Keynote
Aeynore Paper
Modelling and Simulation of Grinding Processes
H. K.Tonshoff ( l ) , J. Peters (1). I. lnasaki ( l ) ,T. Paul
Abstract
This paper describes the state-of-the-art in the modelling and simulation of grinding processes. The kinematics of the grinding process
are characterised by a series of statistically irregular and separate engagements. Topography models are used to describe the structure
of the grinding wheel, taking the quantities of motion and the geometric parameters into account. Chip formation is represented in chip
thickness models. During the process of chip formation, energy is transformed. Additionally, forces are generated. In this paper.
grinding energy models and force models will be presented. In conclusion, the kinematic and energetic processes are taken into
consideration for temperature and surface integrity models as well as for models for describing the surface roughness of the workpiece.
Different approaches to modelling will be compared. Furthermore, the benefits as well as the limits of model application and
simulation will be discussed.
Key Words
Grinding process, modelling, simulation
1 Introduction and Objectives
The development of wear-resistant abrasives, powerful machinery and adequate
machining technologies has lead to a considerably increased efficiency of the
grinding process. The economical advantages thus achieved consolidate and
extend the position of grinding technology, the grinding process being a quality-
defining finishing method..,High product quality can only be obtained by using
high-quality processes [TONS91]. However, as grinding is a very complex
manufacturing process with a large number of characteristic quantities which
influence each other, the reproducibility is critical [KEGG83]. According to the
quality demands, the set-up parameters for the machine tool are determined with
the aid of grinding tests, which are both time-consuming and costly. In addition to
this, in practice the grinding process is often not carried out at the limits which
would be technically possible in order to maintain a certain quality level. The
process quality depends to a large extent on the experience of the operator.
Models contribute significantly to the comprehension of the process itself, and
form the basis for the simulation of grinding processes. They thus create a
precondition for increased efficiency while ensuring a high product quality at the
same time. The grinding process has been the object of technological research for
some decades now. The necessity to exemplarily describe grinding processes in
models was recognised at an early stage, so that there are numerous models today.
The objective of this paper is to describe the state-of-the-art in the modelling and
simulation of grinding processes. Beginning with an unambiguous definition of
terminology. models and different approaches'to simulation will be compared and
critically evaluated. Furthermore, the benefits as well as the limits of model
application and simulation will be discussed.
For this paper, 40 CIRP members in 13 countries were asked to respond. In
answer to this, 15 members have supplied a total of 42 papers. We appreciate the
co-operation of Prof. Bouzakis, Prof. Howes. Prof. Konig, Prof. Kruth, Prof.
Makin, Prof. Matsuo. Prof. Miyashita, Prof. Rowe. Prof. Salje, Prof. Shaw, Prof.
Spur and Prof. Tipnis. Additionally, a literature review with a main emphasis on
the publications of the past 20 years was carried out. Thus, a total of 236 sources
was established. The results of this literature study form the basis for a review in
which models in grinding technology are summarised.
2 Grinding technology
2.1 Grinding processes
According to IS0 3002, the kind of surface to be generated, the kinematics of the
machining operation as well as the shape or the profile of the grinding wheel are
characteristic properties of the grinding process. As a result, there are different
grinding processes: surface grinding, cylindrical grinding and shape grinding.
Another factor for subdividing different grinding processes is the position of the
contact area on the workpiece itself. This criterion is used to distinguish between
external and internal grinding. Furthermore, it is possible to differentiate
according to the active grinding wheel surface, the feed direction and the control
method used. The chucking of the workpiece also has to be taken into account. In
order to reduce the large number of grinding models, in the following only
processes with simple kinematics will be taken into consideration.
2.2 Materials: Metal, Ceramics
Apart from the influences of the grinding process itself, the material to be ground
is of basic importance in the modelling and simulation of grinding processes.
Both chip formation and surface generation are considerably influenced by the
nature of the material to be. worked. Different methods of material removal
predominate. depending on the ductility or the brittleness. The behaviour of the
material is characterised by its fracture toughness, yield point or bending strength,
hardness and modulus of elasticity. These characteristic quantities have to be
considered in close relation to the structure of the material. During chip
formation, ductile materials such as metals are first subject to elastic
deformations; then the material starts to yield and plastic deformation takes place.
Ceramics, with their great hardness and a low fracture toughness, can be regarded
as an example of brittle materials. On the basis of macroscopic examinations it
can be assumed that ceramics are not ductile at room temperatures. Their
behaviour during grinding is characterised by cracking and the propagation of
Annals of the CIRP Vol. 41/2/1992
raper
cracks. As a result, material removal is achieved by microcracks and the
generation of chip fragments. When material is removed by fracture, the resulting
surface roughness of the workpiece is highly influenced by the grain size of the
ceramic. While high normal forces are required for the grinding of ceramics in
order to let the cutting edges penetrate into the surface of the workpiece, the
tangential forces are relatively small. This is due to the fact that the generation of
fractures and cracks requires much less energy than plastic deformation. The
amount of heat generated during the grinding process is proportional to the
tangential force, and tends to be smaller than when grinding metal. Given the high
temperature stability of ceramics, the main problem is not thermal damage, as in
the machining of metals, but mechanical strain which occurs during material
removal. This paper concentrates on the grinding of ductile materials.
2.3 Abrasives: CBN, Diamond, Corundum
Besides the workpiece material. the characteristics and the technological
behaviour of the abrasive used have to be considered, when working out models.
The abrasive CBN (cubical boron nitride) stands out for a number of
technological advantages. In comparison to conventional abrasives such as
corundum, it is above all exceptionally wear-resistant. As a result, higher material
removal rates can be achieved, and the necessity for dressing occurs far less
frequently. Another characteristic of this abrasive is the comparatively low risk of
thermal damage. Compared to diamond, the only material known with higher
hardness, CBN offers the advantage of an even higher temperature stability. The
formation of carbides from the carbon in the diamond is one form of chemical
wear. It occurs above all with iron. but also with chromium. vanadium and
tungsten. Thus, CBN is predestined for the processing of alloyed and unalloyed
metals. Although offering the advantages described. CBN has. like diamond, the
disadvantage of being extremely expensive. The main field of application of
diamond as an abrasive is for grinding brittle materials such as ceramics. Now as
ever, the abrasive corundum is of great importance for industry. Corundum is
exclusively synthetic, and depending on its purity and on its additives, there is a
wide range of application for corundum. The corundum has to be chosen
according to the specific machining task.
When considering the technological behaviour of different abrasives, wear is
of. main importance. The individual components of the wear process are of
different significance. In the case of corundum, the generation of wear flats on the
grains represents the predominating form of wear. This leads to non-stationary
process performance and to rapidly increasing grinding forces. When using
grinding wheels with ceramic bonded CBN, such wear flats can usually only be
found to limited extent. As CBN and diamond have a significantly higher
hardness than corundum. bond wear, as a result of the abrasive effect of the chips,
is usually the main form of wear. Despite the advantages offered by the abrasives
CBN and diamond, corundum is still being used in most grinding applications.
Thus, the models described in this paper are mainly related to the utilisation of
corundum.
3 Modelling
Usually, a technological study of grinding processes results in the development of
a model which is valid for a closely limited field with given boundary conditions.
A model can, for example, be used to predict the working result of the process.
On this basis, it is possible to vary the set-up parameters for the machine tool in a
purposeful manner. The term "model" is not unambiguous, and therefore must
first be defined from the manufacturing engineer's point of view:
A model is the abstract representation of a process which serves to link
causes and effects.
Thus, a model establishes a relation between input and output quantities in
order to describe the dynamic as well as the static performance of each individual
process. The simplified formulation of process conditions is referred to as
modelling. Figure 1 shows the general procedure applied in modelling, including
the subsequent application of the model in simulation. The performance of the
real system is used to link causes and effects. i s . question and answer. In the
same way. the model, as an extract of the real system, links causes and effects in
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the form of question and result. This result is then verified in a grinding test. In
this sense, a model forms the basis for predicting the working result. The
application of the model in form of simulation meets superior demands such as an
increase in productivity as well as in quality.
system
verification1
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Figure 1: Modellbig arid Simiilatioii
Models can be subdivided into physical and empirical models depending on
how they have been developed [PROF77]. Figure 2 shows a comparison of these
two model types. A physical model is deductively derived from basic physical
principles. With specific objectives in mind, relevant physical processes are
selected pn the basis of process knowledge and experience, and a qualitative
model is worked out. Then, the physical model is established, based on the
conformity to physical laws, using a mathematical formulation of the qualitative
model.
An empirical model. on the contrary, is established by means of measured
values which have been obtained in grinding tests. According to the objectives,
grinding tests are carried out, and all input and output quantities have to be
registered. The results of these tests are evaluated. one model type is chosen, the
coefficients are determined. and then the empirical model can be verified in
further grinding tests. In literature, other possibilities for subdividing models can
be found [PROF77]. Among these are combinations of the two model types
mentioned above. However, in grinding technology in particular. the distinction
between physical and empirical mddels seems to be most appropriate.
Every model represents a compromise between the obtained model quality on
the one hand, i.e. the accuracy of the model itself, and the efforts which were
necessary to obtain this model on the other hand. The main advantage of physical
models is that the results can easily be transferred to other machining conditions
and other grinding processes. Due to the fact that the physical interrelationships in
grinding cannot be accurately defined, purely physical modelling is seldom used.
One common application of physical models is to determine the temperature of
the contact area in grinding. On the basis of a moving heat source model,
temperature distributions can be determined with the aid of material constants.
The limits of physical modelling are. determined by the underlying assumptions.
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physical
model Iype
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Empirical models are only of a very limited quality. In empirical modelling,
the model parameters are determined with the aid of regression analysis methods
on the basis of numerous measured values. Every empirical model can be used for
the accurate description of one machining application only. When mnsfemng
empirical models to applications with changed boundary conditions, a
significantly worse reproduction of the grinding process is to be expected. The
grinding tests which have to be carried out in order to determine the model
constants increase exponentially to the number of variables included in the
respective empirical model. This relationship demonstrates the advantages that
empirical models offer when used for series production, but at the same time, it
clearly shows the limits of model application for frequently changing machining
tasks. However, compared to physical models, the development of empirical
models requires minimum efforts. Consequently, empirical models are used in all
fields of grinding technology.
Independent of the modelling method, there are three steps to be distinpished
