the
harmonic voltages can be calculated with the voltage nodes
method (VN).
The HP data and unknown variables for an bus system are
summarized in Table II, where
• and with are generic NLD data and
parameters, respectively;
• and with are the reactances of the slack
and PV bus generators at fundamental frequency.
CLF is based on the simultaneous resolution of the PV bus
and PQ bus constraint (1) and (2) with the expression (2) ap-
plied to the NLD buses and the expressions that define the NLD
behavior
(3)
HERRAIZ et al.: REVIEW OF HARMONIC LOAD FLOW FORMULATIONS 1081

The current consumed by the NLD can be calculated as a

function, which depends on the fundamental bus voltage and
the NLD parameters

(4)

thus allowing the NLD consumed power and

the harmonic currents injected by the NLD with
to be obtained.
Finally, the PQ load admittances can be determined from the
CFL solution too

Fig. 2. IHP flowchart.

(5)
where is a function which depends on the harmonic admit-
tance model [7], [8], [25].
The expressions (3)–(5) depend on the fundamental voltages
only because of the hypotheses of no harmonic voltage influence
on power consumption and NLD behavior.
The VN is based on the resolution of the linear system cor-
responding to current continuity expression
for the harmonic frequencies . The VN must be
completed by incorporating NLD injected currents to bus cur-
rent vector , and the load and generator harmonic admittances
to network admittance matrix .
This formulation allows the harmonic problem to be tackled
in a way as simple as CLF but NLD sensitiveness to harmonic
voltages results in an overestimation of their polluting effect.
Therefore, the need to study the problem in a more accu-
rate way leads us to consider harmonic interaction between net-
work and NLD and to develop a new set of formulations. These
methods still take into consideration the fundamental wave de-
pendence of the power definition.
At present, the majority of harmonic load flow formulations
are based on both considerations:
• Harmonic interaction: The expressions (3) and (4) which
characterize the NLD behavior and consumed harmonic
currents , must be modified to reflect har-
monic voltage dependence
(6)
(7)
• Fundamental power: It allows to calculate the load admit-
tances by expression (5), which decouples the CLF so-
lution and harmonic interaction holding the HP original
idea.
B. Iterative Harmonic Penetration
Iterative harmonic penetration (IHP) is the first modification
from the HP which takes into consideration harmonic influence
on NLD behavior [4], [5], [9]–[12]. Both algorithms have the
TABLE III
IHP FORMULATION
same structure but the VN method is complemented by iterative
harmonic analysis (IHA) in IHP (Fig. 2).
In IHA, the ac linear network is reduced to the NLD buses
from the CLF solution and voltage pollution and NLD be-
havior are solved by considering NLD harmonic voltage depen-
dence. Therefore, the aim of the IHA application is to calculate
NLD harmonic voltages as VN and correct the CLF solution
(i.e., NLD parameters) considering the harmonic influence. For
this reason, IHA must be an iterative procedure between NLD
harmonic voltages and obtaining the parameters.
The IHP data and unknown variables for an bus system are
summarized in Table III.
The CLF is the same as in HP and provides fundamental
voltages and NLD parameters considering no harmonic interac-
tion.
Once the CLF solution is reached, the PV loads are replaced
by their reactances, and the conventional PQ loads by their im-
pedances, (5), in the same way as in HP. The passive harmonic
characteristic of generators and PQ loads and the fundamental
power hypothesis allow to be calculated and incorporated into
network admittance matrix , building matrix .
Subsequently, the system is reduced to NLD buses (Fig. 4) by
Gaussian elimination of the modified admittance matrix “linear”
elements, thus obtaining matrix . This procedure allows
the study to be reduced to buses with NLD .
The IHA obtains the unknowns by solving linear system
with the Gauss–Seidel algorithm (GS). That

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1082 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 18, NO. 3, JULY 2003

is to say, assuming constant fundamental voltages at each

iteration , the last values of the harmonic voltages ( are
used to update NLD state ( with , (6) and the
injected currents (7)

(8)

The currents are then used to derive the ac voltage harmonics

for the following iteration:

Fig. 3. SHLF flowchart.

