2009

2. Groups of the
periodic table
Alkali metals, Alkaline earth metals and Halogens
An overview of the trends in the chemical families of the periodic table

danorina
mia tano
6/3/2009. ed 2013
A Review of Chapter 1:

Table 1: The periodic table

Groups
I II III IV V VI VII VIII
1 2

1
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Periods

2
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

3
19 20 35

4 53

The left side of the periodic table contains metallic Fluorine, chlorine, bromine and iodine all have 7
elements, while the right side contains non-metallic electrons in their outermost energy levels and will
elements. The boundary comprises elements that attain stability by gaining one electron.
have both properties called metalloids – Carbon and
silicon. Elements belonging to the same group are thus
These elements are arranged according to the number referred to as a chemical family.
of electrons in their outermost energy level into
groups and according to the number of energy levels
they have into periods. The periods and groups
constitute Chemical families of the Periodic Table.
The

Elements with the same number of electrons in the

outermost energy levels will have similar chemical
properties.

Example:
Sodium, lithium and potassium all have one electron
in their outermost energy levels, and they gain
stability by losing this single electron.

Magnesium and calcium have 2 electrons in their

outermost energy level, and gain stability by losing
two electrons.
A) Group 1 – The Alkali metals:
E. Config Atomic radius E. Config Ionic radius
Element
(Atom) (nm) (Ion) (nm)
Lithium (Li) 2:1 0.152 2 0.068
Sodium (Na) 2:8:1 0.185 2:8 0.098
Potassium (K) 2:8:8:1 0.227 2:8:8 0.133

Table 2: Properties of alkali metals

Atoms of group I elements have 1 electron in their outermost energy levels.

1. Changes in atomic and ionic size down group I

a. Atomic radii increase down group I
Explanation:
The size of atom or ion is influenced by the number of
energy levels the particle has since this affects the
Effective Nuclear Attraction - Zeff. Therefore a sodium
atom is larger than a lithium atom because it has one more
energy levels than lithium.
Similarly, a sodium ion is smaller than a potassium ion
since the potassium ion has one more energy levels.
As the number of energy levels increase down the group, the size of the
atom (atomic radius) increases.
b. The ionic radii of group I elements are smaller than
the atomic radii
Explanation:
Atoms of group I elements lose an electron to form the
corresponding ions. This means that the outermost energy
levels is lost during ion formation. Thus the ion is smaller
than the atom.
This also results in a stronger force of attraction
experienced by the remaining electrons, since the number
of protons is now greater than the number of electrons.
c. The ionic radii increase down group I
Explanation:
The number of energy levels increases down group I,
causing an increase in the ionic radius.

2. Changes in ionisation energy down group I Explanation:

Ionisation energy (I.E) is the energy required for an
electron to be lost by an atom in gas state.
All alkali metals are unstable as they have a single
electron in their outermost energy levels. They acquire a
stable noble gas configuration by loss of the valence
electron.
The smaller the atom the higher the amount of
energy required in order to lose an electron
The nucleus, which is positively charged, attracts the
electrons of an atom towards it. The smaller the atomic
radius, the stronger will be the force of attraction, and
the larger the atomic radius, the weaker will be the force
of attraction.
It is therefore easier for a larger atom to lose an electron
as compared to a smaller atom, thus the ionisation
energy will be greater for a smaller atom than for a larger
one.
As the atomic size increases, the ionisation energy
decreases.
Increasing atomic size causes a decrease in Zeff.

st
Atomic radius 1 Ionisation energy
Element
(nm) (kJ/mol)

Li 0.152 +513.3

Na 0.185 +495.8
 K 0.227 +418.8

Table 3: Changes in ionisation energy down group I

3. Physical properties of group I elements

All group I elements are:
a) easy to cut with a knife
b) exposes a shiny surface that quickly becomes dull on exposure to air when cut.
c) extremely good conductors of electricity and heat. These physical properties are summarised in the table below.
Atomic radius o o Electrical
Appearance Softness M.pt. ( C) B.pt. ( C)
(nm) conductivity
Li 0.152 Shiny white Slightly hard 180.7 1330 Good

Na 0.185 Shiny grey Soft 98.0 890 Good

K 0.227 Shiny grey Soft 63.8 794 Good

Table 4: Physical properties of group I elements

To explain these physical properties we will need to know how the atoms of a metal arrange themselves in a piece of
metal.

