DFM Module 1

Design for Manufacture (DFM) Unit I
Introduction to DFM
For the past 20 years engineers have seen a large amount of effort devoted to the
integration of design and manufacture, with the goals of reducing manufacturing cost
and improving product quality. The processes and procedures that have been
developed have become known as design for manufacture or design for
manufacturability (DFM). Associated with this is the closely related area of design for
assembly (DFA).
The field is often simply described by the abbreviation DFM/DFA or DFMA. DFMA
methods should be applied during the embodiment stage of design. Design for
manufacture represents an awareness of the importance of design as the time for
thoughtful consideration of all steps of production. To achieve the goals of DFM requires
a concurrent engineering team approach in which appropriate representatives from
manufacturing, including outside suppliers, are members of the design team from the
start.
DFM Guidelines
DFM guidelines are statements of good design practice that have been empirically
Derived from years of experience. Using these guidelines helps narrow the range of
Possibilities so that the mass of detail that must be considered is within the capability
Of the designer:
1. Minimize total number of parts: Eliminating parts results in great savings. A

part that is eliminated costs nothing to make, assemble, move, store, clean,
inspect, rework, or service. A part is a good candidate for elimination if there is
no need for relative motion, no need for subsequent adjustment between parts,
and no need for materials to be different. However, part reduction should not go
so far that it a dds cost because the remaining parts become too heavy or
complex. The best way to eliminate parts is to make minimum part count a
requirement of the design at the conceptual stage of design. Combining two or
more parts into integral design architecture is another approach.
2. Standardize components: Costs are minimized and quality is enhanced when

standard commercially available components are used in design. The benefi ts
also occur when a company standardizes on a minimum number of part designs
(sizes, materials, processes) that are produced internally in its factories. The life
and reliability of standard components may have already been established, so
cost reduction comes through quantity discounts, elimination of design effort,
avoidance of equipment and tooling costs, and better inventory control.
Lecture Notes, NMIT, Bangalore. | 1

3. Use common parts across product lines: It is good business sense to use parts
in more than one product. Specify the same materials, parts, and subassemblies
in each product as much as possible. This provides economies of scale that drives
down unit cost and simplify operator training and process control data
management (PDM) systems can be used to facilitate retrieval of similar designs.
Some examples of applying DFM. (a) This product utilizes snap-fi t principles to attach
the cover, eliminating the need for screw fasteners. Since the cover is molded from
plastic material and because of the taper of the snap-fi t elements, it also illustrates
compliance. (b) This illustrates a multifunctional part. By incorporating a spring
function in the lever, the need for a separate coil spring is eliminated.
4. Standardize design features: Standardizing on design features like drilled hole

sizes, screw thread types, and bend radii minimizes the number of tools that
must be maintained in the tool room. This reduces manufacturing cost.
5. Aim to keep designs functional and simple: Achieving functionality is

paramount, but don’t specify more performance than is needed. It is not good
engineering to specify a heat-treated alloy steel when a plain carbon steel will
achieve the performance with a little bit more careful analysis. When adding
features to the design of a component, have a firm reason for the need. The
product with the fewest parts, the least intricate shapes, the fewer precision
adjustments, and the lowest number of manufacturing steps will be the least
costly to manufacture. Also, the simplest design will usually be the most reliable
and the easiest to maintain.
6. Design parts to be multifunctional: A good way to minimize part count is
to design such that parts can fulfils more than one function, leading to integral
Architecture. For example, a part might serve as both a structural member and a
spring, Fig. b .
7. Design parts for ease of fabrication: The least costly material that satisfies the
functional requirements should be chosen. It is often the case that materials with
higher strength have poorer workability or fabricability. Thus, one pays more for
a higher-strength material, and it also costs more to process it into the required
shape. Since machining to shape tends to be costly, manufacturing processes that
produce the part to near net shape are preferred whenever possible so as to
eliminate or minimize machining.
8. Avoid excessively tight tolerances: Tolerances must be set with great care.
Specifying tolerances that are tighter than needed results in increased cost.
9. Minimize secondary and finishing operations: Minimize secondary

operations such as heat treatment, machining, and joining and avoid finishing
operations such as deburring, painting, plating, and polishing. Use only when
there is a functional reason for doing so. Machine a surface only when the
functionality requires it or if it is needed for aesthetic purposes.
10. Utilize the special characteristics of processes: Be alert to the special design
features that many processes provide. For example, molded polymers can be
provided with “built-in” color, as opposed to metals that need to be painted or
plated.
Specific Design Rules
1. A number of DFM rules for design, more specific than the preceding guidelines,
have been developed
2. Space holes in machined, cast, molded, or stamped parts so they can be made in
one operation without tooling weakness. This means that there is a limit on how
close holes may be spaced due to strength in the thin section between holes.
3. Avoid generalized statements on drawings, like “polish this surface” or
“toolmarks not permitted,” which are difficult for manufacturing personnel to
interpret. Notes on engineering drawings must be specific and unambiguous.
4. Dimensions should be made from specific surfaces or points on the part, not
from
5. Points in space. This greatly facilitates the making of gages and fixtures. The use
Of GD&T methods makes this point moot.
6. Dimensions should all be from a single datum surface rather than from a variety
of points to avoid overlap of tolerances.
7. The design should aim for minimum weight consistent with strength and
stiffness requirements. While material costs are minimized by this criterion,
there also will usually be a reduction in labor and tooling costs.

8. Whenever possible, design to use general-purpose tooling rather than special
dies, form cutters, and similar tools. An exception is high-volume production
where special tooling may be more cost-effective.
9. Use generous fillets and radii on castings and on molded, formed, and machined
parts.
10. Parts should be designed so that as many operations as possible can be
performed without requiring repositioning. This promotes accuracy and
minimizes handling.
Major Phases of a Design Process
1. Phase I. Conceptual Design:

Conceptual design is the process by which the design is initiated, carried to the point
of creating a number of possible solutions, and narrowed down to a single best
concept. It is sometimes called the feasibility study. Conceptual design is the phase
that requires the greatest creativity, involves the most uncertainty, and requires
coordination among many functions in the business organization. The following are
the discrete activities that we consider under conceptual design.
 Identification of customer needs: The goal of this activity is to completely

understand the customers’ needs and to communicate them to the design team.
 Problem definition: The goal of this activity is to create a statement that
describes what has to be accomplished to satisfy the needs of the customer. This
involves analysis of competitive products, the establishment of target
specifications, and the listing of constraints and trade-offs. Quality function
deployment (QFD) is a valuable tool for linking customer needs with design
requirements. A detailed listing of the product requirements is called a product
design specification (PDS).
 Gathering information: Engineering design presents special requirements over
engineering research in the need to acquire a broad spectrum of information.

 Conceptualization: Concept generation involves creating a broad set of concepts
that potentially satisfy the problem statement. Team-based creativity methods,
combined with efficient information gathering, are the key activities.
 Concept selection: Evaluation of the design concepts, modifying and evolving

into a single preferred concept, are the activities in this step. The process usually
requires several iterations.
 Refinement of the PDS: The product design specification is revisited after the
concept has been selected. The design team must commit to achieving certain
critical values of design parameters, usually called critical-to-quality (CTQ)
parameters, and to living with trade-offs between cost and performance.
 Design review: Before committing funds to move to the next design phase, a
design review will be held. The design review will assure that the design is
physically realizable and that it is economically worthwhile. It will also look at a
detailed product development schedule. This is needed to devise a strategy to
minimize product cycle time and to identify the resources in people, equipment,
and money needed to complete the project.
2. Phase II. Embodiment Design

Structured development of the design concept occurs in this engineering design
phase. It is the place where flesh is placed on the skeleton of the design concept. An
embodiment of all the main functions that must be performed by the product must
be undertaken. It is in this design phase that decisions are made on strength,
material selection, size, shape, and spatial compatibility. Beyond this design phase,
major changes become very expensive. This design phase is sometimes called
preliminary design. Embodiment design is concerned with three major tasks—
product architecture, configuration design, and parametric design.
 Product architecture: Product architecture is concerned with dividing the

overall design system into subsystems or modules. In this step we decide how
the physical components of the design are to be arranged and combined to carry
out the functional duties of the design.
 Configuration design of parts and components: Configuring a part means to
determine what features will be present and how those features are to be
arranged in space relative to each other. While modeling and simulation may be
performed in this stage to check out function and spatial constraints, only
approximate sizes are determined to assure that the part satisfies the PDS. Also,
more specificity about materials and manufacturing is given here.
 Parametric design of parts: Parametric design starts with information on the
configuration of the part and aims to establish its exact dimensions and
tolerances. Final decisions on the material and manufacturing processes are also
established if this has not been done previously. An important aspect of
parametric design is to examine the part, assembly, and system for design
robustness.
3. Phase III. Detail Design

In the detail design phase the following activities are completed and documents are
prepared:

 Detailed engineering drawings suitable for manufacturing. Routinely these are

computer-generated drawings, and they often include three-dimensional CAD
models.
 Verification testing of prototypes is successfully completed and verification data
is submitted. All critical-to-quality parameters are confirmed to be under control.
Usually the building and testing of several preproduction versions of the product
will be accomplished.
 Assembly drawings and assembly instructions also will be completed. The bill of
materials for all assemblies will be completed.
 A detailed product specification, updated with all the changes made since the
conceptual design phase, will be prepared.
 Decisions on whether to make each part internally or to buy from an external
supplier will be made.
 With the preceding information, a detailed cost estimate for the product will be
carried out.
 Finally, detail design concludes with a design review before the decision is made
to pass the design information on to manufacturing.
4. Phase IV. Planning for Manufacture

A great deal of detailed planning must be done to provide for the production of the
design. A method of manufacture must be established for each component in the
system. As a usual first step, a process sheet is created; it contains a sequential list of
all manufacturing operations that must be performed on the component. Also, it
specifies the form and condition of the material and the tooling and production
machines that will be used.
The other important tasks performed in phase IV are the following:
 Designing specialized tools and fixtures
 Specifying the production plant that will be used (or designing a new plant) and
laying out the production lines
 Planning the work schedules and inventory controls (production control)
 Planning the quality assurance system
 Establishing the standard time and labor costs for each operation
 Establishing the system of information fl ow necessary to control the
manufacturing operation

All of these tasks are generally considered to fall within industrial or manufacturing
Engineering.
5. Phase V. Planning for Distribution

Important technical and business decisions must be made to provide for the
effective distribution to the consumer of the products that have been produced.
6. Phase VI. Planning for Use

The use of the product by the consumer is all-important, and considerations of how
the consumer will react to the product pervade all steps of the design process. The
following specific topics can be identified as being important user-oriented concerns
in the design process: ease of maintenance, durability, reliability, product safety, and
convenience in use (human factors engineering), aesthetic appeal, and economy of
operation. Obviously, these consumer-oriented issues must be considered in the
design process at its very beginning. They are not issues to be treated as
afterthoughts.
7. Phase VII. Planning for Retirement of the Product

The final step in the design process is the disposal of the product when it has
reached the end of its useful life. Useful life may be determined by actual
deterioration and wear to the point at which the design can no longer function, or it
may be determined by technological obsolescence, in which a competing design
performs the product’s functions either better or cheaper. In consumer products, it
may come about through changes in fashion or taste.

Effect of Material Properties on Design
Materials are the food of design. A successful product is one that performs well, is good
value for money and gives pleasure to the user. A successful design should take in to
account the function, material properties and manufacturing processes, as shown in the
following fig., in the context of selection of material, there are many classes of materials
metals, polymers,and ceramics but in theend, what we seek is a profile of properties.
This figure shows that there are other secondary relationships between material
properties and manufacturing processes, and between function and material properties.
The relationship between design and material properties is complex because the
behavior of the material in the finished product is quite different from that of stock
material used in making it. This point is illustrated in the following Fig.3
Figure 3: Factors that should be considered in anticipating in behaviour

of the material in the component

Figure 3 shows the direct influence of the stock material properties production method,
and component geometry and external forces on the behavior of materials in the
finished component. It also shows the secondary relationships exist between geometry
and production method, and between stock materials and component geometry.
Effect of Component Geometry:

In most cases, engineering components and machine elements have to incorporate
design features, which introduce changes in cross-section. These changes cause
localized stress concentrations, which are higher than those, based upon the
nominal cross-section of the part.
Stress Concentration Factor:

A geometrical or theoretical stress concentration factor Kt, is usually used to relate the
maximum stress, Smax, at the discontinuity to nominal stress, Sav, according to the
relationship:
In making a design, Kt is usually determined from the geometry of the part. Under static
loading Kt gives an upper limit to the stress concentration value and applies only to
brittle and notch –sensitive materials. With more ductile materials, local yielding in the
very small area of maximum stress causes a considerable relief in the stress
concentration. So, for ductile materials under static loading, it is not usually necessary
to consider the stress concentration factor.
Guidelines for design:

Stress concentration can be a source of failure in many cases, especially when designing
with the high-strength materials and under fatigue loading. In such cases, the following
guidelines should be observed if the stress concentrations are to be kept minimum.
1. Abrupt changes in cross-section should be avoided. If they are necessary,
generous fillet radii or stress-relieving grooves should be provided.
2. Slots and grooves should be provided with the generous run-out radii in all
corners.
3. Stress-relieving grooves or undercuts should be provided at the ends of threads
and spines.
4. Sharp internal corners and external edges should be avoided.
5. Oil holes and similar features should be chamfered and the bore should be
smooth.
6. Weakening features like the bolt and oil holes, identification marks, and the part
numbers should not be located in highly stressed areas.
7. Weakening features should be staggered to avoid the addition of their stress
concentration factors.
DESIGNING FOR STATIC STRENGTH
Designs bases on static strength usually aims at avoiding yielding of the component in the case
of soft, ductile materials and at avoiding fracture in the case of strong, low-toughness materials.
1. Designing for Simple Axial Loading:

Components and structures made from ductile materials are usually designed so
that no yield will take place under the expected static loading conditions. When a
component is subjected to uniaxial stress, yielding will take place when the local
stress reaches the yield strength of the material. Th e critical cross-sectional area, A,
Of such a component can be estimated as :
2. Designing for Torsional Loading:

The critical cross-sectional area of a circular shaft subjected to torsional
loading can be determined from the relationship:
3. Design for Bending:

When a relatively long beam is subjected to ending, the bending moment, the
maximum allowable stress, and the dimensions of the cross-section are related by
the equation:
4. Designing for Stiffness:

In addition to being strong enough to resist the expected service loads, there may
also be the added requirement of stiffness to ensure that deflections do not exceed
certain limits. When an initially straight beam is loaded, it becomes curved as a
result of its deflection. As the deflection at a given point increases, the radius of
curvature at this point decreases. The radius of curvature, r, at any point on the
curve is given by the relationship:
The equation shows us that the stiffness of a beam under bending is proportional
to the elastic constant of the material, E, and the moment of inertia of the cross-
section, I. Therefore, selecting materials with higher elastic constant and

efficient disposition of material in the cross-section are essential in designing
beams for stiffness.
5. Torsional Rigidity of Shafts:

The torsional rigidity of a component is usually measured by the angle of twist, ø,
per unit length, where
Where G = modulus of elasticity in shear

= E/2(1+v)
Where v = Poisson’s ratio.
The usual practice is to limit the angular deflection in shafts to about 1degree in
a length of 20 times the diameter.
6. Designing With High-Strength, Low Toughness Materials:

High-strength is being increasingly used in designing critical components to save
weight or to meet difficult service conditions. These materials tend to be less
tolerant of defects than the traditional lower-strength, tougher materials. While a
crack-like defect can safely exist in a part of lower strength ductile material, it can
cause a catastrophic failure if the same part is made of a high-strength, low
toughness material.

In designing with the high-strength, low toughness materials, the interaction
between fracture toughness of the material, the allowable crack size, and the design
stress should be considered. In the case of high-strength, lowtoughness material, as
the design stress increases (or as the size of the flaw increases) the stress
concentration at the edge of the crack, the stress intensity KI increases until it
reaches KIC and fracture occurs.
Where Fs = fracture stress (controlled by the applied load and shape of the
part)
a = quality control parameter (controlled by the manufacturing method)
Y = dimensionless shape factor. (Estimated experimentally,analytically or
numerically)
7. Designing against Fatigue:

In majority of cases the reported fatigue strengths or endurance limits of materials
are based on tests of carefully prepared small samples under laboratory conditions.
Such values cannot be directly used for design purposes because the behavior of the
component or structure under fatigue loading does depend not only on the fatigue
or endurance limit of the material used in making it, but also on several other factors
including:
� Size and shape of the component or structure

� Type of loading and state of stress.
� Stress concentration
� Surface finish
� Operating temperature
� Service environment
� Method of Fabrication.
The influence of the above factors on the fatigue behavior of the component can
be accounted for by modifying the endurance limit of the material using a
number of factors. Each of these factors is less than unity and each one is
intended to account for a single effect.
The above equation can be used to predict the behavior of the component or a structure
under fatigue conditions provided that the values of the different modifying factors are
known.
8. Designing under High-Temperature Conditions:

Service temperature has a considerable influence on the strength of materials and
consequently, on the working stress used in design. Depending on the temperature
range, the design can be based on:
1. Short-time properties of the material, i.e., ultimate tensile strength, yield strength
for moderate temperatures.
2. Both the short time and creep properties for intermediate temperature range.
3. Creep properties of the materials for high temperatures.
In addition to creep, the other factors, which must be taken in to consideration when
designing for elevated temperatures, include:
1. Metallurgical and micro structural changes, which occur in the material owing to
long-time exposure to elevated temperature.
2. Influence of method of fabrication, especially welding, on creep behavior.
3. Oxidation and hot corrosion, which may take, place during service and shutdown
periods.
Design guidelines:
For design purposes, creep properties are usually presented on plots,
which yield reasonable straight lines. Common methods of presentation
include log-log plots of stress vs. steady state creep rates and stress vs. time
to produce different amounts of total strain as shown in the Fig below. A
change in the microstructure of the material is usually accompanied by a
change in creep properties, and consequently a change in the slope of the
line.
Figure: Variation of stress with steady-state creep rate at various Temp

Classification of Materials
Material
Metals Polymers Ceramics Composites
Steel Thermoplastics Carbides, Oxides Wood

Cast Iron Thermoset Nitrides, Fibre Reinforced
Aluminium Alloys Elastomers Carbon Laminated
Copper Alloys Glass Metal Matrix
High performance Building Materials
Non ferrous alloys
Commonly used engineering materials for structural applications.
Properties of Materials
The performance or functional requirements of a material are usually given by a
definable and measurable set of material properties. The first task in materials selection
is to determine which material properties are relevant to the application.
A first step in classifying material properties is to divide them into structure insensitive
properties and structure-sensitive properties, (Table above). Both types of properties
depend on the atomic binding energy and arrangement and packing of the atoms in the
solid, but the structure sensitive properties also depend strongly on the number, size,
and distribution of the imperfections (dislocations, solute atoms, grain boundaries,
inclusions, etc.) in the solid. Except for modulus of elasticity and corrosion in this table,
all of the structure-insensitive properties are classified as physical properties. All of the
properties listed as structure sensitive are mechanical properties, that is, they measure
the response of the material to some kind of force.

1. Material Properties Needed for the Design of Static Structures
Static Strength and Isotropy. The resistance to
static loading is usually measured in terms of yield
strength, Ultimate tensile strength and
compressive strength. When the material does not
exhibit a well-defined yield point, the stress
required to cause 0.1 or 0.2% plastic strain, the
proof stress, is used instead. (This is usually called
the 0.2% offset yield strength.) For most ductile
wrought metallic materials, the tensile and
compressive strengths are very close, and in most
cases only the tensile strength is given. However,
brittle materials like gray cast iron and ceramics
are generally stronger in compression than in
tension. In such cases, both properties are usually
given.
Although many engineering materials are almost isotropic, there are important
cases where significant anisotropy exists. In the latter case, the strength depends on
the direction in which it is measured. The degree of anisotropy depends on the
nature of the material and its manufacturing history. Anisotropy in wrought metallic
materials is more pronounced when they contain elongated inclusions and when
processing consists of repeated deformation in the same direction. Composites
reinforced with unidirectional fibers also exhibit pronounced anisotropy.
Anisotropy can be useful if the principal external stress acts along the direction of
highest strength.
Weight and Space Limitations. The load-carrying capacity of a given component is

a function of both the strength of the material used in making it and its geometry
and dimensions. This means that a lower-strength material can be used in making a
component to bear a certain load, provided that its cross-sectional area is increased
proportionally. However, the designer is not usually completely free in choosing the
strength level of the material selected for a given part. Other factors such as space and
weight limitations could limit the choice.
2. Material Properties Needed for Selection of Materials for Stiffness

Deflection under Load: the stiffness of a component may be increased by
increasing its second moment of area, which is computed from the cross-sectional
dimensions, and/or by selecting a high modulus material for its manufacture.
An important characteristic of metallic materials is that their elastic moduli are very
difficult to change by changing the composition or heat treatment. Using high
strength materials in attempts to reduce weight usually comes at the expense of
reduced cross sectional area and reduced second moment of area. This could
adversely affect stiffness of the component if the elastic constant of the new strong
material does not compensate for the reduced second moment of area. Selecting

materials with higher elastic constant and efficient disposition of material in the
cross section are essential in designing beams for stiffness.
3. Material Properties Needed for Design for Fatigue Resistance

The fatigue behavior of materials is usually described by means of the S-N diagram
which gives the number of cycles to failure, N, as a function of the maximum applied
alternating stress, Sa.
Such values cannot be directly used for design purposes because the behavior of a
component under fatigue loading does not only depend on the endurance limit of the
material, but also on several other factors including:
 size and shape of the component or structure;
 type of loading and state of stress;
 stress concentration and surface finish;
 operating temperature and service environment;
The influence of the above factors can be accounted for by modifying the endurance
limit of the material.
4. Material Properties Needed for Design for High Temperature Applications

Creep is one of the most important material properties that should be considered
while designing a component which is used in high temperature applications. creep
(sometimes called cold flow) is the tendency of a solid material to move slowly or
deform permanently under the influence of mechanical stresses. It can occur as a
result of long-term exposure to high levels of stress that are still below the yield
strength of the material. Creep is more severe in materials that are subjected to heat
for long periods, and generally increases as they near their melting point. Creep
always increases with temperature.
Under creep conditions, the service life of a component at a given service

temperature is usually determined by the creep rate and applied stress. For design
purposes, creep properties are usually presented on plots which yield reasonable
straight lines.
Common methods of presentation include :
 log-log plots of stress vs. steady state creep rate
 stress vs. time to produce different amounts of total strain
In addition to creep, the other factors which must be taken into consideration
include:
 Metallurgical and microstructural changes at high temperature
 Oxidation and hot corrosion
5. Designing with specific materials

A successful design with a specific material must use its points of strength and avoid
its points of weakness.
1. In metallic materials, ductility and toughness decrease as the strength increases.
2. Electrical and thermal conductivity of metallic materials may be important
factors is some designs.
3. Polymers are light but their stiffness and impact strength are much lower than
metals. They are also insulators.

4. Ceramics are corrosion resistant and strong in compression but are very brittle
and sensitive to mechanical and thermal shocks. They are also insulators.
5. Composite materials generally have high strength/weight ratio and their
properties can be tailored to suite the type of loading.
Effect of Manufacturing Process on Design

A manufacturing process converts a material into a finished part or product. The
changes that take place occur with respect to part geometry, or they can affect the
internal microstructure and therefore the properties of the material.
Manufacturing processes can be classified into three broad families:
1. Primary processes take raw materials and create a shape. The chief categories
are casting processes, polymer processing or molding processes, deformation
processes, and powder processes.
2. Secondary processes modify shape by adding features such as keyways, screw
threads, and grooves. Machining processes are the main type of secondary
processes. Other important categories are joining processes that fasten parts
together, and heat treatment to change mechanical properties.
3. Finishing processes produce the final appearance and feel of a product by
processes such as coating, painting, or polishing.
Factors which affect the selection of a Manufacturing parts are:

 Quantity of parts required
 Complexity—shape, size, features
 Material
 Quality of part
 Cost to manufacture
 Availability, lead time, and delivery schedule
Relationship between Manufacturing Process & Design

 As the design progresses from concept to configuration and the material choices
get narrower, manufacturing processes, which have initially been broadly
defined, also need to be better identified. The compatibility between materials
and processes is used to narrow down the available alternatives.
 DFMA seeks to minimize the cost by designing components that are easier to
manufacture (DFM) and designing components that are easier to assemble
(DFA).
 Casting is particularly suited for parts which contain internal cavities that are
inaccessible, too complex, or too large to be easily produced by machining. Cast
parts can contain shrinkage cavities if not designed well.
 Compression, transfer, and injection molding processes are commonly used for
molding plastic parts.
 Forged parts have wrought structures which are usually stronger and more
ductile than cast products. Rapid changes in thickness of forged components
could result in cracks and surface laps

 Powder metallurgy techniques can be used to produce a large number of small
parts to the final shape with no machining, and at high rates. Many metallic
alloys, ceramic materials, and composites can be processed by powder
metallurgy techniques.
 Welding has replaced riveting in many applications including steel structures,
boilers, and motorcar chassis. Welded joints represent areas of discontinuities
and should be located away from highly stressed regions.
 Adhesives are an attractive method of joining and are increasingly used for thin
sheets, polymer composites, and dissimilar or incompatible materials.
 Adhesives are electrically insulting, which can prevent galvanic corrosion in
joints between dissimilar metals. However, they are relatively weaker and can be
attacked by organic solvents.
 Many alloys can be heat treated to achieve certain desired properties. Heat
treatment can make the material hard and brittle or it can make it soft and
ductile.
 Machining operations are the most versatile and most common manufacturing
processes. Machining could be the only operation involved in the manufacture of
a component or it could be used as a finishing process.
Types & usual Sequence of manufacturing process that are normally used in processing
metallic materials
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR CAST COMPONENTS
Casting covers a wide range of processes which can be used to shape almost any
metallic and some plastics in a variety of shapes, sizes, accuracy, and surface finish.
In some cases, casting represents the obvious and only way of manufacturing, as in
the case of components made of the different types of cast iron or cast alloys. In
many other applications, however a decision has to be made whether it as

advantageous to cast a product or to use another method of manufacture. In such
cases, the following factors should be considered:
1. Casting is particularly suited for parts which contain internal cavities that
are inaccessible, too complex, or too large to be easily produced by
machining.
2. It is advantageous to cast complex parts when required in large numbers,
especially if they are to be made of aluminum or zinc alloys.
3. Casting techniques can be used to produce a part, which is one of a kind in a
variety of materials, especially when it is not feasible to make it by
machining.
4. Precious metals are usually shaped by casting, since there is little or no loss
of materials.
5. Parts produced by casting have isotropic properties, which could be
important requirements in some applications.
6. Casting is not competitive when the parts can be produced by punching from
sheet or by deep drawing.
7. Extrusion can be preferable to casting in some cases, especially in the case of
lower- melting nonferrous alloys.
8. Castings are not usually a viable solution when the material is not easily
melted, as in the case of metals with very high melting points such as
tungsten.

A general rule of solidification is that the shape of the casting should allow the
solidification front to move uniformly from one end toward the feeding end, i.e.
directional solidification. This can most easily be achieved when the casting has
virtually uniform thickness in all sections. In most cases this is not possible.
However, when section thickness must change, such change should be gradual, in
order to give rise to stress concentration and possible hot tears in the casting.
Figure below shows some guidelines to avoid these defects. Another problem, which
arises in solidification, is caused by sharp corners; these also give rise to stress
concentration and should be replaced by larger radii. When two sections cross or
join, the solidification process is interrupted and a hot spot results. Hot spots retard
solidification and usually cause porosity and shrinkage cavities.
Effect of material properties

The type and composition of the material play an important part in determining the
shape, minimum section thickness, and strength of the casting. Materials, which have
large solidification shrinkage and contain lo – melting phases are susceptible to hot
tears. Another material variable is cast ability, which can be related to the minimum
section thickness, which can be achieved. It should be noted that the shape and size of
the casting as well as the casting process and foundry practice could affect the minimum
section thickness.

Incorrect Designs
Design Considerations for Molded Plastic Components

Compression, transfer, and injection molding processes are the commonly used
methods of molding plastic components. These processes involve the introduction
of fluid or a semi fluid material into a mould cavity and permitting it to solidify into
the desired shape.
Guidelines for design
Experience shows that the mechanical, electrical, and chemical properties of

molded components are influenced by the flow of the molten plastic as it fills the
mold cavity. Streamlined flow will avoid gas pockets in heavy – sectioned areas.
required for easy ejection of molded parts from the mold cavity. A taper of 1 An
important common feature in molding processes is draft, which is to 4 degree is
usually used for polymers, but tapers of less than 1 degree can be used for deep
articles. Another common feature is the uniform thickness. Non-uniformity of
thickness in a molded piece tends to produce non-uniform cooling and unbalanced
shrinkage leading to internal stresses and warpage. If thickness variations are
necessary, generous fillets should be used to allow a gradual change in thickness.
The effect of junctions and corners can also be reduced by using a radius instead, as
shown in Fig 9. The nominal wall thickness must obviously such that the part is
sufficient strong to carry the expected service loads. However, it is better to adjust
the shape of the part to cope with the applied load than to increase the wall

thickness. This is because thick sections retard the molding cycle and require more
materials.
The presence of holes disturbs the flow of the material during molding and a weld
line occurs in the side of the hole away from the direction of flow. This results in a
potentially weak point and some from of strengthening, such as bosses may be
necessary as in Fig 10.Through holes are preferred to blind holes from a
manufacturing standpoint. This is because core prints can often be supported in
both halves of the mold in the case of through holes, but can only be supported from
one end in the case of blind holes.
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR FORGED COMPONENTS
Forging processes represent an important means of producing relatively complex parts

for high performance applications. In many cases forging represents a serious
competitor to casting especially for solid parts that have no internal cavities. Forged
parts have wrought structures, which are usually stronger, more ductile, contain less
segregation, and are likely to have less internal defects than cast parts. This is because
the extensive hot working, which is usually involved in forging, closes existing porosity,
refines the grains, and homogenizes the structure. On the other hand, cast parts are
more isotropic than forged parts, which usually have directional properties. This
directionality is due to the fibre structure, which results from grain flow and elongation
of second phases in the direction of deformation. Forged components are generally
stronger and more ductile in the direction of fibres than across the fibres.
Guidelines for Design

Rapid changes in thickness should be avoided because these could result in laps and
cracks in the forged metal as it flows in the die cavity. To prevent these defects,
generous radii must be provided at the locations of large changes in thickness. Another
similarity with casting is that vertical surfaces of a forging must be tapered to permit
removal from the die cavity. A draft of 5 to 10 degrees is usually provided. It is better to
locate the parting line near the middle of the part in order to avoid deep impression in
either of the two halves of the die and allows easier filling of the die cavity. A design
would be more economically produced by forging if dimensions across the parting line
are given appropriate mismatch allowance, and parallel dimension are given a
reasonable die closure allowance. Specifying close tolerances to these dimensions could
require extensive machining which would be expensive.
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR POWDER METALLURGY PARTS

Powder metallurgy (P/M) techniques can be used to produce a large number of small
parts to the final shape in few steps, with little or no machining, and at high rates. Many
metallic alloys, ceramic materials, and particulate reinforced composites can be
processed by P/M techniques. Generally, parts produced by the traditional P/M
techniques contain 4 to 10 vol % porosity. The amount of porosity depends on part
shape, type and size of powder, lubrication used, pressing pressure, sintering
temperature and time, and finishing treatments. The distribution and volume fraction of
porosity greatly affect the mechanical, chemical, and physical properties of parts
prepared by P/M techniques. An added advantage of P/M is versatility. Materials that
can be combined in no other way can be produced by P/M. Aluminum – graphite

bearings, copper - graphite electrical brushes, cobalt - tungsten carbide cutting tools
(cermets), and porous bearings and filters are such.

The Powder Metallurgy Parts Association and Metal Powder Industries Federation have
made certain rules. They are:
1. The shape of the part must permit ejection from the die, Fig 12
2. Parts with straight walls are preferred. No draft is required for ejection from
lubricated dies.
3. Parts with undercuts or holes at right angles to the direction of pressing cannot
be made, Fig 13.
4. Straight serrations can be made easily, but diamond knurls cannot, Fig 14
5. Since pressure is not transmitted uniformly through a deep bed of powder,
the length/diameter ratio of a mechanical pressed part should not exceed
about 2.5: 1.
Fig 13 undercuts and holes at right angles to pressing direction should be avoided; if
necessary such features are introduced by machining after sintering.

DESIGNS INVOLVING MACHINING PROCESSES
The following discussion illustrates some component shapes and features which can
cause difficulties in machining, take an undue length of time to machine, call for
precision and skill that may not be available, or which may even be impossible to
machine by standard machine tools and cutting tools.
1. The workpiece must have a reference surface, which is suitable for holding it on
the machine tool or in a fixture. This could be a flat base or a cylindrical surface.
2. Whenever possible, the design should allow all the machining operations to be
completed without resetting or reclamping.
3. Whenever possible, the radii between the different machined surfaces should be
equal to the nose radius of the cutting tool.
4. If the part is to be machined by traditional cutting methods, deflection under
cutting forces should be taken into account. For the same cutting force, the
deflection is higher for thinner parts and for lower elastic moduli. Under these
conditions, some means of support is necessary to ensure the accuracy of the
machined part. under cutting forces should be taken into account. For the same
cutting
5. Features at an angle to the main machining direction should be avoided as they
may require special attachments or tooling. Fig 15
6. To reduce the cost of machining, machined areas should be minimum as shown
Fig 16
7. Cutting tools often require run-out space, as they cannot be retracted
immediately. This is particularly important in the case of grinding where the
edges of the grinding wheel wear out faster than the center. Fig 17 gives some
examples to illustrate this point.


DESIGNS INVOLVING JOINING PROCESSES
The major function of a joint is to transmit stress from one part to another and in such
case the strength of the joint should be sufficient to carry the expected service loads. In
some applications, tightness of the joint is also necessary to prevent leakage. Because
joints represent areas of discontinuities in the assembly, they should be located in low
stress regions especially in dynamically loads structures.
Guidelines for design of weldments
1. Welded structures and joints should be designed to have sufficient flexibility.

Structures that are too rigid do not allow shrinkage of the weld metal, have
restricted ability to redistribute stress, and are subjected to distortions and
failure.
2. Accessibility of the joint for welding, welding position and component match-up
are important elements of the design.
3. Thin sections are easier to weld than thick ones.
4. Welded section should be about the same thickness to avoid excessive heat
distortion.
5. It is better to locate welded joints symmetrically around the axis of an assembly
in order to reduce distortion.
6. Whenever possible the meet of several welds should be avoided.
7. Use weld fixtures and clamps to avoid distortion.
Adhesive Bonding
Adhesives represent an attractive method of joining and their use is increasing in many
applications. Some of main advantages in using Adhesives are as follows:
1. Thin sheets and parts of dissimilar thickness can be easily bonded.
2. Adhesive bonding is the most logical method of joining polymer- Matrix
composites.
3. Adhesives are electrical insulators and can prevent galvanic Action in joints
between dissimilar metals.
4. Flexible adhesives spread bonding stresses over wide areas and Accommodate
differential thermal operation.
5. Flexible adhesives can absorb shocks and vibrations, which Increases fatigue life.
6. The preparation of bonded joins requires no fastener holds, which Gives better
structural integrity and allows thinner gage materials to be used.
The main limitations of adhesives are as follows:

1. Bonded joints are weaker under cleavage and peel loading than under tension or
shear.
2. Most adhesives cannot be used at service temperatures above 300 Degree C(600
degree F).
3. Solvents can attack adhesive-bonded joints.
4. Some adhesives are attacked by ultraviolet light, water, and ozone.
5. The designer should also be aware of the adhesive's impact resistance And creep,
or cold flow, strength.
Material Selection Process

Material Selection during Conceptual Design Phase
While materials selection issues arise at every phase in the design process, the
opportunity for greatest innovation in materials selection occurs at the conceptual
design phase. At this phase all options are open. The designer requires approximate
data on the broadest possible range of materials.
Material Selection during Conceptual Design Phase

A more comprehensive materials selection process is typically carried out in the
embodiment design phase using the process shown in Fig below.
Figure: Steps in materials selection at the embodiment design phase.

At the beginning there are parallel materials selection and component design paths to
follow. The input to the material selection process is a small set of tentative materials
chosen in conceptual design a tentative component design is developed that satisfies the
functional requirements, and, using the material properties, an approximate stress

analysis is carried out to calculate stresses and stress concentrations. The two paths
merge in an examination of whether the best material, fabricated into the component by
its expected manufacturing process, can bear the loads, moments, and torques that the
component is expected to withstand. Often the information is inadequate to make this
decision with confidence and finite element modelling or some other computer-aided
predictive tool is used to gain the needed knowledge. Alternatively, a prototype
component is made and subjected to testing. Sometimes it becomes clear that the initial
selections of materials are just inadequate, and the process iterates back to the top and
the selection process starts over. When the material-process selection is deemed
adequate for the design, the choice passes to a detailed specification of the material and
the design.
A shortcut approach to materials selection that is often used is to select a material based
on a component that has been used before in a similar application. This imitative
approach results in a quick decision but it may not lead to a superior design if the
service conditions are slightly different from those of the previous application, or if
improvements in materials or the cost of manufacturing with the materials have
changed from the date of the previous application.
Quantitative Methods for Material Selection

1. Cost per Unit Property Method
The cost per unit property method is suitable for initial screening in applications
where one property stands out as the most critical service requirement. As an
example, consider the case of a bar of a given length (L) to support a tensile force
(F). The cross-sectional area (A) of the bar is given by
A= F/S (1)
Where
‘S’ working stress of the material, which is related to its yield strength by an
appropriate factor of safety. The cost of the bar (C) is given by
(2)
where C = cost of the material per unit mass, =density of the material
Since F and L are constant for all materials, comparison can be based on the cost of
unit strength, which is the quantity:
(3)
Materials with lower cost per unit strength are preferable. If an upper limit is set for
the quantity [(C )/S] then materials satisfying this condition can be identified and
used as possible candidates for more detailed analysis in the next stage of selection.

The working stress of the material in Eqs. 1, 2, and 3 is related to the static yield
strength of the material since the applied load is static. If the applied load is
alternating, it is more appropriate to use the fatigue strength of the material.
Similarly, the creep strength should be used under loading conditions that cause
creep. Equations similar to 2 and 3 can be used to compare materials on the basis of
cost per unit stiffness when the important design criterion is deflection in the bar. In
such cases, S is replaced by the elastic modulus of the material.
The above equations can also be modified to allow comparison of different materials
under loading systems other than uniaxial tension. Table 1 gives some formulas for
the cost per unit property under different loading conditions based on either yield
strength or stiffness.
2. Weighted-properties method
In the weighted-properties method each material requirement, or property, is assigned

a certain weight, depending on its importance to the performance of the part in service.
A weighted-property value is obtained by multiplying the numerical value of the
property by the weighting factor (α). The individual weighted-property values of each
material are then summed to give a comparative materials performance index (γ).
Materials with the higher performance index (γ) are considered more suitable for the
application.
When evaluating a list of candidate materials, one property is considered at a time. The best
value in this list is rated as 100 and the others are scaled proportionally.
For properties like cost, corrosion or wear loss, weight gain in oxidation, etc., a lower value is
more desirable. In such cases, the lowest value is rated as 100 and B is calculated as:
For material properties that can be represented by numerical values, applying the above
procedure is simple. However, with properties like corrosion and wear resistance, machinability
and weldability etc., are rarely given and materials are usually rated as very good, good, fair,
poor etc. In such cases, the rating can be converted to numerical values using an arbitrary scale.

For example, a corrosion resistance rating of excellent, very good, good, fair and poor can be
given numerical values of 5,4,3,2 and 1 respectively. Then,
Where i is summed over all the n relevant properties.
3. Limits on Material Properties

In the limits on properties method, the performance requirements are divided into
three categories:
1. Lower limit properties
2. Upper limit properties
3. Target value properties
The limits on properties method are usually suitable for optimizing material and
process selection when the number of possible alternatives is relatively large. This is
because the limits, which are specified for the different properties, can be used for
eliminating unsuitable materials from data bank. The remaining materials are those
whose properties are above the lower limits, below the upper, and within the limits of
target values of the respective specified requirements. After the screening stage, the
limits on properties method can be used to optimize the selection from among the
remaining materials.
As in the case of the weighted properties method, each of the requirements or

properties is assigned a weighted factor, α , which can be determined using one of the
method called digital logic method (Refer text book for more info on this method). A
merit parameter, m, is then calculated for each material according to the relationship:
where
 l,u, and t stand for lower limit, upper limit, and target value properties
respectively.
 nl,nu,and nt are the numbers of the lower limit, upper limit, and target value
properties respectively.
 αi, αj, αk are the weighting factors of the lower limit, upper limit, and target value
 Xi,Xj and Xk are the candidate material lower limit, upper limit, and target value
 Yi,Yj,and Yk are the specified lower limit, upper limit, and target value properties
respectively.
As in the weighted properties method, the cost can be considered in two ways:
1. Cost is treated as an upper limit property and given the appropriate weight.
2.Cost is included as a modifier to the merit parameter as follows:
Where CY and CX are the specified cost upper limit and candidate material cost,
In this case the material with the lowest cost-modified merit parameter, m´, is the
optimum.
Process of Initial Screening of Material Selection

Initial screening of materials can be achieved by first classifying their performance
requirements into two main categories
 Rigid, or go–no-go, requirements
 Soft, or relative, requirements
Rigid requirements must be met by the material if it is to be considered at all. Such

requirements can be used for the initial screening of materials to eliminate the
unsuitable groups.
For example, metallic materials are eliminated when se lecting materials for an
electrical insulator. If the insulator is to be flexible, the field is narrowed further as all
ceramic materials are eliminated. Other examples of the material rigid requirements
include behaviour under operating temperature, resistance to corrosive environment,
ductility, electrical and thermal conductivity or insulation, and transparency to light or
other waves.
Examples of process rigid requirements include batch size, production rate, product size
and shape tolerances, and surface finish. Whether or not the equipment or experience
for a given manufacturing process exists in a plant can also be considered as a hard
requirement in many cases. Compatibility between the manufacturing process and the
material is also an important screening parameter. For example, cast irons are not
compatible with sheet metal forming processes and steels are not easy to process by die
casting.
In some cases, eliminating a group of materials results in automatic elimination of some

manufacturing processes. For example, if plastics are eliminated because service
temperature is too high, injection and transfer molding should be eliminated as they are
unsuitable for other materials. Soft, or relative, requirements are subject to compromise
and trade-offs. Examples of soft requirements include mechanical properties, specific
gravity, and cost. Soft requirements can be compared in terms of their relative
importance, which depends on the application under study.

TOLERANCE ANALYSIS
Process Capability
It is a measure of process performance. Capability refers to the ability of a process to
make parts that are well within the specified engineering specification.
Why Perform Process Capability Study?

To Answer “Does the process need to be improved? And How much does the process
need to be improved”
Capability Study is a technique for analysing the random variability found in a

production process. In every manufacturing process there is variability. This variability
may be large or small, but always present.
- Variability due to common (Random) causes [naturally occurring]

- Variability due to assignable (Special) causes
Capability calculation allow prediction to be made regarding quality, enabling

manufacturer to take a preventive approach to defects.
Definitions
The arithmetic mean of a set of ‘n’ numbers is the sum of the numbers divided by ‘n’. Mean is
expressed algebraically,

Standard Deviation (σ)
The Standard Deviation is a measure of how spread out numbers is from the mean. It is
calculated by as the square root of the variance.
Normal Distribution or Bell Curve
A normal distribution is a very important statistical data distribution pattern occurring

in many natural phenomena, such as height, blood pressure, lengths of objects produced
by machines, etc. Certain data, when graphed as a histogram (data on the horizontal
axis, amount of data on the vertical axis), creates a bell-shaped curve known as a normal
curve, or normal distribution.

Normal distributions are symmetrical with a single central peak at the mean (average)
of the data. The shape of the curve is described as bell-shaped with the graph falling off
evenly on either side of the mean. Fifty percent of the distribution lies to the left of the
mean and fifty percent lies to the right of the mean.
The spread of a normal distribution is controlled by the standard deviation. The smaller
the standard deviation the more concentrated the data.
The mean and the median are the same in a normal distribution.
Skewness
The curve, which does not follow the shape of the normal curve. These generally represent a
purely temporary process condition, and serve as a guide to detecting the presence of some
unusual factor like defective material, or abnormal machining conditions. (e.g.) tool chatter, tool
vibration, etc.
These curves are like normal curves in that the frequencies decrease continuously from the
centre to extreme values, but unlike the normal curve they are not symmetrical.
Their extreme values occur more frequently in one direction from the centre than in the
other. They appear like “disturbed normal” curves and hence are called “skewed
curves”.
The normal distribution is the most commonly occurring symmetrical frequency

distribution. Positive skewness is also quite common, as for instance the shape of the
distribution of personal incomes. Another example is the distribution of the time
intervals between randomly occurring events, such as the arrival of customers at the
ends of a queue. Negative skewness is less common, but occurs, for instance, in the
distribution of times to failure of certain types of equipment.
Several measures of skewness have been proposed, but are rarely used in practice. The
simplest way of describing skewness is to quote the mean, the median, and, where
possible the mode. For symmetrical distributions, these three measures will
approximately coincide. For positively skewed distributions, the mode will be less than

the median, which will in turn be less than the mean. This is very noticeable for the
distribution of personal incomes.
For negatively skewed distributions, these three measures will be in the reverse order.
The differences between the measures give some indication of the extent of the
skewness. When the distribution is moderately, there is an approximate relationship
between the three measures, expressed as
Kurtosis
The fourth moment will provide a numerical value associated with the peakedness or
flatness of the data as it is a distributed about the mean also known as “kurtosis”.
The following equation incorporates the fourth moment about the mean and the fourth
power of the samples standard deviation to measure kurtosis.
The following equation is commonly used to calculate the zero based kurtosis in
statistical analysis computer programming.
Note that the value of 3 is subtracted from the kurtosis value. This force the value to be
zero based, as opposed to be centered around the number 3. The common approach to
quantity kurtosis is that the normal peak distribution is centered about the value 3. As
the kurtosis deviates above or below 3. The peakedness or flatness begins to take a
numerical significance as described below.
Mesokurtic:
They are three general distributions types used to define nature of kurtosis. The first is
mesokurtic distribution as shown in the Figure 2. In it the data is normal distributed
about the mean the kurtosis will be equal to 3.

Platykurtic:
The second is platykurtic distribution, shown in figure 3. In it the data is dispersed
about the mean in a manner that is flat in nature: the kurtosis will be less than 3.
Leptokurtic:
The third is leptokurtic distribution, shown in figure 4. In the data is dispersed about
the mean in a manner that is very peaked in nature; the kurtosis will be greater than 3.
Process Capability Analysis

Statistical techniques can be helpful throughout the product cycle, including
development activities prior to manufacturing, in quantifying process variability, in
analyzing this variability relative to product requirements or specifications, and in
assisting development and manufacturing in eliminating or greatly reducing this
variability. This general activity is called process capability analysis. Product capability
refers to the uniformity of the process. Obviously, the variability
in the process is a measure of the uniformity of output. There are two ways to think of
this variability:

1. The natural or inherent variability at a specified time; that is, “Instantaneous”
variability.
2. The variability over time. ,
We present methods for investigating and assessing both aspects of process capability.
It is customary to take the 6-sigma spread in the distribution of the product quality
characteristic as a measure of process capability. Figure 5 shows a process for which the
quality characteristic has a normal distribution with mean μ and standard deviation σ .
The upper and lower “natural tolerance limits” (UNTL & LNTL) of the process fall at
μ+3σ and0 μ−3σ, respectively. That is,
UNTL = μ + 3σ
LNTL = μ − 3σ
For a normal distribution, the natural tolerance limits include 99.73% of the variable, or
put another way, only 0.27% of the process output will fall outside the natural tolerance
limits. Two points should be remembered:
1. 0.27% outside the natural tolerances sounds small, but this corresponds to 2700
nonconforming parts per million.
2. If the distribution of process output is nonnormal, then the percentage of output
falling outside μ±3σ may differ considerably from 0.27%.
We define process capability analysis as an engineering study to estimate process

capability. The estimate of process capability may be in the form of a probability
distribution having a specified shape, center (mean), and spread (standard deviation).
For example, we may determine that the process output is normally distributed with
mean μ = 1.0 cm and standard deviation σ = 0.001 cm. in this sense, a process capability
analysis may be performed without regard to specifications on the quality
characteristic. Alternatively, we may express process capability as a percentage outside
of specifications. However, specifications are not necessary to perform a process
capability analysis.
Figure: Upper and Lower natural tolerance limits in the normal distribution
A process capability study usually measures functional parameters on the product, not
the process itself. When the analyst can directly observe the process and can control or
monitor the data collection activity, the study is a true process capability study, because

by controlling the data collection and knowing the time sequence of the data,
interferences can be made about the stability of the process over time.
However, when we have available only sample units of products, perhaps supplied by
the vendor or obtained via receiving inspection, and there is no direct observation of
the process or time history of production, then the study is more properly called
product characterization. In a characteristic or the process yield (fraction conforming to
specifications); we can say nothing about the dynamic behavior of the process or its
state of statistical control.
Process capability analysis is a vital part of an overall quality-improvement program.

Among the major uses of data from a process capability analysis are the following:
1. Predicting how well the process will hold the tolerances.

2. Assisting product developers/designers in selecting or modifying a process.
3. Assisting in establishing an interval between sampling for process monitoring.
4. Specifying performance requirements for few equipment.
5. Selecting between competing vendors.
6. Planning the sequence of production process when there is an interactive effect of
process on tolerances.
7. Reducing the variability in a manufacturing process.
Thus, process capability analysis is a technique that has application in many segments
of the product cycle, including product and process design, vendor sourcing, production
or manufacturing planning, and manufacturing. Three primary techniques are used in
process capability analysis: histograms or probability plots, control charts, and designed
experiments.
Process Capability Metrics
There are several statistics that can be used to measure the capability of a process: Cp,
Cpk, and Cpm. Most capability indices estimates are valid only if the sample size used is
"large enough". Large enough is generally thought to be about 50 independent data
values. The Cp, Cpk, and Cpm statistics assume that the population of data values is
normally distributed. Assuming a two-sided specification, if μ and σ are the mean and
standard deviation, respectively, of the normal data and USL, LSL, and T are the upper
and lower specification limits and the target value, respectively, then the population
capability indices are defined as follows.
Where USL-Upper Specification Limit

LSL-Lower Specification Limit

T-Target Value
μ-Mean
σ-Standard Deviation
Geometric Tolerance:
Geometric tolerance of a feature (point, line, axis, surface or medium plane) specifies
the tolerance zone within which the feature is required to be contained. The geometric
tolerance feature provides a precise and brief method of indicating brief geometric
requirements on engineering drawings. The symbols being internationally been
accepted are very useful when overseas manufacture is involved.
Conventional or Coordinate Tolerancing System:

Coordinate tolerance is a dimensioning system where a part feature is located (or defined) by
means of a rectangular dimension with the given tolerance. Geometric tolerancing is very useful
especially when conventional dimensioning and drawing methods are inadequate and doesn’t
ensure that parts will assemble satisfactorily after manufacture.
Basic Definitions
Maximum Material Condition (MMC)

It is that condition of a feature or a part, which contains the maximum amount of
material, e.g. minimum hole size or maximum shaft size. In certain cases its use allows
an increase in the specifies tolerance if it is indicated that the tolerance applies to the
feature at its MMC.
Straightness
It is the shortest distance between two points. The tolerance value is the specified
distance between two parallel straight lines.
Datum
A datum feature may be a plane or axis. For practical purposes the plane surface or axis
is used for manufacture or inspection.
Flatness
Flatness tolerance controls the deviation of the surface from the true plane and is the
space between the two parallel planes
Roundness
It is the condition where the feature is a continuous curved surface, any point on the
surface is at a constant distance from the centre or axis. The roundness tolerance zone
is the annular space between two co-planar, concentric circles.
Cylindricity
It is a combination of parallelism, straightness and roundness, applied to the surface of a
cylinder. The cylindricity tolerance zone is the annular space between two coaxial
cylinders and its value is the radial distance between them.

Concentricity
It is the relationship between two cylinders, which have the same axis or common
centre.Concentricity tolerance is the deviation of the axis from the true position.
Squareness
It is the condition where a line, plane or surface lies at 90 degrees to another. It is the
space between the two parallel lines or surfaces.
Parallelism
This is the condition where two lines or surfaces are separated by a uniform distance.
Parallelism tolerances control the parallelism between the two lines or surfaces and the
tolerance zone is the distance between them.
Angularity
It defines the position between two lines or surfaces which are nor parallel or
perpendicular to each other.
Position
The positional tolerance controls the position between a feature and a datum or from
another feature. The tolerance value is the specified deviation from the true position.
Symmetry
It is the feature where a feature is divided into identical parts by means of a line or
plane. Symmetry tolerances control the area between the parallel lines or planes, which
are parallel to the datum feature, and there value is the distance between them.
Circular Run out

It is the permissible variation of position of any point fixed on a surface, which occurs
when a part is rotated through 360 degrees about its own axis. The resultant indications
include errors of other characteristics without differentiating them. The combined
errors must not exceed the stated
tolerance value.
Total Run out

The difference between simple Runout and total Runout is that in the former, one
measurement is taken during one revolution while in the later the measuring
instrument is moved along the component during several revolutions.

