Prospect of Climate Mitigation

by Integrated Solid Waste Management:

A Case Study of Khulna City,
Bangladesh

T. K. Roy, S. M. Haque, S. T. Hossain, T. Islam and S. Sikder

Abstract Municipal solid waste (MSW) is considered as one of the significant

sources of greenhouse gas (GHG) emission that contributes to global climate change.
Waste sector is accountable for 5% of the global GHG emission, which consists of
methane (CH4) and carbon dioxide (CO2) emission. At present, about 3 billion world
urban population generate 1.3 billion tons of MSW per year at the rate of 1.2 kg per
capita per day. By 2025, the urban population will likely increase to 4.3 billion and
will generate 2.2 billion tons of MSW per year at the rate of about 1.42 kg per capita
per day. Integrated solid waste management (ISWM) is a system that considers the
prevention and recycling of wastes in most effective way for the protection of human
health and environment. Under the ISWM, most appropriate and suitable waste
management technologies are selected based on the evaluation of local needs and local
environmental conditions towards reducing energy consumption, GHG emissions and
carbon storage. Khulna is one of the topmost climate vulnerable coastal cities in the
world. The area of Khulna City is 45.65 km2, where more than 1.5 million people live.
About 520 tons of MSW is produced per day in Khulna City. Nearly 79% of the
produced waste is organic in nature. The city has its own waste management system
including door-to-door (DtD) waste collection and dumping into the ultimate disposal
or landfill sites. The study estimates that the anaerobic digestion of organic waste and
recycling together can reduce the emission of 19,588 tons CO2 equivalent and
composting with recycling can reduce 22,838 tons CO2 equivalent per year in Khulna
City. The paper highlights the existing solid waste management system in Khulna
City with the prospect of ISWM system for climate mitigation of Khulna City.

Keywords Khulna City Integrated solid waste management Climate mitigation

T. K. Roy (&)
S. Sikder

Department of Urban and Regional Planning, Khulna University of Engineering
and Technology (KUET), Khulna, Bangladesh
e-mail: tusarpln@yahoo.com
S. M. Haque
Urban and Rural Planning Discipline, Khulna University, Khulna, Bangladesh
S. T. Hossain
T. Islam
Sheltech Consultants Pvt. Ltd. (SCPL), Dhaka, Bangladesh

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2019 361

S. K. Ghosh (ed.), Waste Management and Resource Efficiency,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-7290-1_31
362 T. K. Roy et al.

1 Introduction

Waste sector, which is 20% of the global anthropogenic sources, generates about
5% of the total greenhouse gases (GHGs). Though the contribution is minimal, still
it matters and requires special attention for mitigation. Since the world population is
increasing day by day, the per capita waste generation is also getting amplified
consequently. It leads to failure of proper waste disposal practices, especially in the
developing countries. The unscientific method of waste disposal continuously emits
GHGs, which is ultimately contributing to the global climate change. Hence, mit-
igating GHG emissions from proper waste management practices is to be given
priority in developing countries. Compared with the other 15 sectors which are
listed under Kyoto Protocol, controlling and reducing GHG emissions from waste
sector seems to be cost-effective through Clean Development Mechanism
(CDM) [14].
Currently about 1.3 billion tons of MSW is generated per year in the world,
which is expected to increase at 2.2 billion tons by the year 2025. This shows a
significant increasing trend of per capita waste generation, from 1.2 to 1.42 kg in
the coming fifteen years [15]. Municipal solid waste contains different organic and
inorganic components such as food and vegetables, paper, glass, plastics. The
amount and percentage of this matter varies from country to country based on the
use of resources. Besides, alternative uses or recycling reduce the percentage of
certain amount of matter in the total produced waste. The amount of organic waste
in Bangladesh is much more than many countries. In fact, it is more than double
compared to Japan or India. Japan has popular recycling process of produced
municipal waste that reduces the percentage of organic waste.
Solid waste management system is not up to the satisfactory level in Bangladesh,
especially in urban areas like Dhaka, Chittagong, Khulna, where huge amount of
organic waste is generated daily. Due to lack of managing capacity and
well-developed system, a great opportunity of making compost is continuously
being underestimated as well as these unused and unmanaged waste is putting up a
great environmental threat. In Bangladesh, some non-governmental organizations
(NGOs) and community-based organizations (CBOs) introduced door-to-door
(DtD) waste collection system in the late 90s with payment of little amount of
service charge. But, the DtD waste collection service covers an insignificant portion
of its population. Actually, a minor fraction of wastes is managed by the DtD
collection system [7, 8]. Khulna is a divisional metropolitan city in Bangladesh. It is
also the third largest industrial and second largest port city. Every day about 520
tons of solid wastes are produced in Khulna City [13]. Because of unsatisfying solid
waste management system in Khulna City, some common problems are found to
occur such as diseases, fire hazards, odour nuisance, air, water and soil pollution
and consequent economic losses. On the other hand, those wastes have a potential
value of burnable biogas and generate electricity and organic bio-fertilizer [2]. So,
the alternative use of organic waste can be very useful to minimize the
Prospect of Climate Mitigation by Integrated Solid Waste … 363