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in the development of models. Here, the direction of the data flow is of particul
importance. During the development phase, the main objective is to obtain
model by appropriately linking input and output quantities. The model quality
determined by comparing the output quantities of the process to those of t
model. For model improvement, a controller would be conceivable which adal
the model parameters to current conditions. These three steps in the developme
phase of models are illustrated in figure 3.
I phase of development 1 1
modelling determinoting OdjuSting model
(process identification) model quality
I phase of application 1 t
I
optimisation
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Figure 3: Development arid Applicatioii of Models
4 Simulation
The application phase of the models is shown in the bottom part of figure
Understanding the process obtained with the aid of models allows to give advic
for process control. Another possible application of models can be seen in t
quantitative adaptation of the set-up parameters for the machine tool. Tt
optimisation is done using the model. A third possible application of models is t
simulation of grinding processes. Here, the model is used to predict the outp
quantities of the process on. the basis of its input quantities.
The term "simulation", too, has to be defined from the manufacturii
engineer's point of view:
Simulation is the imitation of discrete values of time of a dynamic
process on the basis of a model.
Compared to the improvement of process understanding or to the optimisatic
of input quantities, simulation is characterised by the fact that discrete values
time are used. Thus, simulation allows for a clear definition of the state of t
process at any moment. According to this, a model using discrete values of time
the precondition for process simulation. The quality of any simulation depen
exclusively on the quality of the model used.
5 Modelling of Grinding Processes
The kinematics of the grinding process represent a series of irregular and separa
engagements which depend on the microstructure of the grinding wheel, on t
quantities of motion as well as on the geometric parameters. These. dependenci
are taken into account by topography and chip thickness models. During ch
formation, energy is transformed. Additionally, forces are generated which a
described in force models. Together with these forces, the separate engagemer
of the kinematic cutting edges cause wear on the grinding wheel. This process
described in wear models. There are considerable interrelationships between tl
temperature
roughness
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Figure 4: Grinding Models a d their Ititerrelutionships
 topography of the grinding wheel, the forces, and the wear (see figure 4). Due to
these interrelationships, the grinding process is time-dependent and variable.
Many of the existing models neglect this non-stationary performance of grinding
processes. For example, they are based on the assumption that the state of the
grinding wheel does not change. The consideration of time dependency, however.
leads to complex models with a great number of influencing parameters. Models
which describe the real non-stationary grinding process should not lead to more
unavoidable errors than static models. Therefore. this paper mainly concentrates
on static models. On the basis of topography and chip thickness models, the
surface roughness of the workpiece can be predicted. Apart from force and
energy, the topography of the grinding wheel influences the temperature and the
changes underneath the work surface, described by surface integrity models.
In this paper, basic models have been developed in order to compare different
models in grinding technology. With this objective, models by different authors
have been extricated from the relevant literature and their common aspects as well
as the main influences, the respective ranges of values, the scopes and the
boundary conditions such as restricting preconditions have been determined.
From the subsequent evaluation of these criteria, basic models which are
formulated in a general form have been derived. This comparison gives a clear
idea of the current knowledge of modelling in grinding technology and, at the
same time, allows for evaluation the individual approaches to modelling. Also,
the benefits and limits of model application can be illustrated.
5.1 Topography Models
The modelling of grinding processes requires the consideration of the grinding
wheel topography. Understanding the combined action of the cutting edges, which
are stochastically distributed on the grinding wheel, and the chip formation
process explains influences both on the grinding forces and the surface roughness
of the workpiece.
The microstructure of the grinding wheel is composed of numerous individual
cutting edges which are stochastically distributed in all six degrees of freedom.
First theoretical investigations have been made by Peklenik [PEKL57]. The
number of cutting edges per unit of length or surface unit and their distribution
belong to the characteristic quantities of a grinding wheel. One grain can have
more than one cutting edge. However, according to Verkerk [VERK77]. it
appears to be sufficient to consider the cutting edges that belong to the same grain
as one cutting edge. When there are more cutting edges on one grain. there is no
space for the chip between the cutting edges. Consequently, the cutting edges can
no longer be active. As a result, the grain acts as one cutting edge. Lortz
[LORTIS] and Heuer [HEUE92] state that one kinematic grain can have more
than one kinematic cutting edge. While static cutting edges or grains are the sum
of all cutting edges (grains) on the surface of the grinding wheel, active, dynamic
or kinematic grains are only fhose grains which actually take part in chip
formation. Depending on the measuring method, grains can be counted, as it is
possible when using scanning electron microscope photos, or a statistical
distribution of cutting edges can be obtained by using the stylus method. In the
relevant literature, a large number of possible measuring methods is stated. D k c t
measuring methods such as the taper print method or the stylus method are used
as well as indirect measuring methods. Verkerk gives a survey of the most
important methods [VERK77]. Apart from the grain count, the shape of the
individual cutting edge tips is also a characteristic factor of a grinding wheel.
However, neither the measured grain count nor the measured shape of the cutting
edge tips can be used to draw direct conclusions on the characteristics of the
grinding wheel topography. Therefore, a topography model is required, which
allows evaluation of the combined action of the grains which are stochastically
distributed on the grinding wheel surface.
I/ II
Figure 5: Topography Models (112)
Figure 5 shows four topography models, and their reduction to one basic
model. All authors suggest separate models both for the kinematic grain count and
the static grain count. The topography model by Kassen [KASS69] is based on a
cutting edge having the shape of an obtuse-angled, isosceles mangle. The shape
of the cutting edge is taken into consideration via the rake angle of the grain (all
symbols are included in chapter 8). The cutting edge density has been determined
with the aid of the stylus method. The static grain count takes the shape of the
cutting edge into consideration with a constant. The kinematic grain count has a
factor which is independent of the boundary conditions. Furthermore, the speed
ratio, the working engagement and the equivalent diameter have been considered.
These machining parameters are included in the basic model. A comparison of the
exponents clearly shows that the influence of the speed ratio predominates.
The topography model by Werner [WERN71] is based on Kassen's model.
Taking the measured values of the stylus into consideration, Werner formulates an
exponential approach for the static grain count. Here, the grain count is presented
as a function of the cutting edge density and the depth of the grinding wheel
profile. Werner's topography model for determining the kinematic grain count
includes coefficients which have to be determined empirically. This leads to an
increase in the experimental efforts required. Werner's results are directly
comparable to Kassen's model. This also applies to the influences of the
machining parameters. Lortz [LORTI51 generalises the topography models of
Kassen and Werner. His model, too, can be reduced to the basic model. The
parameters of the model have to be determined empirically.
speed ratio q
(basic model IN~,. I 74.7 (4) a.0? (&Jo'33 I OLC LO112
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Figure 6: Illustration of a Topography Model
While Kassen, Werner and Lortz investigated conventional grinding wheels,
Yegenoglu [YEGE86] worked out a topography model for CBN grinding wheels.
This topography model is based on grains in the shape of an octahedron. A factor
is used to define the cutting edge density on the bond level. The shape of the
cutting edge is taken into consideration in the form of constants. Yegenoglu's
model can also be reduced to the basic model. The influences of the machining
parameters correspond to the results obtained by Kassen. Werner and Lortz.
Figure 6 illustrates the influences of the basic model of grinding wheel
topography three-dimensionally. based on Lortz' grinding tests.
On the basis of physical obsekations, Osenberg and Biittner [BU'IT68]
derived a topography model for diamond grinding wheels which determines the
static grain count on the surface of the grinding wheel (see figure 7). The
geometric representation of the abrasive grain is assumed to be ellipsoidal with a
circular cross section. The actual diamond grain is taken into consideration by a
shape factor which has to be determined empirically. The model additionally
includes the diamond density and the mesh size. Based on Osenberg's and
Biittner's model, Tiinshoff and Triemel [TRIE75] have developed a topography
model for CBN grinding wheels. The kinematic grain count can be derived by the
distribution of grains over the penetration depth taking the speed ratio and the
working engagement as well as the equivalent diameter into account.
I, I
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Osenberg.
Buttner
I. ' "m'
-
Tonshofl.
Triemel
1975
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Figure 1: Topography models (212)
The topography models quoted have the common feature that many
measurements are required to determine the model parameters. Furthermore, the
statistical geometric distribution of the grains is not taken into consideration.
None of these models uses discrete values in time, i s . the change with time of the
grinding wheel topography is not taken into account as it is done in Weinert's
model [WEIN76]. Weinert uses the effective surface roughness as a characteristic
quantity to predict the surface roughness of the workpiece. In other words, he
assumes a replica generation on the workpiece. The practical application of the
topography models presented so far can be expected to be time-consuming, due to
the measuring efforts necessary.
5.2 Chip Thickness Models
Chip formation and material removal depends to a large degree on the
microstructure of the grinding wheel, the quantities of motion and the geometric
parameters. On the basis of the topography models already discussed, models for
maximum and for equivalent chip thickness will be compared. In figures 8 and 9,
models by different authors and the reduction of those models to a basic model
are shown.
The chip thickness model by Kurrein [KURR27], Peters [PETE671 and
Colding [COLD591 for determining the equivalent chip thickness is based on the
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equation of continuity. The material feed into the contact area, with a given only consider the set-up parameters for the machine tool and the geome
working engagement due to the workpiece peripheral speed. equals the material proportions, but also includes a factor for describing the microstructure of
flow which is determined by the cutting speed and the equivalent chip thickness. grinding wheel. Consequently, many measurements are necessary, similai
Consequently, the equation of continuity can be used to determine the equivalent topography models. Thus, the application of these chip thickness model!
chip thickness. This characteristic quantity represents the sum of all individual complicated and time-consuming. None of these models takes the ela
chip thicknesses in the contact area between grinding wheel and workpiece. deformation of the grinding wheel and workpiece into account, nor the pla
yielding of the material. In addition to this, the workpiece material is
explicitly considered either. Figure 10 shows the application of the basic mo,
'Kurrein 1927
Peters 1967 hsq I + a@ based on grinding tests carried out by Werner, and compared to the equiva
chip thickness model.
The simple model which was developed by Kurrein. Peters and Colding
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i 1
'/2
determining the equivalent chip thickness offers advantages in pract
application, as the characteristic quantities of the grinding wheel topography
not have to be determined. As a result, however, the microstructure of
ll I I grinding wheel is neglected. The equivalent chip thickness is used to detern
the set-up parameters for the machine tool to meet the quality demands relei
for specific machining applications. To achieve this aim. Peters [PETE
developed grinding charts, an example of which is shown in figure 11.
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Figure 8: Chip Thickness Models (112)