(9)

Once the NLD behavior is characterized and their injected

currents are known, VN is applied to obtain the harmonic volt-
ages of linear buses .
The fixed-point iteration technique, GS, used in the IHP
could present convergence problems which different authors
have tried to solve [13], [14]. Nevertheless, the best con-
vergence has been obtained by linearizing the interaction
between the ac and the dc systems. This linearization has been
performed by NLD Norton equivalents [15], [23], [24] and by
the ABCD parameters model [16], [17].
The general limitation of IHP, however, is that CLF condi-
tions (fundamental bus voltages) are assumed to be constant in
IHA (i.e., the CLF solution is assumed to be unaffected by the
introduction of harmonics).
In this way, iterative techniques between both formulations
are therefore necessary to solve the harmonic problem [18],
[19].

C. Simplified Harmonic Load Flow

The above idea is developed and improved in the simplified
harmonic load flow (SHLF) [20], [21]. A fixed-point iteration
of two NR procedures is used: one for CLF and the other for
harmonic analysis (HA) [Fig. 3].
This GS algorithm has two steps that are executed succes-
sively. The first step is the typical CLF in which NLD are in-
cluded as PQ loads. In the second step, HA, the ac linear net- Fig. 4. IHA procedure (h = 3; 5; . . .).
work, is reduced to the NLD buses from the CLF solution as
in IHP and voltage pollution and NLD behavior are solved by • NR numerical method: The HA equations are solved by
taking into consideration NLD harmonic voltage dependence. NR method. It implies the set of equations more complex
There are two important differences between HA and IHA. but process convergence is much better.
• Fundamental voltages consideration: The procedure cor- The SHLF data and unknown variables for an bus system
rects not only harmonic voltages and NLD parameters are summarized in Table IV.
but also fundamental voltages. Then, the convergence of In CLF, the NLD are considered known current sources in
CLF and HA is checked by comparing their fundamental order to calculate their consumed power as .
voltage solutions. Their fundamental currents are determined by (7).

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HERRAIZ et al.: REVIEW OF HARMONIC LOAD FLOW FORMULATIONS
TABLE IV
SHLF FORMULATION
In HA, the ac linear network is represented by a generalized
Thevenin equivalent with respect to the NLD buses, obtained
from the CLF solution
(10)
Previously, matrix will be built as in IHP thanks to the pas-
sive harmonic characteristic of the generators and PQ loads and
the fundamental power hypothesis (Fig. 5). Note that Thevenin
voltages are equal to zero for since there are not harmonic
generators.
The nonlinear set of equations based on the Thevenin equiv-
alent must be outlined to obtain the unknown variables.
The voltage constraints are
(11)
where is the NLD injected current calculated by expression
(7).
And the expressions which define the NLD behavior, (6).
Once the NLD behavior is characterized and their injected
currents are known, VN is applied to obtain the harmonic volt-
ages of linear buses . thanks to the fundamental frequency power consideration.
It is observed that SHLF follows to benefit of the power con-
sumption at fundamental frequency consideration in order to
apply the bus reduction in HA.
The GS algorithm could present convergence problems de-
pending on the degree of decoupling between the two NR pro-
cedures CLF and HA [26]. This convergence could be improved
by the techniques proposed in IHP.
D. Complete Harmonic Load Flow
Originally, a reformulation of the CLF in order to include
NLD was implemented [22]. This formulation is a natural mod-
ification of the CLF where the NLD treatment and the harmonic
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1083
voltage calculation have been included [25]. It is based on the
simultaneous resolution of power constraints, harmonic current
balance, and NLD equations.
This formulation allows the problem to be tackled as a unique
set of nonlinear equations the numerical resolution of which
provides the unknowns although their number increases when
the harmonic voltages at linear buses are included.
Moreover, this formulation allows the power consumption to
be considered depending on the harmonic and fundamental volt-
ages
(12)
since the ac system reduction is not necessary.
Hence, there exist two possible formulations [25]:
• Complete harmonic load flow considering the power at
fundamental frequency (CHLF ).
• Complete harmonic load flow considering the power at
fundamental and harmonic frequency (CHLF ).
The CHLF data and unknown variables for an bus system
are summarized in Table V.
The set of nonlinear equations used to solve the problem is
• The PV bus constraints
(13)
• The PQ bus constraints
(14)
• The balance of harmonic currents at linear buses
(15)
where are the harmonic admittances of generators
and PQ loads. Load admittances can be calculated by (5)
• The balance of harmonic currents at NLD buses is
(16)
where is the NLD injected current which can be calcu-
lated by expression (7).
• The expressions which define the NLD behavior (6).
The CHLF data and unknown variables for an bus system
are summarized in Table VI. The harmonic and fundamental
power consideration leads to add the PQ fundamental admit-
tances as unknowns because they cannot be calculated by (5).
1084 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 18, NO. 3, JULY 2003

Fig. 5. HA procedure (k = 1; 3; 5; . . . and h = 3; 5; . . . ).

TABLE V TABLE VI
CHLF FORMULATION CHLF FORMULATION

• The PQ bus constraints

The set of nonlinear equations used to solve the problem is

• The PV bus constraints (18)
• The balance of harmonic currents at linear and nonlinear
buses (15) and (16).
• The expressions which define the NLD behavior (6).
• The relationships between the PQ load and their admit-
tances
(17) (19)

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HERRAIZ et al.: REVIEW OF HARMONIC LOAD FLOW FORMULATIONS
Fig. 6. Studied system.
where . These relationships must be
included in the set of nonlinear equations in order to obtain
fundamental admittance.
The numerical resolution of the CHLF and CHLF set of
nonlinear equations provides us with the unknown variables, NR
being the most generally used procedure in the bibliography.
Further, other complete formulation based on the NLD
Norton equivalents and the separate NR resolution for each
harmonic was proposed in [23], [24].
Recently, a study that compares and discusses about the con-
vergence properties of the decoupled method SHLF and the uni-
fied Newton method CHLF has been presented in [26]. Ac-
cording to this study, SHLF could present convergence prob-
lems owed to the GS technique and the CHLF is faster and
displays a more robust convergence.
IV. EXAMPLE
The example studies the two main hypotheses of the harmonic
load flow formulations
• consideration of the harmonic interaction between NLD
and network;
• consideration of the power consumption at fundamental
frequency only.
On this way, the three-bus system presented in Fig. 6 is solved
by three different formulations:
• HP which considers no-harmonic interaction and power
consumption at fundamental frequency only;
• complete harmonic load flow considering the power at
fundamental frequency CHLF ;
• Complete harmonic load flow considering the power at
fundamental and harmonic frequencies CHLF .
The comparison between HP and CHLF results allows
a study of the first hypothesis and the comparison between
CHLF and CHLF allows a study of the second hypothesis.
The data and unknown variables of the studied system are
summarized in Table VII for the three different formulations.
Considering , the number of harmonics in the system, the
number of unknowns to obtain in the different formulations is
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1085
TABLE VII
DATA AND UNKNOWNS OF THE EXAMPLE
• HP: A nonlinear system with eight unknowns and a linear
system with six unknowns;
• CHLF : A nonlinear system with 8 6 unknowns;
• CHLF : A nonlinear system with 10 6 unknowns.
It can be noticed the considerable difference between the HP
formulation and the other two formulations owed to the nonin-
teraction hypothesis. In another way, the possibilities of calcu-
lating the fundamental admittance of the PQ-load according to
(5) (i.e., ), in the CHLF allows a
reduction of the number of unknowns with respect to CHLF .
The parameters of the six-pulse ac/dc converter are the ac
short-circuit reactance , the dc side converter current ,
which is assumed to be perfectly smooth, and the firing angle .
The parameters of the three-phase uncontrolled rectifier are
the ac short-circuit impedance , the
dc capacitor , and the load .
The unknowns of the single-phase converter are the zero
crossing of the commutation voltage and the overlap angle
of the ac line current. They are obtained from the commutating
voltages and the ac line current condition.
The unknowns of the three-phase uncontrolled rectifier are
the commutation times and , which are obtained from the
change conditions of the dc capacitor voltage and the ac line
current.
These constraints depend on the NLD parameters and the
fundamental voltage in HP or the harmonic and fundamental
voltage in CHLF and CHLF .
The obtained results with HP and CHLF are compared in
Figs. 7–9. Figs. 7 and 8 show the harmonic distortion and the
total harmonic distortion of the nonlinear device currents. In
these figures, the nonlinear load parameters (zero crossing of
the commutation voltage and overlap angle for the ac/dc
1086 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 18, NO. 3, JULY 2003

