Seguridad de Agua y ODS Basados en Los Ecosistemas

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Ecohydrology & Hydrobiology xxx (2018) xxx–xxx
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Ecohydrology & Hydrobiology

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ecohyd
1
2 Original Research Article
3 Ecosystem-based water security and the sustainable

4 development goals
5 Q2 Charles J. Vörösmarty a,b,*, Vanesa Rodrı́guez Osuna a,c, Anthony D. Cak a,
6 Anik Bhaduri d,e, Stuart E. Bunn d, Fabio Corsi a,b, Jorge Gastelumendi f,
7 Pamela Green a, Ian Harrison g,h,i,j, Richard Lawford k, Peter J. Marcotullio l,
8 Michael McClain m, Robert McDonald f, Peter McIntyre n, Margaret Palmer o,p,
9 Richard D. Robarts q, András Szöllösi-Nagy r,s,t, Zachary Tessler a,
10 Stefan Uhlenbrook u
11 a
Advanced Science Research Center at the Graduate Center, CUNY, United States
12 b
The City College of New York, CUNY, United States
13 c
IPBES Americas Regional Assessment, United States
14 d
Australian Rivers Institute/Griffith University, Australia
15 e
Sustainable Water Future Programme, Australia
16 f
The Nature Conservancy, United States
17 g
Conservation International, United States
18 h
IUCN WCPA Freshwater Specialist Group, Switzerland
19 i
IUCN-SSC Freshwater Conservation Subcommittee, Switzerland
20 j
GEO BON Freshwater Biodiversity Observation Network (FW BON), South Africa
21 k
Morgan State University, United States
22 l
CUNY Institute for Sustainable Cities (CISC), Hunter College, CUNY, United States
23 m
UNESCO-IHE, The Netherlands
24 n
University of Wisconsin, Madison, United States
25 o
University of Maryland, United States
26 p
National Socio-Environmental Synthesis Center, United States
27 q
World Water and Climate Foundation, United Kingdom
28 r
Institute for Advanced Studies Köszeg (iASK), Hungary
29 s
Sustainable Water Future Programme and National University of Public Service, Hungary
30 t
UNESCO International Hydrological Programme & UNESCO-IHE Delft, formerly, The Netherlands
31 Q3 u UN World Water Assessment Programme (WWAP), Perugia, Italy
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Article history: The economic development-environmental protection dichotomy is an out-dated

Received 9 February 2018 construct. A 21st century approach to the world’s water problems is progressively being
Received in revised form 7 July 2018 developed by researchers and practitioners, who are combining traditional and
Accepted 13 July 2018
:Available online xxx
ecosystem-based engineering systems to yield cost-effective solutions. Given the
continuing and widespread loss of ecological services and functions, water security in
a multi-generational, SDG context requires a meaningful, global commitment to redirect
the current downward trajectory in both (i) the state of the world’s ecosystems and the
services they provide to society, and (ii) our collective level of stewardship of these
important resources. Achieving sustainable water security will require overcoming main
strategic challenges related to protected areas, ecosystem-based solutions research, water
Q5 * Corresponding author at: Advanced Science Research Center at the Graduate Center, CUNY, United States.
Q4
E-mail address: vanesa.rodriguez.osuna@asrc.cuny.edu (C.J. Vörösmarty).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecohyd.2018.07.004
1642-3593/ß 2018 Published by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of European Regional Centre for Ecohydrology of the Polish Academy of Sciences.
Please cite this article in press as: Vörösmarty, C.J., et al., Ecosystem-based water security and the sustainable
development goals. Ecohydrol. Hydrobiol. (2018), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecohyd.2018.07.004
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observatories and expanded technical readiness. It also needs to address other limitations
and demands related to water infrastructure, economies, human settlements and water
quality, sanitation and health. Four globally significant actions can support the adoption of
more efficient and sustainable water futures: green infrastructure watershed banks, an
accelerated global research and solutions program, a new global water-ecosystem services
observatory, and an improved technical capacity/workforce development initiative.
Finally, the engagement of relevant stakeholders from academia, government, the private
sector and civil society are needed to ensure that humankind will be able to meet its water
security goals and commitments, including those expressed in the sustainable
development agendaQ6 .
ß 2018 Published by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of European Regional Centre for Ecohydrology
of the Polish Academy of Sciences.
32
33 1. Introduction: an SDG-inspired vision of water more cost-effective problem prevention and collaterally 56
34 security destroys environmental systems that produce renewable 57
freshwater resources. These realities can be used to 58
35 Given the central role of water to human enterprise, the motivate a fundamental change in the way water security, 59
36 successful achievement of nearly all of the Sustainable in the sense of the collective definition articulated through 60
37 Development Goals will depend on water. The integrity of the High Level Panel on Water focal points (see Section 3), 61
38 the environment underpins a reliable water resource base, could be effected through innovations in the arena of 62
39 and well-managed environments offer essential and low- traditional engineering linked to the services provided by 63
40 cost public goods and services. Thus, if these aquatic natural capital. Essential to any success in this domain will 64
41 environments and their concomitant services are managed be a formal recognition of the role of environmental 65
42 with a long time-horizon in mind – the essence of stewardship. Combining the realities of the day with 66
43 sustainability – they will provide a critical foundation to aspirations for the future suggests a vision (Box 1), which 67
44 human well-being and economic development. IUCN we propose as a useful guidepost for formulating water- 68
45 (2018) defines nature-based solutions as actions to protect, related policies and interventions during the execution 69
46 sustainably manage, and restore natural or modified phase of the SDGs. The remainder of this paper highlights 70
47 ecosystems, that address societal challenges effectively the challenges and opportunities in realizing this vision. 71
48 and adaptively, simultaneously providing human well-
49 being and biodiversity benefits. It has also been a central 2. The ecosystem services challenge 72
50 focus of the 2018 World Water Assessment Program’s
51 2018 report (WWAP/UN-Water, 2018). For the purposes of Fresh water serves many roles in the Earth system, 73
52 this article, we use ecosystem-based solutions interchang- sustaining our climate, biosphere, and human society. The 74
53 ably with this other nomenclature. availability of renewable and reliable water resources, the 75
54 The current, heavy reliance on modern, centralized key to human water security, cannot be achieved on a truly 76
55 engineering solutions to water problems typically ignores sustainable basis without a well-functioning environment 77
Box 1. A vision for water security.