4. Structure of metals
Atoms of a solid are arranged in a regular manner close
to each other.
Consider the atoms of the metal
to be spherical balls and their
electrons to be small dark
spherical balls.
enter it with more electrons flowing into the metal from
the negative terminal of the cell to replace the ones that
flowed out. This flow of electrons constitutes the flow of
current. Metals are thus good conductors of
electricity.
Moving electrons also conduct heat energy – see kinetic
theory; metals are also good conductors of heat.
The ease of cutting increases down the group

The metal atoms delocalise their outer electrons to
become positively charged particles, the electrons
becoming free to move between the spheres in a random
fashion. These free electrons are called delocalised
electrons. We can picture the structure of metals as a
close-packing structure made up of positively charged
spheres in a ‘sea’ of electrons. The negative charge of
the circulating electrons binds the positively charged
particles together by mutual attraction. This attraction
between the positive particles and the delocalised
electrons is constitutes the metallic bond.
We shall study “Structures” later on under a special topic.
Group I elements are good conductors of electricity
and heat:
If an emf source is connected to the ends of a
metal, the free electrons lose their random motion and
make a bee-line towards the positive end of the cell and
The atomic size increases down the group,
therefore the delocalised electrons in the structure of
potassium attract the positive particles much more
weakly as compared to Lithium due to decreasing Zeff.
Therefore the metallic bond in potassium is weaker than
that of Sodium and lithium.
It is thus easiest to cut sodium as compared to Lithium.
The melting point decreases down the group
The strength of the metallic bond decreases
from lithium to sodium to potassium. Therefore it is
requires the least amount of heat energy to separate the
atoms of potassium, as its metallic bond is the weakest.
The boiling point decrease down the group
 The metallic bonds become weaker as we
descend group I. This makes it easier to separate the The physical properties of group I metals can be explained from the
particles, so as to change the state. nature and strength of their metallic bond

5. Chemical properties of alkali metals

The reactivity of the Alkali metals depends on the ease of removal of the outermost electron. Thus potassium is the most
reactive group 1 element among the first 20 elements.

a. Reaction with air: The atomic radii increase down the group due to
Alkali metals burn in air to form basic oxides increase in the number of energy levels. Thus
the outermost electron experiences a decreasing
i. Lithium force of attraction towards the nucleus. The
Lithium burns with a red flame to form electron is thus easily lost in potassium as
lithium oxide. compared to sodium during the reaction with
water. Lithium is therefore the least reactive
4Li(s) + O2(g) Li2O(s) among the alkali metals.
ii. Sodium
Sodium burns with an intense yellow flame i. Lithium
to produce sodium oxide. Lithium floats as it reacts with water to
produce a fizzing sound. A colourless gas,
4Na(s) + O2(g) Na2O(s) hydrogen, is produced and a solution that
turns red litmus paper blue results.
When excess oxygen is present, sodium can
2Li(s) + 2H2O(l) 2LiOH(aq) + H2(g)
react to form sodium peroxide, a yellow
coloured solid.
ii. Sodium
2Na(s) + O2(g) Na2O2(s) Sodium reacts vigorously with water to
produce hydrogen gas and sodium
Sodium peroxide reacts with water forming hydroxide solution.
oxygen gas and sodium hydroxide solution. 2Na(s) + 2H2O(l) 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g)
2Na2O2(s) + 2H2O(l) 4NaOH(aq) + O2(g) iii. Potassium
iii. Potassium Reacts explosively with water and often
Potassium burns in air with a purple flame burns with a lilac (purple) flame.
to produce potassium oxide.
2K(s) + 2H2O(l) 2KOH(aq) + H2(g)
4K(s) + O2(g) K2O(s)

