Energy Efficiency of Mimo Ofdm System: A Project Report

ENERGY EFFICIENCY OF MIMO OFDM SYSTEM
A PROJECT REPORT
Submitted to
in the partial fulfillment of the requirements for

the award of the degree of
in the Department of
Electronics and Communication Engineering [ECE]
by
B Prasanth Lara-16311A04C4
N Tarun-16311A04F1
N Surya-16311A04F2
Project co-ordinator Under the Guidance of
DR .D Ajitha DR SPV Subba Rao
Associate Proffessor Assistant Professor
Department of ECE Department of ECE
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
SREENIDHI INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

(AUTONOMOUS)
Yamnampet, Ghatkesar, R.R District, Hyderabad – 501301
1
Date: 10/03/2020
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the Project Work entitled
“ENERGY EFFICIENCY OF MIMO OFDM SYSTEM” being submitted by
N Tarun-16311A04F1
N Surya-16311A04F2
in fulfillment of B.Tech 4th year 2nd nd semester in Department of Electronics and

Communication Engineering [ECE], Sreenidhi Institute of Science and Technology, an
autonomous institute under Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University, Telangana, is a record
of bonafide work carried out by them under our guidance and supervision.
Project Coordinator- Project Guide-

Dr D Ajitha Dr. S.P.V. SUBBA RAO
Assistant Professor Head & Professor
DEPARTMENT OF ECE DEPARTMENT OF ECE
Head of the department

Dr SPV SUBBA RAO
Professor and HOD
ECE Dept
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
2
We would like to thank my supervisor Dr D Ajitha, Associate professor, Department of ECE for
giving us constant guidance, support and motivation throughout the period this course work was
carried out. Their readiness for consultation at all times, their educative comments and assistance
even with practical things have been invaluable. We are thankful that she had gave the freedom
to do the work with our ideas.
We express my sincere gratitude to our project guide DR. S.P.V.SUBBA RAO, Head of
Department, ECE for helping us in carrying out this project giving support throughout the period
of our study in SNIST.
We are also thankful to our principle DR. CH. SIVA REDDY, giving us this guidance and
support, motivation throughout the period of our B.Tech course work carried out.
We convey our special thanks to honorable Executive Director DR. P.N.REDDY SNIST for his
continuous support in maintaining pleasant and friendly atmosphere in campus for studies and
course work.
We are also thankful to all teaching and non-teaching staff of our department who has rendered
their co-operation in completion of this project report.
We also thank our parents and friends and well-wishers who aided us in completion of the
project report.
DECLARATION
3
We hereby declare that the work described in this report, entitled “ENERGY EFFICIENCY
OF MIMO OFDM SYSTEM”, which is being submitted by us in fulfillment of B.Tech 4th
year, 2nd semester in Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering [ECE],
Sreenidhi Institute Of Science & Technology affiliated to Jawaharlal Nehru Technological
University Hyderabad, Kukatpally, Hyderabad (Telangana) -500 085 is the result of
investigations carried out by us under the Guidance of Dr SPV SUBBA RAO Professor,
Department of ECE, Sreenidhi Institute Of Science And Technology, Hyderabad. The work is
original and has not been submitted for any Degree/Diploma of this or any other university.
Place: Hyderabad
Date:11/03/2020
Signature
N Tarun-16311A04F1
N Surya-16311A04F2
ABSTRACT
4
5G provides users with a higher system capacity, low latency, and low system complexity. The
core technology, massive multiple-input and multiple-output (MIMO), improves spectral
efficiency and degrees of freedom and lower system complexity. In my project, we will analyze
the relationship between signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) and capacity. In the second part, we will
discuss energy efficiency. The consumed power of the system includes transmit power, circuit
power consumption, and idle power consumption. The circuit power consumption dominates the
system power consumption when the transmitter is equipped with massive number of antennas.
Hence, to analyze this problem, we propose a power consumption model. To solve this problem,
it is important to find the trade-off between system capacity and energy efficiency.
Keyword: Massive MIMO, Spectral efficiency, Energy Efficiency
CONTENTS- Page Nos

Acknowledgement
5
Abstract
Chapter 1 Introduction
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Motivation
1.3 Problem Statement
1.4 Difference between 4G and 5G
1.5 Main Contributions
Chapter 2 History of MIMO systems

2.1 Introduction
2.2 MIMO Technology
Chapter 3 MIMO System Model

3.1 MIMO Implementation
3.2 MIMO Operation and block diagram
3.2.1 MIMO OFDM Technology
3.3 MIMO Types
3.4 Channel State Information
Chapter 4 Energy efficiency of MIMO system
4.1 Realization of Energy Efficiency
4.2 Power Consumption model
4.3 Linear Precoding schemes
4.3.1 Maximal Ratio Combining
4.3.2 Zero Forcing
4.3.3 Minimum Mean Square Equilization
6
Chapter 5 Advantages and Disadvantages
5.1 Advantages
5.2 Disadvantages
Chapter 6 Applications
Chapter 7 Results
7.1 Generated OFDM signals
7.2 Energy Efficiency of MIMO System
Chapter 8 Matlab Code
Chapter 9 Conclusions
9.1 Future Prospects
Chapter 10 References
LIST OF FIGURES
7
1
Abbreviations:
3GPP: 3 rd Generation Partnership Project
8
5G: 5 th Generation of Wireless technology
C-RAN: Cloud Radio Access Network
eMBB: Enhanced Mobile Broadband
GSM: Global System for Mobile Communications
GSMA: GSM Association
HLF: High Level Forum
IMT: International Mobile Telecommunications
IoT: Internet of Things
LSA: Licensed Shared Access
LMLC: Low Mobility Large Cell
LTE: Long Term Evolution
M2M: Machine to Machine
MIMO: Multiple Input Multiple Output
mMTC: Massive Machine Type Communication
NDCP: National Digital Communication Policy
NFV: Network Function Virtualization
NR: New Radio
NSA: Non-Stand Alone OFDMA: Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple
QoS: Quality of Services
RAN: Radio Access Network
SA: Stand Alone
SDN: Software Defined Networking
URLLC: Ultra Reliable and Low Latency Communication
Chapter 1
Introduction-
1.1 Introduction
9
As there was a time whilst we moved from 2G era to 3G and that become a entire exchange in
generation from one age to the subsequent and that became the first milestone inside the
evolution of era. Now, as we're moving from 4G Long Term Evolution (LTE) generation to 5G,
we are entering into the 2nd age of this evolution. The destiny shift from 4G LTE to 5G will
focus greater at the self-optimized and self-controlled transition of generation wherein networks
and devices are more needed to be configured and controlled on their own, with particular and
greater decision-making abilities and powerful results.
The creation of 5G era calls for not most effective higher pace, reduced put off and expanded
bandwidth capability, but additionally enhanced functioning on strategies of energy efficiency,
higher spectrum handling, self-organized network management, virtualization and, moreover,
higher RRM strategies / techniques. On the alternative hand, plenty of studies has been done to
enhance the cellular shape of the wi-fi network to lessen network delay and interference. It
consequently calls for the implementation of recent algorithms, techniques and situations to
better cope with new era challenges.
On the radio, multiple input and output, or MIMO (/ ˈmaɪmoʊ, ˈmiːmoʊ /), is a way to increase
the volume of the radio connection using mass transmitters and receiving tips to exploit the
frequency of transmission. MIMO has become an integral part of wireless communication
standards including IEEE 802.11n (Wi-Fi), IEEE 802.11ac (Wi-Fi), HSPA + (3G), WMAMAX
(4G), and Long term Evolution (4G LTE). Recently, MIMO has been used for 3-wire electrical
wiring connections as part of the standard ITU G.hn specification with HomePlug AV2.
At one point, in wireless the word "MIMO" was referring to the use of multiple horns in the
transmitter and receiver. In today's application, "MIMO" specifically refers to the process used to
send and receive more than one data ad at the same radio station by exploiting multipath
propagation. MIMO is completely different from the smart antenna techniques developed by the
performance of a single data signal, such as rotation and variance. MIMO technology has been
tested as wireless LANs, 3G cellular networks, and 4G cellular networks and is now widely used
commercially. Greg Raleigh and V. K. Jones founded Airgo Networks in 2001 to develop
MIMO-OFDM chipsets for wireless LANs. The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineer
(IEEE) established a team in late 2003 to develop a standard wireless LAN that delivers a
minimum of 100 Mbit / s of user data through. there have been two major competitors: TGn
Sync is backed by companies including Intel and Philips, while WWiSE is backed by companies
including Airgo Networks, Broadcom, and Texas Instruments. Both groups agreed that the
802.11n standard would be supported by MIMO-OFDM at 20 MHz and 40 MHz channel. TGn
Sync, WWiSE, and the third proposal (MITMOT, backed by Motorola and Mitsubishi) were
merged to form the so-called Joint Proposal. In 2004, Airgo became the first company to ship
MIMO-OFDM products. Qualcomm acquired Airgo Networks in late 2006. The last term
802.11n standard was supported up to 600 Mbit / s (using multiple sources of the same data) and
published at the end of 2009.
10
Surendra Babu Mandava and Arogyaswami Paulraj founded Beceem Communications in 2004 to
provide WiMAX-enabled MIMO-OFDM chipsets. the company was acquired by Broadcom in
2010. WiMAX was developed as an alternative for cellular standards, based on 802.16e level,
and using MIMO-OFDM to deliver speeds at 138 Mbit / s. The highest level of 802.16m enables
download speeds of 1 Gbit / s. The WiMAX network nationally was created for us by
Delewirewire, a Sprint-Nextel subsidiary, which covered 130 million points (PoP) in mid-2012.
Sprint then announced plans to deploy LTE (standard 4G standard) covering 31 cities in mid-
2013 and close its WiMAX network up in 2015.
The first 4G cellular standard was proposed by NTT DoCoMo in 2004. Future evolution (LTE)
is based on MIMO-OFDM and continues to be produced by the 3rd Generation Partnership
Project (3GPP). LTE specifies low transmission rates of up to 300 Mbit / s, peak rates up to 75
Mbit / s, and quality of service parameters such as low latency. LTE Advanced adds support for
picocell, femtocell, and multi-channel networks up to 100 MHz in range. LTE has been approved
by both GSM / UMTS and CDMA.
The first LTE services were launched in Oslo and Stockholm by TeliaSonera in 2009. There are
currently 360 LTE networks in 123 countries with approximately 373 million connected devices
(devices).
1.2 Motivation
MIMO often follow back to the 1970s research papers on transmission systems that use multiple
digital channels and interventions (crosstalk) at midnight with a wire bundle: AR Kaye and DA
George (1970), Branderburg and Wyner (1974) , and W. van Etten (1975, 1976). Although these
are not examples of exploiting multipath propagation to send multiple sources of information,
11
other mathematical techniques for dealing with visual disturbances are not useful for the
development of MIMO. In the mid-1980s Jack Salz at Bell Laboratories re-conducted the study,
investigating a number of services that worked through "integrated networks with additional
audio sources" such as frequency communication and radio programs designed for them.
Mechanisms were developed to improve the effectiveness of mobile radio networks and to
enable more aggressive frequency use in the early 1990s. Multiple Space-division multiple
access (SDMA) uses discrete or intelligent antennas to communicate at the same frequency as
users at different locations within the same channel range. It was proposed by the SDMA
program by Richard Roy and Björn Ottersten, researchers at ArrayComm, in 19911. Their US
Patent (No. 5515378 issued in 1996 ) describes how to increase capacity through a "horn
detector database at the base station" with the majority of remote users.
1.3 Problem Statement
MIMO signal testing focuses first on the transmission / receiver system. Random sections of the
lower carrier signals can produce faster electrical power that causes the amplifiers to compress,
cause distortion and ultimately show errors. Symptoms with a high PAR rate (high to moderate
ratio) can cause amplifiers to become unreasonably depressed during transit. OFDM signals are
very powerful and compression problems can be difficult to detect due to their sound-like nature.
Knowing the quality of the signal channel is also important. The channel emulator can emulate
how the device operates at the edges of a cell, can add sound or can mimic the speed of a
channel. Completely optimizing the receiver operation, which is transmitted by simulation, such
as a vector signal generator (VSG), and a station emulator can be used to test the receiver under
various conditions. On the other hand, the performance of the transmitter under many different
conditions can be verified using a channel emulator and a standard receiver, such as a signal
analyzer (VSA).
1.3 What is the difference between 4G and 5G
A: There are several differences between 4G vs 5G:
5G may be a unified platform that's more capable than 4G