environmental threat, and the proper utilization will help to produce more compost
that can be used in agricultural sector. Eventually, the city will remain clean and
also be economically strong.

2 Objectives of the Study

The study has the following objectives:

• To highlight the existing solid waste management system in Khulna City; and
• To investigate the prospect of integrated solid waste management (ISWM)
system for climate mitigation of Khulna City.

3 Methodology

The research is conducted based on the solid waste and its management database of
Khulna City. The information of solid waste is collected from secondary sources
like journal paper, conference paper and also from interview with concerned per-
sonnel. Method followed by Visvanathan [14] is followed to develop the climate
mitigation scenario from the ISWM perspective. The method considers the total
amount of wastes that include different individual waste components, conversion
factor and correction factor. The conversion factors originate from US
Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA), 2002, and Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate change (IPCC), 2006. The emission is calculated to represent the mitiga-
tion scenario for anaerobic digestion; aerobic composting; waste reduction, reuse
and recycling.

4 Khulna City as the Study Area

Khulna City of Bangladesh is the study area for this paper. It is the third largest
industrial city of Bangladesh. The divisional city Khulna acts as regional hub for
the administrative, commercial, institutional, and academic affairs. The city stands
on the banks of the River Rupsha and Bhairab. About 1.5 million people live in its
45.65 km2 area. The city lies between 22° 47′ 16″ to 22° 52′ north latitude and
89° 31′ 36″ and 89° 34′ 35″ east longitude. The city is divided into 31 wards, and
every ward consists of different mahallas (locality). The total number of mahallas
of the city is 143. Khulna Municipality with an area of 12.02 km2 was established
in 1884 [9]. Khulna became an important town from the late 1950s to the early
1960s mainly for its industrial development. The city progressed further after the
establishment of Mongla port, just about 40 km of its south. Numerous industries
364 T. K. Roy et al.

were set up with the increase in manifold commercial activities in Khulna. Khulna
became the main centre of jute industries and jute-based trades in Bangladesh.
Population of Khulna City rose significantly after the liberation. Introduction of
shrimp farming in Khulna and its surrounding coastal region and establishment of
shrimp processing industries in Khulna again strengthened the economy of Khulna
City. Average household size of the city is 4.5, and the rate of literacy is around
94%. Monthly income of employed 66% people is within Tk. 5,000. About 30%
employed people, who have their monthly income within Tk. 2,500, live below
poverty level. Only 3.5% employed people have monthly income Tk. 15,000 and
above [10].

5 Sources, Category and Amount of Solid Wastes

in Khulna City

Khulna City has a numerous sources of waste generation. The sources include
buildings, establishments and activities under different land uses namely residential,
commercial, industrial, institutional, construction, manufacturing, agricultural.
About 520 tons of solid waste is generated from these sources, which does not
always go through waste management system as the amount is much more than the
management capacity. Table 1 shows that the percentage of food and vegetables is
higher (78.9%) in the generated waste of Khulna City Corporation (KCC) area.
Amount of institutional waste such as paper and paper product is in the second
higher position (9.5%).

Table 1 Composition of Composition of MSW Percentage

municipal solid waste in
Khulna City Food and vegetables 78.9
Paper and paper products 9.5
Polythene and plastics 3.1
Textile and woods 1.4
Rubber and leathers 0.5
Metal and tins 1.1
Glass and ceramics 0.5
Brick, concrete and stone 0.1
Dust, ash and mud products 3.7
Others (bone, rope, etc.) 1.2
Total 100
Source Afrin et al. [3]
Prospect of Climate Mitigation by Integrated Solid Waste … 365