001 003 01 0 3 prn 10

equivalent grinding thickness h,
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Figure 11: Example of a Grinding Chart

5.3 Grinding Force Models

I I After having discussed the chip formation and material removal in grinding
means of topography models and models for determining the maximum and
Figure 9 Chip Thickness Models (212)
The other seven chip thickness models quoted are based on the consideration equivalent chip thickness, the resulting normal and tangential forces will
of single grains. The maximum chip thickness equals the maximum thickness of considered in the following. The relevant literature offers many approaches to I
the theoretical chip. The generation of this theoretical chip is assumed to start at field of modelling. Figures 12 and 13 compare models by different authors i
the moment the abrasive grain enters the workpiece and ends when it emerges these, too, will be reduced to one basic model. No distinction has been mi
from the workpiece. The single-grain approach is based on the assumption that between models for describing normal forces and those describing tangen
during chip formation, no plastic deformation and no plowing occurs at the edge forces, as these forces an brought into relation to each other via the grind
of the trace. Furthermore, splintenng of the grains is neglected, and it is assumed force ratio. This would correspond to a multiplicative factor in the basic mo
that all grains in the contact area take part in chip formation and that no which differs considerably depending on the material of the workpiece.
overlapping of traces occurs. The individual authors presuppose dfferent gram
shapes, taken into consideration by constants.
Pahlitzsch [PAHL43] and Inasaki [WAS891 describe the gnnding wheel
topography in one-dimensional form by using the distance between cutting edges.
Shaw, Reichenbach and Mayer [REIC56], and Malkin [MALK89], too, consider
the grinding wheel topography in two-dimensional form by determining the grain
count, for example by means of the taper print method. On the basis of their own
topography model. Kassen [KASS69] and Werner [WERN71]. however, include
the grinding wheel topography in three-dimensional form. determining the static
cutting edge density. The chip thickness model by Lierath [LIER90] can be
directly compared to Werner's model. All these models take the m a n influencing
quantities into consideration. Among these an the speed ratio, the working
engagement and the equivalent diameter. Furthermore, these models have in
common that, according to the exponents, the speed ratio has the most important
influence on chip formation. The basic model derived from these models does not

Figure 12: Grinding Force Models ( I N )

The comparison of these. grinding force models shows clearly that they i
composed of a physical part which includes the speed ratio. the worki
engagement and the equivalent diameter, as well. as of an empirical additi
which figures in the basic model as a constant for the grinding wheel and
constant for the workpiece.
SaljC [SAM531 considers the shear strength as a specific paramem for I
workpiece material. The model parameters are taken ?om characteristic diagran
which consider the influences of the respective combination of the material a
the grinding wheel. Furthermore, a constant represents the influence of the gri
size on the grinding forces. Using a grinding wheel with a fine grain size, mc
grains are engaged with the material, and the resulting grinding forces increa.
According to SaljC. an unchanging and time-independent surface and sharpness
the grinding wheel as well as the unvaried use of the coolant are the preconditio
Figure 10: Comparrron of Chip Thickness Models for the reproducibility of the results. This shows the limits of the model.