Potassium can also form the peroxide (K2O2) and a

superoxide (KO2) as its large atomic size can form the
stable peroxide. c. Reaction with chlorine gas:

b. Reaction with cold water: When the hot metal is placed in jar of chlorine
gas, the metal bursts into flame and white fumes
Alkali metals react vigorously with cold water to of the metal chloride are produced. Reactivity
produce alkaline solutions and hydrogen gas. with chlorine gas also increases down the group.
2Li(s) + Cl2(g) 2LiCl(s)
The reactivity of alkali metals with water
increases down the group (K > Na > Li) 2Na(s) + Cl2(g) 2NaCl(s)

Explanation: 2K(s) + Cl2(g) 2KCl(s)

 Some uses of sodium metal 2. Molten sodium/potassium amalgam was earlier
1. Sodium vapour is used to produce yellow used as coolant material in nuclear reactors.
glowing lamps. 3. Manufacture of sodium peroxide.

B) Group 11 – Alkaline earth metals

Atomic radius Ionic radius
Element E. C (Atom) E. C (Ion)
(nm) (nm)
Beryllium (Be) 2:2 0.113 2 0.034

Magnesium (Mg) 2:8:2 0.160 2:8 0.078

Calcium (Ca) 2:8:8:2 0.197 2:8:8 0.106

Table 5: Properties of Alkaline earth metals

The atoms of group II elements contain 2 electrons in b) The ionic radii are smaller than the ionic radii
their outermost energy levels.
Explanation:

Atoms of group II elements lose two electrons to form

the corresponding ions. This means that the outermost
energy level is lost during ion formation. Thus the ion is
smaller than the atom.
The loss of electrons also results in a stronger force of
attraction experienced by the remaining electrons
1. Changes in atomic and ionic size down towards the nucleus, since the number of protons is now
group II greater than the number of electrons.

c) The ionic radii increase down group II

a) Atomic radii increase down group II
Explanation:
Explanation:
The number of energy levels increases down group II, so
The number of energy levels increases down the group,
the ionic size also increases.
therefore the size of the atom (atomic radius) increases.

2. Changes in ionisation energy in group Explanation:

II
Alkaline earth metals are unstable as they have two
electrons in their outermost energy levels. They thus
need to lose these electrons to become stable.
The two electrons are lost one after the other and not
both at a go.
The ionisation energies will be greater for a smaller atom
than for a larger one, since the force of attraction
experienced by the outermost electrons will decrease
with increase in the size of the atom
As the atomic size increases, the ionisation energy
decreases.

a) The smaller the atom the higher the amount of b) The second ionisation energy is greater than the
energy required in order to lose the electrons first ionisation energy
Explanation: the particle becomes an ion with a single positive charge.
The remaining electrons then experience a stronger force
When the atoms lose the first electron, the number of of attraction towards the nucleus. In order for the
electrons becomes less than the number of protons and second electron to be lost, more energy has to be used.

+ 2+
Mg Mg Mg
2:8:2 2:8:1 2:8
Unstable Unstable Stable
3. The ionic sizes of group II elements are 4. Group I elements are relatively more
much smaller than those of the reactive than group II elements
corresponding group I elements
Explanation:
Explanation: Due to the larger number of protons in the nuclei of
group II elements, the valence electrons experience a
Atoms of group II elements have more protons than the stronger force of attraction towards the nucleus. The
atoms of the corresponding group I elements. electrons thus find it more difficult to leave the atom for
This results in a greater force of attraction for the an ion to form.
electrons in group II towards their nuclei, thus the atoms
and ions are much smaller as compared to the group I
atoms and ions.
st nd
Atomic radius 1 Ionisation energy 2 Ionisation energy
Element
(nm) (kJ/mol) (kJ/mol)
Be 0.113 +899.4 +1,757.1

Mg 0.160 +737.7 +1,450.7 Table 6: Changes in

ionisation energy down
Ca 0.197 +589.7 +1,145.0 group II

5. Physical properties
Group II metals are harder and denser than sodium and potassium, and have higher melting points and boiling points.
These properties are largely due to the presence of two valence electrons on each atom resulting in delocalisation
of two electrons per atom. As a result, stronger metallic bonding occurs in group II than in group I.
Consequently, more thermal energy is needed to separate the atoms in the metallic structure explaining the high Mpts and
Bpts while greater mechanical energy is needed to break them apart explaining their relative hardness.