6 Solid Waste Management System in Khulna City

The Khulna City Corporation Ordinance, 1984, in its Chapter One titled “Public
Health” under the Part II of “Functions in Detail” has the directives on “Removal,
Collection and Disposal of the Refuse of the Municipal Area”. The section 75 and
its subsections are as like as “75. (1) The Corporation shall make adequate
arrangements for the removal of refuse from all public streets, public latrines,
urinals, drains, and all buildings and land vested in the Corporation, and for the
collection and proper disposal of such refuse. (2) The occupiers of all other
buildings and lands within the Corporation shall be responsible for the removal of
refuse from such buildings and lands subject to the general control and supervision
of the Corporation. (3) The Corporation may cause public dust-bins or other suit-
able receptacles to be provided at suitable places and where such dust-bins or
receptacles are provided, the Corporation may, by public notice, require that all
refuse accumulating in any premises or land shall be deposited by the owner or
occupier of such premises or land in such dust-bins or receptacles. (4) All refuse
removed and collected by the staff of the Corporation or under their control and
supervision and all refuse deposited in the dust-bins and other receptacles provided
by the Corporation shall be the property of the Corporation” [6].
Khulna City Corporation (KCC) and community-based NGOs–CBOs are taking
care of 60% of the total waste generated, while the rest of them are unattended. In
fact, the wastes mostly collected under the DtD collection system are not sorted.
They are dumped either in open space or poorly managed landfill sites. Thus, the
city is facing serious health risk for this uncollected domestic wastes that are
indiscriminately dumped on streets and public places. The wastes are responsible
for the prolonged waterlogging and contamination of urban water bodies due to
clogging of the existing drainage system by wastes. The population of KCC area as
per the population census was 0.62 million in 1991. Considering the medium
projection, it was estimated as 0.92 million for 2000 and it would be 2.05 million by
2020. Waste generation in the city area depends on its population. The Structure
Plan estimated generation of solid wastes in the KCC area for the year 2000, 2010
and 2020 was 411 tons, 624 tons and 922 tons.
Solid waste management system in KCC area is found improved mainly after
1998, the initiation of the community-based DtD waste collection intervention by
PRODIPAN, an NGO [12]. In the DtD waste collection system, 2–3 waste col-
lectors with a non-motorized rickshaw van collect wastes from the households. At
present, about 10 NGOs and CBOs are involved for this DtD waste collection
system. The NGOs and CBOs work in collaboration with the Conservancy
Department of KCC [13]. The NGOs and CBOs are BRIC, CHD, Clanship
Association, MuktirAlo, Nabarun Sangsad, Rupayan, RUSTIC, Samadhan, SEIAM
and SPS. The collected household waste is dumped into the nearest secondary
disposal sites (SDSs). Later, KCC waste transfer trucks collect waste from those
sites and dump into the ultimate disposal site (UDS) in Rajbandh. The UDS in
Rajbandh has an area of 30 acre. Two new sites are currently being prepared for
366 T. K. Roy et al.

waste dumping. These sites are located in Mathabanga mouza and Solua mouza
having an area of 25 acre and 16 acre, respectively [7, 8].
KCC collects waste by its 20 trucks and 200 wheel carts [4]. Apart from
households, the carts also carry waste from commercial buildings either going door
to door or collecting from a nearby place where the waste is dumped. Besides, the
waste from market is dumped into a nearby dustbin where KCC waste-collecting
trucks go and collect organic waste in a particular time of the day. There are no
separate carts or trucks for collecting clinical waste. In fact, the clinical wastes are
carried away in the same vehicles that carry other wastes from dustbins and later
dump together twice a day [4]. Currently, 520 tons of solid waste is produced daily
in Khulna City, but the collection capacity of the responsible local public authority
KCC is about 65–70% [5]. The Conservancy Department of KCC has lack of
technical manpower, i.e. engineers, town planners and environmentalists. This is
why, performance of the department is not up to the mark.

7 Contribution of Solid Waste in GHG Emission

and Climate Change

Waste sector is accountable for 5% of the global GHG emission consisted of

methane (CH4) and carbon dioxide (CO2). Anaerobic decomposition of solid waste
emits CH4, while wastewater produces CO2 during decomposition [14]. Landfilling,
composting and incineration (thermal treatment) are the most common treatment of
municipal solid waste. Among them, landfilling is most popular as it is compara-
tively easy and cost-effective even though it is not always the first choice as it can
cause the infertility of the soil. Though the global warming potential
(GWP) considers release of CO2, in case of practices of solid waste management
release of only CH4 is accounted to estimate the GHG emission. This is mainly for
the general consensus of considering CO2 as biogenic origin [14].

7.1 Emission from Landfilling

Landfilling is a popular way of waste management in developing countries, even

though in developed countries too. All the waste matter cannot be recycled or
composed. A certain portion is needed to be either burned or used for landfilling.
Emission of greenhouse gas is considerably higher in the waste decomposition
process on landfill sites than of composting [11]. But, the emission of GHG from
landfilling depends upon various factors such as waste composition, surrounding
environment, soil composition.
Prospect of Climate Mitigation by Integrated Solid Waste … 367

7.2 Emission from Composting

Composting of organic waste has been widely popular in recent times as it is an easy
and popular technology and also it has economic value. At present, it is used in many
countries as an alternative to landfilling considering the impact of landfilling on
climate change. Small-scale composting is also popular in Khulna City. Composting
of organic fraction of MSW avoids the methane (GHG) emissions directly [14].
Even a well-managed composting plant in aerobic decomposition method for MSW
produces carbon dioxide that eventually contributes on global climate.

7.3 Emission from Incineration or Thermal Treatment

It is the most climate threatening method for MSW management. This method is
followed both in developing and developed countries. But, the open burning or
absence of proper burning technology in the developing countries like Bangladesh
is putting a direct threat to the environment. Most of the developed countries use
different technologies to reduce the emission of gases or decomposition of emitted
gases. The common technologies are burn pile, burn barrel, rotary kiln, fluidized
bed, specialized incineration, etc. The combustion process nearly emits all the CO2
in the atmosphere present in the waste. The mass fraction of carbon in MSW is
approximately equal to CO2 itself (27%); therefore, 1 ton CO2 is considered to be
generated from the incineration of 1 ton MSW. Waste incineration is widely applied
in many of the developing and developed countries, where space for landfill site is
limited. Japan and many European countries are such countries that follow incin-
erations. The amount of global annual combusted waste is 130 million tons in over
600 plants of 35 countries. The UNFCCC has also approved three municipal waste
incinerators with 450,813 tons CO2-eq reductions by treating MSW from devel-
oping countries in recent years [14].

8 Climate Mitigation Through Integrated Solid Waste

Management (ISWM) in Khulna City

The amount of waste discharge increases along with the explosion of population and
economic development of a country or region. But, improper and poor waste man-
agement system is subject to the risk for environmental health. It causes various
problems such as water pollution due to contamination of water with dumped wastes,
creation of breeding grounds for insects and rodents, and increased waterlogging and
flooding due to blockage of canals, drains or gullies by the wastes dumped. Besides,
increased rate of GHG emission due to improper management of wastes contributes
significantly to climate change. Integrated solid waste management (ISWM) is a
368 T. K. Roy et al.

system that considers the prevention and recycling of wastes in most effective way for
the protection of human health and environment. Under the ISWM, most appropriate
and suitable waste management technologies are selected based on the evaluation of
local needs and local environmental conditions. The components of ISWM are waste
prevention, recycling, combustion and proper disposal of wastes to the technically
sound constructed landfill sites. The ISWM process can greatly contribute to climate
change mitigation by reducing the emission of the GHG from the environment. The
prospect of ISWM system for climate mitigation has been investigated by developing
three possible scenarios based on the methods of composting; anaerobic digestion;
and reduce, reuse and recycling.
Khulna City produces almost 520 tons of solid waste a day that means 189,800
tons in a year. The results from the developed scenarios clearly state that emission
of the GHG reduces if the ISWM system is followed. Anaerobic digestion (AD) for
organic waste can reduce 3,040 tons of GHG emission in each year where aerobic
composting can reduce 6,290 tons in the same timeline. Waste reduction and reuse
can reduce up to 10,534 tons of GHG where waste recycling can reduce 16,548 tons
of GHG in each year. So, it concludes that anaerobic digestion (AD) for organic
waste and recycling will together reduce the emission of 19,588 tons CO2 equiv-
alent into the atmosphere per year and composting along with recycling will reduce
22,838 tons CO2 equivalent. The detailed calculation and description of the sce-
narios are shown in Table 3.
A scenario of CO2 mitigation is developed considering different methods of
resource recovery from solid waste such as anaerobic digestion (AD), aerobic
composting, waste reduction and reuse, and waste recycling. As stated earlier,
almost 520 tons of solid waste is generated daily in Khulna City. So, in each year
near about 189,800 tons of waste is generated. The waste stream contains different
individual components such as organic, plastic, paper, metal. According to the
percentage distribution, the amount of different components is calculated and
presented in Table 2.

