second edition LOGIC, SEMANTICS, Publication of this book was assisted METAMATHEMATICS by a grant fom the Pabliations Program ofthe National Endowment forthe Hunan, ‘an independent federal agency. PAPERS FROM 1923 TO 1938 ALFRED TARSKI 4. WoopcER Second edition edited and introduced by Jon Concouas: : HACKETT PUBLISHING COMPANYaK \ eile sf aa First edition published in 1996 by Oxford University Pros opyright © 1988 by Hasket Publishing Company, In. Core © 190 Hecet a f Printed in the Chive States of Ameria pre ‘Second edition, frst printing 1083 £30 Cover design by Richard L, Listenberger file va For further information, please address Hackett Publishing Company, Ine P.O. Box sats ; Indianaplis Tiana 40204 Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Tarski, Aled Tog semantis,metamathematien Tnclutestiblingaphielrefeenens and interes Uap, Symbale an sathematca Atises, serapsleetures 2 Semantcy (shea) ‘Aare essay, etre Coeur, Iti, BOIS TI5 1963 6 §5-10850 ISBY'0-O1s144 75-1 ISBN 0-D13180-70-X (pbk) The parr inthis Bok meets the guidelines for permanence au durability of the Comite tm Pratacton Grsings for Book Langeity of the Count om Library Resee TO THE MEMORY OF HIS TEACHER TADEUSZ KOTARBINSKIEDITOR'S PREFACE TO THE REVISED EDITION ‘Tus revised edition in intended to supersede the fist eiton in several respect, Two considerations which guide the design ofthe revisions wore (the desire to increase the secuacy and elarityof the articles without Altering their usefulness as historical documents and (2) the need to make Tarkis early thought more accesible to the eurrent generation of ngs, logins, mathematicians, philosophers, and historians. The Eitoe's Introduction andthe Analytical Index are new with this edition ‘The Faltors Inruuction shows how Tarsi's development of much of the move framework of logic and methodology ean be traced in the tiles inthis volume. ‘The Analytical Eades is much more than « guide {o locations of ferme iiss mucha index of ideas as of terminology, and it lists, besides terms wed by Tutsi, not only current synonyms fr the terminology of the ails, but also current terms for ideas used by ut ‘ot named by Tar Tedd in thiseition av all seventeen arte oletein the it ei tion Allo the front mistrial f the orginal has been retained unehanse Several items have heen aed (0 the tiblogzapy. Over 10 pages have Trem alten in vars ways. ‘The et that Tarski hat Hee unable t real a lerable part of the orginal ext before publication acconts Forman ofthe eng. Se changesin waning were ceed for sake of ‘Grits, mifirmity, or precision. "Typographieal errors i prose and in toathenatia! formulas, have bee corrected although there were exer Dt these than would have been expected given the complexity ofthe work). In several places, whole seatences have boen rewritten in order to eimi- rate ambiguity or iseding connotations and in sme places, where more “atennive rewriting would have tuen called for, footnotes have been ade indicating the nature of the dtl ‘The hibligraphial note atarkod to the “Wabehetsbegett™ (article {VID hs heen rewrite hs he Ss paragraph of this aries hsevi EDITOR'S PREFACE toa note. Psat ate bee ado ties Vand. Vaious yar es he be rd a ot ere coercing ang thie anne whih wa nificantly inereased in the translations and increased vein the resent edition, “ sen mare inthe Alte revating wat doe by Tar and be al ange . ak and the al form of erry ‘i mosvel Tanks xl ppl. Tar prepared evs ty sg, ster pag of change wh hae been icrprated ito the pos tet. Th atin, with a ep of M.S (Ora Sate Une), 6 Tuer iin Sate aie) and Hi Uae of onli 1 patel eds of gst to whith Tan ‘rnin ing peor insmerati8 Chant Ml Cale) Various mete 1 identity change pase found tobe oa avkvar, to expen and to ine somming aoe ily ih of theft tht changin te artless ogaly oton ai en nid ley in he tft, or camp iso Taranto determine whether phrasing, terminology, and restr. {using of a sentence to eonfarm to the needs ofa diferent language could ‘rel me hang ont For met ly pepsi ition an be gated aan autotest the i ns vite ive in dlate historia quetoas may aed to coma the wil papers teman ance ‘insufficient for such purposes. TS 1G, TRANSLATOR’S PREFACE "Ta setting free of Poland after the First World War was fl- lowed by intensive activity inher Universities. In the depart- ments of philosophy and mathomatis this took the form, in & number of paoes, of new and powerful investigations in the felds of mathematical logic, the foundations of mathematics, tnd the methodology of the aeiences. Prominent in this move: tment waa the Ware school led by Lukasiowir, Kotarbifisi, find Lednieweki. Under their skilled guidance a younger gener tion grew up and among these Alfred Tarski quickly dis- tinguished himself. ‘Ever aince I first enjoyed the homptality of Profesor Tarski in Warsaw in 1996 it bas soemed to me that the importance fand soope of the Polish school of logicians were insuficiently known and appreciated in the English-speaking world. ‘Then ‘came the Seoond World War, bringing uin once more to Poland, Killing men, destroying laboratories, and burning manuscripts fand libraries. After this wae it ocurred to me that T should be performing a public service, ae well as acknowledging in some mall measure my debt to my Polish friends, if 1 prepared» tolled edition of some of Professor Tarsi's publications in ‘elish tranelation. When be wsted Bngland in 1950 to deliver ‘the Shermen Lectures at University College, London, T men- tioned my plan to him and received his approval “This volume contains Tarski's major contributions to loge, semantics, and metamathematice published before the Second ‘Worl War; their arrangement here corresponds to the chrono- logical order in which they frst appeared in print. With the cexcoption ofariles and X1 (which ae too elonely connected wrth, and too often referred to in, the other articles to be Omitted), the volume dors not include Tami’ studi im. the foundations of apecial rathematial disiplines—set theory, {group theory, ete. Neither does it contain his papers of (pronouncedly” mathematical character, dealing with special {opie from the domain of sot theory, measure theory, abstractAlgebra, elementary geometry, le. Alo exclude are short notes, atc, and preliminary reports which are loely related to sme of the arti incladt in the volume and the ontents of which ae more fly presented in these artis ‘A longer oper fiom the domain of logic and. methodology ‘hich hasten omitediy'Surla dtd detive'in Tver fu 1X Court International de Phitophie (Pais 1097), this peri ply expstory oo, ad it das have ben filly Aeveloped in Chapter VI of Tarts Yok Induction oft (Sew York 1941), Ina sine the present work more than a volume of teas ting, Naturally an attempt has een mae to emave the ‘sprints nd rom which ore the originals. Moreover the tse hae be provide by the athoe with crows references Lo cer ate inthe voltae and with note refering to ler dkvelopments and rect Heratre. Occasionally some new remark have been added forthe purpose of clarifying certain ‘msg i the ail ex. Ae Ian V etn more ‘evo changes Tar having ir in them several psseges “ih hen wl oy iy pity ones ile the work of tanlaton wasn progr, th Famages ‘hh cee to me doubt and iu were noted own ad ‘eat to Professoe Tar in Berkley, Califo Tn thn wey 1 was possle to adjast the test of the tranlatons Ih many Heine, ss to mest the author's wishes However in vew of {he tee limit an the geographi ditaneeetweon the ost ene of the autor and tho tale, wa preci to send the whole manusept to Profesor Turki before Hwan ‘inp, Instat he resived galley prea, en which for brows rons he could not mop tow extent change. Te also proved inpossibe to devs the sugested change in etal, aod i was left to my deon wich changes were Actually tobe cased through. ‘Ths Profesor Takis net ‘apse fr the a text othe tol se of th ook Tae rls in this vlume arent Pbaton of Tork ad other authors: Prafewor €. Karatown fartile VII) De A: Lindenbaum (atele XII), and Profesor J Lakadewies ‘TRANGLATOR'S PREFACE " (article 1V), We ate greatly obliged to Profetsors Kuratowski ‘and Lukasiewies for thir permision to inclu the translations ‘ofthe jointly published articles in the volume, Dr, Lindenbaum fell a vietima to the Gestapo during the was. "The papers included in the volume orginally appeare in the following periodicals and culeetive works: Actes du Congris International de Philosophie Scientifique (atilea XV and XVI), Comptes Rendus dela Sov dee Seencea et des Letres de Varsovie (articles IIE and IV), Brgednise cince mathematic Kol Logins (artieles XUIT and XIV), Brenna aetcloX), Funda: ‘mente Mathematiae (articles I, VI, VIL, XI, XML, nd XVID, ‘Koiega Pamigthown Pierscego Poleego Zjcdu Metenatyeznepo (article 1}, Monatohfe far Mathemati: und Physik (articles V fand IX), Pregl Filosofiony(etilesT, X, XV, and XVD), and Travaut de ta Sovité der Sciencce et dep Letires de Vareovie (article VIL), Acknowledgements should be made to the pub- lishers and editors of these periodicals for thee generosity. Tam obliged to Mr, §. W. P. Steen for kindly reading the proofs of artile VITT and throughout the work [have received Inuch help from my soa, Michsel Woodger. Wearealso indebted to several colleagues and students of Professor Tarki-—~Dr. 6 Chang, Profesor A. C. Davia, Professor J. Kalil, Mr. R. Montague, Profesor J. Myhll, Professor D. Rynin, and Mr. D. Scott—for thee assistance in revising the orginal text of the articles and in reading galley proof ‘Finally it sa pleasure to acknowledge the courtery and help which we have received from the stall of the Clarendon Press at tll stages in the production of the book. tL.AUTHOR'S ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Tris a rare privilege for an author to so a volume of his collected papers published during his lifetime, and especially so ifthe papers be translated fnto a single language from originals in & number of other Innguages. cannot therefore but be deeply moved by the appearance of this volume ‘and by the thought of the many and great sacrifices which its publication has lid upon my friend, Profesor Joaph H, Woodger. For five log years the has devoted to this work an immense amount of effort and tne, which otherwise eould have been aod for fruitful research in his chosen Bld, ‘theoretical biology adits foundations "The task of a translator i razely a gratifying oe. Circumstances have made it especially thankless in the present cae; It me indicate some of them. The papers whose tranlations constitute the volume were orginal Iy published over a periad of fifteen years and in several languages. They ‘vary considerably in subject-matter, style, and notation. Under these Condition, the task of combining the papers in one book provided with ‘reasonable degree of terminalogial consisteney and conceptual uni- formity presents extreme dfcltes. In «few eases (in particular, in the cave of the monograph on the concept of trth, which occupies neaely fne-third of the volume) the tranlation bad to be taxed not upon the Crigial, which wns published in Posh, but upon the Freach or German ers. ‘The mave it even harder for the translator to give fully de- quate ending of the aiinal intentions and ideas of the author. In ‘tition, de a the fuetors space au time, the transator was deprived Of the benefit wf extensively discussing withthe author even the major Aiicultin encountered in his work, and so achieving a meeting of tide bore the text was setup in type To iustrat this point I may mention that, for various reasons I ave been unable fr to read considerable prt of the preent text, and it seems more than ikely that I shall not have rad it before receiving «copy ofthe published book, The realization of the diffeatties involved makes me fee all the more indebted to him ‘vhowe initiative, devotion, and Isbour have brought this volume into ‘exstenee, 11 ie noes to ay that I fully appreciate the ssistance and considera- ‘ion of al the persons mentioned a Ue tastes preface. But I shoul fol unhappy if at this pace T did not make special mention of the mana AUTHOR'S ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ‘who helped me more than anyone ele in my part ofthe job-my younger collesgur, the late Jan Kalk. He spent the lst two years of his shor if in Berkeley; he generously offered his help on the day of his arrival and continued it untiingly and patiently, with the greatest devotion and consientousiess, until his last day, He studied the orginela of the ‘ticles, translated fr Professor Woodger various passages from the Polish text, prepared referenes to recent literature, digeused with me the 1e- ‘marks which I planned to inset in the tanaations, assumed most of the bund of the extensive corpondence connected with the publication of the book, and read the frst batch of galley proofs. His tragie and untimely death Gin November 1053) was a cause of considerable delay in th publication of this volume. niet of Clfrmia Berkey, Aunt 1058 Me pot ond ein of ape, Somat, anna di vt dtr ews tom ht The tr nthe ino the ier ne tin Inte tua eee tn 110), neon a af en eee ea itn Th, mins em es ae hel inthe mente vee oma ame rtm ot ae aniseceto her dveoptsin ene aero coach tare hen ai hgh oc ais asc ee ‘a in aici reve samt trast so vn A me ho an oi rs oe se ee edie ie mms) wae ean eM {sito xe hore my mos ean and algae to Professor John Coreoran for his work related to sia wil iy ‘the tual the us ofthe work. What is moe valle he ‘se provi the volume wit his ow introduction, While donot alana daze wth Corer’ jutgents expres in that itradtion, Linco ‘hios having it chided in the volume and I fel confident that It ill ‘rove intecstng and stimulating to many readers of my eck Berkley, Calfonia Aurueo Tana January 1982 EDITOR'S INTRODUCTION TO THE REVISED EDITION 1 Securing tga aa ho eae fai with the fit elt of Ae. Tr Ly, St, eaten fnaper from 1868101898) do ot woe an introductory ea to Ahem of content Morr, te mates etl ets ae ‘Di simian hy Popol tnd Sura! and dics of Tas subsequent work is included in Mostowski’s well-known artcl? This es wi intended for new readers; makes no attempt to outing more mathematical achievements, and it docs not treat Tarsi's Inter works Rather, its parpne fo inate how Tare development ofthe coneptualfameork of he methslog of ddutive sinc ean te tac hgh the ices in his volume. vce Inthe ied yar 17197 oor andenaning af edie ene ha undone extensive gronth and revn, Not ony bus thi Contre more nev eas hn hd Het achieved inthe two milena from Arcot Anais fe 20 me to Frees Berek (870) eh lst hundred yar the Davis he iene, ins ole have en ely lif. Indo, | ‘period as the century of the put it abe tre th sil he nian of the ear ‘ ‘ve ro justi in referring to this een ‘methodology of deduetive sence. vs aml and Tis the task ofthe methodology of deduetive sience to analy : ott frmaed sod unforalze, invite exiting dedi ae oad ‘Demin t ths contraction and main of dete snes tito foonlste and eazaly evant the piles and methods T Pogarscihi, W-and & Surman, review of Lay, Semantic, Metamattematiy