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I Peters I 1 I 1
Figure 13: Grinding Force Models (213)
Shaw, Reichenbach and Mayer [REIC56], [SHAW71] take the gnnding wheel
topography into consideration in two-dimensional form. Ono [ON0611 considers
the average gram distance, Bruckner [BRUC62] the distance between cutting
edges. For the description of the gnnding wheel topography, Werner [WERN73]
uses the static cutting edge density and a constant for the shape of the cutting
edge, taking it into account in three-dimensional form. Ernst [ERNS65], however,
uses exclusively an empmcal constant for descnbing the grinding wheel
topography. Lindsay [LMD71] offers two gnnding force models for the specific
normal force, one for matenals which are easy to gnnd, and one for matenals
which are difficult to gnnd Peters [PETE741 suggests a model for determining
the specific tangential force in grinding. This model is closely related to his
equivalent chip thickness model. The model developed by SaljC and Bock
[BOCK871 is dmctly comparable to Peters' model. Additionally, Sdj6 and Bock
relate the equivalent chip thickness to the contact length. This characteristic
quantity has already been used by Konig [KONI69] Tonshoff and Grabner
[GRAB88], too, use the equivalent chip thickness related to the contact length for
determining a load limit for ceramic bonded CBN gnnding wheels. This load
limit is independent of the set-up parameters for the machine tool, the equivalent
diameter and the grinding process used. Also, the model conceived by Spur
[SPUR841 is comparable to the approaches just quoted Figure 14 shows a
companson of two force models The graphical representation is based on
grinding tests carried out by Konig and Werner as well as by Peters and Decneut
The dominating influences of both speed ratio and working engagement can be
clearly identified.
However, the practical application of torce models which take the
microstructure of the gnnding wheel into consideration is hampered by the high
amount of measuring efforts necessary. Those gnnding force models which
include an emplncal additive require extensive grinding tests in order to
determine the model parameters. All the models shown in figures 12 and 13 have
the &sadvantage that neither the coolant nor the grinding time is faken into
consideration. Figure 15 shows grinding force models which aim at
compensating for these disadvantages
Figure 14: Comparison of Grinding Force Models
Battler [ B 6 l l 7 9 ] used Werner's model as the basis for further developments,
extending it by including the influences of the gnnding hme in form of the
specific material removal. In his model. Battler thus interprets the non-stationary
behaviour of the gnnding force as a result of the increasing wear of the grinding
wheel. Averkamp [AVER82]. Netterscheid [NETT841 and Knop [KNOP89] have
successively developed purely empincal grinding force models. These models,
too, include the gnnding hme in form of the specific matenal removal. In
addihon to this, Averkamp and Netterscheid include an addiuve constant in order
to take the threshold forces [HAHNSl] into account. Furthermore. Netterscheid
has inveshgated the influences of the coolant. The constant included in the
gnnding force model for the use of oil assumes a higher value, corresponding to
the gnater threshold forces. In addihon to this, Knop considers the influences of
the dressing conditions of the gnnding wheel by integrahng the theorehcal initial
effective surface roughness. In order to compensate for the disadvantages of
empincal models. Netterscheid and Knop offer model parameters for numerous
combinations of different materials and grinding wheels. Nevertheless, the
practical application of these empirical grinding force models requires high
efforts because of the large number of exponents which have to be determined.
Figure 16 shows an example of the application of a force model which takes the
grinding time into consideration.
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Figure 15: Grinding Force Models (313)
Figure 16: Application of u Grinding Force Model including the
Grinding Time
5.4 Grinding Energy Models
The work performed during chip formation is the mathematical product of the
mechanical power input and the grinding time. In grinding, the mechanical power
equals the grinding power, which is the product of tangential force and cutting
speed. The work performed during chip formation is transformed into other forms
of energy. The most important part of the energy input is uansformed into
thermal energy, which is distributed on the workpiece, the grinding wheel, the
chips, the coolant and the surroundings. A smaller part of the energy input is
required for surface generation, and as potential energy residing in the chips and
the workpiece in form of residual stresses. Figure 17 shows the generation of
mechanical and thermal effects in cutting and grinding.
-
- \
----/
1 work of detormation.shearing zone 3 surface work .cutting edge
2 friction work, rake face L friction work. flank
5 friction work, bond ,,,",,(h,cu ,Ti?L1
Figure 17: Mechanicul and Thermal Effects in Cutting and Grinding
The mechanical and thermal effects in cutting and grinding are :omparable,
with the reservation that the geometric proportions differ at least by GLLLorder of
magnitude. This diagram shows the main processes in which mechanical energy is
uansformed into heat. Here, the friction work of the flank is of particular
importance. Apart from this, friction work at the rake face as well as the work of
deformation performed in the shearing zone play an important part in the heat
generation within the workpiece. Further heat sources are those points where
friction is produced between the bond and the surface of the workpiece. They are,
however, of reduced importance. Based on the amount of energy which is
transformed during grinding, considering the heat source allows for determination
681
 5.5 Temperature Models

In grinding, the mechanisms which take place in the contact area, i.e. pla:
author kind 01 model ~ considered comment deformation, friction and surface generation result in an almost compl
quantities 1
PeInm. empmcd model ID calculate Ihe E. vfi simple equation deduced from rasults to conversion of mechanical energy into heat. Thus, all components which take I
Mans spealic energy Imm E.mOdUIus deleimine the temperalure dislnbutlon in chip formation are subject to thermal loads. Among these components are
1977 and lend speed
eval 01 SpBCIlC energy using F'l, heq rim@ equalion workpiece, grinding wheel, chips and coolant. In order to avoid thermal dam;
equtvalent grinding thickness and to the workpiece, heat dissipation is of major importance. Ideally, all of the h
tangenlid gnndmg foica
Mdkm math. B Y P I U ~01 cnlical
IIO ~ speolic O. 1,pe. vC. assumption 01 cntical burning lemp , generated should be transferred to th; surroundings via chips and cool:
1978. 1989 energy: lemp dslnbulion based on YW,
dgq
valid lor external and sudaca grmdmg However, as the workpiece often has the highest thermal conductivity of
JaBqeI
Rowe 0.a. eval. 01 cnllcai upper and lower a, p, c. 1.as, consideralion 01 neat lransler Wilh Chips components which take part in chip formation, this ideal case cannot be uansla
1988 IpenOc mergy levels 10, them ". 4. I. and cOolant l o detefmtne upper llmil I into reality.
InaSakl eval. Dl specificenergy lor grinding y, 1. ag. vC. valid lor ddlerenl grinding prOCeSseS and
1989 01 advanced ceramics bared on dlllersnl Ceramics
average crass ~echonalarea 01
chm

Table 1: Grinding Energy Models

wheel A S 0 17 OR 100 8 5 6 - 3
0
," 104 n surface grinding

1 I
J/mm3 ~ 1 ~ 0 , o cylindracal grinding

'
L
A internal grinding
0, 8 surface grinding
c
0,
103 Sir, s cylmdrica; grinding
?8 A internal grinding

Exp [A, ot6 v7: dz: z 1

.-u 37169800 C IFW870!

lo Figure 20: Temperuture Models (112)