Table 2 Amount of solid wastes in Khulna City with different components

Waste Total waste Distribution Total amount of Total amount of
components generated in each (%) waste (ton/day) waste (ton/year)
day
Organic 520 tons 78.9 410.28 149752.2
contents
Paper 9.5 49.4 18,031
Plastics 3.1 16.12 5883.8
Glass 0.5 2.6 949
Metal 1.1 5.72 2087.8
Wood 1.4 7.28 2657.2
Green 3.7 19.24 7022.6
waste
Inert 1.8 9.36 3416.4
materials
Total 100.00 520 189,800
Prospect of Climate Mitigation by Integrated Solid Waste … 369

8.1 Climate Mitigation Scenario by Composting

Method of composting from municipal waste is followed in many countries. In fact

in the study area Khulna City, the method of composting is followed by an NGO
named RUSTIC, who produces a small amount of compost using a certain amount
of municipal waste. But composting is not the first choice when the climate is
considered as a major concern.
Biodegradable organic contents are assumed to be completely stabilized in this
scenario. Biological conversion factor for composting is assumed (i.e. 0.084) for the
GHG emission calculation. Estimated CO2 is 12,580 ton which will be emanating
from the complete biological conversion of organic components from the MSW
under aerobic conditions. But generally composting process will be extended
between 30 and 45 days until getting C/N ratio of less than 20, since the complete
biological conversion of C content will take long time [14]. Hence, the correction
factor is considered 0.5 that is only 50% of organic content is converted under
composting technology in the field. So, final amount of emitted CO2 is 6,290 ton
per year and remaining C content will be applied to the C sink soil.

8.2 Climate Mitigation Scenario by Anaerobic Digestion

The biological action where biodegradable materials are broken down by

microorganism in absence of oxygen is known as anaerobic digestion. Biogas is the
end product of this biological action. Biogas is normally combusted for producing
heat and electricity, but further processing can turn it into transportation fuels or
renewable natural gas [1].
The organic conversion factor of 0.029 along with the correction factor of 0.7
(70% of organic fraction converted into biogas) is considered to calculate equiva-
lent CO2 emission [14]. The calculated CO2 mitigation is 3,040 tons per year which
is less than emitted CO2 from composting method.

8.3 Climate Mitigation Scenario by Reduce, Reuse

and Recycling

The reduce, reuse and recycle (3R) method is the most common and used method in
the developed countries. The method needs more technological advancement and
utilization. The valuable materials either reduced/reused or source segregated for
recycling is considered in this scenario. It is assumed that 50% of the waste is
reduced/reused or 100% recycled from the waste stream [14]. The conversion
factors considered for paper, plastics, glass and metal are also different as the use of
the waste differs. Total 10,534 tons CO2 emission can be reduced by reducing or
370 T. K. Roy et al.

Table 3 Integrated solid waste management options and GHG mitigation for Khulna City
Integrated solid waste Total amount (ton/year) Conversion Correction GHG
management options factor factor emission (t
CO2)
Anaerobic digestion 149752.2 (organic) 0.029 70% (0.7) 3,040
(AD)
Aerobic composting 0.084 50% (0.5) 6,290
Waste reduction and reuse
Paper 18,031 0.8 50% (0.5) 7,212
Plastic 5883.8 0.4 1,177
Glass 949 0.12 57
Metal 2087.8 2 2,088
Waste recycling
Paper 18,031 0.6 100% (1) 10,820
Plastic 5883.8 0.3 1,765
Glass 949 4.0 3,796
Metal 2087.8 0.08 167
AD + Waste Recycling 176703.8 19,588
Aerobic (Organic + Recyclables) 22,838
Composting + Recycling
Note Calculations based on [14] using conversion factor from USEPA, 2002, and IPCC, 2006

reusing, and 16,548 tons can be reduced by recycling of materials from solid waste.
Besides, the 3R system mitigates GHG emission lowering required energy for
production and substituting recycled feedstock for new materials.
Table 3 represents that anaerobic digestion (AD) for organic waste and recycling
will together reduce the emission of 19,588 tons CO2 equivalent into the atmo-
sphere per year and composting along with recycling will reduce 22,838 tons CO2
equivalent. The result clearly shows that the integrated approaches for waste
management will certainly reduce a portion of CO2 from the atmosphere that will
eventually contribute on climate mitigation.

9 Conclusion

Climate Change is a burning issue in the present world, especially for the
disaster-prone countries like Bangladesh. In case of climate vulnerable Khulna City,
it is found that integrated solid waste management system can significantly reduce
GHG emission and eventually contribute to climate mitigation. The waste man-
agement system of Khulna City should be developed in a systematic and sustain-
able way to reduce the impact of solid waste on climate change towards a safe and
secured environment for the future generation.
Prospect of Climate Mitigation by Integrated Solid Waste … 371

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