Que: How do these physical properties change within the group?

6. Chemical properties
The reactivity of alkaline earth metals increases down the These basic oxides react with water to form a white
group since it depends on the ease of removal of the coloured alkaline suspension, Mg(OH)2 which is very
outermost slightly soluble in water.
MgO(s) + H2O(aq) Mg(OH)2(s) electrons.

This suspension is called milk of magnesia.

a. Reaction with oxygen: Calcium oxide also reacts with water to form calcium
Magnesium and calcium react with oxygen to produce hydroxide.
basic oxides.
2Mg(s) + O2(g) 2MgO(s) Calcium hydroxide is known as slaked lime. Slaked lime
2Ca(s) + O2(g) 2CaO(s) is slightly soluble in water to form a solution that is
slightly alkaline called Lime water, which is used to
test for the presence of carbon(IV) oxide gas.
Lime water reacts with CO2 to form calcium carbonate Hard glass
which is very sparingly soluble in water, and thus forms a tube
cloudy precipitate, indicating the presence of CO2.
Safety tube
Ca(OH)2(aq) + CO2(g) CaCO3(s) + H2O(l)

Steam
can
b. Reaction with water:
Both magnesium and calcium react with water to
produce the hydroxide
M(OH)2 and hydrogen gas. Mg(s) + H2O(g) → MgO(s) + H2(g)
Calcium and magnesium hydroxides are sparingly soluble
in water, though the hydroxide of calcium is more
soluble. Calcium reacts more vigorously with water as
compared to magnesium. Mg(s) + H2O(g) Mg(OH)2(s) + H2(g)
Ca(s) + H2O(g) Ca(OH)2(aq) + H2(g)

A strongly heated magnesium ribbon will react

vigorously with steam to produce solid magnesium oxide
and hydrogen gas.

c. Reaction with dilute acids: d. Reaction with chlorine gas

Magnesium reacts with dilute acids to produce a soluble Calcium and magnesium react with chlorine gas to
salt and hydrogen gas. produce chlorides which are white coloured solids.

Mg(s) + HCl(aq) → MgCl2(aq) + H2(g) Mg(s) + Cl2(aq) → MgCl2(s)

Mg(s) + H2SO4(aq) → MgSO4(aq) + H2(g) Ca(s) + Cl2(aq) → CaCl2(s)

Calcium reacts with dilute Hydrochloric acid to form the
soluble salt calcium chloride and hydrogen gas.
Ca(s) + HCl(aq) → CaCl2(aq) + H2(g)
When reacted with sulphuric acid, a very brief reaction
takes place which soon afterwards stops.
Calcium reacts with sulphuric acid to form an insoluble
salt, Calcium Sulphate, which adheres to the surface of
the metal and protects it, preventing further reaction
between the metal and sulphuric acid.
Some uses of alkaline earth metals
Magnesium is the only Group II element used at a large
scale.
a). in flares, tracer bullets and incendiary bombs – it
burns with a brilliant white light.
b). alloyed with aluminium to produce a low-density,
strong material used in aircraft bodies.
c). due to its great affinity for oxygen, it is used as a
reducing agent in organic synthesis called Grignard
Synthesis.

Ca(s) + H2SO4(aq) CaSO4(s) + H2(g)

C) Hydrogen
The name has its origin in Greek; Hydro-genes – Water generating.
Hydrogen is the first element of the periodic.
Electronic structure: 1
To gain stability, a hydrogen atom can lose the single electron, forming a positively charged hydrogen ion (H+) also
called a proton
or gain an electron to form a negatively charged ion (H-) also called a hydride ion.
- +
H H H
2 1
Hydride ion Hydrogen ion

i) Laboratory preparation
Action of dilute acid, e.g. hydrochloric acid on zinc granules.