12
5G uses spectrum better than 4G
5G is faster than 4G
5G has more capacity than 4G
5G has lower latency than 4G
5G may be a unified platform that's more capable than 4G
Fig 1.1
While 4G LTE focused on delivering much faster mobile broadband services than 3G, 5G is
meant to be a unified, more capable platform which will not only elevate mobile broadband
experiences, but also support new services like mission-critical communications and therefore
the massive IoT. 5G also will natively support all spectrum types (licensed, shared, unlicensed)
and bands (low, mid, high), a good range of deployment models (from traditional macro-cells to
hotspots), as well as new ways to interconnect (such as device-to-device and multi-hop mesh).
1.4 Main Contributions
Arogyaswami Paulraj and Thomas Kailath proposed a multiplication process established by the
SDMA in 1993. Their US Patent (No. 5,345,599 issued in 1994) outlines how to broadcast high
data rates by separating high-quality signal from "low signal" signals that should be transmitted
"from space-separated transmitter" and obtained by a differential antenna array "on the delivery
of arrival. "Paulraj was awarded the prestigious Marconi Award in 2014" for his pioneering
13
contributions to the development of the concept and use of MIMO's young men. ... His idea of
always using multiple horns in distribution and reception issues - in the current high-speed ports
of WiFi and 4G mobile - has changed wireless at high speeds. "
In an April 1996 paper and the next patent, Greg Raleigh suggested that more natural resources
spread to be distributed to distribute more independent data sources using available tips and
trademark inforations. The paper also identified practical convergence solutions (MIMO-
OFDM), encoding, synchronization, and measurement of the station. Later that year (September
1996) Gerard J. Foschini submitted a paper that also suggested the possibility of an increase in
the number of wireless connections using what the author described as "the construction of an
existing building."
Greg Raleigh, V. K. Jones, and Michael Pollack founded Carlity Wireless in 1996, and designed
and tested the MOT prototype system. Cisco Systems acquired Clarity Wireless in 1998Bell
Labs built a prototype labot prototype showing its V-BLAST (Vertical-Bell Laboratories
Layered Space-Time) technology in 1998. Arogyaswami Paulraj founded Iospan Wireless in late
1998 to develop MIMO-OFDM products. Iospan was acquired by Intel in 2003. V-BLAST has
never been sold, and neither Clarity Wireless nor Iospan Wireless looks forward to the US
Chapter 2
History of MIMO Systems

2.1 Introduction
On the radio, multi-input and multi-output, or MIMO is a way to increase the volume of the
radio connection using multiple transmitting and receiving horns to exploit the frequency of
transmission. MIMO has become an integral part of wireless communication standards including
IEEE 802.11n (Wi-Fi), IEEE 802.11ac (Wi-Fi), HSPA + (3G), WMAMAX (4G), and Long term
Evolution (4G LTE). Recently, MIMO has been used for 3-wire electrical wiring connections as
part of the standard ITU G.hn specification with HomePlug AV2.
At one point, in wireless the word "MIMO" was referring to the use of multiple horns in the
transmitter and receiver. In today's application, "MIMO" specifically refers to the process used to
14
send and receive more than one data ad at the same radio station by exploiting multipath
propagation. MIMO is distinctly based on smart antenna techniques developed for the
performance of a single data signal, such as brightness and diversity.
2.2 MIMO Technology
Multi-antenna MIMO technology (or single user MIMO) has been produced and operates at
certain levels, e.g., 802.11n products.
• SISO / SIMO / MISO for special MIMO cases
o Multiple Input and Single Output (MISO) is a special case where the receiver has one cable.
o Input and dual output (SIMO) is a special case when a transmitter has one antenna.
o Single-input single output (SISO) is a standard radio program where no transmitter or receiver
has multiple antennae.
• MIMO techniques do not use a single user
o Bell Laboratories layered Space-Time (BLAST), Gerard. J. Foschini (1996)
o Per Antenna Rate Control (PARC), Varanasi, Guess (1998), Chung, Huang, Lozano (2001)
15
o Choosing Per Antenna Rate Control (SPARC), Nokia (2004).
To change the direction of the same direction during transmission, the telescope controls the
phase and amplitude of the signal in each transmitter, in order to create a pattern of positive and
destructive interference at the saturation point. Upon receipt, information from different sensors
is aggregated in such a way that the expected radiation pattern is well maintained.
For example, in a sonar, sending the sharp sound of a submarine to a remote, simply transferring
that sharp shot from the rest of the sonar project in sequence fails because the ship will start to
hear the sound from the speaker happening. near the ship, and later on to computers from
speakers that may have come from the ship. The observation method involves sending a beating
from each projector at different times (a near-final observer), so that the entire pulp can hit the
ship at the same time, producing a single pulse effect from one powerful projector. The same
process can be performed over the air using loudspeakers, or radio / radio using ants.
In passive sonar, and in the adoption of active sonar, the tapping method involves combining
delayed signals from each hydrophone at slightly different intervals (the nearest hydrophone to
the target will be coupled after a very long delay), so that all signals reach the exact result. at the
same time, we make one great signal, as if the signal came from a single, very sensitive
hydrophone. Find beamforming can also work with a microphone or radar antennas.
With a smaller band system, the time delay equals a "phase shift", so in this case the list of ants,
each converting a different value, is called a time series. A narrow band system, common to
radars, is one where bandwidth is only a small fraction of the frequency. With the range of band
systems this approach is still catchy, typical for sonars.
In signal beamformers from each antenna it can be amplified at a different "weight." Various
weight patterns (e.g., Dolph-Chebyshev) can be used to achieve desirable sensory patterns. The
16
primary lobe is produced along with the lobes and sidelobes. As well as controlling the width of
the main lobe (beamwidth) and sidelobe levels, the null position can be controlled. This works to
ignore audio or jammers in one direction, while listening to events in other directions. The same
result can be found in the transmission.
For complete calculations in the direction of the lines using the amplitude and velocity of a
section, see the mathematical section in the section list.
Analytical techniques can be broadly divided into two categories:
standard beamformers (fixed or modified)
adapter or phase adapter components
Optional signal amplification mode
Intervention signal reduction or cancellation mode
Standard beamformers, such as the Butler matrix, use a set of weight and time delays (or phases)
to combine the signals from the sensors in this frame, primarily using only information about the
location of the sensors in space and the wave signals of interest. In contrast, dynamic
convergence techniques (e.g., MUSIC, SAMV) often combine this information with symbols
that are actually acquired by the array, typically enhancing the rejection of unwanted signals
from other directions. This process can be performed at any time or frequency domain.
As the name suggests, a flexible beamformer is able to automatically adapt to its response in
different situations. Another policy should be set up to allow consistency to continue as a
reduction in total noise output. Due to the frequency variations in sound, in broad band systems it
may be desirable to perform the procedure in the frequency domain.
Some limitations
17
o Body antenna space is chosen to be large; multiple waveforms at the base station. The antenna
division of the finder has limited space in the offices, although the antenna discussion and
algorithm are still being developed.
Multiple user types
Recently, research results on MIMO technology for many users have been emerging. While
many MIMO users (or the MIMO network) may have high potential, in reality, the (small)
research of most MIMO users (or most users with the MIMO antenna) is very effective.
• MASSIVE Multi-MIMO User (MU-MIMO)
o At the latest 3GPP and WiMAX standards, MU-MIMO is treated as one of the widely accepted
candidate candidate technologies set by many companies, including Samsung, Intel, Qualcomm,
Nokia, TI, Huawei, Philips, Nokia
Chapter 3
MIMO SYSTEM MODEL-
3.1 MIMO Implementation
SISO systems are generally more complex than most multi-input (MIMO) systems. It's often,
and it's very easy to order a larger or more predictable future "flight" or "back in an envelope".
MIMO systems have so many connections that most of us quickly, completely, and efficiently
get into our heads.
Typical domain strategies for the analysis and design of control structure theory for the SISO
control system. Bode structure, Nyquist stiffness, Nichols ice, and the locus are common tools
for SISO system analysis. Controls can be programmed using a polynomial, a root method to
name just two popular ones. Usually the SISO controllers will be either PI, PID, or lead-lag.
Many antitrust agents on the transmitter and receiver are presenting to present signals of freedom
that were not present in the SISO programs. This is called the spatial measure of freedom.
Freedom websites can be used either "separately" or "duplicates" or a combination of the two. In
simple words, diversity means being unwanted.
18
SISO (single input, single output) refers to a wireless communication system where one antenna
is used at the source (transmitter) and one antenna is used at your destination (receiver).
SISO is a very simple antenna technology. In some areas, SISO systems are at risk for problems
caused by replication effects. When the electromagnetic field (EM field) encounters obstacles
such as hills, dunes, buildings, electrical wires, wavefronts are dispersed, and as a result they
take many paths to reach your destination. The late arrival of scattered parts of the signal causes
problems such as termination, contraction (cliff operation), and occasional reception (fencing). In
a digital communication system, it can cause a decrease in data speed and an increase in the
number of errors.
To reduce or eliminate the problems caused by the multipath wave propagation, good antenna
technology is used. There are three types of smart antennas, known as SIMO (single input,
multiple output), MISO (multiple input, single output), and MIMO (multiple input, multiple
output).
19
Fig
A simple example of the diversity of many horns trying to receive the same signal. The signal
received from these two horns is damaged by the inconsistent noise between the ants, so by
combining these two signals a signal of better quality can be rebuilt. The analogy here is that by
looking at the same object from two different points, information on the object can be found.
Diversity can also be achieved using multiple antennas by using Space Time Coding (STC)
techniques.
The second major mode of MIMO is Spatial Multiplexing. Local multiplication enables the
MIMO transmitter / receiver pair to increase its reach without increasing bandwidth or power
consumption. Multiplexing increases the line input by transmitting or receiving antennas,
whichever is lower. The transmitter sends signals holding different streams from each whistle.
Each antenna receiver receives a direct combination of transmitted signals. A wireless station is a
matrix that is a function of transmitting / locating antenna array geometry and distributors /
illustrators located in the surrounding area.
20
Fig 1.2
When the MIMO transmitter / receiver pair operates in a saturated area, the channel frequency
becomes unchanged, thus enabling the receiver to determine all the different signals transmitted
to the various antenna apertures, resulting in duplicate gain. There is a trade-off between the
amount of variance and the inflation that an MIMO system can offer. The standard MIMO
transmitter / receiver pair automatically detects the operating point on the divers-multiplexing
trade off curve based on wireless channel conditions.
3.2 MIMO Block Diagram
21
Fig 1.3
The channel may be affected by expiration and this will have an impact on the audio output
model. And this will impact the error rate, assuming digital data is transmitted. The goal of
diversity is to provide the receiver with multiple types of the same signal. If this can be affected
by different signal pathways, the likelihood of all of them being affected at the same time is
greatly reduced. In combination, diversity helps strengthen the link and improves performance,
reducing error rates.
The Principles of OFDM
An OFDM signal aggregates the information in orthogonal single-provider frequency-area

waveforms into a time-area waveform that may be transmitted over the air. The subcarriers use
QPSK or QAM because the number one modulation method. The inverse discrete Fourier
transform equation for this is:
f(x)=1NΣt=0N−1F(t)ei2πxtNf(x)=1NΣt=0N−1F(t)ei2πxtN
In OFDM, when the amplitude of each subcarrier reaches the maximum, the carriers are arranged
at periods of 1 / symbol time in order that the amplitude of different subcarriers is 0, thereby
22
preventing interference between symbols. Moreover, OFDM of a multicarrier transmission is
powerful in multipath environments because the have an impact on of multipath is focused on precise
subcarriers compared with a single-carrier transmission. In the case of a single-provider
transmission, the multipath impacts the whole.
The arrival time distinction between the direct wave and the meditated wave increases when the
sign is transmitted over a protracted range. In that situation, the number of subcarriers is greater
than in a smaller provider range.
3.2.1 MIMO OFDM Technology in 5G Systems

During the specification of the 5G standard, various technologies based totally on OFDM were
considered. CP-OFDM (cyclic prefix OFDM) is used in LTE and changed into also decided on
for the 3GPP Release 15 standard. This approach adds an upper-level sign known as a cyclic
prefix to the beginning of the OFDM symbol. CP-OFDM suppresses inter symbol interference
(ISI) and intercarrier interference (ICI) through placing the statistics for a certain period of time
from the trailing quit of the OFDM symbol as the cyclic prefix at the start of the OFDM symbol.
In fact, OFDM is a special form of frequency differential (FDM), with the additional stumbling
block that all sub-channels of the communication channel are orthogonal to one another.
23
The OFDM compiler indicator is the sum of the number of orthogonal subcarriers, with
baseband data for each independently transformed layer using some sort of quadrature amplitude
module (QAM) or phase-shift keying (PSK). The basic band band signal is often used to
configure a large RF carrier.
{\ showstyle \ scripttstyle s [n]} \ scripttstyle s [n] is a binary distribution of binary digits. With
varying repetitions, this disclosure begins in the {\ showstyle \ scripttstyle N} \ scripttstyle N
streams of similarity, and each is mapped to a (possibly complex) map using a specific
modulation constellation (QAM, PSK, etc.). Note that constellations may vary, so some radios
may be of higher quality than others.
Resistant FFT is calculated for each set of signals, giving samples of complex time domain.
These samples are then merged-quadrature to a normal passage. Real and imaginary elements are
first converted to an analogue domain using digital-to-analogue converters (DACs); analogue
signals are used to emulate the cosine and fourth waves in the frequency of the carrier, These
signals are then summed to provide the transmission signal, {\ showstyle \ scripttstyle s (t)} \
scripttstyle s (t).
24
The receiver takes the signal {\ Showstyle \ scripttstyle r (t)} \ scripttstyle r (t), which is mixed
with the quadrature down for bandwidth using cosine and sine waves at the frequency of the
network. This also creates signals focused on {\ showstyle \ scripttstyle 2f_ {c}} \ scripttstyle 2f_
{c}, so low-pass filters are used to reject these. The baseband signals are then sampled and
calibrated using analog-to-digital converter (ADCs), and then the frequency domain FFT is used.
This returns the {\ ststyle \ scripttstyle N} \ scriptstyle N parallel streams, each transformed into
a binary stream using the appropriate signal detector. These tracks are re-merged into a direct
stream, {\ Showstyle \ scripttstyle {\ hat {s}} [n]} \ tststyle {\ hat {s} [n], which is a measure of
the actual binary distribution in the transmitter.
In OFDM, the frequency of computers is selected so that the collaborators are reduced, meaning
that the dialogue between the sub channels is eliminated and the carrier monitors are not needed.
This facilitates the formation of both transmitters and receivers; unlike standard FDM, a separate
filter for each sub-channel is not required.
Orthogonality requires that the space space below is less than {\ showstyle \ scripttstyle \ Delta
f \, = \, {\ frac {k} {T_ {U}}} \ scripttstyle \ Delta f \, = \, {\ frac {k} {T_ {U}}} Hertz, where
TU seconds is the effective signal time (receiver window size), and k is a positive integer,
25
usually equal to 1. This specifies that each network frequency takes more complete cycles for the
symbol time than the previous carrier. Therefore, for N subcarriers, the bandwidth bandwidth
will be B ≈ N · Δf (Hz).
Orthogonality also allows for high viewing efficiency, with an average rating close to the
Nyquist rating for the equivalent baseband signal (e.g. around half of the Nyquist rating for the
side body signal). Almost all available frequency band can be used. OFDM usually has a nearly
'white' screen, giving it an interruption of the electronic power interruption in relation to other
co-channel users.
A simple example: Active signal interval TU = 1 ms will require a limited space for {\ showstyle
\ scripttstyle \ Delta f \, = \, {\ frac {1} {1 \, \ mathrm {ms}}}, = \, 1 \, \ mathrm {kHz}} \
scripttstyle \ Delta f \, = \, {\ frac {1} {1 \, \ mathrm {ms}}} \, = \, 1 \, \ mathrm {kHz} (or the
total number of such) orthogonality. N = 1,000 subcarriers will result in a bandwidth of N passf
= 1 MHz. At this time of the signal, the bandwidth required for text according to Nyquist is
Showstyle \ scripttstyle \ mathrm {BW} = R / 2 = (N / T_ {U}) / 2 = 0.5 \, \ mathrm {MHz}}

( half the bandwidth received required by our system), where R is the current rate and where N =
1,000 samples per signal is FFT. If guard duty time is used (see below), the demand for the
Nyquist band may be low. FFT will result in N = 1,000 mark samples. If no monitoring interval
is used, this could result in a limited bandwidth pattern of 1 MHz, which will require a
bandwidth bandwidth of 0.5 MHz according to Nyquist. However, the passband RF signal is
generated by retransmitting the baseband signal through a car waveform (e.g., a quadrature-
amplope-module twice) resulting in a bandwidth of 1 MHz. A single-side band replacement
scheme (SSB) or bandial sideband (VSB) can achieve up to half that bandwidth of the same
signal range (e.g., double-sided visual duplication in the same character length). However it is
very sensitive to replication.
OFDM requires the most accurate frequency synchronization between the receiver and the
transmitter; with frequent deviations driven by subordinates will no longer be orthogonal,
causing stakeholder interference (ICI) (e.g., communication between subordinates). Frequency-
induced output is caused by passive transmission and receiver oscillators, or Doppler removal
due to motion. While the Doppler shift alone can be compensated by the recipient, the situation
26
gets worse when combined with duplication, as the thinking will come from a variety of different
factories, which are very difficult to fix.
OFDM in its original form is considered as a digital converter, and is not a multi-channel access
channel, since it is used to transmit a single thin line to a single communication channel using the
OFDM signal sequence. However, OFDM can be integrated with multiple accesses using time,
frequency or code partition of users.
In achieving orthogonal frequency-division frequency (OFDMA), many open access is achieved

by assigning non-OFDM channels to various users. OFDMA supports fragmented service quality
by providing a different number of senders to different users in the same way as in CDMA, and
thus complex packet blocking or Media Access Control programs can be avoided. OFDMA is
used in:
the standard IEEE 802.16 Wireless MAN navigation mode, commonly referred to as WiMAX,
IEEE 802.20 standard Wireless MAN standard, commonly referred to as MBWA,
3GPP Long Term Evolution (LTE) is the fourth generation of standard Broadband broadband.
The radio station was formerly called High Speed OFDM Packet Access (HSOPA), now called
Evolved UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access (E-UTRA).
3GPP 5G NR (New Radio) fifth-generation network Downlink and uplink. 5G NR follows LTE.
the current high-performance Qualcomm / 3GPP2 Ultra Mobile Broadband (UMB) project,
intended to be a CDMA2000 successor, but was replaced by LTE.
OFDMA is also a candidate option for IEEE 802.22 Wireless Regional Area Networks (WRAN).
This project aims to design a single cuffitive radio-based standard that operates on the VHF-low
UHF spectrum (TV spectrum).
The most recent amendment to the standard 802.11, 802.11ax, incorporates OFDMA's
simultaneous efficiency and communication.
27
In multicomputer network code (MC-CDMA), also known as OFDM-CDMA, OFDM is
integrated with CDMA communication for user-defined broadcasting. Channel interference can
be minimized, which means that programmable channel tuning (FCA) is easily achievable, or
slow channel allocation strategies (DCA) are avoided.
This effect tends to increase as speed increases, and is an important factor that prevents the use
of OFDM in high-speed vehicles. To reduce the ICI in such cases, one can shape each base to
minimize the distortion leading to non-orthogonal overlaps.
One key principle of OFDM is that since low-level convergence schemes (i.e., when signals
appear longer compared to channel-time signals) suffer less from intersymbol interference
caused by multiple scattering, it is advantageous to pass a lower rate of parallel diffusion instead
of a single frequency distribution. As the length of each signal is longer, it is possible to interrupt
the monitoring interval between OFDM signals, thus eliminating the intersymbol interruption.
The monitoring interval also removes the need for a pulse-shaping filter, and reduces the
sensitivity of time synchronization problems.
A simple example: If a person sends one million signals per second using the standard converter
of a single carrier on a wireless channel, the length of each signal will be one microsecond or
less. This poses difficult issues in synchronization and requires the removal of multipath
interference. If the same million signals per second are distributed among a thousand small
28
channels, the length of each signal can be longer by a thousandth object (e.g. one millisecond) of
orthogonality equal to the bandwidth. Assume that a guard interval 1/8 of the signal length is
included between each signal. Intersymbol interruption can be avoided if the newly propagated
time (between the initial and final admission interval) is shorter than the monitoring interval
(e.g., 125 microseconds). This corresponds to a significant difference of 37.5 km between the
length of the lanes.
The cyclic start, which is transmitted during the monitoring period, contains the end of the
OFDM symbol copied to the monitoring period, and the monitoring period is passed followed by
the OFDM symbol. The reason that the monitoring interval contains a copy of the end of the
OFDM signal is that the receiver includes more than the total number of sinusoid cycles of one
of the bundles when performing the OFDM operation with FFT.
29
OFDM is frequently used in conjunction with channel coding (pre-error correction), and almost
always uses the same frequency and / or duration.
Frequent frequency (low-frequency) increases the frequency resistance of the frequency-