0,
a
m In today's industrial application, it is not possible to measure the workpie
1 temperatures during grinding. Lowin [LOW1861 and Choi [CHOI86] presi
0.01 0.1 1.0 10 pmZ measuring methods for grinding temperatures. The shorter the grinding time, a
average cross sectional area o f chip a, the thinner the layers of material heated are, the more difficult it is to carry (
the measurements. Apan from the experimental determination of temperatur
there are also approaches to determine temperatures analytically. He
temperature models have been developed which bring the temperatures in I
contact area and in the workpieke in relation to the set-up parameters of I
machine tool and the process quantities. These models can thus be used
,ource Inosaki 37/6993 t IFW 8703 describe the temperature distribution within the workpiece per unit of depth a
time. On the basis of a comparison of numeric and calculated temperatures of t
Figure 18: Exuniple of u Grinding Energy Model (112) contact area, Tonshoff and Wobker [WOBK91] have investigated temperatt
In table 1. four grinding energy models are compared. Peters and Maris distribution when grinding ceramics. Figures 20 and 21 give five examples
[MAR1771 developed two simple empirical models for calculating the specific temperature models.
energy. While one model takes the modulus of elasticity and the workpiece
peripheral speed into account, the other model is based on the equivalent chip
thickness and the tangential force. The grinding energy model by Malkin
[MALK78] is based on Jaeger's temperature model. Malkin determines the critical
specific energy which causes workpiece bum. The grinding energy model by
Rowe [ROWE88] is comparable to Malkin's model, but Rowe additionally takes
the flow of heat into the chips and the coolant into account. On this basis, he
evaluates critical upper and lower specific energy levels for thermal damage. The
model for the evaluation of the specific grinding energy by Inasaki [INAS891 has
been developed for the grinding of ceramics. The grinding energy is evaluated on
the basis of the theoretical cutting edge spacing. Figure 18 shows exemplary
results obtained from Inasaki's model for the evaluation of the specific energy.
Here, not the generation of heat. but the process of chip formation is of decisive
importance. The model is valid for chips with an average cross-sectional area of
more than 0.1 wm2. Figure 19 shows another example of a grinding energy Exp. [A2.a:6 'v: d:. z 1
model. In this model, Malkin brings the specific grinding energy in relation to the
371698OD CIFW8706
working engagement, the peripheral speed of the workpiece and the equivalent
diameter. Figure 21: Temperuture Models (212)

Most of the temperature models quoted in literature are based on the moc
I r I worked out by Carslaw and Jaeger [JAEG42], [CARS59]. This physical moc
allows an analytical description of the temperature distribution in a workpiece il
heat source of defined intensity is moved along its surface. The temperatu
model by Carslaw and Jaeger is based on restricting assumptions. According1
the flat heat source has a constant and equally distributed heat flux densii
Furthermore, the heat source moves in a straight line with constant speed alo~
the surface of the workpiece, and is of infinite dimension perpendicular to t
moving direction. The workpiece which is heated is assumed to be limited in o
sense. Furthermore, it is assumed that the whole heat input stays in the workpiec
i.e. an adiabatic surface is considered. In addition to this, the conditions a
assumed to be quasi-stationary, as an accordingly long period is taken in
account. Below the temperature model suggested by Carslaw and Jaegc
dimensionless quantities are given. These are used to define the two-dimension
d.sV' .;ut vw.l/2
temperature distribution underneath the work surface. Figure 22 shows a grindii
source Hdkm
wheel acting as a heat source and the temperature distribution in the workpiec
39/7033 F IFW 870L
taking the distance to the surface and the contact length into account.
As it requires many efforts to calculate the integral. some of the authors quor
Figure 1 9 Exumple of u Grinding Energy Model (212)
determined it by means of approximation methods. Takazawa [TAKA661 h
example, avoided the problem by developing an approximation formula. Thus,
is possible to determine the maximum temperatures occurring on and undernea
the work surface. which decrease exponentially with increasing distance to tl

682
 surface. In Takazawa's model, too, all calculations are based on dimensionless 5.6 Surface Integrity Models
quantities. some of which can be determined with the aid of characteristic
diagrams. The influences of mechanical and thermal effects from grinding on the material of
the workpiece underneath the work surface are described by surface integrity
models. The plastic deformation and the thermal influences on the microstructure
grinding wheel which occur during grinding can be revealed by changed degrees of hardness on

"i
aulhor kind 01 model I considered Commenl

LOO

2ooc

- workpiece
0
2.1
L 1
-1.1 -21 -:
distance
I referred to contact length 1
SOUICC Prlt,l MOMS Lowin 37 I8530 C IFW 8708

Figure 22: Illustration of u Temperuture Model

When calculating the temperatures on the basis of the models mentioned

above, the assumption that the total heat input stays in the workpiece represents a
serious problem. In practical application, the heat flux has to be subdivided into
components for the chips, the coolant and the grinding wheel. Tanshoff and
Wobker [WOBK91] consider these effects in their temperature model, which is
based on calculations using the finite element method. The models by Carslaw
and Jaeger and by Takazawa stand out for the fact that these include only one set-
up parameter for the machine tool explicitly, that is the speed of the workpiece
which equals the speed of the heat source. As a heat-characteristic quantity, the
heat flux density, i.e. the amount of heat which is transferred into the workpiece malend, 011 sel on gnnding pr&s and
per unit of time and area, is included. In order to calculate the temperatures, it is
necessruy to know the heat flux density, the length of the heat source, i.e. the
contact length as well as the two coefficients of the workpiece which are related corundumwheels bul lo1 CBN; d!lllcull

to temperature: the thermal conductivity and the thermal diffusivity. Thus, the
accuracy of the model is influenced considerably by the extent to which the initial
and boundary conditions of the model are similar to the real process.
On the basis of the models worked out by Carslaw and Jaeger, and by
Takazawa, further models have been developed by Peters and Decneut [DECN74]
and Maris [MARI77], as well as by SaljC and Brandin [BRAN78]. These
temperature models include the following set-up parameters for the machine tool:
working engagement, workpiece peripheral speed, the cutting speed as well as the
equivalent diameter as a geomemc quantity. In addition to this, Peters and
Decneut include thermal conductivity and thermal diffusivity. Maris, on the other
hand, adds density. Additionally, these models include an empirical parameter
which serves to take the combination of different workpieces and grinding wheels
into account. Both models have in common that the temperature decreases
exponentially with growing distance to the surface of the workpiece. In the same
way as the model by Peters and Decneut, the temperature model by SaljC and
Brandin takes thermal conductivity and thermal diffusivity into account. But
Saljc's and Brandin's model additionally includes the specific tangential force.
Figure 23 shows an application of a temperature model
. EK 60 L6 Ke
ource Lowin 37/8531 CIFW 0767
Figure 23: Application of u Temperature Model
All the temperature models presented so far have in common that the fraction
of generated grinding power which is transferred into the workpiece in the form
of heat can only be determined on the basis of resmctive assumptions.
Consequently. the results of such temperature models are rather inaccurate. Up to
now, no temperature model of universal validity has been developed which allows
a reliable prediction of temperatures.
Table 2: Sicfuce Integriv Models
and underneath the work surface, as well as by metallographic examinations. In
the most unfavourable case, grinding may even lead to cracks which have
particularly negative effects on the characteristics of the workpiece. The
generation of textures leads to directional surface integrity characteristics. The
residual stresses in the workpiece are the best indicators of thermal and
mechanical influences on the surface integrity. Residual stresses allow
conclusions regarding changes in hardness and phase transformations [BRIN90].
The mechanical effects of grinding and the resulting plastic deformation of the
workpiece lead to the generation of compressive residual stresses. But apart from
plastic deformation, thermal disturbances of the surface integrity may also occur.
A third cause for the generation of residual stresses are changes in volume due to
structural transformations. In table 2, thirteen surface integrity models for the
characterisation of the zone underneath the work surface are compared. Here, the
consideration of temperatures according to the model by Carslaw and Jaeger is
usually the basis for describing the thermal influences on the surface integrity.
Honscheid [HONS75] proposes a model for the evaluation of thermally
induced residual stresses on the basis of the temperature model by Carslaw and
Jaeger. The surface integrity model by Malkin [MALK78], too, uses the
temperature model to obtain a mathematical equation for critical specific energy
(see figure 19). Thus, Malkin is able to determine critical specific energy and the
critical burning temperature. Skalli [SKAL82]. Mishra [MISH85], and Tonshoff
and Choi [CHOW61 use the finite element method to determine the residual
stresses. The surface integrity model by Skalli is based on the consideration of
temperature gradients, while the model by Mishra as well as that by Tonshoff and
Choi are based on the temperature model established by Carslaw and Jaeger.
Mishra includes mechanical and thermal effects on the surface integrity. Tiinshoff
and Choi distinguish between thermal and mechanical effects. However, they do
not combine the thermal and the mechanical model. If the model by Tonshoff and
Choi is to be applied, it is therefore necessary to know whether the thermal or the
mechanical effects predominate. Furthermore, the model considers the influence
that the varied thermal conductivity of different abrasives and bonds have on the
temperature distribution.
A comprehensive model for the quantitative prediction of residual stresses due
to thermal influences is offered by Vansevenant [VANS87]. In order to improve
the model quality, not only the input quantities of the process, but also the
measured grinding forces are included in the calculation. Vansevenant's model,
too, is based on the temperature model by Carslaw and Jaeger. The surface
integrity model by Rowe [ROWE88] can be compared to the model by Malkin.
Rowe evaluates critical upper and lower specific energy levels for thermal
damage to the workpiece. Li and Chen [LI89] have developed a surface integrity
model based on the consideration of thermal gradients, similar to the model
conceived by Skalli. However. the model by Li and Chen additionally considers
the phase transformations of the material.

683
 Tonshoff and Hetz [HETZ87], as well as Brinksmeier [BRIN90]. [BRIN91]
suggest a model for the evaluation of residual stresses and the state of surface
integrity on the basis of thermophysical observations. They include the specific
grinding power as a characteristic quantity. The evaluation of the influences on
the surface integrity is done with the aid of thermophysical transfer functions.
These are the results of grinding tests, and they relate the residual stresses of the
workpiece to the specific grinding power. Thus, this model takes the mechanical Shaw . I

as well as the thermal effects of the process into consideration. In figure 24. some Reichenbach. R, = N.,
developed transfer functions are shown. Mayer .1956 I

Orioka R, = 0.328 .(+p .1 ($4 ! 0,h !(if@

I1
1961
Brown. Peters I
= A
1969 197L R, I
wI?pELlrw!4l@~.
s, : I i 1.. v: I
5 , : I I 0:.v. a* 1. I
s, i I lo: I. 1
4Ll I
Figure 25: Sutface Roughness Models ( I / ? )

Saljc's roughness model [SALJ52] includes a constant for the material. TI

I I I I I I
0 100 200 300 Wlmm2 500
sp.echc grinding power 115777 (c IFW 8L15
Figure 24: Transfer Futictiotis in Grinding
The use of different grinding processes as well as of different grinding wheels
with different specifications and diameters has no influence on the basic
dependencies. The temperature distribution is much more favourable when CBN
is used than with the use of corundum. This is caused by the fact that CBN has
not only a higher thermal conductivity, but is also more resistant to wear than
corundum. In the case of a stationary process with unchanging temperature
dismbution, quantitative results can also be obtained. The relevant transfer
function can be described mathematically by means of an exponential approach.
If the heat generated in the contact area is not distributed equally, for example
due to a change in the workpiece peripheial speed, the consideration of the
specific grinding power alone is not sufficient for evaluating the thermal
influences on surface integrity. On the basis of the model just mentioned,
Tonshoff and Heuer [HEUE92] have developed an extended model which can be
applied with changing temperature distribution between grinding wheel,
workpiece and coolant. Based on the models by Carslaw and Jaeger. the
temperature of the contact area is determined for CBN grinding at various cutting
and workpiece peripheral speeds. This results in a model for the evaluation of
residual stresses on and underneath the work surface.
Kruszynski and v.Luttervelt [KRUS91] propose a simple empirical model for
the evaluation of residual stresses within the workpiece. Similar to the surface
integrity models by Tonshoff. Hetz. Brinksmeier and Heuer, this surface integrity
model is also based on results obtained from grinding tests with different grinding
wheel specifications and different grinding processes. Lavine [LAVI90],
[LAVI91] devgloped a surface integrity model for grinding with CBN. This
model is based on Malkin's approach. The model by Lavine requires much work
to evaluate the model parameters. Tonshoff and Wobker [WOBK91] developed a
surface integrity model for the evaluation of residual stresses in ceramics, based
on a chip thickness model for face grinding. This empirical model is valid for
different grinding wheel specifications.
Except for the models by Tonshoff. Hetz. Brinksineier. Kruszynski and
v.Luttervelt and by Wobker. all models are based on the temperature model by
Carslaw and Jaeger, or on the consideration of temperature gradients. Three
characteristics of the microstructure of the grinding wheel, however, a
neglected. The surface roughness model by Sato assumes the distance betwet
cutting edges to be constant, and the height of the cutting edges to be uniforr
Just as the model by Yang and Shaw, Sato's model does not include the workir
engagement. Thus, these surface roughness models only apply to cases when
small working engagement is chosen. The model by Shaw, Reichenbach ill
Mayer is based on their chip thickness model. This surface roughness model
only valid for small working engagements, too. Furthermore. it is assumed th
the distance between cutting edges is uniform in cutting direction, and that tt
speed ratio assumes a high value. Orioka does consider the differing height I
cutting edges, he assumes however the distance between them to be uniform. A
the models presented so far have in common that much measuring effort
necessary to determine the microstructure of the grinding wheel. As a result, tt
practical application in today's industry requires an excessive number of effort
too.
Brown [BROW691 and Peters [PETE741 choose another way to predict tt
resulting surface roughness in grinding. They bring the surface roughness i
relation to the equivalent chip thickness. Additionally, this model includes a
empirical factor. As this model does not describe the microstructure of tt
grinding wheel, it can be used in industrial applications (see figure 11).
All the models discussed here can be reduced to one basic model. It should t
mentioned that only the model by Saljt includes a parameter which takes th
workpiece material into account. Brown and Peters add a constant to their modt
which has to be determined empirically. Whenever the geometric proportions at
taken into account in form of the equivalent diameter, its influence is alwaq
inferior to that of the speed ratio. The majority of the authors quoted consider th
influence of the working engagement to be negligible, as usually small workin
engagements are used to generate the surface roughness. The surface roughnes
models mentioned above are based on the assumption of a stationary grindin
process. The influence of the grinding time, and the resulting changes in th
grinding wheel topography is taken into account by the models shown i
figure 26.
I /
-
I

models also use the finite element method. When working with these models,
many tedious calculations have to be carried out, as the physical mechanisms are
extremely complex. As a result, these mathematical approaches can only be
transferred within close limits. In practical application, all physical surface
I Konig.
Netterscheid
19AL I
R, =Al t A2 .I
.laen
I ' I
(p. l v ~ l . ~ ?

integrity models mentioned fail because of the multitude of characteristic

quantities and boundary conditions which have to be taken into account. The
empirical models by Tdnshoff, Hetz, Brinksmeier. Kruszynski and v.Luttervelt
offer simple methods for predicting the residual stresses in the workpiece.
However, the practical application of these models requires much experimental
and measurement effort.
5.7 Surface Roughness Models
Apart from modelling the surface integrity, the surface roughness is a
characteristic quantity which determines the quality of the workpiece and thus is
of major importance. In figure 25. several surface roughness models are shown.
There is an obvious relationship between surface roughness models and the
topography models discussed before. Except for the models by Brown, Peters and
Saljt, the surface roughness models are mainly characterised by the description of
the microstructure of the grinding wheel. This is taken into account in the basic
model, using a constant. Sato [SAT0551 includes the microstructure in one-
dimen6onal form, taking the grain distance, the width of the cutting edge and the
grain diameter into account. Yang and Shaw [YANG55] as well as Shaw,
Reichenbach and Mayer [REIC56], and Orioka [OR10611 include the
microstructure in two-dimensional form by considering the grain count and the
ratio of width of cut vs. depth of cut.
I I I J
J
I [p I
oos,c model R, = A + C W p cgwa: I v? IV;.'.
37 16909 L. IFW 8710
Figure 26: Sutfuce Roughness Models (212)
Weinert [WEIN761 assumes that the change with time in the surface roughnes
of the workpiece is due to a change in the gnnding wheel topography On tk
basis, Saljt and Weinert suggest a model for the effecuve surface roughness of thi
gnnding wheel The influence of the grinding time is taken into consideratior
with the specific matenal removal Furthermore, this model takes the dnssinj
conditions of the gnnding wheel into account, in the form of initial effectlvc
surface roughness This model pnsupposes that the change, with tlme. in tht
gnndmg wheel topography can be approximated with a transfer function of tht
first order According to this. the effective surface roughness aspues to bc
quasi-stationary The investigations camed out by Saljd and Fruhling pRUH76
establish a correlatlon between the effective surface roughness and the surfacc
roughness of the workpiece Their model assumes that after several axial tablt
feed mouons, the surface generated on the workpiece is the result of overlapping