• The influence of harmonic interaction depends on the non-

linear load (i.e., three-phase uncontrolled rectifier is more
sensitive to the distortion than the ac/dc converter).
The results between CHLF and CHLF are quite similar.
It can be explained with the ratio of the load harmonic power
consumption to the load fundamental power consumption. The
small value of this ratio (i.e., 100( % for the 6p
ac/dc converter) indicates that the harmonic power consumption
is negligible in front of fundamental power consumption, and
the hypothesis of CHLF is acceptable.

Fig. 7. Harmonics currents of the 6-p converter.
V. CONCLUSIONS
The increase of nonlinear devices in power systems led us to
consider their influence on conventional load flow studies. In the
same way, the authors tried to develop different formulations in
order to reach a compromise between simplicity and reliability.
A review of harmonic load flow formulations is presented in
this paper. Frequency domain procedures can be classified as
• No harmonic interaction

Harmonic Penetration (HP)

• Harmonic interaction

Fundamental power consideration

Iterative Harmonic Penetration (IHP)
Simplied Harmonic Load Flow (SHLF)
Complete Harmonic Load Flow CHLF
Harmonic and fundamental power consideration
Fig. 8. Harmonics currents of the three-phase rectifier.
Complete Harmonic Load Flow CHLF
A complete review of data, unknowns and equations is pre-
sented for the above formulations considering balanced sys-
tems.
The hypotheses of harmonic interaction and fundamental
power consumption are studied in an example to analyze their
influence in the load flow results.

Fig. 9. Voltage harmonic distortion at bus 3.
converter and the zero crossing of the current and for the
three-phase uncontrolled rectifier) are also shown. Fig. 9 shows
the harmonic distortion and the total harmonic distortion of the
voltage at bus 3.
The above figures allow a study of the influence of the har-
monic interaction in the results of the harmonic load flow.
• The consideration of no-harmonic interaction leads to
[10] R. Yacamini and J. C. Oliveira, “Harmonics in multiple converter sys-
overestimating harmonic voltage and currents if the
harmonic distortion is high.
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Sergio Herraiz was born in Barcelona, Spain, in 1972. He received the in-
dustrial engineering degree and a doctorate in engineering from the Universitat
Politècnica de Catalunya, Barcelona, Spain, in 1997 and 2002, respectively.
Currently, he is a Professor in the Department of Electrical Engineering at
the Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya. His research interest is in the area of
power system harmonics.
Luis Sainz was born in Barcelona, Spain, in 1965. He received the industrial
engineering degree and a doctorate in engineering from the Universitat Politèc-
nica de Catalunya, Barcelona, Spain, in 1990 and 1995, respectively.
Currently, he is a Professor in the Electrical Engineering Department at the
Universitat Politécnica de Catalunya. His research interest is in the area of power
systems harmonics.
Jordi Clua was born in Barcelona, Spain, in 1970. He received the industrial
engineering degree from the Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya, Barcelona,
Spain, in 1997.
Currently, he is a Professor in the Department of Electrical Engineering at the
Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya. His research interest includes the area of
power systems harmonics.