Benefits of Geometric Dimensioning And Tolerancing (GD&T)
Improves Communication:
GD&T can provide uniformity in drawing specification and interpretations, thereby
reducing controversy, guesswork and assumptions. Design, production and inspection
all in the same language
Provides Better Product Design:

The use of GD&T can improve your product design by providing designers with the tool
to “say what they mean” and by following the functional dimensioning philosophy.
Increase Production Tolerance:

There are two ways tolerance are increased through the use of GD&T . First under
certain conditions, GD&T provides “bonus” or extra tolerance for manufacturing. This
additional tolerance can reduce the production cost significantly. Second, by use of
functional dimensioning, the tolerances the tolerances are assigned to the part based
upon its functional requirements. This often results in a larger tolerance for
manufacturing. It eliminates the problem that results when designers copy existing
tolerances, or assign tight tolerances, because they don’t know how to determine a
reasonable tolerance.
SURFACE FINISH
Tolerance specifications are imposed on dimensions to ensure functional and assembly
requirements of mating parts. Tolerances determine to a large extent the manufacturing
processes required to produce the part. Surface quality is another important factor that
affects the performance of mating parts relative to each other as well as choice of
manufacturing processes.
Tolerances and surface quality are interrelated in the sense that both are direct
outcomes of manufacturing processes. A manufacturing process such as lapping and
honing that produce small tolerances also produce smooth surfaces. Therefore in
specifying tolerances a designer should consider the requirements of surface finish in
addition to functional and assembly requirements.
For example an interference fit made on a rough surface may have a reduced area which
results in subsequent reduction of the interference force between mating parts. Higher
surface quality results in higher production costs. Thus designer would normally leave a
surface as rough as is feasible. Surface finish can be evaluated quantitatively by using
various measures.
The most popular measures are surface roughness and waviness. The measure of the
irregularities over a sampling length is defined as surface roughness, whereas the
measure of large variations over a wavelength defines the waviness of the surface.
There are three methods of calculating the surface roughness R of a surface. Let us
define an imaginary mean surface such that the total variations (measured by the sum
of the areas between the mean surface and profile of the actual surface) above the mean
surface are equal to that beneath it.
1. Average Roughness Measure (Ra)

The roughness average Ra measures the average of the absolute displacement
(variation) relative to the mean surface:
Where IyI is the absolute value of the roughness function y(x). The roughness average
Ra is also known as arithmetic average (AA). It is usually measured using a planimeter
to calculate the area below and above the mean surface.
Ra values are usually expressed in micrometers or micro inches and its value can vary quite
considerably without affecting the surface functions.
2. Root Mean Square Roughness Measure (RMS)

Another measure of surface roughness is given by the RMS (root mean square) value Rq
which is still an averaging method and is given by:
3. Max Peak to Valley Height (Rmax)

The third method of roughness is given by the maximum peak - to - valley height Rmax.
Sometimes Rmax is evaluated at various locations over the length of the surface and an average
is calculated.

Roughness Measures
The table below recommends the specifications of surface roughness for functional
processors. These values given are only a guide and a designer can make his own
selection depending upon the process. However from the point of production economy
it is better not to specify values finer than that are really necessary for satisfactory
functioning of the process.

Guide to surface finish from various process μm


Relationship between Attainable Tolerance Grade and Various Machining
Processes.
Machining Tolerances.
The deviations resulting from different machining operations vary somewhat from shop
to shop and with the type and conditions of the equipment used. It is helpful for the
engineering department to have records for the variations that can be maintained by
the various machines in the factory. Less will be known for the parts that are sublet and
the work done by the outside vendors. The variations in these tables are about what
might be expected from good equipment in the hands of experienced workers. The
newer and more precise equipment should give smaller variations, but on the other
hand, worn machinery will not give the results as good as the tables. The prospects for
the proper dimensioning will improve as more precise information on the capabilities of
production machines becomes available to the design department.
The following table illustrated below gives you a guideline for calculating IT grades for
various machining processes.
For grades 5 to 16, standard tolerance unit i, is i = 0.45 3√ D + 0.001 D

where i in microns; and D (Dia) in mm.

Normal Dimensional Tolerances and Surface finish attainable from Traditional
Machining Process

Normal Dimensional Tolerances and Surface finish attainable from Non-
Traditional Machining Process.
Normal Dimensional Tolerances and Surface finish attainable in various hole-

making processes.

Relationship between Tolerance Grades and Machining Processes.

REFERENCES:
TEXT BOOKS:
1. Designing for Manufacturing - Harry Peck, Pitman Publications, 1983
2. Metrology - R.K. Jain Khanna Publication.
REFERENCE BOOKS:
1. Machine Design - Dieter McGraw hill Publications for topic 1.
2. Product design for manufacture and assembly - Geoffrey Boothroyd, peter dewhurst,
Winston Knight, Mercel dekker. Inc. New york.
3. Material selection and Design, Vol. 20 - ASM Hand book

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Design for Manufacture (DFM) Unit I

1. Minimize total number of parts: Eliminating parts results in great savings. A

2. Standardize components: Costs are minimized and quality is enhanced when

Lecture Notes, NMIT, Bangalore. | 1

4. Standardize design features: Standardizing on design features like drilled hole

5. Aim to keep designs functional and simple: Achieving functionality is

9. Minimize secondary and finishing operations: Minimize secondary

Specific Design Rules

Lecture Notes, NMIT, Bangalore. | 3

Major Phases of a Design Process

1. Phase I. Conceptual Design:

 Identification of customer needs: The goal of this activity is to completely

Lecture Notes, NMIT, Bangalore. | 4

 Concept selection: Evaluation of the design concepts, modifying and evolving

2. Phase II. Embodiment Design

 Product architecture: Product architecture is concerned with dividing the

3. Phase III. Detail Design

Lecture Notes, NMIT, Bangalore. | 5

 Detailed engineering drawings suitable for manufacturing. Routinely these are

4. Phase IV. Planning for Manufacture

5. Phase V. Planning for Distribution

6. Phase VI. Planning for Use

7. Phase VII. Planning for Retirement of the Product

Lecture Notes, NMIT, Bangalore. | 7

Effect of Material Properties on Design

Figure 3: Factors that should be considered in anticipating in behaviour

Lecture Notes, NMIT, Bangalore. | 8

Effect of Component Geometry:

Stress Concentration Factor:

Guidelines for design:

DESIGNING FOR STATIC STRENGTH

1. Designing for Simple Axial Loading:

Lecture Notes, NMIT, Bangalore. | 9

2. Designing for Torsional Loading:

3. Design for Bending:

4. Designing for Stiffness:

Lecture Notes, NMIT, Bangalore. | 10

5. Torsional Rigidity of Shafts:

Where G = modulus of elasticity in shear

6. Designing With High-Strength, Low Toughness Materials:

Guidelines for design:

7. Designing against Fatigue:

Lecture Notes, NMIT, Bangalore. | 11

8. Designing under High-Temperature Conditions:

Lecture Notes, NMIT, Bangalore. | 12

Figure: Variation of stress with steady-state creep rate at various Temp

Lecture Notes, NMIT, Bangalore. | 13

Metals Polymers Ceramics Composites

Steel Thermoplastics Carbides, Oxides Wood

Commonly used engineering materials for structural applications.

Lecture Notes, NMIT, Bangalore. | 14

Weight and Space Limitations. The load-carrying capacity of a given component is

2. Material Properties Needed for Selection of Materials for Stiffness

Lecture Notes, NMIT, Bangalore. | 15

3. Material Properties Needed for Design for Fatigue Resistance

4. Material Properties Needed for Design for High Temperature Applications

Under creep conditions, the service life of a component at a given service

5. Designing with specific materials

Lecture Notes, NMIT, Bangalore. | 16

Effect of Manufacturing Process on Design

Factors which affect the selection of a Manufacturing parts are:

Relationship between Manufacturing Process & Design

Lecture Notes, NMIT, Bangalore. | 17