Hydrogen gas consists of diatomic molecules (H2).

dil. SPECIAL NOTE: Drying and collecting H2 – Anhydrous CaCl2 and conc
H2SO4Upward delivery (downward displacement of air)
HCl(aq)
H2 gas
ii) Physical properties:

• Colourless
• Odourless
Zinc
• Lighter than air – COLLECTING DRY H2
granules

Zn(s) + HCl(aq) → ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)

Dilute HCl
iii) Chemical properties:
1. Combustion:
Copper(II) oxide
A mixture of air and hydrogen combusts
explosively when ignited to form water.
If a continuous stream of hydrogen is ignited
it burns with a silent blue flame to produce
water:
Water
2H2(g) + O2(g) → 2H2O(g) Heat
2. Reduction reaction: Zinc granules Ice bath
Hydrogen reduces copper(II) oxide when
the two are reacted under heat. Conc. H2SO4

H2(g) + CuO(s) → Cu(s) + H2O(g)

black reddish-pink

Detection of water:
a) Use of anhydrous copper(II) sulphate: Anhydrous copper(II) sulphate is white in colour. It turns blue in the presence of
water.
.
CuSO4(s) + 5H2O(l) → CuSO4 5H2O(s)
White blue
b) Use of anhydrous cobalt(II) chloride: Anhydrous cobalt(II) chloride is a blue solid. It turns pink in the presence of water.
.
CoCl2(s) + 6H2O(l) → CoCl2 6H2O(s)
Blue pink

3. Reacts explosively with chlorine when ignited or placed in light (UV)

Cl2(g) + H2(s) 2HCl(g)
v) Uses of hydrogen
1. Preparation of ammonia gas in the Haber process.
2N2(g) + 3H2(s) ⇋ 2NH3(g) iv) Industrial manufacture of H2

2. Hydrogenation of oils in the manufacture of solid fats e.g. margarine.

- By-product in sodium hydroxide
3. Welding and cutting metals – Oxy-hydrogen flame.
manufacture: Castner-Kellner process.
4. Manufacture of hydrochloric acid. HCl(g) is then dissolved in water
to make hydrochloric acid [HCl(aq)] - Reduction of steam using hot carbon
H2(g) + Cl2(g) → 2HCl(g)
- Reduction of stem by hot iron
5. Manufacture of methanol from carbon(II) oxide and hydrogen. - The Kellog process
6. Extraction of some metals Molybdenum and tungsten from their - By-product in the petroleum industry
oxides by reduction.
7. Used in rocket fuel

vi) Test for hydroogen: Burns with an explosive sound depending in the quantity – ‘pop’ sound
D) Group VII - Halogens
Halo-gen means salt producing.
There are five elements in Group VII. These elements have certain properties in common.
They all form diatomic molecules (F2, Cl2, Br2, I2, & At2). These molecules persist in the state in which the substances are
found in nature.
They all form negatively charged ions called Halide ions (F-, Cl-, Br-, I-, and At-).

o o Atomic radius Ionic radius

Element Symbol Description E. Config. M.pt( C) B.pt ( C)
(nm) (nm)
Fluorine F Brown gas 2:7 -218.6 -188.1 0.072 0.133

Chlorine Cl Yellow gas 2:8:7 -101.0 -34.0 0.099 0.184

Bromine Br Dark red liquid 2:8:18:7 -7.3 59.5 0.114 0.196

Iodine I Dark shiny solid 2:8:18:18:7 113.6 185.2 0.133 0.220

Table 7: Properties of halogens

i) General details:
Fluorine (F2):
A highly toxic, slightly brown gas is the most reactive
element known. It is so reactive it even forms
compounds with Xe, an element that is quite inert. F2
reacts with most metals and non-metals.
Fluorine is handled in equipment built out of
certain alloys of copper and nickel..
Chlorine (Cl2):
Chlorine is a toxic gas with a pale yellow-green
colour. It was used in WWI as a chemical weapon. It is
used commercially to manufacture bleaching agents and
disinfectants.
Bromine is a reddish-orange liquid with an unpleasant
choking odour. The name of the element comes from
the Greek stem bromos, "stench."
Iodine (I2):
This is a shiny black coloured solid. It sublimes
when heated to form a violet-coloured vapour. Iodine is
dissolved in alcohol to prepare an antiseptic solution
"tincture of iodine." Silver iodide (AgI) plays an
important role in film-photography. Iodide salts are
added to table salt to prevent goitre, an iodine deficiency
disease characterized by swelling of the thyroid gland.