dow aha a Le sepa of Play, New Var, 187 weewi EDITOR'S INTRODUCTION inthis afin? Tis tesa tis mtn cle! mtanathenta he uy he cree (arc) ger ef mel yan is ek ee poten ey cone the erage ocho ‘unten sn tna so teak eer ae iS eo unit bro ek aie Cala emng mcs td ound it anak ede A teased tte he ps aes eee ‘io uh dats lng mel aes sehen til pps of tne hl tn cele “oc re! Tn ey a nna “hein eg ei ‘emt in re tt ha ke ah To data Tacoma oth cf i impr aie hatte ay re sine deo hele te cantar of ag Ee inf re with Artes Porras sa se ‘so mporycanntign Bos Weta ha icon Tancs t Geer or pcan the Pea cs Pet eae chm a onda en eh ae cpr Fe as ot Tiara eet ea Piles clan sie tee ae mora mt Sok Seep matey MAPSrGmS &. Se aenaitasons of parts ebony ine none uns ii at eat adequately rulaabie ee, armen Genres Hees arf eres Sheena Tah pel Scie Unravel 2 Ga EE ad Reet ae EIGN stgmot to tps ton ae eee an inl Hy ha a TES ES Be fret ole tor i ona eae er EDITOR'S INTRODUCTION wi adiion, one must real that atthe onset ofthe century several deductive sciences fad already een goustruted, none of which had been formalize, “These include geometry (Euelidenn wid noo-Euelidean), number theory, analysis (or the theory of rea number), algebra of magnitude, and alge bra of clases, The Cartesian logician Arnau [1642] hal ove attempt to asiomatie part of what would now be called the metatheory of Arise toteian Logie. Tn comparing the most reent work in the mathodalogy of deductive seience (egy model theory) with the east work in the century of rrethdology (in pariculae, Frege's Begrifiehnf, one notes eear (qualia dilference. Roughly speaking, the difereace can be seen to involve thre interrelated ides (1) explicit concer with metatheory per ‘gnaised by sel-conscious we of the matametalungunge; (2) explicit for mulation and use of syntactical laws, ineluding the definition of formal Tanguages by means of recursive (or “gonerative") grammars; and (3) caplicit formulation and use of semantic (or mode-theoreti) ideas i thing satisfaction, truth, and gonsequence. Ife consider ony the di overy of new logial truths, new rues of inference, new independence renuls, and even the new axomatzations of various sienes, there ‘merge an important, but potentially misleading, perception of continuity ‘ith previous work, The qualitative difference is notin the character of uch results themselves but rather inthe anasis of ideas and’ methods ‘ued and in the atiulation and formalization of the presuppositions which formed the basis of previous results and methods Tis probably futile to survey the iterature of methodology from Frege forward trying to find in the early works attempts to discover the thee ies: For example, Hillert's Founltins of Geomety (180), which party fermoerns the metathory of geomety, shows fr fxs awareness, implicitly maligaton than docs Frege's Beo- Sr ec the pot a Sin ies Neverthe nthe env Meratre of thi peri ne Chee nd soctating sk of nor oo ea es (competes tate ceo, deity and ft) whith ct be Proves ray omega lle ay, pe td Roms Pini Mathai 91 a Ge nag aan of eto Tie sel kee Fast ana cen he enn Seen i pee el sme rete Pinna ft is aa TOTALS FSta at groans aed emir oe advanced nn Heroni EDITOR'S INTRODUCTION feted oly within math having exp formulated 0 cope peta mt el invrat to mak ne nv on his int Ft aman {Tt ol ee pry sha rag ea ae atta vaste i ede we aie Sim tne tin ete tn xe ay sus or dine inn myaatey wees ese fe ie ‘era eee aren Las ena Wee onan Sg nan ar PRES, wecahma 7 303 tnt metering Sai ener gl inter TEDL cocaine of sentences then 2 eCn(¥) A= Voc crane mentee isa consequence of & EDITOR'S INTRODUCTION ae athena! Inguge (onomalied and wit eg somnt. Fourth tate exit fo the dct ees pret td ts the paper to na melanetalangang. To rination ofthe tet of thi ale wee te a Topi singunes tly somata dctve str it danonsrtes the evens of ete systems which wet ely tvomazbie Tons dept sate meses mente, tives aie tow ter are of ne ena oan rch ols ely a he Lae, were rear x surpesing and even puro, Moret, heart expel intend to lsh a Sint "neta avert ihn ik tlie vein ato consring conte debitve dines can be end okt {3550 Atle Viton by Tp an Hake, ummas and athe sie routs and methods stra members of he Wana Sto of oma! Lege Prominen ns ei en he preset pinto i {he corti foe, ut unformed, rearive anna 8 teagan expire of ute operat iti, the aise eas ree ae by interline thd nt mets for dein estan ea an nein tht ‘rly trade wa il tert se a th interetion of Bf Shortie tactic a udehort eal metho Tear ten ie th re HU but pba te sane yew fn, Tar fror devas te eas of HH, Hee thre ae several new methutologieal results, “l it is here that Tamki first begins (orate th nl bo en fe) «ded Sheet 1 sna he es fal ose hatte dition let hie at mathematics ortega stant sects) 1 stl lacks expt objet Isaguage syntax Beazuwn, Never article aul series. Tatil VF, ist published in 193, Tank the exuet nature of the logeal basis. Moreover, an informal generative srammar is given fora complex objet Ina, and reference smal {0 ‘he evil problem of defining “satisfaction” (of «satel function by & becomes more explicit about A onto fr nape 10am 1 of Tr nda Piet sot tn ote, 198» EDITOR'S INTRODUCTION Sequence of objects in the intended interpretation). More importantly, artile VI employs for the Fist time the prise methods Iter used inthe ‘eit of truth (VILL, 277). "The immiate concern, both ofthis article nd ofthe next (VII, writen with Kuratowsid) isthe concept of definable Propet, VI contains explicit demonstration ofthe exstene of undeinable Droperte, while VI articulates the distinction between explicit and impli it definitions 1s well as containing results coeerning elementary deta ability ‘The next arte, VII isthe famous “Wahreiteberifl” (Truth-concept) ich canbe seen fo be the watershed between early and modern metho ‘log of deductive science. Ia this aril, Tarski etiulates the idea of the extension of the concept of @ teue sentence (ofa fined, interpreted formal language). He then defines che set Tr and argues convincingly that Tr identical othe extension of the eoneept ofa true sentence. Tarski’ Aefnitions of rath aud of te ancillary notion, salisfartion, ected and widely celebrated." But article VIII contains much more the fst presentations of deductive foundations for semanties (including ‘ey ides of model theory) and for syntax (inehudng generative grammar). + ty sana ene apr yy seein ha tet iene Ghe weeny rad Pe} it thc owen th Want a norm’ meme free dda ec oe ee he pas tin csr o the hata, ke Pome Fite ema vie aS Renta cea Poop nin rp SO ; {ater seemed o inv ff eit nh cn, Ta deonion mosey Arcee Play ann tata eects Ta fener ne ting Skene i EDITOR'S INTRODUCTION A Tn onder to test the syntax of the objet language within deductive reasysem itt necessary to prtsent a formal definition ofthe set of sentences of the object language. Such a definition has become known ws 8 recursive grammar, and, more recently, as a generative grammar. Te fonler to present a formally correct generative grammar itis neesary 10 1 to eo string theory’ as a deductive seienee. In the Seana "Tarski isolates ns a primitive notion the fundamental “Sat tn ton of coetnatin of rng roe, ering cnet ‘von the it simatic coe o ting ory (VM 1) there ty potidiag ductive foundations of sete yt.” Arie VEIL tho wnt the fist formal pretation ofa oertive ana (VIL Hi, 10) Te to be ret hat many Ung, tiles, and ‘tematic koe sie the Mstry of th mel a Greve sien hey truth tse Hew of ner reir ‘elise mring in he 1050 thes hat Tar ter in? ‘holt working nthe ery 1 Ct VIL, 2 Tne ri Tren hese nn ins ete uth and road (VII, 27) awl xin big te sion ttt ey ces ih sone VT 28) Inte 1X rt psd 108, To pura te fo mo he ttre tga he "Wabi ttn the ben af omnes he abl 10 st hat ce come Even toh ishing dense edt! oth eet sod externa theron uf nee, ews fF the eee oon ye pt hl il ton aid shih i aceon inate XT fst pu Be ant ‘Artie SVL, “On the cnt geal eon,” aang te et aril formation of Tar now fans “no eowtermadl” won, Adit ao contain cl rope nace of 1 dstnetions of the es tot ns npn an i ai, es lus mr nrg tera er rca fs ee Th ama am incipient cera iene fe Saka suey a nahn hie Methodology of Deductive Scences (cited above in footnoteasi EDITOR'S INTRODUCTION rom i notin i somatic witht, vie deducity OV, A1-2) ano expel countemotels” (XVI, 5-410). The eed fo thw two dtintony,eomeratcev.dadeity tad eonseqeaee ‘io exreile some show ily ace, bat ths Dios mpartance of ovr The eto of ome ‘ih dey amount placement of see (onsen) ith eof ritra eet). Sach replacement undone fhe hae for estnding,rening ecg, nd jsing the ern, ad ts fot th entero anf tweet on bse pares, copletenes nd soe gietins brome mening an rales of Infonet ae attr or py enetioal, Om the ter han, eto a conse with “no expres entermedl” maker eoaquene ct Sgt o theyre apa of henge and eh pat Sha onsensne Ing ratve to ar Tangange nol fall were em em a" As in many ote ari ot ee Mal inventing o enti or ven tending) tnt tater ae sing stating nein ale inp, pean aly nal rie (XVI 401, a), ‘Th eg i of Sah yar (S188), Tar anal an ‘on onal tng the ota ie of pane sige a oma sated eanive rams) sx ella he foun se of rena nation, than come ‘how idee rf nay that ton ett seas te ‘es ncovary th oan than an pss he eet he Stal ihn» dete ett Newnes, perhaps the bot ogi a udetaning of the ileus to ad Tava hich ot oa eon of shat are wily rl tative amulaton’ asa ee % i ten revaing ns the in fate ls eth eels or (and the extent 10 hh hse ne ne eee Ca the "Ri lt tts oa tse tee a spo ana ete Space eee te hn are ae Bas siete aa af a te ak ele ence oe senior teenage a roger ict te niin" ence erm EDITOR'S INTRODUCTION xi intent (wth he da ee ny aero seta nome a er ree Sipe seg ndecte nes of see wh tase ao sen damsel eel has tyosig che a oth has bn sp ye SLATE Sf a ar er tame no be tons ant oi a sth a fe ha cre ae tt cnet eam ih ef See em erase adel a Moe ow wo sein um Ne vc, Semantics, Metamathemotics can overlook Tarski’s niinaieatatienoiy n the seeomplishments mentioned eset hot ariel ken ato rsa i ATT Tn anitan fea primitives rom an w= icici uy fiesta i St oa os) mmc a tayo Te otf ha Tlie betwen the two nto veh not fan oe a ra ty wert cra soe ny Ting» lo X of soe Sst pny tre) and blo medina SP ‘Seng ene, ls offre, an als of efit, Te cmon ori onto ae nto wo pss KI a AE rove hy means ae A of ODEsir EDITOR'S INTRODUCTION ‘ot K1 only, in such away that Tis exatly the set of sentences derivable from AZ using the logical axioms, the rules of inference, andthe rules of definition (applied to introduce the constants in K2 in accordance with the way that they wore used in 7). In other words, i it posible to re axiomatize 7 s that only some af the “primitives” retain undefined ad the rst become defined? 1F this en in partiula ene then, since defini tions appear in the equivalent reasiomatitation, these same definitions ‘ust have already been derivable in Tas orgnalypreseated. Accordingly ‘eaten ci si tbe formally deinabl in terms of amet K1 (ezeting © ofthe st K of non-lopiclcoatantsom the basis of mt Sof sentences i a etnition of ein terms of K1 is derivable from S, It is etl o elie that ‘this concept, format definability, is entirely formal” in the sense that Aieassion oft doesnot require any semantic notions (stisfation, truth ssiqnnent of mearings to norlogeal constants, and so forth Issues of semantic definaiity arise in the context of an interpreted language Z based on an interpreted set K of nonlogeal constants. I is sn object (individual, fnetion, set, o the like) appropriately built on the interpretation of, then one can aak whether ais expressible (in any one of several appmpriate sees) by means of a formal a L. For example, in YE (It) Tarski takes to hea certain language interpreted in the domain of ral numbers and he takes a sot S of rel numbers to be expresed by each formula F(z) having 2 a its only free variable and such that real number iin i daly iit sais Fa) (Ut sel to realize that the context of remantiedefinability dos not require axioms, rules of inference, ‘or rues of defiition). I is obvious that there are uncountably many se of ral numbers that are not definable in any single given language Lay ing countable set of formulas. It also sions that x ten for formal lefty per se simply des not apply tothe ela of problems: given and given S, is there «formula of Z which exprewe S? Thus, in orler to ‘tablish semantic non-defnability result, other methids needed to be developed. For example, in XIII (054-5), it iy observed. that every logically definable set, Ln set which is semnateally definable wing no ‘otlogial constants, is invariant under certain trancformations of the tmiverse of discourse and tha, 1s not lgialy definable. Another dference between formal and semantic dfinability is that the fit isnot “iterable” but the second i, The set D of constants of each formally dtinable in terms ofa ertain given subset ofthe set ofall eon ‘therfore, any set not invariant in tis wa? EDITOR'S INTRODUCTION a ier ae ifand only if Sis semantically definable in Z (ie, if and only if theres & SE a me ete rer sy of ma in one aia fh mend Teil X; Taig oma asf : tha a ratty ih tn pres ral ty Poe over ng ye ea ada’ method ‘yields a condition for en tt a om ef abe fa mad ek win yea wen tc at a mais raed a se tan Se sawticoc cot Meneame we 42s enna cen ro ("are widely tnderstood and em hilmophical nnd mathematien! errors resulted fom ae a etn aly 0 “ta pop het tan enon ering tin oo od ee iy et setae fen nether thse ses ae pls ord ‘skint Mon Stress eee aay i ee ro toni EDITOR'S INTRODUCTION ‘cea of thes dens, they have still not made thee fll impact ‘especially in tebe philosophy Ww ‘The Pogoraelski-Surma review ofthe fit elton ofthis work concludes as allows ‘Mest of Taras papers contained in... this... volume ate easial for metalogic and metamathematies. A great many notions and theo rem found here have already become standard and are mont sea ‘ial component in logis! education at all levels, beginning wth the ‘mast elementary. Looking... at the boo we found most striking is that ther. is harly another sett the history of the exat seienoes whoce part in the construction af tons fra large domain of sienee was as powerf a the contribu tion of Tarski tothe ereation of conceptual apparatus for loge, meta. logic, and even metamathematies. In fact, the conceptual sucture of show dissplines ede to Tar ik a8» whole, the thing that Despite the importance ofthis work a 8 historical teva mistake to rant it only as an archive of pant achievement, ov wo ‘econ of what has taken plage during perhaps the moat {at inthe journey of modern loge. The artiles inthis volume ae ih tn ‘deus methods and results which have ben applied to only sal part of their potential domain within both mathematical loge se plop {and hari at all outside of thee Geld). “hronghot this honk, more ve there ate magestion of rae et tobe ale nlf inns ‘eos yet to be analyznk™ Lene, Semanticy, Metamathematioy tine Aocument, it would sega akarei in tear Rh heme an tr aon oak 2 ay iat EDITOR'S INTRODUCTION ih in oii tnmsto bens ual and inprtt ssl set need ten srt st thsecneed nwt harper as hppa spl fi Dok, psp rao eta of ny ret books onetime al ow mh on ho ai ne Si tt th eo ema mye af ee isto know nh tt it tk " ‘Sc ead a the vst wl lobe fol ene ‘ant maf he dine ve ert he as thr a th nn el be nour ini on sh ‘Res arse, hand el han oration {beam ist he sane pone ht pros eres tas Tare an explore wh npr xr x ey sn nt eet Norn: Thin conay has a aod hstariansinccing Boer ‘ees mene ot ed Wn Sealine a ii a) Rey, Sr Oar ate dts tari he ial Seavert deed ih me am ga of thoy well eva ais SST Se orn or ee ey torn view of Oe i aes eee Ee dire al Sree, Re cme et sect hamerae ica Snr ans taconite mason Fre eee eo be cane icra ye eG ts 46 Se Uninet af New York ta SoonCONTENTS as Prefaeothe Resid Bion ‘rams Price Assis Acaaement Eber Irth Raid Bion ow THE PRIMITIVE TERM OF LOGISTIC FOUNDATIONS OF THE GEOMETRY OF SOLIDS OX SOME FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS OF Mwtiwarnewatics INVESTIGATIONS INTO THE SENTENTIAL Cee icastewtcz aed Amel TARSKD TSoe oF Tab DEDUCTIVE SCHENCES Co eake eUATOWSAL st Aft TARSKE) 1 rear tamantenty oor vo Sesser to ncn me tt 4. ton Conny Tr Say Langu of Pai (eT eee tt ost sur HoDOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS ON i Buiwantiiny oF CONCET?S Extibstion or DEDUCTIVE THEORIES RMS EINDENBAUM and Alted FARSKTue eral 7 oF someNtieie OW THE CONCEPT OF LOGICAL consQUENCE SENTENTIAL CALCULUS AND TOPOLOGY ANALYTICAL INDEX INDEX OF NAMES OF PERSONS INDEX oF SYMBOLS gas 1 ON THE PRIMITIVE TERM OF LOGISTICt 1 thi article T propose to establish @ theorem beldnging to logistic concerning some eonnexions, not widely known, which feist etieen the terms of this discipline. My reasonings are ‘based on certain sentences which are generally accepted among logisticiss. But they do not depend on this or that particular theory of logieal types. Among all the theories of types which ‘oul be constructed? there exist thot according to which my ‘arguments in their present form aro parfocty legitimate: "The problem of which I her offer a solution isthe following: init poole to contract aystem of logistic in which the sig of. ‘uivalence i the only primi si (in addition of course to ‘the quantifier)? "This problems seems to me to be Interesting for the fllowing reason. We know that iis possible to construct the eyatem of Togistic by means of a single primitive term, employing for this ‘Purpose either the sgn of implication, if we wish to follow the "The pity of coring tnt tain of ge ei io opty ters inert toe oo Ce Wend, A ‘eRe oy vt pi ns Ren fe Univer of Wane an expt of oe {ations af'm rym of logit band pan thin theory of types can be ith and 9) ee Fee (8) Eo ie ian ater tn atime arenay af Wanevit ‘THE CONCEPT OF TRUTH IN FORMALIZED LANGUAGES} om Iermopuemox Preset ati almost mblly devoted to a lemme dfuition of th Te ta ato conte irene to given language—a_ materially equate and ermaly cores don of teeta sentnes- Tas pt Jem, which belongs to the classical questions of philosophy, taises considerable difficulties, For although the meaning of the term tue sentence” in coogi language seems tbe nite clear end intelligible, ll attempts to dein tia mes: ing more pretely have hitberto een fuitiw, and many i ‘stgntions in which thi term as teen wot and which tare ‘ithapparentl evident pene have often le Yo prndos td antsonies or which, however, oreo lo eictry ‘elton hat teen found). "The concept of tat cate Sat ‘epee the fate of oer analogmeoncepts in the dal of {Be vemanton of langage ‘The quistion how w ectain concpt isto be defined ie 6 ‘oily formulated only i lit given ofthe term by ease of whieh the required deition isto bo constructed. Ife Aiton i oT ita prope an, the wns of he ir in { turer, ore The seinen. oe. Te ah emt ie i a aa : Seek aefekVcphd SchLecr He NT ee sie been ie er rik Fh egal {Tey an ioter, i w ‘te or! ny rt See et a rat ec eee ee ins ua ee etc Paes ala ff si fa Sn ae te sien ye ls a ety re = ‘Vin CONCEP? OF TRUTH IN FORMALIZED LANGUAGES 16° aces, geen uy as ar ean in conning he tion wen een aan i ee cee aes wae te seaeyonans on ct mang cme net cane ct ees Eye fe gt tte annette eaten bat nesoasne Shei Metter oieat sag stn st a wee wick oe ese esc at en me romeo on ea “ Fe ang oe het rn rae oe etn i src i gs oe ‘meric fc Tee fa ae can oa sory ra aaron ea ete ae or i td neem To i en ie annie athe gn ey eect ge Tome os mera ‘of 2. It will be found that, from the a ara at Cm irengne te fzaeni m soa mente sre Oe ie aspen ooohFROME FomuageD Laxovan definition in seta fs cea ge sa iy Sr no, at Ethel wich seceding ase ee Societies Pisa ssl ow font coe rere oth cup thal never be abe o eon eee definit ‘the notion of truth, ‘Neverthe ony ng in ce oc ae nas Sa any aco Seen et ce seen "cial cn, eee ee ‘al concepte ‘oncepts and met = Sree Tacs gato enemy athogh in mde rere, T should be glad if thie work were to convince the ree ne Pie "cnt rn fr ne no pupil one un Pas cox om CHT or aoe Sexmesor Conoguiat, Laxovacr a seat ton aN 1 ering hi eaten compare the Penta he Rata. ‘41 cONGEDE OP TRUTH DN FORMALIZED LANGUAOES 188 ‘Aongat the manifold effrts which th construction of « conection ott for hv nestencv eal gma tne cal forty pethae the mortal the wach fo & ‘Shanti, By times» itn which we ren in he ling wor (1) trae entence sone wich ys tha ett of aire in ond and he te of aad is ond ot From the point of view f formal cometnon, sty, ad sro rang ofthe exprenion ceuring in tho ‘Sovefarmulaton sul sre ch tobe deal. Never hast inti nnsng and genre intention we t De tptclerand ineligible. Tomake intention noe deft, td to giv le corel for bs rosin theta of semana teint. st trtng pln atin sete of pial Kn prov ehemeates wh oul src part ition ofthe tath ttecntone or moe comes av explanations fron Cree tama of epoch ofthe type 2 tana’, The Sr scheme this ino wetnco an be depict in the Sowing wey. (2) sina true wetnce if and nl Te oder oan spree dts we abt i the pio ei i pt deri Hecate cere aoa renee arate cr gm om SS cima at pean Fe pa on a a 135 hr thar trated coments ich eH ney “fst i fredninn av ot aml 20 com EOS hares Sea EGRESS is otis eta(OP THUTH IN FORMALIZED LANGUAGES viILSt cof he yma nhs cy thyme in thc yen Place of ‘z" any individual name of this sentence, inte [Gon nb me say an ou patios (ry ped enya ae ict do wnt See yee imp’ rl omen nr ch sor is shite thw yas Wok ameots sonenes reheat ssn eh co nme Bho nd te ern sk he eh, a “ssn isc fometigiesrar nape elem of sth ttn nn sn of type (2) is as follows: Se (0 Wisma ioe te hae mean ny nia! init gy of mms of sntnn rihe sre te an yt ‘cl deri ans Wolly era se dant wor wither seen ‘rere, sod Sean toate “herr re the oat Soe ear, See et ie Bop Sue ae crane Sin merit ee, toca ae isi nan whith ents a {ete Sys doe wee a et a re te ce wah te me ny ks ak (00) vol I pp. €61-6 anf te Iareatons oe es Kouta EO) ap HE Scorer yan esac Sr sepa OE op 1S hw expanse {VII 1 CONCEPT OP TRUTH IN FORMALIZED LANGUAGES 181 Dy the name, as wall as the sign of which each single word in ‘composed and the order in which thee signs and words flow ‘one another. Such names ean be formolated without the help fof quotation marks, For this purposo we must have, in the Tanguage wo are using (in this cave colloquial language), individual names of some sort, but not quotation-mark ‘names, for all Jettes anv all other signs of which the words a fexpresions of the Ianguago are compoved. For example we ould use ‘A’, “EEF, ‘Jay’, ‘Po! as names of the liters‘, ‘ef, i tps Tis clear that wo ean correlate structural devcriptve manne with every quotation-mark name, one which {is free from quotation marks and poseses the same extension (Ge. denotes the same expresion) ad vice vere. For example, foresponding to the name "mow'”” we have the name ‘8 tvord which gonssts of the four letter: Es, Ea, 0, Double? {in that onder)’. Te is thus evident that we ean construct partial Aefnitions of the type (2) for structuraldesriptive names of ‘sentences, This illustrated by the following example: to ees Lad Te (in tht onder) the aco 1G the a Les and Bs (in thal order, and Be tid of be oon ltera Es, Br, 0, Denble, 1, Bn, and Ge (i that order) tre enence fa nty if 8 en lear Sentences which ate analogous to (3) and () sem fob and completly in accordance with the meaning of the word “True which was expreed in the formulation (1), In tend to th laity oftheir content sad the crests of tei form they aroue in genera, no doubt (assuming of ose that 20 such doubts concen the sentences whch we suet fort symbol pin 2). But certain esrvation is nonetheless tions are known in which asctions of jut hi Fe inti with certain other not less intel lest Teemine, lead to cbvions contradictions, for example the enim of tie iar, We shal pve an extreoel simple formolation of ‘ctnomy which ie duet J. Lakaowit. fomponed ofthe ecouanry here. SitCONSE OF TEM Ds YORUALIED2ANGUAN the ak of rater per . epoty we shal uw the ‘e's « nora! abbresion a Ue expen tom es ined othe page, ine & from the top’. Consider nor 1 following sentence: " = ia tren Hoaving regard to the mt coc do the meaning of the apmbol “wen (a) ‘© ia mt true sentence” is identical with Por the quota ical with. ci, etation ac: ne of the sentence ¢ of ty eran) wets an explanation of ype is not true sentence ie a nota truerecanen 1 Re Steet fond only f The alts Promises (o) and (A) together at once give a cont tei Yn ot ret Meu niin ay rene st he acon wheal sinc ates see teen hana eee Seiaate Goreng nn SFM ne ne seme el sey al pein te SET he tevin th diffealty wide 1 Sa orem aah Peete sina yf in Se igen tet ae sik eld ligt eres Tigh BN that all we noed dois to bat in 8) = ential variable (i.e. « aymbol for wh ch any oe st bit na stint eh ae Sear aes eee {VIE }1 CONCEET OF TRUTH IN PORMALIZED LANGUAGES 180 reach at once a sentence which eomprehends all sentences of type (2) ae special cases: (6) for all p, ‘pina true sentence if]ond only if p. But the above sentenoe could not serve aaa general definition of the expression‘ i wtruo sentence’ ecaute tho totality of jovaible substitutions for the symbol ‘is hero restricted fo ‘Quotetion-mark names. In order to remove thin restriction we hunt bave recourse to the well-known fact that to every {ue tenteno (nd generally speaking to every nentence) thar crre- “ponds « quotation mark name which denotes just that ¢en- tence With this fact in mind we could try to generalize the formation (6), for example, in the flowing way: (6) for all z, x in a true setence if and only i for @ tin Pr 1 denial with, end. [AG Sra sight we should perhaps be inclined to regard (6) 08 ‘a coroct semantical definition of ‘tre sentence’ which realizes ve precae way the intention ofthe formalation (1) and there- fore to. aveapt it as & satisfactory solution of our problem [Nevertheloas the matter is not quite so simple, Ax soon a8 we ‘ogin to analyae tbo signifeance ofthe quotation-mark names ‘whlch ccour in (6) and (6) se encounter a series of difieultion ‘nd dangers. ‘Quotation-mark names may be trested like single words of ‘sTanguage, and thu lke syntactically simple expressions, ‘The ingle cometiuvonta of these names—the quotation mark sn the expresions standing between them-—fulll the same fane- tion a the letters and complexes of sucesso eter in single ‘no independent meaning. words Hence they cam POS fe ‘then 8 constant individual ture as the rks) and infact name ofthe ‘quotation mi ‘oper name of aman, For example, the name 9°" denotes one orem hi fat sul be ferme 2 My eee eens en fore ean px el A femme (a) nt (8 hat(OF TRUTH IN FORMALIZED LANGUAGES VIN, 11 of th letters of the alphabet. With this interpretation, which seems to be the mest natural one and completly in accordance vith the customary way of using quotation marks, partial deuitions of the type (3) eaanot be weed for any sigicat generalizations, Tn no ease can the sentences (8) of (6) be ‘sccepted us uch a generalization. In applying the rao called the ale of ubetitution to (5) we ate not justified in substituting ‘srything at al forthe letter “p" which cecurs as «component of «quotation mark. namo (just as we. are not permited to substitute anything for the letter in the word tru’ Consequently me obtain as conelsion not (6) but the following Sentence: ‘pis a true sentence if and ony if iis ening. Wo se at once from this thatthe sentences (8) and (6) are 0 formulations ofthe thought wo wish to express and that they ‘ein fct obviously senseless. Moroover the sentence (6) loads ane to a contraction, for we ean ebuin fom Ie a easily, in addition to the above given consequence, the conte Aictory consequence: ‘pie a tre sentence if and oly if i ib ‘at owing, Sentence (0) slono lads to no contradiction, bat the obviously senseless conclusion follow from it thatthe eter ‘pn the only true sentence. ‘To give grater clarity to the above consideration it my be pointed out that with our conception of quotation mark ames they can bo eliminated and replaced everywhere by, 0 Seregy te crmeronting strc dnp na. nevertheless, wo onside explanations of type (2) estrus bythe use ofauch names (er was done for example in (8) above) the wo se no way of geneelxing those explanations, An fi (or (@ we replace the quottioncmark name by the stryeueale dlecriptive name “Pe (or ‘the word whieh en {ater Pe) woe at once the abeuity of the tion. In onder to rescue the nt tok gute » dite sense of sentences (6) and (8) we ent interpretation of the quotation ‘ames, Wo must treat these names as syntactically com Poste expressions of which both the quotation marks and the ‘xpreions within them are parts, Not all quotation-mark ee Co eel cared ara iene oar by es ti Se a ere ties aay Ieem a Seong nencinel el rae ie Sircactnat soon cao : aaa able 0 ay istently to avoi Soriano gas opis er a smi teehee Ee ion Mere el gs se ey cy ee a ecto wh em et cereal Teo hat one otbe ntinoy of lar oh .as been given above, we can formulate it without iene some sanyo wna wae soa Sarge tr ti erat ee Rect Sate are vat ar sa il at oa 2 etal i 1 ald ot et cy whl tho ey oid He1S FORMALIZED LANGUAGES vinLA1 quotation funetions with variable shee of this frmlaton, {the symbol ‘' be @ typographical abbreviation of the expression ‘the sentence printed on this: . ‘We consider the following statement: page tine fom tee arguments. We sball give # IR cite wth ha ene en kp {es aoey (a in ft, te he aloe We establish empirically: inp (0) te onto at te sn rll i dati with Tags en ne i dential with mentees ome mak invest ny ste mute amen isonet quate nd toa tae thay fo all p and 4, if the sentence ‘p' ia identical with the - tentence ‘q', then p if and only if g. “ lyn el ana se cate a ey aha a th conan ofthe bovo interpretation of quota ie mt ly i wipe aha ion with variable argument, whe volhem ies cmt con soars sorothinn fe agc Fae eShelf seit darn ati cect he Mite ect thems oer the nee nn a ‘correctness of definition (6), even with Shr a dentate Our di ange Setumions to fr enti us in any oan toma that te “resent ecm nat dftion of be exrei sentence very real dificulin, We know of 80 {VI $1 CONCEP? OF TRUTH IN FORMALIZED LANGUAGES 142 pneral method which would permit ws to define the meaning Gf an arhiteary concrete exprwsion of tho typo "ia 9 true sentence’, where in the pace of '2' we have a name of somo entence. ‘The method illustrated by the examples (3) and (4) fail ut in those stations in which we cannot indiento for & given name of « sentence, the sentence denoted by this name {as an example of euch a name ‘the frst sentence which wil be ‘printed in the year 2000" wil serve), Bu sin such o caso we eek refuge in the construction used in the formulation of ‘efinition {8}, then we should lay ourselves open to all the ‘complications which have been described above “i the face of these facta we are driven to eek other methods ofaatving our problem. I will draw attention here to only one tempt to eonatroct a stractural such attempt, namely the at ‘dointion, The general seherae ofthis definition would be some- wn follows! ru edence io etn which posts euch {nth structural proper (.. properties eonersng the fora ‘hd order of suceion of he individual parts of the expr ‘lomo hich con be elaine from rick ond uch rarely envied expresion by mana of vc ad uch eta ans Joratona, ha nating pi wo ean re into seve 80 Tew from formal logic which enuble vo infer the truth oF {Anehol ofsentenoe from ota of ei etrostral properties; tr from the tru or falco of certain eeienes to nf halggoue properties of eter sentences wich canbe obtained from the former by means of various structural transforma: Aion, Hore ar sre trivial examples of uch Ln: CU, resin consisting of four prt of which tf is Fie anes cond the won nd fut are we htc, tru etc, iain entence consis cfu" BO, GL the fat i he word ifthe acon re eens {hind he word then’ the he fourth pre ita trae eee, SE laws (espctally chow of the cond ype) are wey import ‘With thet help every fragmenta dentin of truth thee tension of which embraces an arbitrary css of entanons, ‘bo extended to all comport sentences which canbe Dull ffoorenanen ofthe given cnn by combining ter DY meant3M CONCEPT OF TRUTH IN FORMALIZED LASOUAGRS. VHS! frac expen then an ony, an ot in ahr, by means of expreion Dlg to he tenia ale (or theory of dedi), This ead to thee of veting vp uticiently numerous, povertl and genet! ar for every sentence to fall under one of tho, ths ay we shold reach w general structural Usfiton af ¢ tog sentence. ‘Yet this way ab sata to be sas hop, nt lest far natural Ianguage onsen For thi ffs not something Grished,cloed, o hounded yet Smit. 0 not lid down what word canbe ade to i Janguag and tins in coin come lady bong it Fotenialy. We are notable to speciysrecturly tho xrenion ofthe language which we eal sentence, al et cane ditinguih mong them the ru oes, The stomp a Pa ara denon ofthe term trae ete appae ‘a ctpil langue i confronted with inupesifeaice ‘The breakdown of ll rovios attempt appt Ata therein maictry way of solving our proble T- Fortant arguments of «goal nature cain fact be invabed in support ofthis supposition so T sail now bit neat A character etre of ologualliguage in nes resou sine anguge) nite university Te woul tb in harmony with the apr of this langage i iy some ee ag wot ocurred which eld nat be ranted nto 5 could be eine that if we can spn meaning boat shingle canalsospacabout vin collogal language wo arto maintain this anveraliy of erryay ngage 2 Genneson with wean invwiaton, we tc, tbe om Skiont amino tho language to taseenes other expen, alate hina of Use a = Prewons atdnenince ctsning then nancy sll eth ‘Eaole exrenion as “ran tener “mame rot a i presimaby js hunny of everyday neg? Hishsthe primary ou ofal semantic anton te the suitons of the iro of rape ode Two omit ser to ove a proof that every language whic ‘ive in he atove sca, and for wih the hora laws of ‘yil,§2 CONCEPT OF TRUTIEIN FORMALIZED LANGUAGES 108 is appli expsaly to the hod, mt bo inconsistent. Thi pin ration th tomy a her whieh Tha en Iota To nd ih otis wo gto nton {vane amet 1 ro aah nin inte {hove formulation we ach th omit tnt no cma tiegonge cn eit which th ua Ta of lot bal ad Lae. fareame meets th flowing tne (1) fr TRelitec which ocr inthe langage mint nae of {hu cetnce elon tothe angus ery expen feral om (yooh oy etn (he anganget h l by t eneee amped swt tence fhe ngage in Ghvangange nut an empty aba pein sng tes ening ot (en be orate and ace thee mretion are cect, hen hry pouty of « cn eos came ih ong Sinnott tempt of ery gue sone i petiole and conn ome dv ath 1 emetic ition of pen ots, SPECIAL THE LASOUADE OF $2 Fomaume Grecucucs or Cums 1th tone ne peeling ction To sandon emer eae our rbl for the language of eres eforth entirely to formalized lan ie and est. mel Heth niyo frm oe {Fone eg a eaHY CONCERT OF TRUTH 14 FORMAL BD LANGUAGES VU {2 seta langues in ich in nih the tse of every expen minut diel by frm Wit "apn Sty eave ape. Sap," ‘ue f entrant T sal resent cect open wich al he fel seu (0) fr eho th langues «nt dnc Se in etree fl te pe wih i fen ft lng ae forma, cng a ih ‘rei whan bo fre wh pe ced sins i dng by mea of pl te Arad excaaly or eee ihr be cm Sowden fr the pure of yng te win erelnon te cana mg Teh nd the cto gow tage tosangesae te ene of in Inu of «prc fret daly eon ten of thio tat formalin lagunge Fost mace coer a i! guage ear wry ihwhich ductive ssc alt {5 i rota dion ogre tiene aga ‘Primitive statements; (6) in special rules, called Sie est ps a a n old wih permit ihe amfonaton af nono ter suerte wich can aoe se {anes y ator erst te operas a “renin lente pre ae —— are | provable or asserte ences.) "sana prin wo uta we sess ie hr sont nt Heese ‘tnd sciences in ono apeoint renee of the ‘orl rma, ual anon th sna spoon 'aning is attached. For such aciences the prob- Jem here discussed has "The fermen ope evant it in connexion with "D: () alist, 2 CONCEPT OF TRUTH IS FORMALIZED LANGUAGES 107 ‘Wo aball always ascribe quite concrete and, for ws, intelligible rmounings to the sigus which occur in the languages wo shall ‘Consider’ ‘The expressions which we call wentencos ail ro fain sentences after th signs which occur in ther Have In trannlated into collogial language. The sentences which are {istinguished as axioms wem to us to bo materially teu, alin ‘chooring cules of inference we ar always guided by tho prin~ Siple that when such rules are applied to true sentences tho sentences obtained by their use should also be true? “in contrast to natura Iaignages, the formalized languages “he univerality which was discussed at the end of the precoding section. In pertiolar, most of these languages possess ao term belonging to the theory of language, is. no Pxpremions which denote sigas and expresions of the samo oF ether language or which dewrbe the structueal connexions between them (ouch expressions T eall—for lack of a beter term -—arctual-deseripise). For this reason, when wo invest ute the language of formalized deductive science, we must ‘wave distinguish clearly between the language abou! which we peak and the language im which we speak, a= well as between, {he science which is the object of our investigation and che cence in which the investigation is carried out, The nates Sf'the expremona of the fist language, and of the relations Petweon them, belong to the second language, called the maa Tenpuage (which rey contain the fst as a part). The descrip~ cee af these expressions, the defaition of the complicated Convcpte, expecially of those connected with the construction sire’ Reductive theory (ike the concept of consequence, of ‘rovable sentence, possibly of tru eatens), the determination Bite, propertin of these concep, i te taak of the second theory which we sall call the melathory. Vor on extensive group of formalized languages it ia possi 5 ang ape einen san cnc cine eects ee SOAS enc on seg of te ocr ip eons ae como ta thy hee eerCONCEET OF TRUTH I FORMALIZED LANGUAGES vin,j2 lores nner eecelarad and Sry trea eee tag ca re co ee en itn se ie em ‘oprah as de aoe heim ono anne icra pre ce reeset ean fl Se boat a igen il ee . pekto aon) considerations, the language of sce tn nes gl Sood teres maleate lasses is a fragment of mathematical logic and. ean be 7 teene asus called Boolean algebra or the algebra af logic: Le bas ae apie car te fe (ee a a nie nt es a tat Eeccarnntemage wenn TE ee te It he Regen eee coe aes sc i, i of patio a aE Sea ee ny hart itr cnie sei ome lng eee ed st ‘Blot expences ca be mito ra a nga Tae ways chest brgtny vain ou tthe ie See a Sha ratte vini,§2 CONCEPT OF TRUE IN FORMALIZED LANGUAGES 180 meaning respectively with the expressions ‘not’, ‘or, ‘forall {in the sonse in which this expeeson was uae in statement (6) fof §1, for example) and "is incladed in’. In principle any fbiteary symbols could be used. at variables, provided only that their mamber isnot limited apd uhat they are distnet jn form from the constants, But forthe further eoure of ur work itis technically important to specify the form of these ans exeety, and in wuch ay that they can ealy be ordered in sequence, Tahal therefore seas variables oaly such xym™- Dole a2, a, ‘ze, and snslogous signs which consist of the symbol ‘ana number of sal strokes added below, ‘The ‘ign which hea keuch small strokes (being any natural number ‘istinct from 0) will bo called the Eth warible, In the in tuitive interpretation of the language, which T always have in Imind here, the variables represent names of clases of indi Viduals, As expression ofthe language we have cther single ‘onatants and variables or complexes of euch sigas following one ftnother, for example: ‘Nz, 'Nizix’', ‘Alzz012.2", ‘flee, Tie, dz.20', ‘zt! and 60 on. Expressions of the type aap and Tay wherein the place of "an cote tentental estonia Mauhanain the ploeof an any vibes, pes, ae ead! hoc’ (ors not ew that ep org oral ses eho! thecal cacy reps Teng Sompaate renin, thne whith are nt gs, oc ht thy cme ore oh net mre [SSS Shun the cape Ten composed of the (#0 semaine expen 'N" and Tn or of the expressions ‘Miran ec olny of th exprnione Wa 2 ute ppt domain ofthe fing considers ot lunge hcatelsof cate taelfbathecoresponding aaeeeeaee et dor investigations tong to the mataclss anaes ae tcped in tis wetalangage. From thi springs Teese ge the der some cea only ey ee ict tite nr ot te part at"TH IN FORMALIZED LANGUAGES VUILS2 one~ofthestractreofthemtal etlangugeandf themed. That etic mpm tothe two mat Soprint eee unraon fal thei nex sh lee th elgg, tnt expan oor na het ‘npmacin te fhe) tetg "potest fasion wih wt fr tats 8 mtathry oat a wl form van a ts in i Te ro ait ne ey ase ar fendamentl problems wee we to net the ‘sino be et tert iter tht we hn nse ning ny conor n th a that the detiton contracted poss ay pst so ston Hats tater a al ie te mtn fe antral Gave sa Gott mi with ying tatpat fo it Pate ‘mente te pre of ralig the metathnysie ‘ce resriy. tm part, lr of nen at tion do ate a al fm the aes te nc oa formalized deductive sciences, ‘neownes non the exreons of the maalnguage : sl eK ot tcp oo pl rate dae te arr, rom any acy. dg tom atta pi "Tey en be vl ns pr zen adden execs, tts be i ln te pet eae inn haves of exe "Hehe ts mm nth stants a ae thus “not! or ‘it ix nat trie that’,* ‘or’, ‘for all’, Se i ede a tt to ee ro bln fo arto woe very expr a th lng ihe ann Poca tn ane" clases) a ai th tation topo laa Toto ‘Tete Tothemme egy ng arn of oa SIRT tre tea nd a tis a ya a Ale ‘it }2 CONCEPT OF TRUTHL IN FORMALIZED LANGUAGES 71 ‘expesions from the domain ofthe sentontial caleulu, of the fiat order functional eleuli and of te ealeulus of clases, for example, if.-sthen’ ‘and ifandonlyif' Jorsomes" (0 there ivan 2 auch tha.) “in ot inched in —in aymboln in ris ine from’ in agi "asia an clement of ‘enna a element of in symbole “pal las, ‘la of al x vuch that, and so on. We also find here some exprmions from the domain of the theory of the equivalence of clases, and of the frithmetio of cardinal numbers, eg. rite las’, nfnite las’ “finite cardinal moomber), “infinite cardinal umber en t's t's +e Finally Tahal ned some terms from the logic of relations. The clas of all objects z, to which there corresponds at least one object y such that 2Ry (ie. = tania in the relation R toy) wil be elled the domain ofthe Diary or hertermed relation R, Analogously, the counter domain cf the relation Bn th st of all objects y For which there is wt Ieont one object 2 auch that 2B. In the ease of many-termed ‘Rlations we do not speak of domain and counter domain, bot OF the Tal 2xd, Bij th domain of the relation. A relation having only one element 2 ia its domain and only one element {nts counter domain atelation which thus holds only between Zand y and between no other to objects) is called an ordered dain, where xia the id andy the szond member. Analogously aasng wary termed telations we dein ordered triples, quadruples, itd in general ondered ntuple, If for every object y belonging othe counter domain of two-termed relation R there is only ncabjectxauch that 2Ry, then the relation Riscalled one-many. ‘Tho concept of nequence will play a great part in the sequel, An. Unfnteaguence a one-roany relation whose counter domain is Ro claw ofall natural mambersexcluding zero, Tathesame way, the term ‘finite souence of terme’ danotes every one-many felation witore counter domain eonssta ofall natural numbers Touch thet 1 k= n (here nis any natural number distinct from 0). The unique + which satisfies the formula Rk (for a ven voquence Mand given natural mimber Eis cll the1 CONOEPY OF TRUTH IN FORMALIZED LANGUAGES VIKA? th term of the sequence Ryo the term of the sepuence B wih ines, and ie denoted by “Ry”. We say thatthe sequences and 8 difer in a moa th Kit place, if any two conesponding terms of hes soquenes Bj andjare identical with theexcepin ‘of the th terms Rand , which may be distinct Ti the allow {ng pages we shall deal with sequences of classes and of natal ‘umbes, ie. with sequences all of whove terms ate either dass ‘of ntvidaals or atara nubs. In partial, sequence ll ‘of whose terms ae classes which are included in given clas 6 wil be called a spuence of aelatos of the lan Tn contrast to the frst kind of expression, those ofthe sod ind are specif rms of he metalanuage ofa ractra dei tie characte, and thas names of conerete ign or expresion of the language of the ealeulu of classes Among these ar, in he fist plac, tho terms ‘the ngtion sign, the ign of ogi um, ihe itm of th weniveraal quantifier, “the inclusion sign’, "he th aril’, ‘the expression which connie of tuo cee Czpreions = andy and expres’. Ax abv & the fist ix tums T shall ioe the symbols ‘a, ‘un’ ne’ and '°y’ (the sign thas denotes a sequen, theterms of which are the suecsrivevarabloty yr). THe {ert havo alrndy been used in introducing the rect tothe language ofthe cleus ofclmes. T hoe tha, thanks to tho ‘explanations lrenly given, no doubt wl remain concerning th ‘meaning of thse terms. With the hep ofthe terme (and P= bly general logical terms) al ther comeets of the 6 argoage of w steuctrallnriptiv kin ean be defn. Tt {249 £9 a that every simple or compost expen of tO Jeoguago ule inveaigaion tan un livia ae tS ealangunge similar t0 the stuctumlaleveiptive names Of tand's = ABS Py jetties vt eon aca mt Dansimow 9. x sth existential 2 We eaatntial quantifeation af the expres Te ere nin amas = Una ont snag ave thos introduced thre fundamental operations by _metns of which compound expresions are formed from sinpet >egation, logical addition, and univeral quantifeation. (Cegical addition is, of coure, the operation which const in forming loa ums of given expression. The terms negation soo teat ae as ee eth to era {08 exesions and to expresions retin from Show aera) ning ih nieces er ihe shove operons any number af times we are at a ive lass of expresions which are eqled sential ‘functions, “We obtain the con fein, ‘the concept of sewerer a a apecial ease fraps q ae 19 caine nt ae ei ser coped ea SNA Siete oes aera yy CONCEPT OF TROTHE IN FORMALIZED LANGUAGES 77 Drinsriox 10, x0 Oand onc ofthe Jaloning fe conditions nets: (8) 3 ita consequence ofthe Senet dec ofthe las X; (y) threes setential factions wand Tra entenceyand natural numbers and Laue thatthe sme ei qutfontion ofthe fection wy isthe wxieral quantification Syke fection wun obtainable from the function we by biting Trewaciate ve forthe warabe sand yi consequence of the cast op the mth degre (8) tere exe sententil fonctions wand we aerate entenes y and = auch tat, yond & ore universal ‘Peanisctina ofthe fonctions, G4, and w reapectiely and y aac emsomoopuencea of the clase X of the n—Ith dares (there sreoetontial functions wand easenoner yada natal number seer thace ia universlquantfation of the function 4 (et ei puatfention of the faction wr tse naka fee oy the nth Dxrrsamion 16. 2 ir a conse ine univer Mamableof andy is a consuenceof the cass X12 CONCEPT OF TRUTH IN FORMALIZED LANGUAGES ¥i.s2 sr re wr fetne wan a ne fons wand wo, sy and ‘etm Echt eral penn gf [ion wy ine mpm of ft “ihvwaty tcc fete fee haere Duro 6 isco te of en samy ce tad ors tate rh eta _ BR I er 8 pve) mate @ leary ines = € Pr—if and only if x is a comsequence of rom th eatin, yt tat wa hr szon ts oa tenn nia ti evs Sb oan fot tr of th men se Sons ray nh sos fs a ea ng rein) a ee 19) wre se on ‘Senet he na ssn bt sau arse St tain ofc pel yo oe nied nt the nnguge ier nto eke ‘cca chert sr mtn ee ir atin apni yoo te Son {Fi ae hn af es co lH pase ft ay owe he ae Ftc) tom tn watnowe nnn pp" att os Reentry greta art Phiten cheated omy SER era Steet cian ee erage emer whofe Ean rane oe Setaehd betes ee Readf ane pen ham Time ate ea nee east orp racscertnb eget not we ae ha et stain pr, ste) ene ore re sentental calculus. Translating the proof of this theorem! wo show suocemively from Def 13 that 12 CONCEPT OF TRUTH 18 FORMALIZED LANGUAGES 19 AieaFiatad MG ot and Garber Pa hebben Gat) are axioms; consequently by Def. 15 Nila arta) tna consuunoe of the at grad (ia) 8 cose veda he ma de ofthe elas fl xian. Hene, by Def 6 and 17,0 WG provable etn. om example of much inference the difcalis can be imepona which would atone ari if we wished to cliinat isthe avon of the metabeory the eumions whieh ar Fee eset mature, The fact thet tho axioms wold 10 ise ets the exten. of some pear een TRE abit we wish testa, ot very evant, uch ‘Re ortan the fac hat, even esuming he exten of re ome etanee,we might be abl fo eesh it rr ‘Bins uncn the et tit De etry fer the saith wrartemorecompbeste ete aise om Chapa ofthe theorem Pern) € PF which wae See Seen g dag ane ae eng wth special therems of Ben yal a Be can take nears to provide thee Stevan press wich guaran the extence of he SERGE cone forthe prot The dias would icrene SERED te paced to naemens of gee charter Sein tne at ators of certain are prove MCN Ure general ae emsequncs of ven ls of care WTAE thet oten te ores to lead among eee Sou att sasmpions sich would ot be SED thse wach, for native zon, we ba li {sed from the eons SSNS Math coool a 1218 CONCEPT OF TRUTH IN FORMALIZED LANGUAGES VIN52 For these reasons the standpoint might be taken tht Def. 17, in eae the existential aaromptions age rejected, would m9 longer embrace all the propertiee which we acrbe fo the coo cert of theorem. ‘Tho problem of «suitable ‘corection’ of the shove definition would then aris. More presiely expres, 5 wonld be a quetion of constricting » definition of thorn hich would be equivalent to Def. 17 under the existential sssumptions and yet—quite independently of these stun tions—would have as conrequences all theore of the 4yp° “if the sentence x exis, then © Pr’, povided the corresponding theorems € Pr could be proved with the help of the existent sesumptions T shall give here a brief set of en atempt to solve this problem, can easly be shown that the axiom system adopted in the mstatheory poste a interpretation in the asthe ofthe ‘natural nutere. A oneane eomeaponence canbe setup be ‘ween expressions and natural mombers where opertionso0 ‘numbers having the ame fortal propertin are correlated with ‘the operations on expressions, If we conser this cores dene, wecan pick ou, rom the clas of al numbers how which ‘cortlated with entenes; azong thee wil be the ‘inti? sumer. We ean introdace the concept of « ‘onsequence’ of ® ven class of mumbers, and finally define tho “aceptd” numbers ‘consequences’ ofthe class ofl primitive’ number. {wenow liinatetheexntnalamumption from the axioms the oneone eoreatondiapea: o every exprron watt ‘omberatlcoreypnl butt togverynunber,anexresso. But wo ean all preerve he eonerpt of nceepe mabe ‘weviomly tablish anid dotinn the Uhsoren ax thos which ‘zo cortlated with ‘accepted mutber. If wa ty, o8 the best ft ne dniton, to prove tha a eoretasentnee 8 ¢ orm, we shall no longer be compiled a is eslys0e0—42 ‘ero exten fy she etna Nevenon he roof will sil equire—and this must be empbaszed—e ‘xstential assumption, the serumption, nay, that thee ‘unt mficiently many natural nambere or what amounte tothe mame thing—eufliosty many dntint individuals. That {VIN} CONCEPT OF TROTIE 1X FORMALIZED LANGUAGES 166 inonart Grea deionised, ono math tn axon eer pn tnt he dn alin ete tan ma evn at ed mre in das tone udu wich wold 8 eee stone or blanch npn of toalere sm ae ts compa ofomeunse snot ren rae, When we ven ide ce mete ens al an a tei aa ed ot onthe bao the eae aor ee ale iy hh remap tte since a a theorem every consequence of the axioms, Tp our ase this rele can be divided into four rules—corresponding to {he four operations which we vse in the oanstruetin of con ee ofthe cncepl fetznce and af consequent eee etna once be ocnd ae erage tho cone of date ton, of oe and oF empl? ve Xia dedvtve apt fond nt ona) = X= 6 roses 1, Xisaconinentlae etc fondontyi! er sey enenees the 2 nt) er 220N8) Dorn ah, tea compl ao etn fenton a ary emer On) rz NED Inthe tater cp wi por vein 21, he senene = ond yar exalt raping ant opening 225.9 6S XES Tada 2 yc Once nd p46 On » sre ed anal ofthe coc toad in i el et Fi ren “ramets ranma ae Danxiri0x180 CONCEPT OF TRUTIE IN FORMALIZED LANGUAGES VIILA2 $8. Tux Coxcarr or Tacx Sexrexce 1 mie LANOCAGE OF ‘me CaLcoies oF Ciassns passion now tothe chief problem of thisarticlo—thecontrue- tion of the definition of rue sentence, the language of the ealelas ‘of clases still being the object of investigation, Te might appear at fit sight that at the present stage of or discussion this problem ean be solved without further difically, ‘hat ‘true sentence’ with rexpoctto the language ofa formlizd deductive science means nothing othe than ‘provabla theorem and that consequently Def. 17 is already a deGrition of troth and moreover a purely structural one. leer reflection shows, Jhowover that this view must berejecte fr the following reason: zo definition of true sentence which is in agreement with the ordinary usage of language should have any consequences which ‘contradict the principle ofthe exohaded middle. ‘This principle however, isnot valid in the domain of provable sentences. A simple example of two mutually contradictory sentences (i. such that one isthe negation of the other) nether of which is ‘provable is provided by Lemma E below. ‘The extension ofthe two concepts is thus not identical. ‘From the ituitive stand Point all provablo sentenoes are without doubt true sentencet (the Defs. 18-17 of §2 were formulated with that in mind)- ‘Thos the definition of true sentence which we sre seeking must ‘lo cover sentences which are not provable! ‘cna nw en ail so in ew ey atria. Sar op ‘lel ela th wenn Fife wich wpa nei of ‘stl te dint ean ct go ia tn tn Ee chert nto Sa i ‘Slug hea tes ts so Sebi poh pe Bot 20 wt Par 1p sto wah Pep. 1 1 isis yes ie a wna is tS B27, Fost 10} For gue didereot hans, whch wil be ucaued bOO™ contain with Th 3 wpe ff, ott) wkd tere he tance Mi Meue+ Uday PhP net g) mea OM Totuatry to approach the problem from quiteadifrent angle, wy ari tote eae email eon win AY sve now from §2, to every sentence ofthe language of the al- ul of classes there corespondain the matalangsage nt oly & ‘tame of thin sentence ofthe structurl-deseriptive Kind, but “ls esentence having the same meaning. For exemple, core sponding to th ventence ‘T] 2oT] 2 Adz. zis the name “PuiMuss tiny) and the sentence “for any chaos a and B we paved er bord trary sequence ff theres for am arbitrary clas a, clas bf which sb, Finally by applying Det. 23 we at once obtain 8 ofthe theorems which were desribed in the condition (a of be convention T: PU Usa 26 and only i or ery at a tere i a8 sachdate ch Ve frceny From this wo infor without dificult, hy using the kore hore of the ealetun of clans tha no tre seo that Ms Ussis Weean pel in an oxaetly anal th evar oer sv exnely analog way with every 0! ‘sentence ofthe language wo aro consnring. I for wh ® fence we construct a corexpoitng asetion desert a in onaition (=) and then apply th mide of inference used abo, ‘re can prove without the least ificulty tha this aetion i femanence of dein of trth mich wa hae oped ‘many case, with the hlpof only the simplest las of oe (Grom the domain of the sentental caleulus and the enlealus of clases), we ean draw definitive eonclusiony from theorems ob tained inthis way about the truth o falsity of tho sentences 8 ‘Vi,s3 coNCEEY OF TRUTH IN FORMALIZED LANGUAGES uation, Thus fr oxample Fy Usa to onto th uP ie alesis, With other mee, fh sntoca Fe ao atin tho too etn ea eed (eat wg ao tet he resus oth ecient ain of tho Imtathcry ep. 1H} Dat 3h alae vm ge tron forthe treks santene! Neverthe, togh he rena cbtane, the mening of be cresting expr the type re Tr beoomeintligibe sa snamiiguon Tesoald tit be noted thatthe tinea expel the enon () Of the convention Ti ar th vious consaence af out Station With thew dean th ede il dost hve reached snc De ty te hich tin tended to ave tania the conditions Breomventon In oie tox the cowition ofthe mater osetnur of he deftones on eae thi Wo, Sito whe sedying tome eerste general ores {hat canbe deve fom With view avoiding neuer Sng thi work nth purty tative ate, Taal give hoe their withon dae rol? ‘Tweonane 1 (The principle of contradiction), For all sentences alter 22 Te or BET This ‘Tweonae 2 (The principle of excluded mide). For all sentences x either2¢ Tr or Ee Tr tbe is oe tr106 CONCHIT OF TRUTH 1 FORMALIERD LANGUAGES IL §9 Ta the pot the floing mina, which flow from De 1 and 22 aye an cme pe Una A. 1f he cue fetes the sexe fenton 2 nde nite 9 cles sch at fr eye oie te ene aie be As an inmetinte uence ofthis emma an Def. 2 0 tina Lemma Bh tiation with Dele 22s 2 taal eae to Th, 2 Limos B. 1/0 and of ton files of se snes th emacs then sey infitesounee of as ger Turon. If X-¢ Tr thn Cn(X) <7 tha in On(Tr) = Tr. “ a “This them i proved hy complete ndution ted eis en Dat 15,18, 2 and 23; he flowing simple lena > ‘eal in he sonnei: Tanah ©. If yi wszraguntifeation of the enti Seton 2, then im adr tat ey Inte sequence of ate shold say te mcsery and un at ee ame serene of es eter. ‘her ontaine in The. -3 may be summa ne flowing (obtained with the hp of Des 120) ‘eons. The las Trivett and competed nom “atone Bry provable ene nar ante, ithe word Pe ‘This theorem flow immedi from Def. 17, ft TH 3 ‘and from Lemma D, the proof of which (on the basis of Def. 13 Lam C among ees) sate no iat. anotaD. Every exom is ata atten Th, Geant be nero ‘Tarownm 6. There exist true sentences which are not provable, in other words, Tr ¢ Pr, vn ‘his an nett comin of 2 an hl von tee wih nt quay Ta B Bak uaa? Pe and P,P Pe! Anwoualry tom neta he Fons Tuvan 1, The la ri oma, nt ome davai son Treinen who ae in rages th rtd ner datas snc n print ee ea oael sound ile) shes Caen anya mh grater partie eae aihcadinaed twa proa coe, 7H Sey oat oer nde! oma eee ce lao sen rey eee ee athe ona se foe voted SRR Me Leat omvel we ron co or Oe gel one the er ammenities othe ae piety. Wa oe lag ee cee om in nn wes ca creme Twa fr oey went re mts vat On en oespi ere ee ee faa ton bre oF canner, rae tamemage, matic Sie sea at tet ea ti te sto eae a oc Se ESS SRST ace ye a ha Se el ea tn cay BP, gs hate anton sunt ras his concep wa tenon200 CONCEPT OF THUTH 18 FORMALIZED LANGUAGES VIULS3 of the class ace hate p and expressions ofthe type ‘Lz 8 he subclass x ofthe cass ais conan in the ebelasty of the las We obtain a precise definition of this concept by means of 8 noolifiation of Defs, 2 and 23. As derived concepts we intro: ‘duce the notion of a correct sentence in an individal domain with elements and the notion ofa corret sentence in eeery individual domain, Teis worthy of note that—in spite of the great impor tance ofthese terms for metamatheinatial investigations they Ihave hitherto been used in a purely intuitive see without any attempt to deine their meaning more closely? Derisini0x 24, The sequence fatto the sentental function 2 {nthe individual domain aif and only ifa ina clas of individual, Lan infinite sequence of subelasen ofthe class and semen ‘Lencion satisfying one of the following four conditions: (a) here Ram abs kond bch hate ih =f 8 sa entental function y ouch that x — an the sequence f doc nat {Si vin endive a) there ental fae ine 9 and +2 and feats either y or = in the indedal dann 6) tere ea nataal member band o- Lentil function y such that x = PYyy and every init sence 2 of subclasses ofthe clase a which difers from fin at mast Be ‘th place satgfiesy in the individual domain a Dtrsmion 26. x iaa comet (rv) sentence in the iniviaal domain aif and ony if x € 8 and exery infinite arguence of stb tees of the clas atsfies the aeence nthe indian Devineriens 26, 2 8a correet (Arie) sentences in an individual ‘rhea chia inhale dso an ‘ect wn nthe til dana ac en a by Hen iho ion Tete ler den a a pen 8 a Sania me nae asap ipo iat wt rope acne eae ao {VIE §3, CONCH OF TRUTIL IN FORMALIZED LANGUAGES 201 Dernsrri0x 27. xisacorect (ts) entenceinev domain—in eymiols 26 C1—‘f and only f for every class a, iva correct sentons im the individual domain a If we drop the formula ‘2 € 5" from Def. 25, and therchy rmorlfy the content of Dele 2 and 27, we rench concepts of ‘more general nature which apply not only toventences but lw arbitery tententil fnetions ‘Examples of the application to concrete sentences of the concepta defined will be given below. Ta tho interest of more fonvenient formulation of various properties of thete concepts, Tinteoduce soe further rymbolical abbreviations Devisemion 28, 2 = ¢ ifandonly if 2 Feats Meal Mattar inna an Devivtmox 20. 2 = aif and ony if WMasiet Uster-a -Aninensily econ, the sentontial fonction estates that the lass “denoted by the variable ty const of only one element; the fentence «which plays & great part in subsequent invertga tions, states that every non-noll clas includes e one-lement lacs a8 part Dermox 90, 2=, if and only if either » Pimernsoanten rier Se $ frat) Dunmow ths 2 yifet en fra = Oon2 = Bo ond orm ¢0and 2 = Bas Be It follows from these definitions thatthe sentences an Y= (chore nn ang natural numb) respectively asert that there are Cr oct w and exactly n distinet oneelement classes or, what ‘mounts f the same thing, stint individuals. Desisrnos $2, xisaquaatitativesentence or asentenceaboot the number ofindvidoa) and only if ere anit egence of natural numbers suck at eter 2 Srp ers 3 Ye{02 CONCEPT OF TRUTHS FORMALIZED LANGUAGES ¥I3 1 shall now give a sovies of ehartterstic properties ofthe efined conoepte end the more important connexons which rete them with notions already intrntuced. ‘This is the plse for some results of « more special nature which are connected ‘ith the parte propetn of the clin of ls ad cannot be extended to other disciplines of related logical stro ture (eg. Tha. 11-15, 24, and 2) ‘Turon 8. Ifa isa class of ndiidvale and the cardinal ‘member of this ca, he in onder that x shouldbe a corel sneet in he ini domaine 8 eeary and een a ‘The proof Is based on the following lemma (among, other thing) Which follow fom Def. 28. Lnnoca F. Let a ond bbe to clases of individuals and Ra ration which sats the faltering conditions: (a) for any f° and ify thn f° isan infite squence of sublanes of % and of eases of bi; (@) 1a amy infil sequence of be dase then there sguenceg such tha "Ry ()if 084 inginite sequence of eubelane of b thn thre ta seguence feb at {By (8) for ald ff", 9, and lif JR’, "B's end and Lae nara numbers distinct from 0, hen fi¢ fifa ony Voi If {Rg andthe arquence frist sential ation in the indict domain a then the aeuence lo sates tit Sanction inthe individu domain b From this lemma, withthe help of Def. 25, wo easily obtain ann which, tte wit D2, ts given Th 8 Lan Af the eam ad bo nnd a the 2 carina wander, ns fae tote te nea domain, then xisalsoa caret arte inthe indivi dain coring to Th 8 fr Lemme ) th extension of he cept “a sentence which is correct inthe individual domain 2” depends entirely on one property of the clas a, namely on it cardinal number, This enaes Ws to neglect ithe segue ll reutsconoering this concept, because they can o deed immediately from the comesponding theorems relating 10 {inh }2 CONCEPT OF TRUTHL IN FORALIZED LANGUAGES 53 With the help of Dela 2¢ and 25 the Ths, 1-6 and Leminas ACD can be generalized by replacing the expressions “innit lnpuemer of lane the sequent «stipe the mnt fun Tiom sv rue sentence’, al On, by “afte sequence of us lasses of the class a, "Whe wequence«-- salsies the weatntnt function «in the individual domain a, “eorrct wntrce in the individual domaina’anded on, reepectively. Axa consequenceof ‘Th, $tho results 0 obtained ean be extended to sentenees which belong to the classes Cy, In this way we reach, among other things, th following generalizations of Ths. 46 ‘Tuvonem 9. For every cardinal umber E the class Cty is @ consistent and complete deductive sytem. ‘Tuxonen 10, For every cardinal number k we have Pr sly tnt C4, Pr Tn reference to Th. 10 the following problem present itself hw the lt of axioms in Def, 13 to be completed, so that the clans of all consequenoes of this extended class of axioms may aii with tho given else Ci? Ths. 11 and 12 which follow immediately below contain the solution ofthis problem and a rove that~with respect to thelanguage ofthe ealeutusof classes eee definition ofa ermet sentence ina domain with elements (Def, 26) can be replaced by another equivalent one which is Sealogous to the definition of provable sentence (Def. 17) and therefore hata structural character "Tauonest 11, 1/ is @ natural number, and X th class con sisting ofl th azioma together with the sentences «andy, then Ch, = Cnt, ‘Tweonxse 12, 1f k isan ignite cardinal number, ond X the class contig fel he azioma together with the sentence and all entnceay ehere Li any naterl number), then Oty ~ Cn). ‘The proof ofthese theorem is base chiefly on Ths 9 and 10 and the thee following lemmas: Lema H. Por every cardinal number we Bate a € Ch Lewoen 1.1 is natural mumber and a cardinal number ine em Bo Eh ad, © Cl but E Candy © Cl20 CONCEPT OP TRUTI IN FORMALIZED LANGUAGES. VILA Lanta K. If 268 and X ie the clase consisting ofall the axioms toguther with the sentence a then there isa sentence y which fs equivalent tothe sentence ith respect to the class X and such that vither y is a quantitative sentence, or y € Pr or Ge Pr. Lemmas Hand T are almost immediately evident, but the oof ofthe very important and interesting Lemma K is ather Ait. By means of Th, 9 and Lemma It is possible from Th. 120 Aerive the folowing consequence which combined with Tb. 11 brings out the eesontial differences existing in the logical struc tr of the classes Cy, according to whether the cardinal umber afte on init ‘Twnonsn 13. 1fisam infinite cardinal number then thee i lass X which contains nly a finite numberof eontences which are not axioms, and alo satisfies the formula ty = On(xy From Lemma T and Tha 11 and 12 we ensily obtain the follow ing consequences: ‘Taxon 14. Ifkiea natural number and 1a cardinal member istinct from k, then Ch, Chand Ch Ch ‘Taxon 15. If k and 1 are infinite cardinal numbers, then OH, = Oh ‘Tuono 16. If kis an infinite onrdinal number and 2 © Cl ‘then there ina natural narber Lach that 2 Ci oer word, lass Ct i included in the nm of all the clasen ‘Acconting to Tha. 14-16 (or Lawn 1) tons oxide for OFF natural number kw sontence which ix correct in every soma +n it wai ha tm contain in therm t be foe St (Ghat 1, team oul div hn flowag sagem to apache ce te vith k elements and in no demain with any other eartnal num ‘er, On the other hand, every sentenco which ix eorrvet in o ininite domain is alo outrect in overy other iit soma (Grithou eoference to ite earainal number) as well i crt finitedomains, From this we infer that Ube agua json allows us to express such » property of chases f iv uals wx their being compoved of exactly & elements, whero & ix any ‘natural mabe; bt we fn inthis language no means by whiel srecen distinguish special kind of infty (og denumerabiity), Gand wo are table either with the help ofa single or of a finite number of sentences, to distinguish two such properties of ‘lasses ag Brivenoa and init." ‘By means of The 9, 11, and 12 we can prove ‘Tumonunc 17. If X Gv a consistent class of sentences chich contain al the axioma oether withthe sentence then there isa ‘andinal number kewch tha X = C4; 4f X iva complete deductive ‘ayer, thea X If wo combine this theorem with The, 11 and 12, wo obtain seruchural desription ofall complete deductive aystems which ‘contain all the axioms andthe ventence It should be noted that {he presence ofthe sentence ais exental here; the mlipiity of theaystems which do not contain this sentences significantly (gvater and thee exhaustive description would not at all be a simple matter “The remaining considerations concern sentences which ‘correct in every individual dua, ie. Belong Co the class Ct. ant ay py sp tsar Sky "thane ocapet pth 9r0n Le wi taal een a eS eilteeeraly m4 nf 0 and XH 43. Ho 9 dete ct a sno so, To 8 erat ca{96 CONCHET OF TRUTH IN FORMALIZED LANGUAGES Vis3 ‘ome 18, In order tha 6 Cit ia mcenary and unt hat, for every carnal number b, 26 Cty (in ther werd the las Cathe product of ll te clases Cy). ‘This theorem, which in an immodiate consequence of Def. 2 and’Th canbe easel sharpened by meansofThs. 0nd 16 ‘Tuomas 10, In oder that € Otitis necesary and eit ‘hat for every natural number, 6 Ol The conectness of sentence inal rite domains thus ena its comectes in every individual domain "The following two corollaries are derivable from Ths 9, 1s and 18 ‘Turon 20, Foresrycandinalnumber have Ct Cty 04 $0 ‘Tuomat 21. The ease Ct dese oye ‘Tamowem 22. Pr Ct, bl OF Pre ‘his theorem follows Som Ths 10 and 18 and Lemma Ls Toe Le we Ct bat Pr at a€ Ct follows atone fom Lemma Wand Th. 18. The exact prof of the second part ofthe emma is ensideraby ore ditt. ‘Twnonsm 23. If ina quantitative senence hen 2 Ot ‘ho prot, which is based on Ler, Th, 18, and Def $5 Mfrs ication ‘Tonto 24. Uf X ie the eae comsaing of all the ios fogter wth the sentnce a, hen CL On(N)- ‘This thcorem is most ealy proved with the Bp of Th 12, and 18, By using Lemma Kw obtain fom tat one: Tasonnn 25, 1/2 8, 2€ Grand 2 Ct, thon there ioe nant lative sentence y, which ie eicalen fo the centence 2 wih pet (othe clas Ce. By reference to Lomma Land Th. 24 we note that we Bav® ‘he flowing situation: the coneept of sentence which is soot never individual domain has larger extension than th «consistent but nota complele Lit §3 CONCEPT OF TRUTIC IN FORMALIZED LANUCAGES 297 concept of pravale rentence, sinc the sentence» belong to the txtension ofthe fist cone bat not to that of hemccons, Bat ‘fe inerease the xyser of axioms by just this singlenenence the two concepts beeune hlntical in extensim Becume st fecms to me desirable that, with respect to tho eatin of ‘lames, the concepts of theorem and of correct wentence i very individual domain should not be distnet in enteinn, T ould advocate the inclusion of the sentence a among the ‘ions of this scence. "The problem still remains of clarifying tho relation of the absolute concept of teu defined in Def. 23 tothe concepts we Ihave just investigated. ‘Ife compare Defs. 22 and 25 with Def 24 and 25nd apply ‘Th, & we easily obtain the fllowing result: ‘Twnomast 26. 1f4 i the clan of all individuals then x © Tr if ‘and ony if zis corect sentence in the domain a hun if i the tardinal umber of the clas a, then Tr = Cl ‘As an imate consequence of Ths. 29 and 26 we have. ‘Twrona 27. Cts Tr, but Tr gt If we bring together Ths, 25 and 14 ot Ths, 1 and 1 reach the concloncn that those sumptions of the metatheory trhich determine the eannal numberof the class of al indivi {Tans (and which do not intervene in the proof of Th. 26 ite) ‘ert an eaeatial influence on the extension ofthe term ‘true tence” The extension of this term i diferent according to Grhether that class is finite of infinite, Im the Bist case the {xtcnsion even depends on how big the cardinal numberof this classi motel ats irae fen fats a armany mm gat rn‘08 CONCRFT OF TRUTH IN FORMALIZED LANGUAGES vi ‘Because we can show, on the basis of the aystera of aasump: ‘ions here adopted, that the elas ofall individuals is innite, ‘Th, 20in combination with Th, 12 makes «structural cracter. zation of true sentences possible: "Twronsn 28. Inordr that 2 ¢ Tr, iis necessary and eficiet ‘hat zie a consequence ofthe elase which cones of alte asions logether with the eontence a and all sentences jj. where 48 a ‘natural number. This sentense could, in its form, obviously be regarded #2 4 defnition of troewntenc, Tt woud thon bo «purely st tural dentin, completely analogous to Def, IT of provable Aheorom. But it must be srongly emphasized that the sly of constructing « definition of such «kind Is poly sceidental. We owe it tothe specie peculiarities ofthe sine in question (40 those peculiar which, among other, hare ‘een expressed in Lemma K, which is the most ential remiss ‘nth proofof Tha. 12and 23) as wellag in some degree tte strong existential aaumptions opted in the wetahry. On the other hand—in contrast to th original dean —¥e have bere no genral method of construction which could be "apt a ther dnt ans tis worth noticing that by analysing the proof of Th, 262d ‘the lemmas from which thie tinarom flown, we ea obla& frveral structural ertrin of tat forall watonees of tO Janguago investigated. From Th unuchaeeiternn or quant: tive sentences i nity deriva, mvt the ot of avn K allows efetvey to ered with every me langungow woe which i equivalent oie ‘ot quunttaive, manifest’ true or maniftly fae ‘analogous mark hols forthe concep of correctness age or in every individual domain Sommevxing the most tw obtained in thi section we eat says Peanut ob We hase euccedat in doing forthe language ofthe calculus of lasses what we tried in vain to do for colloguia language: namely 1U,§2 CONCEPT OF TRUTH 1 FORMALIZED LAS! to construct a formally cori and materially adequate semantiad ‘definition ofthe expression ‘rue sentence ‘Moreover, by muking wo ofthe special peeuliartics of tho calculus of eases, wo have eo able transform thisefinition into an equivalent structoral definition which even yi m ‘general criterion of truth for tho sentences of the anygungo Of this eal $4. Tine Coxcerr of Tree SmNTESCE x Lanuvauns oF Fistte Oxo ‘The metbosof construction wb hve inthe previous section forthe investigation the langue ofthe calls of owes ean be applied, witost very Important changes, to ‘neny other forsale languages, evento ths witha conser iy more eomplated loge stuctare. To the following pages the generality of thee metho wil be emphasiand, the lita af tht applicability wil be determined and the mdietions ‘thio they unenointheievaroosconetets appbestos il be Trlly dened Tea no cans my intention, in these investigations, to con- sider al ngonges that ean eonctealy be imagine, or which ny one at any tine coll or might wh vo construc; rach an Tapt would be comemnet faire fem the tart. Ta what TihatlauybereT shal eonidrexlesiveyInguagesof he mame otra thn with ae Kaw a th eet yi {orportape unfounded conition that they” wl form in he future aa thy have done hitherto, a silent basi for the foundation of ho wba of dette kvl) An een these anguageeshow such get dileences in the construction {hat thls inventigation in perfectly genera, but at thes time presbe way must eneotterserows dul, These “lferzncnr are of ure rather Of eaigrapicl'natare, Ta sane lengengn, for example, only constants and vatabes eet te thei rn pre avoid the we of so-alle ‘Shia sig (racket, points, evn}. Tnsome languages ombote ofan suo specie frm are wae ax variable, no TER ns the ae sens he art he pay2810 CONCKPT OF TRUTH IN’ FORMALIZED LANOUAGRS VIILEE ad thei signicane, Th others quite arbitrary symbua may te used as variable, no lng as they ae distinguished By thet form fom th constants, Insomolangueges every expec system of nearly ordered sgn, sgns following one ante inline, but in others the signs may et diferent lve, aot ‘only alongside bt als Below one another, This alge she language nevertheles exerts fay strong inlunen on ie {orm of the construction inthe domain ofthe metalangge 42 vil dobtles be een fom a bre survey ofthe peteding Pr traphs! For those rezone aloe the following expen il have the nature of a aketch; wherever it takes «tore pred form, itis dealing with onertaly described