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78 capable of supporting adequate resource quantity, quality, scarcity is projected to increase substantially well into the 99
79 and timing. Ecological integrity, ‘‘the combination of the future (FAO, 2012; WWAP/UN-Water, 2018), with global 100
80 biodiversity and ecosystem processes that characterize an demand for water services (from industry, agriculture and 101
81 area at a given point in time’’ (Bridgewater et al., 2014), domestic use sectors) projected to rise by 20–30% in 2050 102
82 needs to also be viewed as an integral building block of the (Burek et al., 2016). 103
83 sustainable development agenda. Water-related ecosys- Many of these problems proliferate as a by-product of 104
84 tem services include a broad array of benefits, such as the development, in the absence of adequate environmental 105
85 provision of clean water supplies, water for farming and management (Harrison et al., 2016; Vörösmarty et al., 106
86 food processing, fish protein, and greater resilience to 2010). To achieve human water security, modern, central- 107
87 climate extremes like flooding (Box 2). They also convey ized engineering-based solutions frequently have been 108
88 values in many parts of the world that are less visible, but promoted (Addams et al., 2009; Gleick, 2003; Hansjürgens 109
89 are equally important in social, environmental, and et al., 2016; Tockner et al., 2016), in many cases ignoring 110
90 economic realms (Dı́az et al., 2018; Pascual et al., 2017). more cost-effective problem prevention or mitigation 111
91 Much has been written on the global water crisis with achievable through improved management of natural 112
92 regard to scarcity, pollution, and lack of clean drinking infrastructure (Palmer et al., 2010, 2015). While traditional 113
93 water and sanitation available to large segments of the engineering approaches (hereafter referred to as grey 114
94 world’s population (FAO, 2012; Hoekstra et al., 2012; infrastructure) without question convey immediate bene- 115
95 WHO/UNICEF JMP, 2016; WWAP, 2015, 2016). Water fits in addressing a target water problem, they typically 116
96 scarcity already affects more than 40% of the global have been costly to install, often outstrip the technical 117
97 population, and water crises are now ranked as third in the capacity of many nations to operate and maintain, and in 118
98 top 10 global risks in terms of impact (WEF, 2017). Water many cases impair the environmental systems (green 119
Box 2. Key examples of water-related ecosystem services (after MEA, 2005; TEEB, 2010).
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120 infrastructure, natural and semi-natural ecosystems with management of biodiversity, ecological representation of 156
121 other environmental features designed and managed to mixed ecosystems and the improvement of connectivity 157
122 deliver a wide range of ecosystem services that serve as the between sites (Barnes, 2015). There are important needs to 158
123 foundation or source for renewable water supplies) (EC, be considered in the case of freshwater biodiversity and 159
124 2013; Green et al., 2015; UNEP, 2014; Vörösmarty et al., achieving this target. This target needs to account not only 160
125 2013). Elements of these two categories of infrastructure for area but also for the endemism of aquatic life forms, 161
126 are often combined, as with municipal water supplies freshwater ecosystem processes, habitats, pressures and 162
127 relying on both protected watersheds as well as traditional essential actions to maintain them (Juffe-Bignoli et al., 163
128 water collection, treatment, and distribution systems 2016; Strayer and Dudgeon 2010). A baseline is required to 164
129 (Dudley and Stolton 2003; Poustie et al., 2015; Kabisch report on national and global progress (Juffe-Bignoli et al., 165
130 et al., 2017). 2016). Furthermore, protected areas are often not effec- 166
131 In this context, four strategic challenges, if left tively managed and do not sufficiently cover areas that are 167
132 unaddressed, will continue to entrench the status quo, of special importance for biodiversity and ecosystem 168
133 making it increasingly difficult to move onto more services, including those related to water provisioning 169
134 sustainable water pathways for economic development: services (Darwall et al., 2011; Holland et al., 2012; Harrison 170
135 (i) Protected area shortfalls. Even if protected areas et al., 2016; Hermoso et al., 2016; Juffe-Bignoli et al., 2014). 171
136 have not been created to protect water supplies for Despite the recognized importance of green infrastructure 172
137 humans per se, they often host valuable green infrastruc- (EPA, 2015; EC, 2016), protected areas remain grossly 173
138 ture and deliver water and other types of ecosystem underfunded relative to traditional water engineering 174
139 services to downstream users (Dudley et al., 2016). Even investments. Global investments in protected areas and 175
140 though there have been constant gains in protected area their maintenance, which would otherwise help to reduce 176
141 coverage in past years in some parts of the world (15.4% of the cost of traditional water engineering services, is less 177
142 terrestrial area and 8.4% of marine areas under national than 3% of standard water sector expenditures, with 178
143 jurisdiction) (EC, 2017; Juffe-Bignoli et al., 2014), the global US$10s of billions in annual shortfalls (Ashley and Cash- 179
144 protected area coverage still falls short of meeting chief man, 2006; McCarthy et al., 2012). Even when in place, 180
145 strategic targets set by the CBD (Lewis et al., 2017; Watson protected areas are often positioned inside regions that are 181
146 et al., 2014). Despite some progress towards achieving characterized by impaired environments or do not include 182
147 some of the CBD Aichi targets (especially target 1 on headwater or recharge regions (Sáenz et al., 2016), limiting 183
148 awareness, 11 on protected areas and 19 on knowledge), their value as natural capital (Fig. 1). Remarkably, water- 184
149 further efforts are needed to reduce pressures on sheds purposefully managed for municipal water supplies 185
150 biodiversity and ecosystem services (Tittensor et al., – which should have as a preeminent concern their 186
151 2014; IPBES, 2018). For example, in the case of target environmental protection – have instead shown progres- 187
152 11, area coverage (where most progress has been reported) sive degradation that is evident worldwide (McDonald 188
153 is only a component of this target and other essential et al., 2016). These accumulated effects arise from 189
154 aspects need to be fulfilled for the target to effectively be population incursion, poor land management, nutrient 190
155 met. Some of these include the effective, equitable and sediment pollution, and substantially raise the costs of 191
Q1 Fig. 1. The map below depicts the environmental performance of protected areas of the world, here co-located with freshwater provisioning source areas
serving humankind. Although two thirds of the global population live downstream of protected areas, and the water services that they convey, nearly 80% of
these people are served by water supplies drawn from protected areas under high levels of high environmental threat (red), especially in regions with dense
population and agriculture. Costly remediation is needed to ensure water is safe and reliable (Image: Harrison et al., 2016). (For interpretation of the
references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)
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192 providing an essential human water service (a ~50% Sustainability over a multi-generational timeframe, 253
193 modeled rise in capital and operational costs for one-third however, will be difficult without a meaningful, global 254
194 of cities recently analyzed). commitment to addressing both the degradation of the 255
195 (ii) Lack of solutions-oriented research on composite world’s drainage basins and their affiliated freshwater 256
196 grey-green infrastructure. The idea of ecosystem-based ecosystems, as well as the commitment to adequate 257
197 water supply systems is not new; in fact, it is part of a collective stewardship of natural capital to maintain their 258
198 broader set of integrated water resource management ecosystem services into the future (Garrick et al., 2017). 259
199 (IWRM) approaches (Bunn, 2016; Poff et al., 2015). The
200 economic costs of relying solely on grey infrastructure is 3. Key interlinkages of ecosystem services with other 260
201 prohibitive for many countries and once built it often has sustainable development challenge domains 261
202 unintended consequences (loss of life or surrounding buit
203 capital, additional costs for repairs) due to partial or total This document is in response to an official request made 262
204 failures. In the United States, nearly 14,000 dams have by the High Level Panel on Water (HLPW, 2016), which is 263
205 been classified as ‘‘high hazard’’ (ASCE, 2013). Combining co-convened by the UN Secretary General and the World 264
206 grey with green infrastructure applied in the urban domain Bank President and comprising 11 heads of state and 265
207 can increase resilience while providing other benefits (e.g., governments. A general inquiry was posted to the 266
208 attenuating urban heat island impacts and saving energy community of water experts in six sub-domains of the 267
209 via green roofs, providing natural habitats that buffer the water security issue, on the themes of: Water and the 268
210 impact of flood events) (Kabisch et al., 2017). However, Environment; Water Infrastructure and Investment; Resilient 269
211 there has been insufficient work on the design and Economies and Societies and Disaster Risk Reduction; 270
212 context-dependency of performance for blending hu- Universal Access to Safe Water and Sanitation; Building 271
213 man-engineering with natural ecosystems (Hermoso Partnerships and International Cooperation; and, Sustainable 272
214 et al., 2012, 2015); and application of methodologies on Cities and Human Settlements. We here deliver recommen- 273
215 a scale required by the SDGs has yet to be formalized. dations on the topic of Water and Environment, specifically 274
216 (iii) Observatories in decline. The application of SDGs focused on water-related ecosystem services and how they 275
217 to support water sustainability requires both a broad and could be configured to support the sustainable develop- 276
218 deep knowledge of freshwater ecosystem function, and the ment agenda (Box 3). Given the interconnected nature of 277
219 dynamics of regional water use (Bhaduri et al., 2016). these six themes, we were requested to explore the 278
220 However, monitoring networks depicting the global water relationship of ecosystem services to these other high level 279
221 resource base and its supporting environments continue to challenges and to identify the co-benefits that would 280
222 deteriorate, particularly in response to reduced funding emerge should the themes be addressed together. These 281
223 and operational support, thereby forcing researchers and are discussed immediately below. In so doing we also hope 282
224 practitioners to rely on ad hoc assemblages of data, to identify some specific objectives and actions that, as 283
225 simulation models, or best-guess approaches (GEO, noted by others (Garrick et al., 2017), are necessary to 284
226 2014; WWAP, 2015). Yet, water resources managers address sustainable development of water resources (i.e., 285
227 cannot effectively plan or site grey infrastructure without measurement, valuation, decision-making, and gover- 286
228 detailed knowledge on the distribution and characteristics nance). 287
229 of existing infrastructure – both natural and grey. Such
230 data limitation is a common problem in developing 3.1. Water infrastructure 288
231 countries (Poustie et al., 2015). Monitoring networks need
232 to help ensure that investments in protecting and restoring Our reliance on water engineering to provide secure 289
233 water resources are effective, which in turn can engender freshwater resources extends to the earliest periods of 290
234 public confidence in the safety and reliability of their water human history (Vörösmarty et al., 2015), but today reflects 291
235 supplies (Garrick et al., 2017). With further development a heavy dependence on grey infrastructure and some of the 292
236 space-based remote sensing could make a larger contri- largest built systems on the planet. Grey infrastructure is 293
237 bution to addressing these needs (GEO, 2014). sometimes overbuilt and its operation and maintenance 294
238 (iv) Technical readiness in question. Significant hu- costs are often ignored and not properly accounted for into 295
239 man and institutional capacity gaps limit the technical water projects, resulting in less than optimal service 296
240 readiness of water professionals in many countries (Palmer et al., 2015). Further, wastewater treatment 297
241 (UNESCO-IHE, 2013). Moreover, the additional knowledge investments are persistently underfunded (WWAP, 298
242 needed to combine green with grey engineering for more 2015). It is reasonable to question the overwhelming 299
243 cost-effective human water security remains in its infancy emphasis on such systems in lieu of green infrastructure 300
244 and requires a paradigm shift in engineering technology alternatives (i.e., the use of ecosystem services like 301
245 training, necessitating new interdisciplinary education floodplains for flood control or waste treatment), as they 302
246 programs worldwide. New programs to build technical have been shown to be capable of providing an equivalent 303
247 capacity, especially in the global south, are needed. A service. Such a debate is a rich one with strong arguments 304
248 recent example is a program funded by the U.S. AID in on both sides of the question. For instance, in the 305
249 partnership with the University of Utah and Mehran developing world with poor or non-existent water 306
250 University in Pakistan that is creating a center for advanced security, grey infrastructure is often seen as the only viable 307
251 studies in water in Pakistan (Burian et al., 2017); the solution over an immediate timeframe (Muller et al., 308
252 project is aligned with attaining the SDGs for water. 2015). Further, where reliability must be high, green 309
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Box 3. Water-related ecosystem services and the SDGs. Without ecosystem services managed for their longterm capacity
to provide reliable, renewable sources of fresh water demanded by each sector of the economy, success in achieving each
of the SDGs will arguably be placed into question.
310 systems have not yet been fully justified. At the same time, River in Japan, a relatively small basin inhabited by only 325
311 grey systems are relatively inflexible, with much collateral 2.1 million people (Tsuzuki and Yoneda, 2012). 326
312 and long-term potential damage to ecosystems (Palmer Even when investments are made, follow-up monitor- 327
313 et al., 2015). Alternatives to an often overdesigned grey ing on the effectiveness of stream rehabilitation interven- 328
314 infrastructure include demand management or a reliance tions is seldom attempted (Bernhardt et al., 2005), with the 329
315 on small-scale systems, but these are seldom addressed in possibility that ineffective investment goes undetected or 330
316 planning. Also, benefit-cost economics for green infrastruc- is even replicated in other regions. Additonally, this lack of 331
317 ture is much less well developed relative to traditional monitoring and impact evaluation of rehabilitation and 332
318 engineering, thus limiting its attractiveness as an invest- restoration means that the effectiveness of these processes 333
319 ment option. may not be fully realized, creating opportunities for 334
320 If one accepts the importance of maintaining ecosystem subsequent changes in investment or management to 335
321 services, their impairment represents water security counteract the rehabilitation objectives. 336
322 threats with a substantial lost value to society, meriting Where a nation’s ability to invest in traditional water 337
323 rehabilitation. Post-hoc reparation is costly; for example engineering solutions, create local technical capacity, and 338
324 up to US$80 billion spent to rehabilitate the Yamatogawa maintain workforce readiness is limited, green infrastruc- 339
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340 ture solutions can provide cost-effective alternatives to essential societal needs like public water supply or 399
341 grey engineering with additional environmental, economic, safeguarding the environment (Garrick et al., 2017). 400
342 and social benefits. Based on existing scientific knowledge Investing in natural capital and its water-related ecosys- 401
343 (Elsevier, 2016; Green et al., 2015), many management tem services, will be especially significant for sectors 402
344 options are available, including combinations of grey and heavily dependent on water (e.g., 95% of jobs in the 403
345 green approaches (Garrick et al., 2017; WWAP/UN-Water, agriculture sector, 30% of jobs in the industry sector, and 404
346 2018), with specific choices determined by budget 10% of jobs in the services sector) (WWAP, 2016). The 405
347 constraints and the existence of natural capital assets emergence of new business models, based on verifiable, 406
348 (Young, 2000). Riparian vegetation (acting as green science-based metrics that support sustainable impact 407
349 infrastructure) is increasingly considered valuable for investment choices by recognizing good corporate prac- 408
350 safeguarding water services, especially in Latin America tices can represent an important turning point in how 409
351 (Grieg-Gran and Porras, 2012; Veiga and Gavaldão, 2012). society values ecological integrity in the broader economy 410
352 Properly designed green infrastructure (e.g., natural areas (Vörösmarty et al., 2018). Such models would seek 411
353 delivering urban water supplies or urban rainfall gardens) structural market changes and practices that account 412
354 provides a less costly service for flash flood reduction and value natural capital based on data and analytics that 413
355 compared to replacing or upgrading sewer mains (EPA, allow companies to objectively evaluate the costs and 414
356 2015). More generally, cities may be the ideal proving benefits (Vogl et al., 2017). 415
357 ground for new grey-green infrastructure, especially
358 where the reliability of traditional systems can be 3.3. Human settlements 416
359 combined with the inherent environmental protection of
360 green systems (Palmer et al., 2015; Vollmer et al., 2016). Global population is forecast to expand during the 417
361 Such solutions can also generate a significant number of period of the SDGs and through mid-century to 9–10 418
362 jobs, thereby contributing to sustainable social and billion people (Lutz et al., 2014). After 2025, all of this 419
363 economic development (WWAP, 2016). A new paradigm growth will be in the world’s cities, as global rural 420
364 for developing countries and the SDGs that embeds the populations begin to decline (UN, 2014). With urban 421
365 economic valuation of ecosystem services and green growth will come increasing demands for energy, 422
366 infrastructure into traditional benefit-cost analysis could materials, and infrastructure, yet this growth already 423
367 stimulate new ‘‘blended engineering’’ approaches to water outpaces the capacity of governments to build essential 424
368 security (Elsevier, 2016; Poff et al., 2015). infrastructure, creating ‘‘informal settlements’’ or slums, 425
369 There is growing concern that for many parts of the often along rivers and riparian areas (Lutz et al., 2014). 426
370 world, including the USA, the aging of infrastructure There may be more than 200,000 world communities that 427
371 threatens to decrease water management efficiencies and can be classified as slums, and the UN suggests that today 428
372 lead to catastrophic failures in times of floods. The these are where 1-in-3 urban dwellers reside (UN- 429
373 replacement of these dated grey water infrastructure HABITAT, 2010; WHO and UN-HABITAT, 2010). UN-Water 430
374 facilities with green infrastructure alternatives could (WWAP, 2015) highlights both the challenges and 431
375 provide capital savings to support a broader green potential solutions for water: The world’s slum popula- 432
376 infrastructure upgrade. Important initiatives with ‘‘hybrid tion, which is expected to reach nearly 900 million by 433
377 systems’ are available at local scales. For example, 2020, is both underserved with respect to basic water 434
378 engineering and biological measures (sedimentation- needs, and also more vulnerable to the impacts of extreme 435
379 biofiltration) can be used for the treatment of stormwater weather events. It is however possible to improve 436
380 (Jurczak et al., 2018). However, a broader scale perspective performance of urban water supply systems while 437
381 is required to address the challenge of establishing human continuing to expand the system and addressing the 438
382 water security (Green et al., 2015; Harrison et al., 2016; needs of the poor. 439
383 Valderrama et al., 2017). Under the specter of climate change these development 440
deficiencies turn into ‘‘adaptation deficits’’ (Satterthwaite 441
384 3.2. Resilient economies et al., 2007). The dual challenge of supplying adequate 442
freshwater under uncertain future climate is exacerbated 443
385 An important byproduct of adopting blended grey- in xeric, coastal and riverine cities. Approximately 34% of 444
386 green water engineering approaches would be a funda- the global urban population lives in arid regions (McGra- 445
387 mentally new approach regarding the use of natural assets nahan et al., 2005) and more than 150 million people today 446
388 to help attain SDG-6 and universal water security. This are dependent on urban water supplies that show 447
389 greater water security would, in turn, support many other perennial shortage, with forecasts for that number to rise 448
390 goals, such as SDG-2 on food, and SDG-15 on conservation, to 1 billion by mid-century (McDonald et al., 2011). 449
391 restoration and sustainable use of freshwater ecosystems Further, more than 50% of the world’s urban population 450
392 and their services (see Box 3). If natural capital is viewed as lives along coastlines or rivers (McGranahan et al., 2005). 451
393 a building block of resilient water engineering systems, In these locations, the most vulnerable are typically the 452
394 then its state and stewardship should become an intrinsic urban poor, in part because they often live in hazardous 453
395 part of the planning process (Bennett et al., 2016). This locations, such as floodplains. 454
396 perspective would have the practical impact of expanding In these contexts, protected watersheds and their 455
397 the decision trade-off ‘‘space’’ for acceptable water associated ecosystem services can play an important role 456
398 allocations to industry, energy, and food versus other in managing the global transformation to an urbanized 457
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458 planet. For example, cities can rely on the protective role of These realities are not inconsequential to the basic 517
459 ecosystem services by using natural lowlands as ‘‘relief water goals (SDG-6) of the sustainable development 518
460 valves’’ to allow dense settlements to escape the impact of agenda, insofar as inland aquatic ecosystems convey 80% 519
461 river floods, as is current practice by The Netherlands of sustainable water supply to humans, yet are broadly 520
462 Room for the River programme (Roth and Warner, 2007) or degraded (Vörösmarty et al., 2010). This has already 521
463 in the Mississippi River Basin (USACE-IWR, 2000). For elevated costs for remediation to the level of US$100s of 522
464 example, The Netherlands programme recognized the billions worldwide (Ashley and Cashman, 2006; Vörös- 523
465 flood risk reduction benefits of giving more space to rivers marty et al., 2010); if left unchecked, such degraded 524
466 that increase their discharge capacity instead of building aquatic ecosystems produce substantial risks to human 525
467 higher dikes in the face of increasing impacts of extreme health. One of countless examples occurred in 2014 in 526
468 flood events, which are exacerbated by climate change. Toledo, Ohio (USA), which had to temporarily cease 527
469 This was done by constructing a bypass channel, an island drinking water operations due to the presence of 528
470 in the river Waal and bridges to improve the connectivity cyanotoxins produced by blue-green algae in Lake Erie, a 529
471 of the area. Both the bypass channel and the island form a result of poor management of point and non-point source 530
472 river park that provides recreational, ecological and pollution across contributing landscapes. What was once 531
473 aesthetic benefits besides flood risk protection (van Herk considered a sporadic phenomenon, such harmful algal 532
474 et al., 2015; WLA, 2017). blooms have proliferated both in the U.S. and globally over 533
475 Another example is low impact development (LID) only the last 30 years (WHOI, 2016). 534
476 design and technologies within cities that focus on a range
477 of stormwater management outcomes, from restoring 4. Brief overview of the current landscape of the 535
478 water quality to flood prevention and rainwater harvest- challenge 536
479 ing. LID design includes hydrologic analysis in site
480 planning, integrated management of erosion and sediment 4.1. Diagnosing the challenge 537
481 control as well as public outreach. LID technologies
482 include, green roofs, rain gardens, permeable pavement, While there is no shortage of individual challenges 538
483 retention cells and treatment swales. LID has been associated with ecosystem services that support water in 539
484 implemented in the USA, Europe, Australia, New Zealand the context of the SDGs (Box 3), these can be synthesized 540
485 and China (Chang et al., 2018). A study of community into a small number of urgent concerns. Seven such 541
486 demand within Jakarta also showed that the public would challenges areas are presented below, ranging from 542
487 be willing to pay for freshwater ecosystem protection and benchmarking the current state of affairs with respect to 543
488 rehabilitation that resulted in increased water security water-related ecosystem services to the impact of their 544
489 (Vollmer et al., 2016). This included park space along the loss, their surveillance, and approaches to coping with 545
490 river and conservation of forests in the upper part of the ongoing water stress. 546
491 catchment outside of the city, and possibly also support for
492 a widened channel for flood risk mitigation. The key will be 4.1.1. Ecosystems in decline 547
493 to create solution frameworks to more sensibly manage Maintaining healthy ecosystems in light of ongoing 548
494 the inevitable trade-offs between urban water provision economic development remains a persistent challenge, 549
495 and urban infrastructure protection, while simultaneously with a global disappearance of ‘‘the wild’’ in the 550
496 preserving water flows for aquatic ecosystem health and contemporary world (Sanderson et al., 2002). In a turn- 551
497 biodiversity. of-the-century benchmark study, the Millennium Ecosys- 552
tem Assessment (MEA, 2005) demonstrated that all but 553
498 3.4. Water quality, sanitation and health one of 13 major ecosystem classes was in decline. Since 554
this time, numerous studies have shown a deterioration of 555
499 Significant, direct health impacts occur when ecosys- these ecosystems and their services, today and into the 556
500 tem services are no longer able to meet human water future – Living Planet Index (WWF, 2016), UNEP GEO-5 557
501 security needs. Healthy ecosystems are highly effective at (UNEP, 2012), and Human Ecological Footprint (Mancini 558
502 improving water quality and quantity (Russi et al., 2013; et al., 2016). Four recently launched landmark assessment 559
503 TEEB, 2010), removing pathogenic microbes, sequestering reports of the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform 560
504 and converting inorganic ions, and transforming persistent on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES) – body 561
505 organic pollutants (TEEB, 2010). Impairing or degrading with 129 member governments across four world regions: 562
506 ecosystems, especially those directly linked to the the Americas, Asia and the Pacific, Africa, as well as Europe 563
507 freshwater supply (Fig. 1), yields significant consequences and Central Asia – show alarming trends of declining 564
508 for sanitation and hygiene. Even in places like the U.S. biodiversity and ecosystem services (IPBES, n.d.). In the 565
509 nearly 50 million people have used public water systems Americas, 65 per cent of biodiversity and ecosystem 566
510 containing concentrations of chemicals and bacteria that conditions that are important for human well-being are 567
511 exceed regulatory limits (Duhigg, 2009). The recent declining with 21 per cent declining strongly. Wetlands 568
512 Transboundary Waters Assessment Programme (TWAP) have been highly transformed across large areas of the 569
513 synthesis report tabulated 1.4 billion people, half the American continent (IPBES, 2018). This loss of upstream 570
514 population living in transboundary basins, facing serious healthy ecosystems translates to a pandemic loss of 571
515 and increasing risks due to pollution (UNEP-DHI and UNEP, effective support systems for a number of watershed 572
516 2016). ecosystem services of direct benefit to society – safe 573
G Model
ECOHYD 195 1–17
Table 1
Examples of key mechanisms, tools and data portals, and institutions related to water environmental services.
Name of the initiative Objective Actors Outcomes Scale
TNC Protecting Water for To conserve freshwater NGOs, private sector, local Water funds and system- Local, Regional,
People and Nature/Water through scientific and strategic governments scale planning facilities set Global
Program and NatureVest partnerships in: Sustainable up in several regions (Latin
Hydropower, Source Water America, US, Africa,
Protection, Agriculture & Australia)
Water, Water Markets, and
Floodplain Restoration
The World Bank-Wealth To promote sustainable World Bank and 8 partner Accountings case studies, Select National
Accounting and the development by ensuring that countries tools and publications
Valuation of Ecosystem natural resources are
Services-WAVES mainstreamed in development
and national economic
planning
UNESCO-IHE Institute for To train professionals in the Academia, UN Institute Graduate education; Regional, Global
Water Education; a large fields of water, the technical courses; new
international educational environment and knowledge to address key
and research facility infrastructure in developing water-related development
countries and countries in challenges
transition
Intergovernmental To provide policy relevant UN body formed with Study TEEB Reports (e.g., Global, Regional,
Platform on Biodiversity knowledge on biodiversity and 124 Country members, a TEEB for Water and Local
and Ecosystem Services ecosystem services to inform Secretariat and an Expert Wetlands)
(IPBES) decision making Panel
The Economics of To execute global-scale Government of Germany, Dataset of publicly Global
Ecosystems and analysis on the importance of European Commission, available corporate water
Biodiversity for Water valuing ecosystem services in academia information; CDP Global
and Wetlands (TEEB) the policy arena Water Reports
The Carbon Disclosure To guide companies and Private sector (investors Reports, maps, country Global
Project-CDP Water investors to better understand network) rankings
Program how their portfolio companies
and suppliers are disclosing
water associated risks
The Aqueduct Water Risk To inform companies, NGOs, private sector Reports on exposure to Global
Atlas (Aqueduct)-World investors, and other audiences water risks at various levels
Resources Institute about geographic exposure to
water-related risks
World Wide Fund for A tool for companies to raise Private sector, NGOs Baseline reports and maps; Local, Regional)
Nature-WWF: The Water awareness and an future scenario
Risk Filter understanding of their water assessments; water
risks, as well as mitigation governance analysis;
activities monitor progress in
meeting SDG 6
Freshwater Health To measure the overall Basin organizations; local, Basin (Local to
Initiative condition of freshwater provincial, national Regional
ecosystems and their ability to governments; NGOs;
support healthy and industries
economically-sustainable
populations.
Global Wetland Observing To monitor the status of the Univ. of Bonn, Wetlands Data set and reports on the Global, Regional
System (GWOS) and world’s wetlands and their Int’l, Ramsar Secretariat, status of the world’s
Satellite-based Wetland ecosystem services and GEO BON/GEO Water/ wetlands
Observation Service GEO-Wetlands
(SWOS)
The 2030 Water Resources To facilitate dialogue processes Bilateral agencies, private Reports, newsletters, case Global, Regional
Group for water resources reform in companies, development studies
water stressed countries and in banks, civil society
developing economies
IUCN World Commission To assimilate information Voluntary body of experts, Reports and case studies on Global, Regional
on Protected Areas, about legal, institutional and coordinated via IUCN successes
Freshwater Task Force social factors addressing
protected area and water
security management
Sustainable Water Future To address science, Academia, industry Scientific reports, proofs- Global
Programme and engineering, governance and ofconcept, case studies
Solutions Lab management issues to drive
change and stimulate water
solutions
G Model
ECOHYD 195 1–17
574 drinking water, wastewater processing and dilution, river indicating a strong need for international collaboration to 634
575 bank stabilization, erosion control, and disaster risk address this issue. Important international agreements 635
576 reduction to downstream populations (Medeiros et al., promote the effective transboundary management of 636
577 2011; TEEB, 2010; IPBES, 2018). aquatic systems within countries but also across bound- 637
aries. For example, the Convention on Wetlands, Ramsar, 638
578 4.1.2. Biodiversity implications provides a framework for national and international action 639
579 Degraded freshwater ecosystems, vital for species towards the conservation and adequate use of wetlands 640
580 diversity, are also a critical focal point of global species and their resources (Ramsar et al., 2014). The Convention 641
581 loss; at least 126,000 described species rely directly on on Migratory Species (CMS) is also focused on the 642
582 freshwater habitats, including many diverse plants, protection of species that migrate across or outside 643
583 invertebrates and vertebrates (Balian et al., 2008; IUCN, national jurisdictional boundaries (https://www.cms.int/ 644
584 2016). This number, while based on the most comprehen- en/convention-text). Hogan (2011) identified ca. 30 species 645
585 sive global analysis thus far, is certainly an underestimate, of freshwater fishes that meet all the criteria for CMS 646
586 and is likely to grow to over 1 million species if currently listing, and a further ca. 10 species that might benefit from 647
587 undescribed species are included (IUCN, 2016). Of the listing. There are 29 freshwater ‘megafauna species’ – 648
588 28,000 freshwater-dependent species that have been which represent flagships for the conservation of freshwa- 649
589 assessed for the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species ter ecosystems – currently listed by CMS (Carrizo et al, 650
590 (www.iucnredlist.org) thus far, approximately one third 2017). 651
591 are threatened with extinction (Carrizo et al., 2017). Some
592 estimates placing the per area rates of imperilment and 4.1.3. Lost ecosystem services mean rising economic costs 652
593 extinction for freshwater species likely to be 100s if not The supporting environment is rapidly losing its ability 653
594 1000s of times more rapid than in land or ocean (Strayer to deliver services (Day et al., 2014), with wetlands – of 654
595 and Dudgeon, 2010). The acceleration of biogeochemical particular value to water security in terms of pollution 655
596 cycles (e.g., erosion, N2 fixation) due to human activities abatement, fisheries, and flood control – particularly in 656
597 affect riverborne material and its transfer across river decline. Overall declines represent an economic loss of 657
598 systems (Meybeck and Vörösmarty, 2005). When natural US$4.3-20.2 trillion in ecosystem services between 658
599 filters (soil-vegetation layers) are removed or impaired 1997 and 2011 (Costanza et al., 2014a). Nevertheless, in 659
600 (e.g., estuaries channelized for agricultural cultivation) most countries funding for ecosystem protection for water 660
601 there is a consequential loss of their functionality services and infrastructure is neither sufficient nor 661
602 (Meybeck and Vörösmarty, 2005). sustainable (WWAP, 2015), despite high return-on-invest- 662
603 Conserving or rehabilitating environmental flows (i.e., ment ratios (e.g., 3-to-1 recognized in China [China Water 663
604 ‘‘quantity, timing and quality of water flows required to Risk, 2016]). For protected areas (that are designed to 664
605 sustain freshwater ecosystems and the human livelihood convey ecosystem services of many types), less than 6% of 665
606 and well-being that depend on these ecosystems’’) countries reporting to CBD indicated adequate resources 666
607 (Riversymposium, 2017) is necessary to balance human for the management of such areas (Watson et al., 2014), yet 667
608 modifications to river flows that can result in the loss of a recent study showed that staff and budget capacity were 668
609 freshwater biodiversity and impairment of ecological the strongest predictor of the conservation impact of 669
610 processes in rivers (Arthington, 2015; Riversymposium, protected areas (Gill et al., 2017). A survey of protected 670
611 2017; Pittock et al., 2015; Poff et al., 2010; Poff and areas in the Southeast USA showed that most protected 671
612 Matthews, 2013). While certainly water engineering works areas have fewer resources dedicated to freshwater 672
613 such as dams and reservoirs are sometimes necessary to conservation and management than to other activities, 673
614 address water security, the challenge is how to manage the and some completely lack the necessary resources (Thieme 674
615 negative effects these produce on natural flows, and et al., 2012). This is further evident in many populated 675
616 freshwater and riparian biodiversity, relating to the parts of the world, where protected areas face increasing 676
617 physical, chemical and biological impacts they confer. threats due to their proximity to poorly managed water- 677
618 Emphasis on renewable energy under the Paris Agreement sheds and other external stressors (Harrison et al., 2016; 678
619 is likely to stimulate investment in hydropower (IHA, Thieme et al., 2012), which raises the cost of protected area 679
620 2016), with severe negative impacts on aquatic biodiver- management (see Fig. 1). 680
621 sity (Strayer and Dudgeon, 2010). In certain parts of the
622 world, environmental flow protection is intimately con- 4.1.4. Funding of protected ecosystems and their Services 681
623 nected with issues of the social and associated cultural Despite the fundamental role of ecosystem-based 682
624 values of water (Morgan, 2012). One example is the solutions in biodiversity conservation and provision of 683
625 National Cultural Flows Research Project in Australia that ecosystem services, investment in these solutions remains 684
626 aims to align indigenous water allocations in Australia’s well below 1% of total investment in water resources 685
627 water planning and management efforts, ensuring appro- management infrastructure (WWAP/UN-Water, 2018). 686
628 priate delivery and maintenance of the cultural, social, and Governments, businesses, and donors invested only US$ 687
629 spiritual benefits in areas like the Murray-Darling Basin 25 billion in 2015 on payments for green infrastructure for 688
630 (National Cultural Flows Research Project, 2018). water directed at rehabilitating and/or protecting 487 mil- 689
631 The TWAP (UNEP-DHI and UNEP, 2016) noted that lion ha under watershed management (Bennett and Ruef, 690
632 extinction risk to freshwater biodiversity is moderate to 2016). Such investments included public subsidies (in- 691
633 very high in 70% of the area of transboundary river basins – cluding government-based payment for watershed ser- 692
G Model
ECOHYD 195 1–17
693 vices), user-driven watershed investments (e.g., payments water data. In addition, the potential for using remote 753
694 from water users such as water utilities or companies to sensing data to help address these monitoring needs 754
695 conserve, restore or create green infrastructure), water should be explored. 755
696 quality trading and offsets, and water markets that trade Water indicators of a systematic and dynamic nature 756
697 water rights (Bennett and Ruef, 2016). (e.g., near real time) from the earth system sciences can 757
698 These interventions relied primarily on public subsi- provide long-term annual and sub-annual tracking of 758
699 dies, but also collective actions such as water trust funds. water availability (FAO, 2006), which can be combined 759
700 The potential for success of payment for watershed with coincident socio-economic changes to compute water 760
701 services schemes is regionally, highly variable (Harrison vulnerability indicators (Vollmer et al., 2016). Such a 761
702 et al., 2016), but has been shown to be successful in some capability would be an important step forward in creating 762
703 areas (Abell et al., 2017). A new initiative under develop- an operational and dynamic monitoring capability. This is 763
704 ment is the Cloud Forest Blue Energy Mechanism that aims critical as hydrology keeps pace (or not) with climate 764
705 to mobilize domestic commercial finance to reforest and change science (Milly et al., 2008; NRC-COHS, 2011). This 765
706 conserve cloud forests provides crucial benefits to the would be a necessary precursor for a sustained and 766
707 hydropower industry in Latin America. It is based on a ‘‘pay comprehensive global water assessment procedure. 767
708 for success’’ financing model where hydropower plants
709 pay for the ecosystem benefits provided by restored cloud 4.1.6. Capacity building for water-related SDG support 768
710 forests (The Lab, 2018). Achieving long-term, positive environmental benefits is 769
711 In some parts of the world, especially in developing an especially important outcome of capacity development, 770
712 countries, there is a severe underfunding of protected areas particularly if they can train a next generation of 771
713 (McCarthy et al., 2012; Watson et al., 2014), and an practitioners and decision makers in strengthening poli- 772
714 additional area of 2.2 million km2 of land and inland waters cies, strategies and legal frameworks that support the 773
715 is needed to be effectively managed and sufficiently cover sustainable use of water-related ecosystem services 774
716 areas that are of special importance for biodiversity and (UNESCO-IHE, 2013; Wyborn et al., 2016). However, this 775
717 ecosystem services (Juffe-Bignoli et al., 2014). Preserving has not been well implemented; in terms of capacity, only 776
718 and effectively managing all terrestrial sites for global taxa 14 of 108 surveyed nations were capable of instituting the 777
719 protection was estimated to cost US$76.1 billion annually Johannesburg target on integrated water resource man- 778
720 (McCarthy et al., 2012). To put this in perspective, more agement (IWRM) (WWAP, 2006). In addition to traditional 779
721 than US$1 trillion will be needed by the traditional water water engineering and technology training, current and 780
722 services sector alone by year 2030 (Ashley and Cashman, future professionals need to be trained to bettter under- 781
723 2006). stand and then use water ecosystem services datasets and 782
tools with blended engineering approaches (Future Earth, 783
724 4.1.5. Tracking metrics 2016; SIWI, 2016; START, 2016; SWFP, 2016; UNESCO-IHE, 784
725 Observational networks and monitoring systems 2013; UN-Water, 2015). This includes accounting for the 785
726 (through remote sensing, in situ sampling, ground truthing, benefits of water-related ecosystem services to improve 786
727 surveys) to evaluate the ways in which humans control, quality of life as well as to evaluate ecosystem states and 787
728 degrade, or possibly enhance water services – and thus trajectories. In addition, an appreciation of the cross- 788
729 define the collective significance of these changes – linkages among the SDGs will be essential; a general 789
730 remains an urgent global need (Gardner et al., 2015; framework for mapping these interactions has been 790
731 Turak et al., 2017; Garrick et al., 2017; WWAP/UN-Water, proposed (Nilsson et al., 2016) and a logical next step is 791
732 2018). Consistent and objective information on the state of to apply this more specificially to the SDG Targets that are 792
733 water resources, including their use and management, is relevant to freshwater (Bhaduri et al., 2016). Major 793
734 frequently missing, inadequate, or unavailable, with the investments are needed in water education and capacity 794
735 situation for water quality data even more severe (FAO, building, particularly in Africa where the gap between 795
736 2006; WWAP, 2015). Currently, water observation net- needs and reality is highest. 796
737 works over most parts of the world provide only partial or
738 unreliable data on surface and groundwater quantity and 4.2. Key actors and activities 797
739 quality, with a similar paucity of information with respect
740 to wastewater related services (GEO, 2014; WWAP, 2009). Existing mechanisms are in place to address many of 798
741 Furthermore, several studies show only static snapshots of the challenges highlighted in this document, advanced by a 799
742 the state of water services at a particular time and place, community that recognizes a high demand for water- 800
743 failing to include a more comprehensive view of water related ecosystem services and an opportunity to imple- 801
744 challenge trends over time and across different regions in ment cost-effective actions towards watershed protection, 802
745 the world. For example, inability to measure all of the restoration and sustainable management (Rodrı́guez 803
746 implications of an extreme precipitation event for erosion Osuna, 2015; TEEB, 2010). Such mechanisms include: 804
747 and pollution mobilization reflects our inability to under- payments for watershed services (PWS) or water quality/ 805
748 take fully integrated monitoring programs. This has an quantity; trading markets; and, reciprocal or in-kind 806
749 obvious and direct practical implication for water system agreements (water funds); support for research and 807
750 planning and decision-making (WWAP, 2015). The situa- applications. There is also a ready-made community of 808
751 tion is particularly severe in the least developed countries, actors contributing to water-related ecosystem services 809
752 where long-term sustainability clearly hinges on reliable protection or capacity development that could jointly be 810
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ECOHYD 195 1–17
811 mobilized for protection and management efforts in the resources management and governance. This programme 821
812 context of the SDGs (Table 1). has been implemented in six-year stages and is in its eight 822
813 For example, UNESCO’s International Hydrological implementation phase (2014–2021). This current phase 823
814 Programme (IHP) is the intergovernmental programme focuses on six thematic areas: (1) Water-related disaster 824
815 of the UN system devoted to water research, water and hydrological changes; (2) Groundwater in a changing 825
816 resources management, and education and capacity environment; (3) Addressing water scarcity and quality; 826
817 building. Since its foundation in 1975, IHP has evolved (4) Water and human settlements of the future; (5) 827
818 from an international hydrological research programme Ecohydrology, engineering harmony for a sustainable 828
819 into an institution with a broader agenda to facilitate world and (6) Water education, key to water security 829
820 education and capacity building and improve water (UNESCO, 2018). 830
Box 4. Blended grey-green infrastructure approaches to water security in three key ecosystem service domains.
G Model
ECOHYD 195 1–17
831 Ecohydrology surges as a science that links the also through innovation grants from foundations and 893
832 understanding of relationships between hydrological and private sector research and development (R&D). Observa- 894
833 biological processes at different scales to improve human tory and monitoring components of such a program would 895
834 water security, enhance biodiversity and other opportu- involve a similar set of actors. To expand technical capacity, 896
835 nities for sustainable development. Ecohydrology views international research societies, technical schools and 897
836 ecosystem processes as management tools to achieve universities, UN and other development-oriented educa- 898
837 sustainability by stating multidimensional objectives to tional programs, and private sector internal training 899
838 manage catchments – WBSRC (Water, Biodiversity, Eco- programs would need to be engaged. 900
839 system Services for Society, Resilience to climatic changes
840 and Cultural heritage) (Zalewski, 2000; Zalewski et al., 6. Conclusion 901
841 2017). The WBSRC strategy aims at gaining synergies
842 between ecosystem-based solutions and the circular A growing and rapidly urbanizing population and its 902
843 economy (Zalewski et al., 2017). associated production and consumption of energy and 903
materials will impact fresh water systems for the 904
844 5. Call-to-action: managing supplies, quality, and risk foreseeable future. Yet, these drivers and their impacts 905
have not been sufficiently controlled by current conserva- 906
845 The economic development-environmental protection tion and mitigation measures (Garrick et al., 2017; Green 907
846 dichotomy is an out-dated construct, and a 21st century et al., 2015; Harrison et al., 2016), rendering improved 908
847 approach to the water crisis (Young, 2000) is progressively environmental management for water security a persis- 909
848 being developed by researchers and practitioners, in which tent societal imperative over the entire SDG execution 910
849 they combine traditional and ecosystem-based engineer- period. If one accepts the premise that durable water 911
850 ing solutions. A major strategic initiative is proposed here. security requires well-functioning ecosystems, a central 912
851 Four strategic, globally-significant supporting actions are tenet of SDG-6 expressed through target 6.6, then this 913
852 shown here as opportunities to counterbalance trends in improvement we speak of becomes critical, as the 914
853 the deterioration of water-related ecosystem services, as biocapacity or carrying capacity of ecosystems, catchments 915
854 well as in the erosion of the capacity of SDG signatory and the biosphere at large to provide water services to 916
855 states to address four main strategic water challenges humankind is likely to otherwise continue its long-term 917
856 (Section 1). decline (Global Footprint Network, 2016) and compromise 918
the very water security that SDG-6 seeks. 919
858
859 Green infrastructure watershed ‘‘banks’’ comprising natu- In the context of sustainability, new solutions become 920
860 ral ecosystem-based assets that would be identified and apparent – at once recognizing the need to raise the level of 921
861 employed in water delivery systems designed for long- human economic well-being, while at the same time 922
862 term, cost-effective human use; preserving the underlying benefits of natural capital in 923
863
864 An accelerated global research and solutions program on water provisioning. Innovation in the evolving 21st 924
865 coupled human–environment engineered systems, century water sector will be central to such a transforma- 925
866 based on cost-benefit analyses that explicitly evaluate tion, and a critical part of this innovation will be a deeper 926
867 green infrastructure, to attain universal, human water understanding of ecosystem services and appreciation of 927
868 security through well-functioning, integral environ- how these can be used productively and in tandem with 928
869 ments; traditionally engineered systems (Palmer et al., 2015). 929
870
871 A new global water-ecosystem services observatory to One could argue that the degree to which we have, thus 930
872 assess progress or backsliding in sustainable manage- far, been successful (or not) in meeting the water challenge 931
873 ment of water assets, combining state-of-the-art Earth is predicated on our more-or-less unitary focus on 932
874 observations, survey data, and simulation models traditional engineering to address society’s growing water 933
875 depicting conditions from worldwide to local scales challenges. An expanded approach, that includes an 934
876 and with near real-time, operational coverage, and; admittedly more complex and unwieldy set of multiple 935
877
878 An expanded capacity/workforce developmentinitiative to perspectives that embody ecology, engineering, econom- 936
879 create universal readiness among UN member states to ics, governance, ethics and culture, will undoubtedly be a 937
880 produce a next generation of environmental planners challenge for researchers and practitioners to achieve. The 938
881 and water practitioners. broad scale absence of integrated water resource manage- 939
ment benefits (Vörösmarty et al., 2010), themselves multi- 940
882 The supporting initiatives are presented here as durable dimensional, is a testament to this challenge ahead. In this 941
883 actions to the development agenda during the full SDG context, it is important to recognize that the community is 942
884 timeframe but also post-2030. A brief, annotated descrip- in the early stages of a, much needed, but much longer- 943
885 tion is offered in Box 4. A diverse set of stakeholders from term dialogue on this subject. The proposals made in this 944
886 academia, government, the private sector and civil society article are admittedly but a starting point and but one way 945
887 would need to be engaged to ensure success. A global forward, yet they hopefully provide a small enough set of 946
888 inventory of watershed banks would help to identify practical guideposts around which policymakers and 947
889 candidate natural assets to be combined ultimately with practitioners could begin to unite. Formulating interna- 948
890 grey approaches. Research, of both a basic and applied tional policies on climate mitigation and adaption suggests 949
891 nature, would need to include the scientific community that overcoming water challenges will not be an easy task, 950
892 and engineers, supported by public funding agencies, but but one that will bear no less critical impacts on human 951
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ECOHYD 195 1–17
952 well-being and environmental integrity for many decades Bennett, G., Cassin, J., Carroll, N., 2016. Natural infrastructure investment 1008
and implications for the nexus: a global overview. Ecosyst. Serv. 17, 1009
953 to come. 293–297. 1010
Bernhardt, E.S., Palmer, M., Allan, J.D., Alexander, G., Barnas, K., Brooks, S., 1011
Sudduth, E., 2005. Synthesizing U.S. river restoration efforts. Science 1012
954 Conflict of interest 308 (5722), 636–637. 1013
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955 Q7 None declared. Rodrı́guez Osuna, V., 2016. Achieving sustainable development goals 1015
from a Water perspective. Front. Environ. Sci. 4 (64), 1–13. 1016
Blackwell, M.S.A., Maltby, E., 2006. How to Use Floodplains for Flood Risk 1017
956 Ethical statement Reduction. Ecofllod Guidelines. European Commission. Directorate- 1018
General for Research, Sustainable Development, Global Change and 1019
Ecosystems, Luxembourg. 1020
957 Authors state that the research was conducted accord- Bridgewater, P., Kim, R.E., Bosselmann, K., 2014. Ecological integrity: a 1021
958 ing to ethical standards. relevant concept for International Environmental Law in the 1022
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Bunn, S.E., 2016. Grand challenge for the future of freshwater ecosystems. 1024
959 Funding body Front. Environ. Sci. 4 (21), 1–4. 1025
Burek, P., Satoh, Y., Fischer, G., Kahil, M.T., Nava, S., Wada, L.F., Wiberg, B., 1026
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Seguridad de Agua y ODS Basados en Los Ecosistemas

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ECOHYD 195 1–17

Ecohydrology & Hydrobiology xxx (2018) xxx–xxx

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Ecohydrology & Hydrobiology

3 Ecosystem-based water security and the sustainable

Article history: The economic development-environmental protection dichotomy is an out-dated

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Box 1. A vision for water security.

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Name of the initiative Objective Actors Outcomes Scale

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