selecting channel as blur. For example, when the end-to-end bandwidth of the channel decreases,
frequency placement ensures that the small errors that will be caused by the sub-bandwidth
spread to a smaller stream rather than the focus. Similarly, the passage of time ensures that the
fragments that are close together in a small invention are transmitted very far in time, thus
limiting them to as much movement as would occur at high speeds.
However, shortening of time is of no use in slowing down channels, such as detections, and
frequency increases do not contribute to reduced channels suffering from blurring (when the
entire bandwidth ends at the same time).
The reason that interleaving is used in OFDM is to try to distribute the errors in the small stream
brought to the error correction solution, because when such solutions are presented with a large
number of errors the architect cannot fix all the small errors, and then the error is corrected. The
same design of audio audio data makes compact disc (CD) playback robust.
30
The old version of the error correction code used with programs designed for OFDM compliant
encoding, is usually included in the Reed-Solomon code. Frequently, it is included in the
additional reduction (over time and frequency of the aforementioned merger) between the two
layers of writing. Reed-Solomon's choice of encoding as an external debugging code is based on
the observation that the Viterbi decoder used to interpret the internal resolution produces a burst
of short errors where there are many errors, and the Reed-Solomon codes are well suited to
correct the error.
New systems, however, generally now use the closest types of error correction codes that use the
turbo input principle, where the decoder does not fit into the required solution. Examples of such
types of error correction codes include turbo codes and LDPC codes, which operate near the
Shannon limit of the Additive White Gaussian Noise (AWGN) channel. Some systems that have
implemented these codes have partnered with Reed-Solomon (for example the MediaFLO
program) or BCH codes (DVB-S2 system) to upgrade to an error deck followed by these codes at
a high-to-noise ratio
31
Fig-1.4
The highest frequency (EHF) is the position of the International Telecommunication Union
(ITU) for the radio frequency band on the electromagnetic spectrum from 30 to 300 gigahertz
(GHz). It is between the highest frequency band, and the most distant band, the lower part of
which is the terahertz band. Radio waves in this band have wavelengths ranging from 10 to
millimeter, so they are also called millimeter bands and radiation in this band is called millimeter
waves, sometimes shortened by MMW or mmW or mmWave. Millions of millimeter
electromagnetic waves were first investigated by Indian jagadish expert Chandra Bose during the
period 1894-18896, when they reached 60 GHz in his experiments.
n In the United States, the band 36.0 - 40.0 GHz is used for high-speed microwave signals, and
the 60 GHz band can be used for an unregistered short range (1.7 km) of data with data input up
to 2.5 Gbit / s. It is widely used in low-lying areas.
The 71-76, 81-86 and 92-95 GHz bands are also used for point-to-point high-bandwidth
communication interfaces. These high frequencies do not suffer from oxygen deprivation, but
require a US referral license from the Federal Communications Commission (FCC). There are 10
Gbit / s connectivity systems using these waves. In the case of the 92-95 GHz band, the
minimum 100 MHz bandwidth is reserved for space-carrying radios, limiting this reserved range
to a transmission rate of less than a few gigabits per second.
CableFree MMW connector installed in the UAE installed by Safe City applications, provides a
capacity of 1Gbit / s between sites. Connectors are faster to install and cost less than fiber optics.
The band is actually not yet developed and is available for use on a large range of new products
and services, including wireless local area networks and Broadband internet access. WirelessHD
is another recent technology that works near the 60 GHz bandwidth. The highly regulated,
"pencil-beam" signposts allow different systems to work close to each other without causing
interference. Possible applications include radar systems with high resolution.
32
The standard I -EEEE 802.11ad for Wi-Fi operates at 60 GHz (V band) to achieve data transfer
rates up to 7 Gbit / s.
Use of millimeter bandwidths includes point connections, Intersatellite interfaces, and point-to-
multpoint communications. There are tentative plans to use the millimeter waves on future 5G
mobile phones. [9] In addition, the use of millimeters for vehicle communications also emerges
as an attractive solution to support (semi-) inter-vehicle communications.
The shorter waves in the band allow the use of smaller bands to achieve the same higher
direction and higher gain as larger than the lower bands. The immediate effect of this high-speed,
coupled with the loss of free space in these limits, is the possibility of the widespread use of
frequency for multi-point display applications. Since a very large number of highly directed
antennas can be placed in a given area, the effect of reuse is large, with a large number of users.
The widely used channel capacity in this band may allow it to use other applications that use
alternative fiber-optic communication.
Compared to the lower bands, the radio waves in the band have higher air attenuation: they are
drawn by atmospheric gases. Therefore, they have a shorter range and can only be used for
terrestrial connections about a kilometer. The bloating increases with frequency until the end of
the wing the waves are picked up to a few meters. Inflammation by atmospheric humidity is
important except in desert areas, and exposure to precipitation (precipitation) is a serious
problem even for short distances. However, the shorter scattering width allows smaller
frequencies to be used and distances are smaller. The shorter wavelength allows the average
magnets to have a smaller cohesion width, which further increases the frequency of re-use. In
millimeter waves are used on fire control radars, airport security checkpoints, wireless wireless
networks, the LRAD weapons system, and scientific research.Frequent as mmWave in 5G cases,
the bandwidth near the end of this band is designed for use in the new generation of mobile
networks
33
Fig 1.5
The advantage of a MIMO network over a daily one is that it can multiply the capacity of a
wireless connection without requiring more spectrum. Reports point to considerable
capacity improvements, and will potentially yield the maximum amount as a 50-fold
increase in future.
The more antennas the transmitter/receiver is provided with, the more the possible signal
paths and therefore the better the performance in terms of knowledge rate and link
reliability.
A Massive MIMO network also will be more aware of devices transmitting in higher

frequency bands, which can improve coverage. especially , this may have considerable
benefits for obtaining a robust signal indoors (though 5G’s higher frequencies will have
their own issues during this regard).
34
The greater number of antennas during a Massive MIMO network also will make it much
more immune to interference and intentional jamming than current systems that only
utilise a couple of antennas.
It should be noted, too, that Massive MIMO networks will utilise beamforming technology,
enabling the targeted use of spectrum. Current mobile networks are rather dumb within
the way they apportion one pool of spectrum between all users within the vicinity, which
ends up during a performance bottleneck in densely urban area . With Massive MIMO and
beamforming such a process is handled much more smartly and efficiently, so data speeds
and latency are going to be much more uniform across the network.While standard MIMO
principles are already in use across multiple Wi-Fi and 4G standards, Massive MIMO will
really inherit play once 5G arrives. Indeed, it’s widely expected that Massive MIMO are
going to be a key enabler and foundational component of 5G.
One of the key roles of any 5G network are going to be to handle the large increase in data
usage that’s round the corner. Cisco estimates that by 2020 - when 5G is about to roll bent a
mainstream audience - there'll be 5.5 billion mobile users round the world, each consuming
20GB of knowledge per month. That’s not even factoring within the huge impact the web of
Things is predicted to possess on our mobile networks.
Massive MIMO’s ability to serve multiple users - and multiple devices - simultaneously
within a condensed area while maintaining fast data rates and consistent performance makes
it the right technology to deal with the requirements of the forthcoming 5G era.Massive
MIMO technology is already live commercially in China and Japan within a 4G LTE
context. The latter country’s Softbank network deployed the primary ever commercial
Massive MIMO network towards the top of 2016.
In early September 2017, Ericsson announced the launch of a replacement FDD (Frequency
Division Duplexing) radio with support for 5G and large MIMO. It claimed that this is able
to bridge the gap between 4G and 5G, boosting the capacity of existing 4G LTE while
forming the inspiration for 5G.
35
Chinese network technology companies ZTE and Huawei both announced new European
Massive MIMO tests in October 2017.
Also in 2017, Vodafone and Huawei teamed up in Australia to point out off Massive MIMO
technology within a true world setting. They managed to use Vodafone’s existing frequency
spectrum, along side Huawei’s 5G active antenna unit (featuring 32 internal transmitters and
receivers) to hit transfer speeds of 717Mbps across eight devices.
Early in 2018, Nokia took a step towards refining Massive MIMO antenna technology itself
with the assembly of its ReefShark chipset. By being smaller, lighter and more power
efficient than its predecessors, Nokia has claimed that ReefShark reduces the huge MIMO
antenna size by half and cuts the energy consumption in baseband units by 64%.
Korean tech giant Samsung has also been busy with Massive MIMO technology. At its
headquarters in Suwon, Korea, the corporate has created a so-called ‘5G City’ to
supply some insight into a what life could be like when 5G is unrolled .
One major element of this 5G City was a so-called ’5G Stadium,’ which specifically
demonstrated how massive MIMO technology can enable crowds of individuals to
simultaneously stream HD video with none delays or interruptions.
Testing the performance of multiple parallel signals has actually been quite challenge for
the telecoms industry. Cobham Wireless addressed this in March 2018 with a multi-beam
Massive MIMO performance test solution it developed in conjunction with the China
Mobile Research Institute. It enables testing during a virtualised environment that simulates
real-world conditions, which was a breakthrough from the limited-scale lab tests that had
preceded it.
36
At MWC 2019 in Barcelona, Ericsson won the award for Best Mobile Network
Infrastructure with its 5G high-band Massive MIMO. this is often the primary ever
commercial enhanced mobile broadband solution operating on millimetre wave, aka the
upper frequency bands which will come to define 5G.
A variety of different methods are available and offer many benefits:
Time difference: By using a time difference, the message can be transmitted at different times,
e.g. we use different time slots and coding on the channel.
Frequency variants: This method of variation uses different waves. It may be in the form of using
different channels, or technologies such as spectrum / OFDM.
Space Differences: Space variations used in a broader sense of meaning are used as the basis for
MIMO. It uses various antennas to take advantage of the different radio frequencies in the
common area.
MIMO is an effective radio sensor technology as it uses multiple antennas in the transmitter and
receiver to provide various signal transmitters, selecting different antennas for each signal to be
used.
One of the key ideas behind wireless MIMO is the time domain (the digital dimension of digital
communications data) is in line with the geographical scope of the use of many locally
distributed antennas, which means the use of multiple local antennas at different points. As a
result MIMO wireless systems can be considered as a logical extension to the smart antennas that
have been used for many years to optimize wires.
Located between the transmitter and the receiver, the signal can take many forms. In addition to
moving ants even in small distances the methods used will change. The wide range of options
available is due to the number of features on the side or even on the direct route between the
transmitter and receiver. Previously many of these methods only work to introduce interference.
By using MIMO, these additional methods can be used to your advantage. They can be used to
provide robustness to the radio link by optimizing the signal to sound, or by increasing the
volume of link data.
37
3.3 MIMO Types
MIMO can be divided into three main categories: precoding, spatial multiplexing (SM), and
coding variants.
Precoding involves multiple distributions, in small details. In general terms, it is assumed that all
processing takes place at the destination. In the (single-stream) variations, the same signal is
released from each transmitter of the antenna at the appropriate frequency and gain weight in
such a way that the signal strength is increased at the receiver input. The benefits of
beamforming are to maximize the signal gain - by making the signals emitted from various
antennas adding constructively - as well as reducing the effect of fainting. In the line-of-sight
distribution, the synchronization of results shows a well-defined descriptive mechanism.
However, standard beams are not a good comparison for mobile networks, which are
characterized mainly by multipath propagation. When the receiver has multiple antennas, the
transmission of the transmitter cannot simultaneously increase the signal intensity with each
receiving signal, and placing an email with multiple streams is often advantageous. Note that
preoding requires channel channel information (CSI) information for the transmitter and
receiver.
Air multiplication requires MIMO antenna configuration. In spatial frequency, a high-frequency

signal is separated by very low currents and each stream is transmitted from another unique
antenna of a normal channel. When these signals come to the receiver of an antenna that
combines enough local signals and the receiver with an accurate CSI, they can split these signals
into parallel (almost) channels. Spatial multiplication is a very powerful way to increase channel
capacity with high signal-to-noise ratios (SNR). The maximum number of local sources is
limited below the number of antimicrobials in the transmitter or receiver. Local replication can
be used without CSI in the transmitter, but can be combined with precoding when CSI is
available. Spatial multiplication can also be used for simultaneous transmission to multiple
recipients, known as multiple space-division or multiple-user, where CSI is required for the
transmitter. The arrangement of receivers with different spatial coordinates allows for better
separation.
Various encoding techniques are used when there is no channel information on the transmitter.
By means of variations, a single stream (unlike many streams in spatial extension) is transmitted,
38
but the signal is composed of so-called space-time coding techniques. The signal is extracted
from each transmission beam by full or near orthogonal coding. Coding variants exploit the
independence of multiple antenna interfaces to improve signal variability. Because there is no
channel information, no variables or collections are received from the various codes. Differential
encoding can be combined with adding a geographical space where specific channel information
is available to the recipient.
Fig 1.5
This thesis will study energy efficiency and spatial efficiency in massive MIMO based on three
pre-coding algorithms including MRC, MMSE and ZF in mathematical and simulation
approches. A simplified massive MIMO system is built in this system which equips with
adjustable number of transmitted antenna and 3 users with signal received antenna. In particular,
a computational efficient resource allocation will be designed for the maximization of energy
efficiency of the massive MIMO system. Besides, the impact of the amount of transmitted
antenna on capacity will be assessed under different pre-coding algorithms. Based on this,
39
energy efficiency will be then discussed. Finally, optimal and suboptimal transmission scheme
will be presented in order to maximize the usage of materials and resources.
Fig 1.6
3.4 Channel State Information

For wireless communication, the regional CSI specification (CSI) refers to known areas of the
communication channel. This information describes how the signal is transmitted from one
translator to the receiver and represents the combined effect of, for example, scattering,
dissipation and energy decay with distance. The method is called channel measurement. CSI
makes it possible to synchronize transmissions in current channel conditions, which is essential
for achieving reliable communication with high data rates in multantenna systems.
40
Fig 1.7
CSI needs to be limited to the receiver and the frequency is calculated along with the response to
the transmitter (although recalculation rates may occur in TDD systems). Therefore, the trans
person and the recipient may have different CSI. The CSI in the transmission and the CSI in the
receiving area are sometimes referred to as CSIT and CSIR, respectively.
There are basically two levels of CSI
1. Quick CSI
2. Statistics CSI.
Accelerated CSI (or transient CSI) means that current channel conditions are known, which can
be viewed as being able to respond to negative digital filters. This provides an opportunity to
synchronize the transmitted signal in response to an impact and thus increase the received signal
for spatial repetition or achieve very low values.
Statistical CSI (or long-term CSI) means that channel observations are known. This description
may include, for example, the nature of the end-distribution, the gain of a normal channel, the
component of the peripheral, and the relation of the surface. As with CSI immediately, this
information can be used for transfer purposes.
CSI adoption is limited to how quickly channel conditions change. In fast-ending systems where
channel conditions vary rapidly under the transmission of a single information signal, only the
41
statistical CSI makes sense. On the other hand, in programs of gradual termination the CSI can
be estimated with valid accuracy and applied to the synchronization distribution for some time
before it expires.
In multi-user MIMO, a transmitter of multiple antennas communicates simultaneously with
multiple receivers (each with multiple or multiple antennas). This is known as SDMA multi-
space access. From an implementation standpoint, the mododing algorithms for SDMA systems
can be divided into nonlinear and nonlinear types. Linear access algorithms are not linear, [7] but
straight line input methods meet reasonable performance with very low complexity. Linear input
strategies include high frequency transmission (MRT), zero-forcing (ZF) transfer mode, and
Wiener specification There are also data input techniques that are designed for low frequency
status information response, for example random placement. The nonlinear interpretation is
designed based on the concept of paper coding (DPC), which indicates that any known
interference in the transmission can be eliminated without the benefit of radio sources if a high
quality preoding system can be used in the transmission signal.
42
Fig 1.8
While performance enhancements have a clear meaning in point-to-point MIMO, the multi-user
system can't maximize their performance at the same time. This can be considered a problem of
accessibility for different purposes where each objective is related to increasing the capacity of
one of the users. The most common way to simplify this problem is to select a program function;
for example, the amount of weight at which the weight corresponds to the raw material used first
by the users. In addition, there may be more users than the data stream, requiring a programming
algorithm to determine which users will be active at a given time.
Linear precoding with full channel state information
This sub-method cannot reach the weight limit, but it can increase the weighted average
performance (or some other metric of the achievable metric below the solid line). High-line
queue has no display form closed, but it takes the MMSE signal-resolution status of a single
antenna. Therefore, foreoding can be interpreted as finding the perfect balance between gaining a
strong signal gain and reducing the inconvenience of some users.
43
Finding single-weighted MMSEs is easy, leading to precise methods where the instruments are
selected optimally. The most common method is to focus on the number or number of the
specified rate; that is, the average transmission rate (MRT) and zero-forcing (ZF) precoding.
MRT only increases the signal gain for the target user. MRT is very close to limited systems,
where user interference is ignored when compared to noise. ZF encryption aims to reduce user
interference, with the aim of losing some signal gain. The ZF specification can achieve
performance near a threshold value when the number of users is large or the system is interrupted
(e.g., the noise is not strong compared to the interrupt). The balance between MRT and ZF is
achieved by the so-called zero-termination [ (also known as the sign-to-leakage-and-interference
ratio (SLNR). ]
And in the multuser MIMO system setup, another method has been used to convert the average
weight access problem into a weighted MSE value problem by adding additional MSE weight
per symbol to. However, this function cannot solve this problem completely (i.e., its solution is
more). On the other hand, the method of presentation of the mind is also considered and found a
more equitable solution to use the weight ratio.
Note that linear linear regression can be calculated using monotonic optimization algorithms, but
the magnitude of the complexity of the algorithms comes quickly with the number of users.
These algorithms are therefore only useful for benchmarking in small programs.
In practice, channel status information is limited to the transmitter due to measurement and
amplification errors. Incorrect channel information can result in significant loss of system
coverage, as interference between extended streams can be completely controlled. In closed
systems, response capabilities determine which input strategies are feasible. Each recipient may
report any version of the total channel information or focus on specific indicators of significant
activity (e.g. channel profit).
When complete channel information is returned with good accuracy, one can use techniques
designed to have complete channel information with minimal performance degradation. Zero
synchronization can achieve even the maximum gain of a multiplier, but only if the accuracy of
the channel response increases directly with the signal-to-noise (in dB) range. Quantization and
feedback of channel position information is based on vector number, and codebooks based on
Grassmanni line placement have shown good performance.
44
Other clarification methods have been developed for that case with very low channel response
rates. Randomized factor analysis was proposed as an easy way to achieve optimum performance
on a scale such as a numerical model where the number of acceptors is large. In this sub-strategy,
a set of decorative directions is chosen at random and users consume a few pieces to tell the
passenger which beam offers the best performance and what level they can expect to use.
The use of multiple antennas in both transmitter and receiver aims to improve the performance or
increase the number of system signals, but often requires high operating enjoyment. The antenna
space must be larger than the junction distance to ensure independent endpoints beyond the
opposite ants. Alternatively, inconsistent signals on different antennas can be confirmed by the
use of orthogonal polarizations. Multiple Input Multiple Output (MIMO) structures can be used
in integrated transmission and to obtain variations, data transfers or local multiplication. When
used to replicate what has happened, MIMO technology promises higher prices for smaller
bands. Therefore, it is very important for spectrum users. In this case, the MIMO system
monitors the transmission of different signals from each transmitter start so that the receiving
antenna list is the highest of all transmitted signals. All new ideas about how to improve the
performance, capacity and / or efficiency of the spectrum while keeping the competitive costs at
the right level are explained. Multi-user MIMO (MU-MIMO) was also introduced, where
multiple data streams were simultaneously distributed to different users, using the same
frequency bands. This concept is similar to Space Division Multiple Access (SDMA). However,
while SDMA is commonly used in uplink, MU-MIMO is widely used in Downlink. MU-MIMO
presents many issues, as details of the sub-station are required on the side of the channel
(transmitter), and processing is used using pre-encoding (instead of the usual print method).
Ideas and concepts with the use of MIMO, such as channel collaboration, parallel transmission of
multiple points or multi-hop relays are also described. These are effective strategies that improve
performance at the cell edge, while minimizing the negative effects of near-cell disruption,
leading to increased service quality, without user interfaces. These concepts can be viewed as
special types of MIMO systems, but where different transmissions or receivers are not separated,
but they are placed in different locations. It is known that about 50% of the operating costs
associated with cellular communications are dependent on energy consumption, which also has
an effect on low carbon footprint. MIMO Systems and Applications may contribute to the Green
Radio Communications concept, while supporting the reduction of power consumption. This
45
presentation will provide an overview of each of the technologies related to MIMO systems and
applications, while highlighting individual issues.
Chapter 4
Energy Efficiency of MIMO System-
4.1 Realization of Energy Efficiency
46
Energy efficiency (EE) is one of the key design goals for fifth-generation (5G) cellular networks
due to the intermittent properties of renewable energy sources and limited battery capacity. In
this paper, we analyze the EE of downlink (DL) massive multi-user multiple-input multiple-
output (MIMO) system based on circuit power consumption for the transmit antenna
configuration. We designed full complexity reduced zero-forcing (ZF) beamforming to cancel
out interbeam interference when the number of antennas and minimized the power consumption
model, when formulating the power allocation optimization problem with the Lagrange duality
method, in order to maximize EE. Simulation results revealed that the EE in the base station (BS)
could be improved when the number of radio frequency (RF) chains was proportional to the
optimal transmit power allocation and when the consumption circuit power was comparable to
the transmit power.
The energy efficiency (EE) is defined as the ratio of capacity versus transmitted power
consumption, presenting the number of bits transmitted per Joule In massive MIMO system,
when allocating transmitted power equally to antennas, the spatial efficiency will be improved by
M and √𝑀 for perfect CSI and imperfect CSI system, respectively (where M represents the
number of transmitted antennas).
Moreover, with the increase amount of antennas, noise and small scale fading will decrease
correspondingly; correlation among channels will be reduced by expending distance among
antennas. According to statistics, channels between antennas andusers will approach to
orthogonal when the number of antennas is overwhelmingly large than that of users Traditional
MIMO systems pay more attention on transmitted power consumption instead of EE.
4.2 Power Consumption Model
Since a large number of antennas are involved in, circuit power consumption which is mainly
yielded by radio frequency (RF) chain cannot be neglected . In communication system, each
47
antenna is equipped with one RF chain. RF chain in downlink consists of mixer, filter, digital-to-
analog converter (DAC) as well as synchronizers
Fig 1.9
Received signal 𝑥 is firstly fed into band-selective filter, power amplifier, synchronization, low-
pass filer and auto gain control module (AGC). Then, an A/D converter is adapted to converts
analogue signal to digital signal by quantization.
In this case, more antennas contribute to more circuit power consumption. As a result, massive
MIMO comprises energy efficiency for spatial efficiency. Additionally, system loss associated to
hardware for RF seriously threats on system performance. Hardware loss includes quantization
error, phase error, phase shift of carrier frequency and sampling frequency, nonlinear power
amplifier.
Based on analysis above, we can get the mathematical model for total power consumption,
𝑃𝑘,𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙=𝑃𝑡𝜂(1−𝜎𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑑)+𝑃𝑐𝑖𝑟+𝑃𝑠𝑡𝑎(1−𝜎𝐷𝐶)(1−𝜎𝑀𝑠)(1−𝜎𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑙) (
Where
𝑃𝑘,𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 is kth use’s total power consumption.
𝑃𝑐𝑖𝑟 is circuit power consumption which can be calculated by 𝑃𝑐𝑖𝑟=𝑁(𝑃𝑑𝑎𝑐+𝑃𝑚𝑖𝑥+𝑃𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑡)
+𝑃𝑠𝑦𝑛,
𝑃𝑑𝑎𝑐 is DAC power consumption.
𝑃𝑚𝑖𝑥 is mixer power consumption. 𝑃𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑡 is filter power consumption.
N is activated transmitted antennas.
𝑃𝑠𝑡𝑎 is idle power consumption.
𝜎𝐷𝐶,𝜎𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑑,𝜎𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑙,𝜎𝑀𝑠 are the loss factors of antenna DC-DC power supply, antenna feeder,
active cooling system and main power supply respectively
In this project, we ignore loss factors
Therefore, EE can be given in mathematical way as below
48
𝐸𝐸= Σ𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦Σ𝑃𝑖,𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙
In conclusion, a large amount of antennas in massive MIMO systems does improve spatial
efficiency and capacity but lead to extra power consumption based on analysis. Therefore, it is
important to find a balanced trade-off among different aspects of system performance.
Energy efficiency is determined by precoding scheme, the number of antennas as well as

transmitted power consumption. We mainly focus on how the transmitted power influences on
energy efficiency
4.3 Linear Precoding Schemes –
In massive MIMO systems, when the amount of transmitted antennas approaches infinity, the
system can be simplified as a Single-input-to-Single-output (SISO) systems Therefore, to
optimize spectral resources in massive MIMO systems, pre-coding is used at the transmit side in
order to reduce the complexity of system, diminish noise effect and optimize stream data
transmission based on channel state information (CSI) There are three common linear pre-coding
schemes, including MRC, ZF and MMSE.
4.3.1 Maximum-ratio Transmission
This scheme is to maximize SNR by seeking to maximize the power at the receiver combiner.
MRC is considered as a viable linear reception scheme for massive MIMO systems since it can
be applied in a distributed manner. The mathematical model for MRC is shown as below
𝐴 = 𝒈𝒌‖𝒈𝒌‖
Moreover, MRC has a satisfactory performance in the low-power regime, even approaching to
optimal performance as the amount of antennas grows infinitely. However, as the power
increase, systems based on MRC scheme suffer from serious inter-user interference .
4.3.2 Zero Forcing
49
The ZF scheme is to eliminate inter-user interference by projecting the received signals into the
orthogonal elements. It can be written as
𝑨= 𝑮(𝑮𝐻𝑮)−1
Since ZF scheme does not take noise into consideration, system based on ZF precoding scheme
has a poor performance in low power regime. The performance in high-power regime approaches
to optimal
4.3.3 Minimum Mean Square Equilization
MMSE scheme seeks to eliminate inter-user interference as well as noise. Compared to MRC
and ZF, system complexity of MMSE is relatively higher.
𝑨 =𝑮(𝑮𝐻𝑮 + 1𝑃𝑢𝐼𝑘)−1
From mathematical perspective, MRC has the lowest complexity among these three precoding
schemes. MMSE requires perfect channel state information.
CHAPTER 5
Advantages and Disadvantages-
5.1 Advantages
50
Following are the benefits or advantages of MIMO:
1. The higher data rate can be achieved with the help of multiple antennas and SM (Spatial
Multiplexing) technique. This helps in achieving higher downlink and uplink throughput.
It helps in achieving reduction in BER (Bit Error Rate) due to application of advanced
signal processing algorithms on the received data symbols by multiple antennas.
2. The techniques such as STBC (Space Time Block Coding) and BF (Beamforming) when
employed in MIMO system helps in achieving extension of cell coverage.
3. MIMO based system minimize fading effects seen by the information traveling from
transmit to receive end. This is due to various diversity techniques such as time,
frequency and space.
There is lower susceptibility of tapping by unauthorized persons due to multiple antennas
and algorithms.
4. The systems with MIMO offers high QoS (Quality of Service) with increased spectral
efficiency and data rates.
5. The wide coverage supported by MIMO system helps in supporting large number of
subscribers per cell.
6. The MIMO based system is widely adopted in latest wireless standards viz. WLAN
(802.11n, 802.11ac etc.), WiMAX (IEEE 802.16e), LTE, LTE-Advanced etc .
5.2 Disadvantages-
1. Following are the disadvantages of MIMO:

The resource requirements and hardware complexity is higher compare to single antenna
51
antenna based system. Each antenna requires individual RF units for radio signal
processing. Moreover advanced DSP chip is needed to run advanced mathematical signal
processing algorithms.
2. The hardware resources increase power requirements. Battery gets drain faster due to
processing of complex and computationally intensive signal processing algorithms. This
reduces battery lifetime of MIMO based devices.
3. MIMO based systems cost higher compare to single antenna based system due to
increased hardware and advanced software requirements.
Chapter 6
Applications-
52
Fig 2.1
Automobiles
5G Automotive Association have been promoting the C-V2X communication technology
that will first be deployed in 4G. It provides for communication between vehicles and
communication between vehicles and infrastructures.
Public safety
Mission-critical push-to-talk (MCPTT) and mission-critical video and data are expected to
be furthered in 5G.
Fixed wireless
Fixed wireless connections will offer an alternate to fixed line broadband (ADSL, VDSL,
Fiber optic, and DOCSIS connections) in some locations.
Wireless video transmission for broadcast applications
Sony has tested the possibility of using local 5G networks to replace the SDI cables
currently used in broadcast camcorders
• 5G will make unified global standard for all.

• Network availability will be everywhere and will facilitate people to use their computer
and such kind of mobile devices anywhere anytime.
• Because of the IPv6 technology, visiting care of mobile IP address will be assigned as per
the connected network and geographical position.
• Its application will make world real Wi Fi zone.
• Its cognitive radio technology will facilitate different version of radio technologies to
53
share the same spectrum efficiently.
• Its application will facilitate people to avail radio signal at higher altitude as well
5G technology will power wide range of future industries from retail to education, transportation
to entertainment and smart homes to healthcare. It will make mobile more essential than it is
today. What are the applications of 5G technology?
Researchers predict the global, social and economic impact of 5G, which will benefit entire
economies and society. It is expected to produce trillions of worth revenue in coming years.
5G will revolutionize the mobile experience with supercharged wireless network, which may
support up to 10 to twenty GBPS of knowledge download speed. It is like a fiber optic Internet
connection accessed wirelessly. Compared to standard mobile transmission technologies, voice
and high-speed data are often simultaneously transferred efficiently in 5G.
Low latency is one among the foremost important features of 5G technology which is critical for
autonomous driving and mission critical applications. 5G networks are capable of latency but a
millisecond.
Chapter 7
54
Results-
First we generate an OFDM Signal
Fig 3.1
Fig 3.2
Orthogonality of OFDM signal is shown above
55
Fig 3.3
Cyclic Prefix is added
In telecommunications, the word cyclic prefix means the imperative of the sign, repeating the
ending. The receiver is intended to discard cyclic prefix samples, but the cyclic prefix serves two
purposes:
Provides a monitoring interval to remove intersymbol interruptions from the previous signal.
It repeats the end of the signal so that the direction of the channel of the selected multiplication
channel can be measured as a rotating frequency, which in turn can convert to a frequency
domain with a discrete Fourier transform. This approach involves standard domain analysis,
such as channel measurement and simulation.
For a cyclic start to serve its purpose, it must have a length equal to the length of the repeating
channel. The concept of cyclic origin is traditionally associated with OFDM systems, however
cyclic origin is now used in single-rock systems to improve the frequency of diffusion.
OFDM uses Inverse Fast fourier transform(IFFT)
56
Fig 3.4
Fig 3.5
57
Fig 3.6
58
Energy Efficiency of MIMO system as simulated in matlab software
Fig 3.8
59
Fig 3.9
Combining theoretical knowledge, Dinkelbach Method and numerical results, if we do not
consider system complexity, MMSE has the best performance in terms of spectral efficiency and
energy efficiency (perfect CSI is assumed). Compared to ZF, MRC performs better in low
power regime (with SNR ranging from 0dB to 15dB). On the contrary, the performance of ZF in
high power regime (with SNR larger 10dB) is better and even approaches to that of MMSE.
Moreover, the simulation results demonstrate that massive MIMO systems cannot enhance
spectral efficiency and energy efficiency infinitely due to the existence of inference among
users.
60
Chapter 8
Matlab Code-
clc;
clear all;
close all;
%..............................................................
% Initiation
%..............................................................
no_of_data_bits = 64%Number of bits per channel extended to 128
M =4 %Number of subcarrier channel
n=256;%Total number of bits to be transmitted at the transmitter
block_size = 16; %Size of each OFDM block to add cyclic prefix
cp_len = floor(0.1 * block_size); %Length of the cyclic prefix
%............................................................
% Transmitter
%.........................................................
%.........................................................
% Source generation and modulation
%........................................................
% Generate random data source to be transmitted of length 64
data = randsrc(1, no_of_data_bits, 0:M-1);
figure(1),stem(data); grid on; xlabel('Data Points'); ylabel('Amplitude')
title('Original Data ')
% Perform QPSK modulation on the input source data
qpsk_modulated_data = pskmod(data, M);
figure(2),stem(qpsk_modulated_data);title('QPSK Modulation ')
%............................................................
%.............................................................
% Converting the series data stream into four parallel data stream to form
% four sub carriers
S2P = reshape(qpsk_modulated_data, no_of_data_bits/M,M)
Sub_carrier1 = S2P(:,1)
figure(3), subplot(4,1,1),stem(Sub_carrier1),title('Subcarrier1'),grid on;
subplot(4,1,2),stem(Sub_carrier2),title('Subcarrier2'),grid on;
%..................................................................
%..................................................................
% IFFT OF FOUR SUB_CARRIERS
%.................................................................
%..............................................................
number_of_subcarriers=4;
cp_start=block_size-cp_len;
61
ifft_Subcarrier1 = ifft(Sub_carrier1)
figure(4), subplot(4,1,1),plot(real(ifft_Subcarrier1),'r'),
title('IFFT on all the sub-carriers')
subplot(4,1,2),plot(real(ifft_Subcarrier2),'c')
subplot(4,1,3),plot(real(ifft_Subcarrier3),'b')
subplot(4,1,4),plot(real(ifft_Subcarrier4),'g')
%...........................................................
%...........................................................
% ADD-CYCLIC PREFIX %..........................................................
%............................................................
for i=1:number_of_subcarriers,
ifft_Subcarrier(:,i) = ifft((S2P(:,i)),16)% 16 is the ifft point
for j=1:cp_len,
cyclic_prefix(j,i) = ifft_Subcarrier(j+cp_start,i)
end
Append_prefix(:,i) = vertcat( cyclic_prefix(:,i), ifft_Subcarrier(:,i))
% Appends prefix to each subcarriers
end
A1=Append_prefix(:,1);
figure(5), subplot(4,1,1),plot(real(A1),'r'),title('Cyclic prefix added to all the sub-carriers')
subplot(4,1,2),plot(real(A2),'c')
subplot(4,1,3),plot(real(A3),'b')
subplot(4,1,4),plot(real(A4),'g')
figure(11),plot((real(A1)),'r'),title('Orthogonality'),hold on ,plot((real(A2)),'c'),hold on ,
plot((real(A3)),'b'),hold on ,plot((real(A4)),'g'),hold on ,grid on
%Convert to serial stream for transmission
[rows_Append_prefix cols_Append_prefix]=size(Append_prefix)
len_ofdm_data = rows_Append_prefix*cols_Append_prefix
% OFDM signal to be transmitted
ofdm_signal = reshape(Append_prefix, 1, len_ofdm_data);
figure(6),plot(real(ofdm_signal)); xlabel('Time'); ylabel('Amplitude');
title('OFDM Signal');grid on;
%...............................................................
Passing time domain data through channel and AWGN
channel = randn(1,2) + sqrt(-1)*randn(1,2);

after_channel = filter(channel, 1, ofdm_signal);
awgn_noise = awgn(zeros(1,length(after_channel)),0);
recvd_signal = awgn_noise+after_channel; % With AWGN noise
62
figure(7),plot(real(recvd_signal)),xlabel('Time'); ylabel('Amplitude');
title('OFDM Signal after passing through channel');grid on;
recvd_signal_paralleled = reshape(recvd_signal,rows_Append_prefix, cols_Append_prefix);
%........................................................
%........................................................
% Remove cyclic Prefix
%.......................................................
%......................................................
recvd_signal_paralleled(1:cp_len,:)=[];
R1=recvd_signal_paralleled(:,1);
figure(8),plot((imag(R1)),'r'),subplot(4,1,1),plot(real(R1),'r'),
title('Cyclic prefix removed from the four sub-carriers')
subplot(4,1,2),plot(real(R2),'c')
subplot(4,1,3),plot(real(R3),'b')
subplot(4,1,4),plot(real(R4),'g')
%...................................................
%...................................................
% FFT Of recievied signal
for i=1:number_of_subcarriers,
% FFT
fft_data(:,i) = fft(recvd_signal_paralleled(:,i),16);
end
F1=fft_data(:,1);
F2=fft_data(:,2);
F3=fft_data(:,3);
F4=fft_data(:,4);
figure(9), subplot(4,1,1),plot(real(F1),'r'),title('FFT of all the four sub-carriers')
subplot(4,1,2),plot(real(F2),'c')
subplot(4,1,3),plot(real(F3),'b')
subplot(4,1,4),plot(real(F4),'g')
%................................
%..............................
% Signal Reconstructed
%..................................
%..................................
% Conversion to serial and demodulationa
recvd_serial_data = reshape(fft_data, 1,(16*4));
qpsk_demodulated_data = pskdemod(recvd_serial_data,4);
figure(10)
stem(data)
hold on
stem(qpsk_demodulated_data,'rx');
63
grid on;xlabel('Data Points');ylabel('Amplitude');
title('Recieved Signal with error')
clear
N = 10^6; % number of bits or symbols
Eb_N0_dB = [0:25]; % multiple Eb/N0 values
nTx = 2;
nRx = 2;
for ii = 1:length(Eb_N0_dB)
% Transmitter
ip = rand(1,N)>0.5; % generating 0,1 with equal probability
s = 2*ip-1; % BPSK modulation 0 -> -1; 1 -> 0
sMod = kron(s,ones(nRx,1)); %
sMod = reshape(sMod,[nRx,nTx,N/nTx]); % grouping in [nRx,nTx,N/NTx ] matrix
h = 1/sqrt(2)*[randn(nRx,nTx,N/nTx) + j*randn(nRx,nTx,N/nTx)]; % Rayleigh channel

n = 1/sqrt(2)*[randn(nRx,N/nTx) + j*randn(nRx,N/nTx)]; % white gaussian noise, 0dB
variance
% Channel and noise Noise addition

y = squeeze(sum(h.*sMod,2)) + 10^(-Eb_N0_dB(ii)/20)*n;
% Receiver
% Forming the MMSE equalization matrix W = inv(H^H*H+sigma^2*I)*H^H

% H^H*H is of dimension [nTx x nTx]. In this case [2 x 2]
% Inverse of a [2x2] matrix [a b; c d] = 1/(ad-bc)[d -b;-c a]
hCof = zeros(2,2,N/nTx) ;
hCof(1,1,:) = sum(h(:,2,:).*conj(h(:,2,:)),1) + 10^(-Eb_N0_dB(ii)/10); % d term
hCof(2,2,:) = sum(h(:,1,:).*conj(h(:,1,:)),1) + 10^(-Eb_N0_dB(ii)/10); % a term
hCof(2,1,:) = -sum(h(:,2,:).*conj(h(:,1,:)),1); % c term
hCof(1,2,:) = -sum(h(:,1,:).*conj(h(:,2,:)),1); % b term
hDen = ((hCof(1,1,:).*hCof(2,2,:)) - (hCof(1,2,:).*hCof(2,1,:))); % ad-bc term
hDen = reshape(kron(reshape(hDen,1,N/nTx),ones(2,2)),2,2,N/nTx); % formatting for
division
hInv = hCof./hDen; % inv(H^H*H)
hMod = reshape(conj(h),nRx,N); % H^H operation
yMod = kron(y,ones(1,2)); % formatting the received symbol for equalization

yMod = sum(hMod.*yMod,1); % H^H * y
yMod = kron(reshape(yMod,2,N/nTx),ones(1,2)); % formatting
yHat = sum(reshape(hInv,2,N).*yMod,1); % inv(H^H*H)*H^H*y
% receiver - hard decision decoding
64
ipHat = real(yHat)>0;
% counting the errors

nErr(ii) = size(find([ip- ipHat]),2);
end
simBer = nErr/N; % simulated ber

EbN0Lin = 10.^(Eb_N0_dB/10);
theoryBer_nRx1 = 0.5.*(1-1*(1+1./EbN0Lin).^(-0.5));
p = 1/2 - 1/2*(1+1./EbN0Lin).^(-1/2);
theoryBerMRC_nRx2 = p.^2.*(1+2*(1-p));
close all
figure
semilogy(Eb_N0_dB,theoryBer_nRx1,'bp-','LineWidth',2);
hold on
semilogy(Eb_N0_dB,theoryBerMRC_nRx2,'kd-','LineWidth',2);
semilogy(Eb_N0_dB,simBer,'mo-','LineWidth',2);
axis([0 25 10^-5 0.5])
grid on
legend('theory (nTx,nRx, ZF)', 'theory (nTx,nRx, MRC)', 'sim (nTx, nRx, MMSE)');
xlabel('Average Eb/No,dB');
ylabel('Bit Error Rate');
title(“Energy Efficiency for MIMO system with MMSE equalizer (Rayleigh channel)');
clear
N = 10^6; % number of bits or symbols
Eb_N0_dB = [0:25]; % multiple Eb/N0 values
nTx = 2;
nRx = 2;
for ii = 1:length(Eb_N0_dB)
% Transmitter
ip = rand(1,N)>0.5; % generating 0,1 with equal probability
s = 2*ip-1; % BPSK modulation 0 -> -1; 1 -> 0
sMod = kron(s,ones(nRx,1)); %
sMod = reshape(sMod,[nRx,nTx,N/nTx]); % grouping in [nRx,nTx,N/NTx ] matrix
h = 1/sqrt(2)*[randn(nRx,nTx,N/nTx) + j*randn(nRx,nTx,N/nTx)]; % Rayleigh channel
65
n = 1/sqrt(2)*[randn(nRx,N/nTx) + j*randn(nRx,N/nTx)]; % white gaussian noise, 0dB
variance
% Channel and noise Noise addition

y = squeeze(sum(h.*sMod,2)) + 10^(-Eb_N0_dB(ii)/20)*n;
% Receiver
% Forming the ZF equalization matrix W = inv(H^H*H)*H^H

% H^H*H is of dimension [nTx x nTx]. In this case [2 x 2]
% Inverse of a [2x2] matrix [a b; c d] = 1/(ad-bc)[d -b;-c a]
hCof = zeros(2,2,N/nTx) ;
hCof(1,1,:) = sum(h(:,2,:).*conj(h(:,2,:)),1) ; % d term
hCof(2,2,:) = sum(h(:,1,:).*conj(h(:,1,:)),1) ; % a term
hCof(2,1,:) = -sum(h(:,2,:).*conj(h(:,1,:)),1); % c term
hCof(1,2,:) = -sum(h(:,1,:).*conj(h(:,2,:)),1); % b term
hDen = ((hCof(1,1,:).*hCof(2,2,:)) - (hCof(1,2,:).*hCof(2,1,:))); % ad-bc term
hDen = reshape(kron(reshape(hDen,1,N/nTx),ones(2,2)),2,2,N/nTx); % formatting for
division
hInv = hCof./hDen; % inv(H^H*H)
hMod = reshape(conj(h),nRx,N); % H^H operation
yMod = kron(y,ones(1,2)); % formatting the received symbol for equalization

yMod = sum(hMod.*yMod,1); % H^H * y
yMod = kron(reshape(yMod,2,N/nTx),ones(1,2)); % formatting
yHat = sum(reshape(hInv,2,N).*yMod,1); % inv(H^H*H)*H^H*y
% receiver - hard decision decoding on second spatial dimension

ipHat2SS = real(yHat(2:2:end))>0;
ipHatMod2SS = 2*ipHat2SS-1;
ipHatMod2SS = kron(ipHatMod2SS,ones(nRx,1));
ipHatMod2SS = reshape(ipHatMod2SS,[nRx,1,N/nTx]);
% new received symbol - removing the effect from second spatial dimension
h2SS = h(:,2,:); % channel in the second spatial dimension
r = y - squeeze(h2SS.*ipHatMod2SS);
% maximal ratio combining - for symbol in the first spatial dimension

h1SS = squeeze(h(:,1,:));
yHat1SS = sum(conj(h1SS).*r,1)./sum(h1SS.*conj(h1SS),1);
yHat(1:2:end) = yHat1SS;
% receiver - hard decision decoding

ipHat = real(yHat)>0;
% counting the errors
66
nErr(ii) = size(find([ip- ipHat]),2);
end
simBer = nErr/N; % simulated ber

EbN0Lin = 10.^(Eb_N0_dB/10);
theoryBer_nRx1 = 0.5.*(1-1*(1+1./EbN0Lin).^(-0.5));
p = 1/2 - 1/2*(1+1./EbN0Lin).^(-1/2);
theoryBerMRC_nRx2 = p.^2.*(1+2*(1-p));
close all
figure
semilogy(Eb_N0_dB,theoryBer_nRx1,'bp-','LineWidth',2);
hold on
semilogy(Eb_N0_dB,theoryBerMRC_nRx2,'kd-','LineWidth',2);
semilogy(Eb_N0_dB,simBer,'mo-','LineWidth',2);
axis([0 25 10^-5 0.5])
grid on
legend('theory (nTx=1,nRx=2, MRC)', 'sim (nTx=2, nRx=2, ZF-SIC)');
xlabel('Average Eb/No,dB');
ylabel('Bit Error Rate');
title('Energy Efficiency for MIMO and ZF-SIC equalizer (Rayleigh channel)');
67
Chapter 9
Conclusions-
To optimize system performance and maximize economic benefit, it is significant to find out the
optimal power allocation.
Since the appearance of Massive MIMO, the system performance of wireless communication
system has been improved significantly in terms of capacity, latency, reliability and e.t.
In this thesis,
(1) we firstly analyze the history of wireless communication system.
(2) Introduce the importance of massive MIMO, system model, mathematic model and problem
formulation.
(3) And to make the problem formulation solvable, we apply Dinkelbach Method to address this
optimization problem with CVX.
(4) Finally, combining numerical results, we present that massive MIMO remarkably improves
the energy efficiency and spectral efficiency.
We mainly focus on energy efficiency in massive MIMO systems. Although we have studied
power allocation in uplink transmission, there are still some aspects that should be done in the
future.
9.1 Future Prospects-
It is observed that multiple antenna systems with huge amount of antenna elements at base
station are competent to increase data rate by many folds, without requirement of any extra
bandwidth, as compared to other existing technologies. Massive-MIMO combined with multiple
carrier systems (Massive-MIMO-OFDM) followed by suitable signal detection schemes, like
beam forming, gives overwhelming results. Application: With possibilities of further research
and continuous improvements, Massive-MIMO system is one of the best suitable choices, among
various technologies, for next generation wireless communication systems, like 5G.
68
5G NR
5G NR (New Radio) is a new radio penetration technology (RAT) developed by 3GPP for the
5G cellular network (fifth generation) is designed to be a global standard for the use of air for 5G
networks.3GPP series 38 shows the technical details behind NR, RAT over LTE.
The NR study within the 3GPP began in 2015, with the first specification made available by the
end of 2017. While the 3GPP implementation process is underway, the industry has already
begun its efforts to launch the infrastructure in line with the first phase, with the expectation that
the first major 5G NR commercial launch will take place in 2019.
NR will support these following spacings
The energy efficiency model in this thesis only suits to single cell massive MIMO system. In the
future, it can be developed to multi-cells Massive MIMO system. We consider that both transmit
and receive sides have perfect CSI. It is expected to develop to imperfect CSI. Distances between
users and BS is not be taken into account in this thesis. This should be considered in the future
for more accurate simulation results.
69
Chapter 10
References-
1. Raleigh, Gregory; Cioffi, John M. (1996). Spatio-temporal coding for wireless
communications (PDF). Global Telecommunications Conference, 1996. London, UK
November 18–22, 1996.
2. Rakhesh Singh Kshetrimayum (2017). Fundamentals of MIMO Wireless
Communications. Cambridge University Press.
3. Telatar, Emre (1999). "Capacity of Multi-antenna Gaussian Channels". European
Transactions on Telecommunications. 10 (6): 585–95.
4. Rosas, F. & Oberli, C. (April 16, 2013). "Nakagami-m approximations for multiple-input
multiple-output singular value decomposition transmissions". IET
Communications. 7 (6): 554–561. doi:10.1049/iet-com.2012.0400.
5. David Tse; Pramod Viswanath (2005). Fundamentals of Wireless
Communication. Cambridge.
6. Claude Oestges; Bruno Clerckx (2007). MIMO Wireless Communications: From Real-
world Propagation to Space-time Code Design. Academic Press.
7. Ezio Biglieri; Robert Calderbank; Anthony Constantinides; Andrea Goldsmith;
Arogyaswami Paulraj; H. Vincent Poor (2010). MIMO Wireless
Communications. Cambridge University Press.
8. S. Cui; A. J. Goldsmith & A. Bahai (August 2004). "Energy-efficiency of MIMO and
Cooperative MIMO in Sensor Networks". IEEE Journal on Selected Areas in
Communications. 22 (6): 1089–1098.
9. B. Kumbhani, R S Kshetrimayum (2017). MIMO Wireless Communications over
Generalized Fading Channels. CRC Press.
10. T. E. Bogale and L. B. Le, Pilot optimization and channel estimation for multiuser
massive MIMO systems in Proc. IEEE Conference on Information Sciences and Systems
(CISS), Princeton, USA, Mar. 2014.
11. "3GPP News & Events, Dec.12th, 2012 and Apr.8th, 2013 entries". Archived from the
original on 2013-07-17. Retrieved 2013-07-17.
70
12. ^ "NTT DoCoMo Achieves World's First 5 Gbit/s Packet Transmission in 4G Field
Experiment". NTT DoCoMo. Archived from the original on 2008-09-25. Retrieved 2008-
09-12.
13. ^ "Agilent Technologies Introduces Industry's First LTE-Advanced Signal Generation,
Analysis Solutions". Agilent.
14. ^ "Ericsson demonstrates LTE Advanced in Sweden". Telecompaper. 2011-06-28.
Retrieved 2014-08-13.
15. ^ "Touch, Huawei trial 250Mbps LTE FDD 800MHz/1800MHz carrier aggregation".
TeleGeography. 2013-04-08. Retrieved 2014-08-24.
16. ^ "Vodafone shows off next-gen mobile broadband". NZ Herald. 2013-05-24.
17. ^ "A1 TELEKOM AUSTRIA DEMOS 580MBPS LTE-A SPEEDS WITH ERICSSON, NSN
HARDWARE". Mobile Europe. 2013-06-06. Retrieved 2014-04-30.
18. ^ "Turkish delight? Turkcell unveils 900Mbps transmission speeds in LTE-A trial".
TeleGeography. 2013-08-02. Retrieved 2014-11-14.
19. ^ "World's first commercial LTE-Advanced call on 1800MHz and 900MHz". Ericsson.
2013-08-12. Retrieved 2014-04-30.
20. Huawei partners with Aero2 to launch LTE TDD/FDD commercial network". Computer
News Middle East. September 21, 2011. Retrieved December 10, 2013.
21. ^ Sam Byford (February 20, 2012). "SoftBank launching 110Mbps AXGP 4G network in
Japan this week". The Verge. Retrieved June 7, 2015.
22. ^ Zahid Ghadialy (February 21, 2012). "SoftBank launching 110Mbps AXGP 4G
network in Japan this week". The 3G4G Blog. Retrieved June 7, 2015.
23. ^ Phil Goldstein (June 22, 2012). "Report: TD-LTE to power 25% of LTE connections
by 2016". FierceWireless. Retrieved December 10, 2013.
24. ^ Rachel King (July 9, 2013). "Done deal: Sprint now owns 100 percent of
Clearwire". ZDNet. Retrieved December 10, 2013.
25. ^ Kevin Fitchard (October 30, 2013). "What's igniting Spark? A look inside Sprint's
super-LTE network". GigaOM. Retrieved December 10, 2013.
26. ^ Sarah Reedy (July 12, 2013). "Sprint's LTE TDD Future to Boost Current
Vendors". Light Reading. Retrieved December 10, 2013.
71
27. ^ Richard Lai (December 4, 2013). "China finally grants 4G licenses, but still no iPhone
deal for China Mobile". Engadget. Retrieved December 10, 2013.
28. ^ Ben Munson (January 31, 2014). "China Mobile, NSN Complete Live VoLTE Test on
TD-LTE". Wireless Week. Archived from the original on March 5, 2016.
Retrieved February 11, 2014.
29. ^ "NSN and Sprint achieves huge leap in TD-LTE network speeds". TelecomTiger.
February 6, 2014. Retrieved February 11, 2014.
30. ^ Sesia, Toufik, Baker: LTE – The UMTS Long Term Evolution; From Theory to
Practice, page 11. Wiley, 2009.
72

Energy Efficiency of Mimo Ofdm System: A Project Report

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

You might also like

Energy Efficiency of Mimo Ofdm System: A Project Report

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Energy Efficiency of Mimo Ofdm System: A Project Report

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

ENERGY EFFICIENCY OF MIMO OFDM SYSTEM

in the partial fulfillment of the requirements for

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

SREENIDHI INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

This is to certify that the Project Work entitled

“ENERGY EFFICIENCY OF MIMO OFDM SYSTEM” being submitted by

in fulfillment of B.Tech 4th year 2nd nd semester in Department of Electronics and

Project Coordinator- Project Guide-

Head of the department

CONTENTS- Page Nos

Chapter 2 History of MIMO systems

2.2 MIMO Technology

Chapter 3 MIMO System Model

3.2 MIMO Operation and block diagram

3.2.1 MIMO OFDM Technology

3.3 MIMO Types

3.4 Channel State Information

Chapter 4 Energy efficiency of MIMO system

4.1 Realization of Energy Efficiency

4.2 Power Consumption model

4.3 Linear Precoding schemes

4.3.1 Maximal Ratio Combining

4.3.2 Zero Forcing

4.3.3 Minimum Mean Square Equilization

7.1 Generated OFDM signals

7.2 Energy Efficiency of MIMO System

Chapter 8 Matlab Code

9.1 Future Prospects

3GPP: 3 rd Generation Partnership Project

C-RAN: Cloud Radio Access Network

eMBB: Enhanced Mobile Broadband

GSM: Global System for Mobile Communications

GSMA: GSM Association

HLF: High Level Forum

IMT: International Mobile Telecommunications

IoT: Internet of Things

LSA: Licensed Shared Access

LMLC: Low Mobility Large Cell

LTE: Long Term Evolution

M2M: Machine to Machine

MIMO: Multiple Input Multiple Output

mMTC: Massive Machine Type Communication

NDCP: National Digital Communication Policy

NFV: Network Function Virtualization

NR: New Radio

NSA: Non-Stand Alone OFDMA: Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple

QoS: Quality of Services

RAN: Radio Access Network

SA: Stand Alone

SDN: Software Defined Networking

URLLC: Ultra Reliable and Low Latency Communication

1.3 Problem Statement

1.3 What is the difference between 4G and 5G

A: There are several differences between 4G vs 5G:

5G may be a unified platform that's more capable than 4G

5G has more capacity than 4G

5G has lower latency than 4G

h = 1/sqrt(2)[randn(nRx,nTx,N/nTx) + jrandn(nRx,nTx,N/nTx)]; % Rayleigh channel

% Forming the MMSE equalization matrix W = inv(H^HH+sigma^2I)*H^H

h = 1/sqrt(2)[randn(nRx,nTx,N/nTx) + jrandn(nRx,nTx,N/nTx)]; % Rayleigh channel

% Forming the ZF equalization matrix W = inv(H^HH)H^H