languages which > oneracted inthe same way as the language ofthe cles of lames (Le. languages without techneal sigs, with vais ofan exactly pected form, with inar arrangement ofthe in every expresion and oon) Before we approach our pincpal task —the construction of She dentin of true sentence —we must undertake, in ere) oncet ace, tho construction ofa coreeponding metalanging® td theetabihrent othe metatery hich om he ope fed ofinvetigation. A metalanguage which meres out el sents must contain thre groupe of primitive expresso (1) expression of general lia! kind: (2) expesions baving ‘he ame meaning an ll the constants ofthe language tobe ds word oF which wufo for the definition of such expres (aking asa basis the rule of definition adopted inthe mst 1 in oir tte owing pion compe cin oe pis a es Uta eet Inge Shale arb mga Sarena {IIL 54 CONCEPT OP TRUTH IN FORMALIZED LANGUAGES #11 theory (8) expressions of th structural descriptive type which denote single signs and expressions ofthe language considered ‘whole lasses and sequences of such expressions or, fly, the relations existing between them, ‘That the expressions of tho first group are indispensable is evident. Tho expresions of the second group enable us to translate every concrete sentence ‘or, more generally, every meaningful expression of the language into the metalanguage, and thote ofthe third group provide for the assignment ofan individual name to every such expression ‘Theselast two circumstances taken together play an esentil prt {nthe fnal formulation ofthe desired definition. Corresponding tothe three groupaof primitiveexpresions,thofullaxiomsystem ‘ofthe metatheory incide theo groups of entences: (1) xioms ‘ofa general logical kind; (2) axioms which have thesame meaning ‘the axioms ofthe science under investigation or are logically stronger than them, but which in any ease suis (onthe bass Of the rules of inference adoptoi) forthe establishment of all ‘sentences having the same meaning as the theorems of the science investigaed* Gnaly, (3) axioms which determine the Tundamental properties ofthe primitive concepts of tructral- escriptive type. The primitive expressions and axioms of the fret group (as well asthe rales of definition and inference) may Dotaken from any sufiiently developed system of mathematical logic; the expressions and axioms ofthe second group naturally Alpe on the special peculiarities ofthe language invested for the third group suitable example are provied inthe presen {tationof§2, Itisto be noted thatthe two fist groups of pimitive "Th lady een mind (106-1 at ne ar re rte chee tne doe mc ca et rma a ue RCA rung fend uve mver ren rw ne che atid by i ee Be SE Siena oe SOMLISS Sin taser tae wy teeny212 CONCEPT OF TRUTHE IN FORMALIZED LANOUAGES Vit § eee SRinrshmaeastedloge sdcapana ty Samat of investigation (as is the case with the calculus of classes), they Srcontan ote Tecan ot shay having hen ie, catatonia ton net as of logge tin eel eta sues oa pis te amare ae as pee harp pee cinyeid Sew tea eee mater marae ‘cmt gw wpa i eet ae prise cn: rete ee es geal pretation ne ee ‘universal and existential quantifiers, which we have already ‘tinh Instn vo tes ween Saag aan sane Sunlusiari eee e language and denote concrete individuals, classes, or relation mrt oruole cote noe Senet gaa ie ‘Ss ofnee ohn eer eaca aee ee she of nda te we ml many Fa Sefer nt a a igi ty pee ee fae iae tte oon even sas eae tena the sate neta ea a retin wth oar en a he Se Un er ea es eee eae acca eng nnn ath att hee esa he speiicatio of ti intuitive sone wil dean pein Ue spec Postar othe ngage a tea ae Scan somplese of ohn hss at Fe as ies oa da rene a ae oe tere aeons hore te SE cs ate in See 1 wolfe mone 0 me ners Upto cal ae anton fandom (do ‘eah hale penton hat er ts a as fn ames, Tho rt sign och a comple always the na f= line ce ltn era sosjomling ra te call = entre forming) fant oe gee pine ntti fone. Sim tha reminngni r etel prt ma fed, Hak arguments to th plc they may. For ovey conan ua th lange sina fhcserton the sara he etn cles a tho iver! and extent! quanto primitive fri ct coma hh consis hg (he etna eae tren bon they appear in the lng, dott orur Inthe rina fncton a fnces or eps bt cach Pee ca pert pine tntn) Next we inoue She undone operons om expres BY meats of hich ceadettetcyeafnsarfomned fom pero Tn aiton ee Sferuine f epaton, lel aiton and univer ‘Sameton hich weave meting? De 2,3, and ENauer heroes alps df! operations eh ‘Tg sttipeatin, formation ofp and eq Troon wlan extend qustisenton. ach of te feta Cots in pating i font of the exprion cow rt no to sme expen acorting TEEStopenton trons ctbeoomantn esr tiki htlong tothe laine oroneof he te quant seein whe vas moet long The aaa chich we tn fom the pinstv fnetios by SERIREUS fine any mobo ies at in ny order my functors ith mars of emrion mens wa ch ha Intrpetten Sea Sattar i ou oe by sme enn op. 1 ot fy Sy ri tn Sy Coen re aie omen tor tel to Sitingah betwen ee ag of rer Co re ga ter mi. Segal nt cu ef rsa ree ery oma rsa he cnt ney ue tea tha we‘he fandamental operations we calaentential functions. A the vain which ocr ine given sntntalfanton we ean Aininguob—by mean of recive detations—free ad band ‘arinbles. Senta faction without fe variables ae eld Pentnee (Det, 10-12 in 2) Next we deine yet other concepts which are coy com rmcted withthe deductive character ofthe sine ane ‘estigaton, namely the concept af acm, ensepeonce, Boren. Ainog the asa we inhi swe eatin ital fenton whieh ar conten manne arf that ad firth fiat hind of axioms of the exes of eases ( Det 19). Moreover the dfnion of axiom depends ely 00 the individual peal of the ance invested ne times oven on asldnialfastre which are comet ith torial devlpmest. Inthe Geinition of the owe of conenuenc we follow mais melndic—tbe ptr ‘Thoopations by mean of which ne fora the consuence of fen clam of wntenee ier into essonial ponts om he ‘erations which were given in Def, The comune {he xis are alld prowl etc eorene ‘After thi elninary wrk we arn nov to our rnp sk = thoconstraction af correct definition af trac een, Au ¥® ‘inf 3, the method of constuction vane tow precupPose Stadetntonof nate cong amore gn in ich fundamental importane fornvetigatins inte ema oflanguage. mean th notion of th afin of enna ncton by spun of ies, tthe say neon | av ‘ompt to diy the emomary mening of thi expe ninry wane. T have pot o ain draw Cone leniton oft ence eaten a nb ae Of recuniv dit, Forti arp me —reling th rere defnitn of snenta fnstion ant Dring intive sense ofthe pititie seat fonctos tnd he fundamental operations on expresions—o etablih {facta (1) which eequnses sty the funaentel fe Sons, aod (2) how the conept of sation behaves unt ‘the application of any of the fundamental operations (or to put it more exactly: which sequence satiny th aentontal function which are obtained ftom given sentntial fonctions by anean Of one of the fundamental operations, asuming that it has Soa been established which sequences stify the wentential Tanotions to which the operstion is applied). Axsoon as we have coved in making precise the sorte of this concept of watt- faction, the definition of truth presents no further ditesty the te sentences may be defined ax those sentences which are satisfied By an arbitrary sequence of object “inearryingout the plan justaketchedinconnesion with various ‘concrete languages we nevertheless moot with obstacles of fun ‘damental kind in fet ont atthe point where we try nally to formulate th orrect definition ofthe concept ofsxtisaction, Tn fre to make clear the nature of these difieulties a concept thus frat be diseased which we have nt hitherto had an oppor tunity of introducing, namely th concep of emantca category. "This concept, which we owe to E. Hustl, was introduced into investigations on the foundations af the deductive sciences by Ledalowsk. From the formal pont of view this concept play f part in the eonstruction of acince which is analogous to that layed bythe notion oftypeintheeystem Principia Mathematica Pe Whitebead and Rossel, But, 9 fara its origin and content fre concemed, it eomesponds (approximately) rather to the Rulon concept of part of epeech from the grammar of Toulguial Tanguage, Whilst the theory of typet was thought Of chiefly as-a kind of prophylactic to guard the deductive Scionoes ngainat possible antinomies, the theory of seman- tical categories penetrates so deeply into our fandamental Intuition regarding the meaningfalnes of expressions, that itis avely pouible to imagine a enti language in which the Cchtencer have a clear datnitive meaning but the structure of seen ar ernie shove hry? garner cf era Liteon ote Ee SOSEER Ree igh can Clon a ian ny, tg raFor reasons mentioned at the beginning of this setion we cannot offer here precise structural definition of semantal category and will content ourselves with the following approxi mate formulation; two expressions Belong fhe same semantiz category (1) thet ia sententia function which contains one of thescexpressions,andif 2) no sentential function which eontins ‘one of these expressions ceases to be sentential function if ‘his exprsion is replaced in it by the other. It follows fom ‘his thatthe relation of belonging to the same category i foxive, symmetrical, and transitive, By applying the prince of abstraction all the expressions of the language which ae parts of sentenial functions can bo dived into mutually exclusive clases, for two expressions are pt into one and the samo cles if and only if they Delong to the same serantcal sategory, and each of these classes is eae a semantical ca ‘ory. Ationg the simplest examples of semantica categorie it tufcos to mention the eategory of the sentential funtion, farther the categories which include respectively the names of individuals, of elses of individuals, of two-termed relations ‘tween individuals, an soon. Variables (or expressions with ‘ariables) which represent names of the given categories Wks: ‘ee belong 0 the eame category. Tn connexion with the definition of somantical category th folowing question arises: inorder to ext the fact that sven expressions belong to ne and the name semantial eae {ory it necomary te eer al possible wentontal Fanctons hich ontain ono ofthe given expreione ad to inveetigee their behiour when an of thee expr x replaced By 8 ‘other oF doit sito mk tix abr mana 8 {nonly one cae? From th stanpint of ths ordinary usage of language the second possibility seem much more naturals 3 ‘order that two expressions shall elong tothe wane semantion! sevens of tw sete alc mentine, sow tha lan ofl run sentences forms a eomsisent ed complete dedatiet system (Ths. 1,2, and 4) ‘an at nmediat, although « womowhat subsidiary, eon ‘sequenee of these facts we obtuin the theorem thatthe else of a Provable sentenrslkecee forme a consistent (although not neces ‘sacly complete) deductive system. Ta this way we are able 10 Produce proof of the conssteney of varios atiences for which ve can construct definitions of truth. A prof earried out bY 1 Same frter consonants type ar dared inthe a ‘thor “On rd atts are ec ge SES ave ge els ny ps oes = ‘VEIL §4 CONCEPT OF TRUTH IN FORMALIZED LANGUAGES #37 ee recone, Twill bat om th dtstiveartint epee Sra een na men surae renee a Seep pete voces + Ajo han hy itt inant in ome Aine 1p yt aati rm te a man stn pve nee eee ay ny mone impure re Bert Bos ie sate an th i aa al ge aint oa seme man 1 tacos with hn he pra vot Seren asiidloea, a G8.) rose ang) Fo ‘ada a cpantotnan ofthe mcinthory may be dravae, In Peseta Ta donne ee oe fy Ml gl acs wren ee teary etndo not for i eee ee eer ‘fetal dation inet «pri hopes Sometimes i imi ing tarry ated So! bm of earn i imome a tenn thine ota correo ci ita alse Bt ocuseastspaesl eat eat ene Seino ere rene apie eee as erie it nd he peg mein rt se Sih, thw ier rs cy He ‘ptr tan ib rape Seton aah ea wo languages, that of the calculus of classes and that of {eM wl ie dee ope So ‘Seine cre cot aa eg sree engi Si en ess est mo see oe ingens etnies chau expressions ts deseribed in mich a way that from t ‘oe eg, mi ham vn an th ey ee of een td ei oe ogg ie op hed selon“ intra oe Ce Ciao "Fe ee acs ‘ere he hai a ol al eg SRL ita tot a rue ii by rete ro edt ao SEARO Se ae en etl Leia mente dao Sytner hea ee ia ton neers ea 4 mattered thn the sonst a’ sem detion ines SSS ae aint anton ‘VIL, §4 CONCEPT OF TRUTH IN FORMALIZED LANGUAGES $39 ‘the sententalesleuns, for which this problem could bo rela- tively easly solved! “all eass in which we are able to define satinfetion and the notion of tue sentence, me ean—by moans of « motiieation tt these defnitions—alko define two sill more general conceptn ff relative kind, namely the concepts of satiation and cor- ck sentence—both with reapet toa given individual domain a. "This meulieation depends on a suitable restretion of the domain “fobjecta considered. Instead ofopereting with arbitrary indivi ‘Gals claacy of ndividuas relations betwecn individuals, advo tin, wodealenclosively with theolemonts ofa given clasa ofindi- ‘Faluala, subelases of this clas, relations betwoon clement of {his clos, and soon. Ttisobviows that in thempeial case when {s the clot of al individuals, the new concept coincide with the former ones (et Def 24 and 25, and'Th. 28). Ax Thave already ‘Cuphscued in $3 the general concept of corect sentence in & {Gren domain plays a great part in present day methodologies! Recarchee, But it must be added that this only concerns 1e- TEarches those objet is matheraatical logic and its ports. Ta ‘Gamenion with the opel sciences we ae intrested i correct sEitenoce in a quite specif individual domain for which the [eneral concep loves importance Likewise tn only in cons ‘Ronon with aeienoee which are parts of log that some general ropertion ofthese concept, which were proved in §3 for the Farprage ofthe afelus of cates, prsere their ealtity. For CNet happens tht in thee scenes the extension of the fen "correct sentence in the individual domain a” depends tSclusiely on the cardinal number of the clas a Ths i there otigation we can replan this term by the more convenient tera "torece sentence in a domain with kelomente’ (Def 26, ‘Th s), ‘Tho theorems previously discussed concerning the con crt of truth, sch asthe principle of contraction and the rt ea mide can be extended tothe concept of correc f= ‘ritetna given domain. ‘The concept ofcorretsentencein every + ct om ps 307 and 2215 La tr hi ti inte240 CONCEPT OF TRUTH IS FORMALIZED LANGUAGES VIII,§4 individval domain (Def. 27) deers special consideration Tn itsextenson it stands midway tntwven the conspt of provable sentence an hat of tee emtenor; the clas fers nto in every domain contain ll theorems an sonst exclaiely of te sentenees (Th. 22 and 27) ‘This cas is therefor in several rower than the easof al true sentencer cnt, forexample no sentences whowe validity depen onthe mag tu ofthe nero al individuals (Ty. 2), Tie dese transform the satom of the provable sentence of erry eee into complete one, ti neesery atthe outet to en fences to th system which decile the question how many Invdaal exist But for vaio reasons another pint few seems tobe eter entalished namely the view that the dein reguring eh probens shouldbe lt to the spect deuce ‘cine, wht in logis and its part we shold try fo ene only tht the extension of the conept of provable sete coincides with that of correct sentence in every Indra domain. Fora supporter of thistandpont the question whether the extension ofthese two coneepta is actualy ental of seat importance, Inthe caw of mgative answer he probe tise of completing the sxiom eaten ofthe since ete in ‘such @ way that the class of provable sentences thus extended 2 coincides with the clas of wentenete which re coms very domsin. This problem, which propery bean the question of tactrally characterising the haar come, en be poe ony ina fow ee 8)# Cee rally speaking the lilo premntt hy thsquetom a ‘os een than thine nme with thea pol ofastrctura dtm of tr entnee, Wee wine tical when weattemp to dtine uct the emcep of correct sentence in «domain wth keements, Only in tho where & i ike number ei eny to given gemeal me ‘ovlled on the method of matics from investigations o ‘stendedsentetil aca, which makes natural defi “i eu th oar Fnetionn eas hs pons which ead “Ackerman, Wye oly ba ea Criterion hichenbler ta decid rom form fay tte —— ‘a wich oe oer eltingt an ler {ine in ect yar muro rete hae ren bin hich oreo Tonal ctraearee te meenaeg meattmamay ae Seicacvaeentomics Seth meio oftntdran ning yon he ogee met i cys nding etn, ogg ot SS genera ry of ne il sare a a. eam Innguage is noteworthy beau, in eit of it elementary trgoture and ite poverty im grammatical forms, tars Pendent 0052 2 su ei SSRI etiam oreo‘ME CONCEPT OF TRUTH IN FORMALIZED LANGUAGES VII.§S {eformalation every idea which can be expres in th wine language of mathematic! logis, Tis lel to inogie © simpler language which ean do this! tg hy ea te san stant ee inthe prvioulyinvesiated senor, the cgn of gation td of loi stn, wall atthe nverml quanti Se ‘aviables we wo mah pms X22 7% and no, ‘gu compord ofthe jbo anda number fl es stove and below. The sgn having m sto abve and bale ‘alo the bah era of the nth order ans dnc by symbol ‘TP. The variables FIV Vs. rpenentrenpsively ‘ine of inva, objects ofthe a ode; elace fn dhs, objets ofthe 2d order; ase of auch cases, objet ‘of ho Sed ode, and soon. These vevabes ebb bln to innitly many seat xpos As pine snl Al function we have expesions of the type XT" wht a the ple of “X" any variable ofthe n-th order and end of Ye vaiablo of the ath onder owur. Thi expres SA so ee me ea re Sects Shee eset Cag hoe acannon cicada atria aecanctne ran lt Se a cs a SS way eb tots rt et Tee arias aT SS ee ‘VIN, 95 CONCEPT OF TRUTH IN FORMALIZED LANGUAGES 243 read: ‘the class X (of 1-1 ode awa an ment the object Y (of ath order)’, or ‘the objet has the property X. For the designation of the primitive faetins we explo the aymbol “ehivanting «fy = VE" Vp. The frther development ofthe science difers inno essential way fom tat ofthe gif two- ‘or many-termed relations. The quantification ofthe vetent Tnctions with repost tothe varablo V3 are denoted by the symbols ‘Pt and ‘z=. The oxioms cna of (1) enters ‘hich etify the condition (a of Def, 1 of 2, which are thus Aerved from the axomsof the entental cel by mbit ‘ion sometimes alo followed by generalization; (2) perudodei, tions, i. statements which are quantietios of eententil fanetions of the type Ur ANE whore y is any sentential function which doesnot contain the free variable VE" (3) the bn of extensional, i sentence ‘of the form oo MEME MUta Bat Ee aE ‘which tate that tro lanes which dono ier inte clements Alo not differ in any oftheir properties an re thur Hens) in order to obtain in thi sience suficint bai forthe ea See etait pated of Siew ene ‘add to the abore Unies ME Ut hich guarantees the existence of In the derivation of consequences the operations of aubatitation, detachment, aad 6 ST te vel mt, n° x ed ia j-(g) of Def. 15 in § & wate infinitely many indvidanl® the operations deseribed in conditions (7) ‘When we ry to dein the one vith the present language we encoun annot overcome. Inthe fase te ine vest ofA "natn he io ey watt By Emme van toe ae 2 ter diols which diversity of.em0-244 CONCEPT OF TRUTH IN FORMALIZED LANGUAGES VIL 6 tical categories which are represented in the language, tho use of the method of many-rowed sequences is excluded from the Doginning, just ast was in the ease ofthe loge of many-termc relations. But the situation here is still worse, beonase the method of semantieal nifintion of the variables aio fala us. Aswelearnting 4, the unifying category cannot be oflower order than any one of the variables ofthe language studied. Sequences ‘hose terms belong to this category, and sill more the relation of satisuction, which holds between such sequences and the ‘corresponding tentential functions, must thus be of higher order ‘hac all those variables. In the language with which we aro 0 eating variables of arbitrarily high (Gnite) order ooour: com sequently in applying the method of unification it would be necessary to operate with expressions of ‘infinite order’, Yet neither the metalanguage which forme the basis of the present Investigations, nor any other ofthe existing languages, contains such expressions. It is in fut not at all clear what intuitive ‘meaning could be given to such expressions. ‘These considerations soom to show Uhat it ie impossible to construct general, semantically unambiguous concept of satisfaction for the language we are studying which wil be applicable to all sentential functions without regard to theit ‘semantieal type, On the other hand there appear to be no Aiiculties whieh would render impossible in prineiple « con sistent application of the concept of satiafaction in its orignal ormuation, or rather—in viow of the wemuntial ambiguity of that formolstion of an intnite numberof uch concept. Bach f these concepts is, from the weraantieal nuttin, aleealy pects and woud relate exclively to furcions of npeiflc ‘semantieal typo (eg to funetions wh jabloof the Ast order as the only fre varia independently of the logical structure of the languago—the intuitive sense of| none of these expressions raises any doubt, For every PA ticular sentential function we ean in fact deine thie meaning exactly by constructing for every phrase of the type “the ‘objecte a,b, ey. satisfy the given sentential function’ an in- ttuitvely equivalent phrase which is expressd wholly in term VIII, §5 CONCEPT OF TRUTH TN FORMALIZED LANGUAGES 145 woven Sewers eee ieee way oeoa Toast Fae cose Sees eee sie eet rin ame peg hs firestorm aware Sire ert oni eeancinectncren fees hatacmtamnancer, esteem emrcaae tgs stage pe ae ncn apace ping aaa mee wt dtc ct Tee oaa se nate sg oe te ‘ee en ec ea ce (Sen eee heen GREE ted tales satin hs me Sopot meme c‘26 CONCEPT OF TRUTH IN FORMALIZED LANGUAGES VIL§5 hand we know of no method of construction which would not— directly oF indiretly—presuppose « previous definition of the concept of satisfaction, Therefare we can say—concidering the failure of previous attempts-—that at present we oan eoneruct ‘0 correct and materially adequate definition of truth for the language under investigation.{ Jn the face ofthis state of affairs the question arises whether our failure i acidental and in some way connected with defects ‘in the methods actually used, or whether obstacies of «funda ‘mental kind play a part which are connected with the natare of the concepts we wish to define, or of those with the help ‘of which we have tried to construct the required definitions. If ‘the recond supposition is the coreeet oneal efforts intended to improve the methods of construction would clearly be fuitlos, If we are to answer this question we mut first give it & rather Jess indefinite form. Te will be remembered thet in the oo vention T of §3 the conditions which deside the material correctness of any definition of true sentence are exact ip luted. ‘The construction of definition which satisfies these ‘ren haringthe sms menting (tenho thse Pe ofelog ind pp. 2107), aloughouch anni env te etaangeags ns wo advantage fre posit af {he pure” morpoloy of anne fn atest the et menoed hades it tir no ath by whic 00 astomati rnin fom the sere attltans to's genee dation spol which rete tal an pce woul fore Cite TREY petace!Ony thank fo the speci tahoe of on- ssi ehchwedreloped inf 3 and hove we sured it See ee he requ refuction of the seman! ecps SSN oa i apeced groupe angmgs whieh ar por ia seen oman have a ote eqpment of Feet manly the lngunge oft det. Lt it TELE the method thre ppd rege th me wee engage of clon of ager order than i aoa gested an ara that econ far stereo goat forms of ths ange Fence retin rot af,aketchd aboe bors tia thi vnawenm ater nytt wee np ca ae esa i crm SS mo ceca an al xe Ee ie ey meet ree ep ate ae Sam ere hagaCONCEPY OF TRUTHE IN FORMALIZED LANGUAGES VIELS6 ae i ares open ere seas aaa etaaceiecreecsenntuaee napus omldenioe! Pe aes eee perborate ae ee ‘ppm etnniipertamst ee pe pepe repre ‘rathtnnecmnsay nt steno cecttbonatenesd Siesta a apr fom tas Ta Tas tera cng ts aiedlnged tee elon oda Ee meter se ofan tartan peas een Cee ovine emit bd Binh. es arith case pace thes inetd nach wep anes yng the “Sear ysutne tef tmeae w e a tit sacs fn ano tocswe en ‘uta, Tne heme inert eh tea sera tt aera ae he tid ett cat a er i ea rece fn) ee euginecahll ad ct wy cage Ste cir cnt ee the ey Bie Re nn te i ed ccc eminent te noma ‘eine "Rot" hmt sie eet atl acinus tar ena ee St peel ee SS ent on ey ‘ecm ih a 3) oe were me Sen peer Mae eee ed Sas nay eu nt et ‘tin them, ey ben, the mo al te eens ment of the elas of provable sentences to form a completa and consistent eyatem intel prevents no difcalties "An interpretation of Th. I which went beyond the limite sven would not be justied. In particular it woul be incorrect to infor the impossibility of operating consistently and in agreo ‘ment with intuition with semanticl concepts and epeially with the concept of teuth, But since ope of the pombe way of om structing the seientie foundations of semantion in cloned we nut look for other methods. ‘The iden naturally saggent iteelf Df setting up semantics ax special deductive science with & System ef morphology es ite Togial substructure. For thit [Parpove it would be nersary to introduce into morphology & fiven semantical notion ae a ubdefined concept and t extab~ {ish ita fundamental properties by meant of axioms, The taperience gained from the stody of semuntical concepts in feonnexion with colloquial language, warns us of the great ‘dangers that may accompany the se ofthis method. For that ‘anon the question of how me can be certain thatthe sxiomatio ‘method will notin this age ead to complications ad antonio ‘becomes especially important. ‘I dlcuering this question Lshall etree myself to the theory of truth, and in the Sst place I shall establish the following Uheoren which fa « consequence of te diseusson inthe pre ceding section: TuwonaseIT, Foran arbitrary 2, tia pons to construct definition tess of the metatheory, which has among i tentences from the condition (0) of the cocenton i Ch 1 he place of the agmbol “pene with saribles of a mo ILvonderoveur (and moreoer the sentence aduced in ecomiton (@) of this convention ‘By way of prof it sun to remark that this theorem 9 Tongor concerns the Seid in ita whole extent bot oly gong 4 caspases all those expremions whi 4 fragment of it whi contain variable of higher onder than the lth, ‘This fragment previously given natural umber op the eral “Tr” om the omseuencer al those286 CONCERT OF TRUTH IN FORMALIZED LANGUAGES VIL} itr ngage of it oer and in ft ange 2a ki We een therfore say contr the gel AEnton by apg on oh ocho sere nf ‘Whtotwavad hatte dfn cana hi wuy Goat with sbecmengunsr given in hye weir heres Se gel mr et Th, 8 for nap te Senso of hve teres ae suey soe 1 erting the domain of thar apcality 2 ete eh “le ot he he ec i il Ye en atin otras to the thoy of tet sate totality, te sgl giants oft theory eet ot ‘nein wichre cence bh conan on var ‘hosters boundel tbe) an be acd a agents Otte setaheory I herve tater contest “esha i's enti ns age et rat be ertendl ina certain ent he whole hry ‘truth, as the following theorem shows tome whe hea ‘Dasonxac TI 1f the elas ofall provable sentences of the ml hoy is const and fw ad othe mtg teed ‘ata nw primi sg, and all arom which ae dae 3 cotion (and (Bo the conention Ta nw aio, des clas of provable sentence in the metatheryekarged in hit 289 {sil alo be consistent, ‘To prove this theorem wo mote that the coniton (x) consis initly many monte whith re tena aco theory of truth, A finite mutter of tae axiom even in ion ot hl to 8 Sontag eon lot rmetatheory). Actually in th finite mutuber of axioms obtained from (s)only site number ofsenteneesoftholangusge studied spay nhs ented» it ute 8 thle, There must there beste ter sch hat he nie ofvone ofthe vara excel. rom thei my that a defstion ofthe symbol 7’ ean be constructed Inthe metatheory such thatthe axioms in qoestion boom eO™ sequences of this definition. In other words: these axons with 4 mtb interpretation ofthe abl 7 eee provable Tettoncos ofthe meathcory (hf ans be stained {Trey Le intpenently af Th. 1) TE ay lof tenon lnvain us conition it cay to show tnt th ent {Dato mst apparin faite ert hi lm! Sines. however, ste ar sf te aio ater deri inh IT contin wontrcleton the whale tes osstnt, which wo to be proved "he val of the rv obtained considerably diminished ty the fast tha te axons mentioned nT. HL Bava very reatlteddadetive power, A theory of tah fond on them, ‘Toul bea highly ncoplt stem which wuld ck he mot portant an ert futfl genera thoes Let soho th stuns etl by «cont amps Constr th ententiat ant te Dra ee PP fin thi faction we ttt or {evvarie ©" neutaal-dvrpive name of selene, wo “tain a nate numberof theorems, the poof of which {het athe axioms ebsine rom the convention T presents see taiine flety. atthe tution chang frames {his ede paseo the uve quanta of hse EN onto, be to the gener pins of contain. rom th ntti tandpoitthe tat ofl hoe see i If aley a pent of the geeral pial; ths race wpe 8 spnks am nine nga produ of how TEC thorom, Butchi ec ots al ean tak wk rial den he pnp of entrsito rom the aon oF Fee fly mene ofthe oral sof iene TRS Saupe, Om he onary, y 9 ght moieton dept i Tt ean be shown tht opine fon FreeeaE Roe came queen at tin the esting mnt of he ‘rnd of the aso aptom desert “We cul a eoure, nw elag the sore axiom sem DY saa ee Serf goal selene Wc rendement ST te ould ake ax now aos the prints of SEA anon aad excluded mil, well os hoe stones SRT A de emosuenes of ra sete are em,18 CONCEPT OF TRUTH IN FORMALIZED LANGUAGES VInL§S and also that all primitive sentence of the ssene investigated elong tothe elas of trac wntonos. ‘Th, TI os bo extend to the axiom system enlargod inthis way.? But we attach le Jmportance to this procedure. For items that every such enlargement of the axiom system has an acrdental arse,

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