Bromine (Br2):
ii) Physical properties

Observation 1:
Fluorine and chlorine are gases while bromine is a volatile
liquid. Iodine occurs as a dark shiny solid (cf table 7).
Explanation:
Halogens exist as diatomic molecules. The two atoms in
the molecules are joined together by very strong covalent
bonds.
The molecules are in turn held together by means of very
weak intermolecular forces called Van der Waals forces
– see Bonding & structure.
The different states of halogens can be explained by looking at the
strength of the forces holding the molecules together –
intermolecular forces.
Covalent bond
The intermolecular force in Fluorine and chlorine are the
weakest.
Fluorine forms the smallest molecule followed by
chlorine.
Van der Waals forces acting in fluorine and chlorine are
very few due to the small size of their molecules. These
substances exist as gases since the molecules are free to
move about at room temperature as the intermolecular
forces are easily broken.
Bromine is a volatile liquid since the
intermolecular bonds are quite strong. Bromine
molecules are large, resulting in many more Van der
Waals forces holding the molecules. This results in the
molecules being held strongly to each other compared to
F2 and Cl2 so that the substance exists in the liquid state
at room temperature.

F F F F Iodine forms the largest molecule

comparatively. The intermolecular force will be stronger
F2 molecule than in bromine. It is a solid since it will have the most
Weak intermolecular
bonds number of Van der Waals forces holding its large
molecules thus are quite strong as to hold the As the atomic sizes increase, the molecular size also
molecules in solid structure. increases. Due to this increase in the size of the
molecules, the strength of intermolecular bonding
increases due to the greater number of van der Waals
forces, making it harder to separate the molecules. This
Observation 2: causes an increase in the M.pts and B.pts since more
heat energy is needed to separate the molecules.
The melting and boiling points of halogens increase with
increasing atomic number. Iodine has the highest melting and boiling points as it
has the strongest intermolecular forces.
Explanation:

iii) Chemical properties

(a) Ionic radius is larger than the atomic radius (cf table 7).
Explanation:
Halogen atoms gain stability by gaining an electron. Since electrons have a negative charge, an increase in the number of
electrons causes an increase in the electron-electron (e-– e-) repulsion experienced by the electrons. This results in an increase in
the size after ion formation.

(b) Reactivity of halogens decreases with increase in atomic radius. (F>Cl>Br>I).

Explanation:
Reactivity of halogens depends on the ease of gain of electrons by the atoms.
Fluorine has the smallest atomic radius. The nuclear attraction – effective nuclear charge (ZEff) is therefore very high making the
attraction of an electron in order to gain stability very easy.
As the atomic radius increases down the group, the effective nuclear charge decreases, making it increasingly difficult for
atoms to gain electrons in order to attain stability.

1. Reaction of chlorine gas with water:

Halogens are oxidising agents. Chlorine reacts with water forming a slightly yellow solution, ‘chlorine water’. Chlorine
water [Cl2(aq)], is a mixture of two acidic solutions – hydrochloric acid and chloric(I) acid (hypochlorous acid).:

H2O(l) + Cl2(g) ⇋ HCl(aq) + HOCl(aq)

(i) Effect of chlorine water on litmus:

Observation: Blue litmus paper initially turns red in colour, with the colour persisting for a short time, before the paper is
bleached.

Hypochlorous acid (chloric(I) acid) is very unstable. It decomposes to form hydrochloric acid and monoatomic(nascent)
oxygen [O]. Monoatomic oxygen is highly unstable, since the outer energy levels of oxygen has six electrons only. Due to
this, atomic oxygen is highly reactive, which accounts for the bleaching action of chlorine water.
A monoatomic oxygen quickly oxidises the dye molecule causing it to lose colour and thus become bleached.