684
 roughness profiles. There is only one arbitrary parameter in the surface roughness
model by SaljC and Friihling, i.e. the working engagement. The constants serve to
take the combination of grinding wheel and material into account. Apart from a
quantification of the grinding wheel effective surface roughness, the practical
application of this model also requires that the ratio of working engagement to
surface roughness is known. However, much effort is necessary in order to
determine the effective surface roughness at the machine tool, so that the practical
application of these models is hampered.
Konig, Netterscheid [NElT84] and Knop [KNOP89] developed surface
roughness models which have the same structure as their grinding force models.
The models take grinding time into consideration in the form of specific material
removal. Knop additionally includes the theoretical initial effective surface
roughnac? :3 the grinding wheel in order to take influences of the dressing
condimns into .account. These two surface roughness models are purely
empirical, and they include the corresponding disadvantages. The practical
application of these models requires many grinding tests. In order to compensate
for these disadvantages. Konig and Netterscheid have developed a data pool for
fundamental combinations of workpiece and grinding wheel, and Konig and Knop
have worked out a modification algorithm.
Upon close reflection on all surface roughness models, it is obvious that none
of them takes the influence of the coolant into account. This is done indirectly by
the empirical determination of the model parameters. Figures 27 and 28 show
examples of the application of surface roughness models, with and without taking
the influences of time into consideration.
81 I 1 I I
working engagement a,
Figure.27: Exumple of u Sitrfuce Roughness Model
Figure 28: Example of u Surfuce Roughness Model including Influence of
Time
6 Simulation of Grinding Processes
After having compared different approaches to the modelling of grinding
processes, and having assessed the benefits of these models as well as the efforts
required in their application, in the following, some examples of simulation in
grinding will be presented. Simulation (see figure 3) requires models which use
discrete values of time.
Kassen [KASS69] uses his topography and his chip thickness model and
simulates the overlapping of the traces of the grains with the aid of a computer.
Due to the limited capacity of the computer systems at that time, the grinding
wheel had to be described on the basis of restrictive assumptions. Based on
vectorial quantities, Steffens [STEF83a] developed a mathematical concept for
the numerical description of the kinematics. In his simulation programme, the
single engagement of the kinematic grains during the grinding operation is
described. Figure 29 shows simulation results for surface grinding. Here,
idealised kinematics have been assumed, i.e. it was presumed that no plowing of
the material occurs, and that each kinematic grain completely removes the
material volume available to it. The specific material removal rate was maintained
constantly while the table feed speed and the working engagement were varied in
opposite senses. Afterwards, Steffens compared the results he obtained to the
topography and chip thickness models by Werner. According to his results, the
kinematic grain count and the maximum chip thickness assume maximum values
at a working engagement of approximately 10 pm. Only at increased working
engagements do they follow the tendencies described in Werner's models. On the
left-hand side of the maximum value, the kinematic grain count decreases, as with
lower working engagement values the number of static grains available decreases.
too. In an extreme case, only one single grain touches the workpiece.
Igrinding wheel E K 8 O G I l K. I
working engagement a,
1600aoo LOO 200 100 50 25 12.5 a . m / , ~ . 1 2 5
IDY~CC K o n q Slcllcn
tangential toble feed speed vll ,7,BLo(1 IFWBbgl
Figure 2 9 Simulation Results for Sutface Grinding
On the basis of this simulation of the kinematics in grinding, Konig and
Steffens [KONI84]. [KONI82], [STEF83a]. [STEF83b], [STEF87] present a
closed-loop simulation method. Here, it is presupposed that a thermomechanical
equilibrium is established during the grinding operation. The closed-loop
simulation is based on iterative calculations. The simulation programme requires
the following input quantities: the grinding wheel topography which has to be
measured. the physical characteristics of the system, set-up parameters for the
machine tool, and temperature-dependent workpiece material properties such as
yield stress, thermal conductivity and thermal diffusivity. Among the output
quanJities are the normal and tangential forces, as well as the temperatures which
have to be expected in the workpiece, and the surface roughness of the workpiece.
In figure 30, the ksults of simulation and grinding tests are compared. These
results have been obtained with a constant overlap ratio and a constant specific
material removal rate, the specific material removal, however, assuming different
values. Thus, the underlying model uses discrete values of time. Simulation with a
grinding wheel wh,ich has previously been dressed shows that at the beginning of
the grinding operation, relatively high cutting forces occur. Due to the fact that
grains are removed from the bond, the cutting force decreases with increasing '
grinding time and eventually reaches a minimum value. Then the kinematic grain
count changes only insignificantly. The renewed increase in forces is above all
due to the dulling of the remaining kinematic grains. The simulation clearly
follows the tendencies of the real process. As, concerning the kinematics, the
simulation programme by Konig and Steffens is based on the measurement of the
microstructure of the grinding wheel, the applicability of this programme is
accordingly restricted.
spec. material removal VL
sDec. material removal Vt spec. material removal VL
Figure 30: Closed-Loop Simulation of Grinding Processes
Comparable simulation programmes which require the grinding wheel
topography as an input quantity can be found. in [YOSH68], [YOSH70],
[LAW73], [SUTO81]. Here, too, the output quantities are: the distribution of the
kinematic grains, the chip thickness, the surface roughness of the workpiece and
the cutting forces.
Peters and Aerens [PETE74], [PETEIO], [AERE90] developed a programme
for the simulation of grinding processes based on the calculation of the equivalent
chip thickness. This simulation programme combines the chip thickness, force
and surface roughness models by Peters, and the temperature and surface integrity
models by Maris and Decneut. A three-phase peripheral plunge grinding cycle
with a roughing, finishing and sparkout phase is simulated. This programme aims
at reducing both the grinding time and costs, while at the same time considering
quality demands such as surface roughness, permissible variations in diameter,
shape accuracy and surface integrity. The set-up parameters for the machine tool
such as the feed speeds and the workpiece rotational frequency are determined
with the aid of grinding charts (see figure 11). The timing of each phase. is also
685
determined. On this basis. an algorithm adapts the coefficients of the models
which have been deduced from the grinding charts. After the third application, the
simulation results are satisfactory. This system has already been tested in industry.
Compared to the simulation programme by Steffens. this programme does not
require a measurement of the grinding wheel topography, and is thus suited for
industrial application.
Makin uses his grinding energy model to simulate a peripheral plunge
grinding process. Due to mechanical, geomemc and thermal aspects, as well as
due to the wear of the grinding wheel and the interrelationship of these factors,
the system simulates process quantities and quantities of the working result
according to the specific machining task. Among these factors are forces, burning
power threshold, burning temperatures, thermal damage depth, wheel wear as
well as surface roughness and roundness [MALK78]. [MALKIO], [MALK89]. As
an additional input, Malkin's model requires the present feed speed and the
grinding power. Unlike Steffens' model. it does not include the explicit
description of the grinding wheel topography. According to this, simulation using
the model by Malkin can be carried out in a simple way.
Y iei
,ource Vonsevenonl
czzj
6
Y
Ix.i.1
1x.z)
burnIx.21
phase
9b"n
37/8L09 CIFW 8 7 1 1
Figure 31: Simulation of Thermally-induced Residual Stresses
Based on the temperature model by Carslaw and Jaeger, Vansevenar
[VANS871 worked out a programme for the simulation of thermally induced
residual smsses in the workpiece. Figure 31 shows the input and output
quantities of this simulation programme. Here, simulation is done in three steps.
The frst step determines among others the specific energy, .the grinding power,
the contact length and the chip thickness on the basis of the working conditions
(i.e. the set-up parameters for the machine tool and process quantities), and the
characteristics of the grinding wheel, the workpiece and the coolant. Based on
these quantities, the temperature model by Carslaw and Jaeger and additional
material constants are used to calculate the temperature in the contact area. In the
third step, the thermally induced residual smsses are determined according to the
given boundary conditions, and considering further material consfants.
Ktinig and Netterscheid [NETT841 have established a system for computer-
aided external optimisation of the set-up parameters for the machine tool. This
simulation programme is based on empirical models. It serves to determine
combinations of set-up parameters for the machine tool which allow, minimum
grinding time and costs while considering quality demands such as surface
roughness, as well as the required dimensional and shape accuracy. Furthermore,
the system includes a self-learning optimisation strategy for a two-phase
peripheral plunge grinding cycle (roughing and finishing). The influence of the
D bos& model
'I
0
I
100
I I I I
200 300 LOO 500 mm3/mm
A 0
specific material removal V-
IDUICC Konig Knop 17/8407 ClFW 8715
Figure 32: Adaptation of the Basic Model with the Aid of a Modification
Algorithm
686
grinding time is directly taken into account in the fonn of specific materi
removal; the dressing conditions and the temperature distribution, however, a
not taken into consideration. The empirical models by Netterscheid require
tedious determination of the model parameters. In order to reduce the necessill
number of grinding tests, a data pool containing fundamental model paramete
for specific combinations of material and grinding wheel was realisei
Furthermore, a modification algorithm was developed for adapting the mod'
parameters to a new and comparable machining task.
K6nig and Knop [KNOP89] use Netterscheids models and his simulatic
programme as a basis. and additionally include the influence of the dressir
conditions and the calculation of temperatures. The output quantities of the
simulation are the surface roughness of the workpiece. the specific normal ar
tangential forces, the grinding power, the grinding wheel wear and tt
temperature in the contact area. Additionally, an algorithm for mod,
modification was developed, which adapts the existing empirical models I
considerably changed machining tasks with the aid of teach-in procedures. Thu
the modification algorithm requires a minimum of grinding tests to derive mob
coefficients for an increased model accuracy. Figure 32 shows an example (
how the modification algorithm works. Although the simulation programmes t:
Konig. Netterscheid and Knop. which are based on empirical models, allow
choice of adequate set-up parameters for the machine tool, which lead I
minimum grinding time and costs, these models are difficult to introduce in1
industrial application.
7 Conclusions
Abrasive machining in general and grinding especially are processes whic
increase in importance with high demands on accuracy of workpieces, and wit
high suength of work materials. Quality and productivity reasons call fc
automated production systems. Thus, grinding processes have to be planned wit
reliability in advance, and the process has to be perfonned with reproducibilit:
Process modelling is the scientific basis for these important objectives.
This paper represents the state-of-the-art in the modelling and simulation c
grinding processes. The approaches to modelling presented refer exclusively t
processes with simple kinematics. and consider above all the machining of ductil
materials with the abrasive corundum. In the case of models,a distinction has t
be made.between physical models which are deductively derived from basi
physical principles, and empirical models which are developed on the basis c
grinding tests. For simulation, one example of model application. a model usin
discrete values of time, is of major importance.
The kinematics of the grinding process are characterised by a series c
statistically irregular and separate engagements. A characterisation of th
microstructure of the grinding wheel is done by topography models which tak
the speed ratio. the working engagement, and the equivalent diameter int
account. Chip formation is represented in models for the equivalent or maximur
chip thickness. During the process ,of chip formation, energy is transformed an'
forces are generated. In this paper, grinding energy models and force models ar
presented. In conclusion, the kinematic and energetic processes are taken int
consideration for temperature and surface integrity models as well as for model
for describing the surface roughness of the workpiece.
In order to evaluate the models developed by different authors, the model
were transformed within the framework of unified terminology and reduced t
basic models. This means that the relations, the principal connections between th
relevant parameters, the machining parameters, the parameters which describe th
microtopogaphy of the grinding wheel and the workpiece material, ar
commonly in agreement in grinding research. So are the tendential influence!
which are described by exponents. in the case of exponential equations. Majc
differences appear in the absolute values of derived data. This seems to be main1
due to the lack of specifications of the workpiece material and the grinding whee
It was stated that the complexity of models varies considerably. The questio
which model is suitable for a given application can not be answered in genera
The decision must take into account the required accuracy. But it also has to b
mentioned that with higher complexity, the number of parameters and the effoi
to determine them increases. Unsharp parameters can deteriorate the models to
great extent, as far as absolute figures are concerned. In practice, it often might b
sufficient to come back to simple and easy-to-handle models. Simulatio
programmes usually include a combination of different models. Whenever th
description of the microstructure of the grinding wheel is required, practici
application demands an accordingly high number of efforts.
In this paper, approaches to the modelling and simulation of grinding processe
have been compared and critically evaluated. This shows cleuly that it is possibl
to describe grinding in the form of models in order to make grindin
reproducible.
8 Nomenclature
dressing engagement
working engagement
average cross sectional area of chips
back engagement
constant
constant
constant
area of contact
width of the active grinding wheel profile
width of cutting edge
width of grinding wheel
width of cut
 specific heat capacity Z profile depth
static cutting edge density per profile depth z = 1 z dimensionless quantity
static cutting edge density Zex max. exposure of grain
cutting edge density on bond level
constant for grinding wheel a thermal diffusivity
constant for workpiece thermal diffusivity of the fluid
coefficient “fl
Y constant
coefficient
coefficient E constant
equivalent diameter of grinding wheel Euij strain due to transformation from phase i to phase j
average grain diameter Q temperature of contact area
diameter of grinding wheel @burn burning temperature
diameter of workpiece QZ average temperature of contact area
exponent Qzmax max. temperature of contact area
exponent K rake angle
exponent h thermal conductivity
exponent
h, thermal expansion coefficient
exponent
exponent P density
exponent PD diamond density
exponent d residual stress
specifc grinding energy =,, residual surface stress
modulus of elasticity 70 shear strength
modulus of elasticity of the wheel u poisson’s ratio
exponent coolant viscosity
dressing infeed Ufl
cutting force grain size of the grinding wheel
GS
normal force
HG hardness grade of the grinding wheel
tangential force initial hardness
H
tangential force per grain description of the continuous cooling transformation diagram
CCT
specific cutting force suucture number of the grinding wheel
SN
specific normal force
specific threshold force 9 References
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