SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS

Definition:

A signal is a function that carries information. Signals are usually functions of one or more
independent variables. Any physical quantity that varies with space and/or time is considered
as a signal.

The system is a physical device that performs operation on a signal

An algorithm is a set of rules for implementing the system by a program that performs the
corresponding mathematical operations.

multichannel signal – a vector of signals coming from different sources

multidimensional signal – a signal that is a function of more than one independent variables

continuous-valued signal – a signal that takes on all possible values on a finite or infinite
range

discrete-valued signal – a signal that has a finite set of possible values

digital signal – a discrete-time signal having a set of discrete values

sampling – a process used to convert a continuous-time signal to a discrete-time signal

quantization – the process of converting a discrete-time, continuous-valued signal into a

discrete-time discrete-valued signal.

Continuous-time signals
A signal that varies continuously with time is called a continuous-time signal. For
continuous-time signals, the signal can have any value at any given time. Continuous-time
signals are usually called analog signals.

x ( t )= A cos ( 2 π Ft +θ )

Discrete-time signals
Signals that are defined only at discrete times are called discrete-time signals. Discrete-time
signals are defined only at integer values of the independent variable.

x ( n )= A cos ( 2 π f n+θ )

A DT sinusoid is periodic if and only if its frequency is a rational number.

x (n+ N )=x (n)

The smallest value of n for which the equation is true is called fundamental period.

Discrete-time sinusoids whose frequencies are separated by an integer multiple of 2π are

identical

The highest rate of oscillation in a discrete–time signal is attained when f = ½.

Deterministic signal – any signal that can be uniquely described by an explicit mathematical
expression a table of data or a well-defined rule.

Random signal – a signal that cannot be described by an explicit mathematical expression, a

signal that evolves in time in an unpredictable manner

Periodic Signal – a signal is periodic if x(t + T) = x(t), where T is the fundamental period of the
signal

Example:

Given the two signals below sampled at 40 Hz, obtain the corresponding discrete-time signals.

x1(t) = cos 2π(10)t

x2(t) = cos 2π(50)t

Solution:

x 1 ( n )=cos 2 π ( 14 ) n=cos π2 n
x 2 ( n )=cos 2 π ( 54 ) n=cos 52π n
5π π π
But notice that x 2 ( n )=cos
2 ( )
n=cos 2 π + n=cos n. This means that x1(n) and x2(n) are
2 2
identical. When both are sampled at 40 Hz, x2(t) yields exactly the same as x1(t). Thus, 50 Hz is
an alias of 10 Hz at a sampling frequency of 40 Hz.

In general, any frequency other than F0 that gives the same discrete time signal after sampling
as F0 is called an alias frequency.

The alias frequency of F0: Fk = F0 + kFs, where Fs is the sampling rate and k is an integer.
The highest frequency Fmax that can be sampled without aliasing is ½ Fs. Consequently, the
minimum sampling rate required to avoid aliasing is Fs = 2Fmax. The frequency ½ Fs is called
the folding frequency.

Example:

Consider the analog signal x(t) = 3 cos 100 πt

A. Determine the minimum sampling rate required to avoid aliasing.
B. Suppose that the signal is sampled at FS = 200 Hz, what is the discrete time signal
obtained after sampling?
C. Suppose the signal is sampled at FS = 75 Hz. What is the discrete time signal obtained
after sampling?
D. What is the frequency 0 < F < FS/2 of a sinusoid that yields identical samples to those
obtained in part (C)?

Solution:

The frequency of the analog signal is 50 Hz. Hence, the minimum sampling rate required to
avoid aliasing is Fs = 100 Hz.

If the signal is sampled at 200 Hz, the resulting discrete time signal would be

x ( n )=3 cos ( 100200π ) n=3 cos π2 n

If the signal is sampled at 75 Hz, the resulting discrete time signal is

x ( n )=3 cos ( 10075 π ) n=3 cos 43π n=3 cos( 2 π− 23π ) n=3 cos 23π
The frequency that yields identical sample in the previous part is F = fFs

1 75
F= F s= =25 Hz
3 3

Therefore, 50 Hz is an alias frequency of 25 Hz at a sampling rate of 75 Hz.