HOCl(aq) → HCl(aq) + [O](g) [O](g) + dye → Dye - O

(ii) Effect of UV radiation on chlorine water:

Oxygen gas
Chloric(I) acid decomposes when exposed to UV radiation to form oxygen gas,
which will relight a glowing splint. Sunlight

2H2O(l) + Cl2(g) 2HCl(aq) + O2(g)

2. Reactions of halogens with metals
Metals react with halogens to form halides.

(i) Reaction between chlorine gas and iron

When dry chlorine gas is passed over strongly heated iron metal, a black sublimate, Iron(III) chloride (FeCl3) is formed.

Exhaust

Iron(III) chloride
Iron wire
FeCl3

Cl2 gas

Heat

2Fe(s) + 3Cl2(g) → 2FeCl3(s)

Halogens require an electron to gain stability. Since chlorine has a small atomic radius, the overall ZEff (Effective nuclear charge) will
3+
be high. This makes chlorine a good oxidising agent since it can easily extract three electrons form iron to form the Fe (Ferric) ion.

Fe(s) → Fe3+(s) + 3e-

(ii) Reaction of iron and bromine/ iodine

Bromine and iodine are weaker oxidising agents compared to chlorine. Their ZEff (Effective nuclear charge) is weaker than in chlorine
2+
due to the larger atomic radii. Bromine and iodine atoms can only extract two electrons from iron, forming the Fe (Ferrous) ion.
They thus react with iron to form Iron(II) bromide (red coloured solid) and iron(II) iodide (grey coloured solid)

Fe(s) + Br2(g) → FeBr2(s)

Fe(s) + I2(g) → FeI2(s)

(iii) Chlorine displaces bromine and iodine from their solutions:

When bubbled through a solution of potassium bromide and potassium iodide, chlorine displaces bromine and iodine from the
solutions. This is because chlorine is more reactive than both bromine and iodine.
Cl2(g) + 2KBr(aq) → 2KCl(aq) + Br2(aq) Cl2(g) + 2KI(aq) → 2KCl(aq) + I2(aq)
Solution turns red as bromine is displaced Solution turns brown as iodine is displaced. A dark grey solid may
also form.

Some uses of halogens

1. Chlorine:
- Manufacture of bleaching agents and disinfectants.
- Manufacture of industrial solvents e.g. Carbon tetrachloride (CCl4), chloroform (CHCl3) and other chlorinated hydrocarbons
used with a wide range of applications; Medical, house
- Manufacture of hydrochloric acid.
- Sterilisation of water supplies
- Manufacture of PVC and other chlorinated polymers
- Extraction of bromine from sea water
2. Fluorine:
Manufacture of the polymer Teflon (PTFE), which is used to make non-stick pans and pots and iron boxes.
3. Bromine:
Manufacture of many organic compounds.
4. Iodine:
 Manufacture of antiseptic solution with alcohol ‘Tincture of Iodine’, Iodine solution e.g. BetadineTM solution and Iodine
mouth washes.

E) Noble gases – Group VIII/0 elements

The members of this group include:

Element Atomic no: Electronic configuration

He 2 2
Ne 10 2:8
Ar 18 2:8:8
Kr 36 2:8:18:8
Xe 54 2:8:18:18:8
Rn radiocative 86 2:8:18:32:18:8

In group VIII, Helium has 2 electrons in its only energy level. All the other elements have 8 electrons in the
outermost energy levels. This makes noble gases quite stable a fact shown by their reluctance to form stable compounds
(With the exception of Xe which forms fluorides).
Group VIII elements exist as mono-atomic molecules. These molecules, just like in halogens are held together by
very weak vdw’s.

Some uses of noble gases

a) Helium - filling weather balloons and small airships due to its low density and lack of chemical reactivity
- Used in thermometers for very low temperature readings.
b) Helium/oxygen mixture is preferred over Nitrogen/oxygen mix in oxygen tanks for scuba divers due to the low
solubility in blood of helium as compared to nitrogen – They can read up on “diver's bends”.
c) Neon - red coloured lighting tubes and in coloured advertisement lighting.
d) The helium-neon laser is commonly used in bar code scanners used in supermarkets etc.
e) Due to its inertness, helium is used to protect important historical documents under display within units.
f) Xenon - lighting tubes.
F) Oxygen and its compounds:

G) Water: