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Thesis 100514131338 Phpapp01
Thesis 100514131338 Phpapp01
Thesis 100514131338 Phpapp01
____________________
A Thesis
Kutztown, Pennsylvania
____________________
In Partial Fulfillment
Master of Science
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by Wim Mulder
May, 2010
THE EVOLUTION OF ON-DEMAND MEDIA
Abstract
introduced that have changed the way viewers consume television programming.
A number of studies have been done about the effects of these new technologies
on the viewing habits of the people who used them and the television industry as a
whole. This study examines the viewing habits of college students and aims to
find out how these habits have changed since the introduction of the opportunity
Pennsylvania were asked to fill out a 14-question survey inquiring about their
television viewing habits and their reasons for using online services to watch
television programming.
programming online, the use of such services turned out to be fairly limited. Since
television viewer watches, the impact of online video services on their viewing
This study did reveal specific reasons for online viewing by college
with those of other studies, which show that the viewing habits of Americans are
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THE EVOLUTION OF ON-DEMAND MEDIA
consumption habits are transformative and far reaching for the television industry.
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Acknowledgements
support of many friends, family, and faculty members. I want to take this
opportunity to thank all of those who made this thesis possible. First and foremost,
my girlfriend Sarah, who supported me from the beginning and put up with me
every time I had to work on my thesis instead of spending time with her.. I am
particular Professor Jennifer Lanter and Professor David Lambkin who have been
focussed on this project. And last but not least, my advisor, Dr. Joseph Chuk, who
has given me diligent advice throughout the two years I have worked to put this
thesis together.
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Abstract ......................................................................................................... ii
Acknowledgements ....................................................................................... iv
1. Introduction ................................................................................................ 8
Problem statement................................................................................ 9
Viewing Habits..................................................................................... 12
3. Methods...................................................................................................... 45
Sample.................................................................................................. 45
Instrument ............................................................................................ 45
Procedures ........................................................................................... 50
4. Results
Demographics ...................................................................................... 52
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Websites ............................................................................................... 57
5. Discussion
References ................................................................................................. 75
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Chapter 1
Introduction
In recent years a shift has taken place in the way people consume media,
streaming media new opportunities open up for consumers to use the media
wherever and whenever they want to. People are not bound to the schedules of the
cater to this demand, the television networks are offering some of their
the show during its airtime can still watch it (Streisand, 2007).
Television has a changing role in the lives of the media consumer. The
and effects on the media consumption and viewing habits of the consumer
(Holahan, 2006).
This research paper will focus on the effects that the availability of online
streaming content from television networks have on the viewing habits of college
students.
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Problem Statement
Definition of Terms
interruptions).
(what shows are watched, how many times, is the viewing consistent or just
occasional, etc.)
phenomenon. Not much research has been done in this matter. This study will
focus on the effects the availability of these streaming episodes has on the users’
viewing habits. This will give insight in the way the correspondents use media and
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what role television plays in their media consumption. It will also give an idea
about how networks are using streaming video on their websites and how
effective it is and what reasons users have for using services like these.
implement streaming video on their website in that it will give an idea about what
role services like these play in the media consumption of their viewers and how to
University taking General Education classes (HPD 110 and SPE 010). The
limitation to this are that no general assumptions can be made about how these
results relate to other groups. For example, college students might be more
technically adept than people outside of this group, making them more likely to
Also the study will compare media consumption in the past and now, so it
will depend on the memory of the subjects used in the study. This will not be fully
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Chapter 2
Literature review
This literature review will provide a history of television and how viewing
habits of television viewers have changed over the years, as new technologies
have been introduced. The chapter starts out with a section about viewing habits,
dealing first with early television use in the 1940s and then looking at how the
became available with the advent of more networks becoming established and
industry in the form of the VCR and DVR. Also, the effects on the industry in
terms of advertising revenue are discussed as well as the idea that viewers can use
networks dictate.
This leads into the next section which is a discussion of the ways people
have started to consume television content and how the networks are reacting to it
television content.
consumers now have to get access to television content: through cable on demand
services, streaming services on the internet and how people are starting to view
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The last section called Streaming content on network websites, deals with
streaminng content for their viewers and how this changes the economics of the
television industry. It goes into detail about the benefits of streaming media for
television networks. Finally, it discusses the people that are using these streaming
services: who are they and what are their reasons for using these services instead
Viewing Habits
Ever since television sets became commercially available in the late 1930s,
television started to gain ground in the 1940s it was a way to connect people to the
rest of the world. Whereas previously people were relying on newspapers and
radio to obtain their news, now they could watch the news on their television sets
In the early days of television, there weren’t many people familiar with the
new medium. And those who did own a television set were usually companies or
wealthy individuals. Right after the second World War, few people knew about
television, but that quickly changed towards the end of the 1940s. By this time,
most Americans had heard of television and wanted to own one. A drop in the
price of television sets caused an influx in sales, with television sales averaging
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Between the 1940s and the 2000s, commercial television has had a
the way that people thought about such important social issues as race, gender,
Most American homes had only one TV set, and many families would gather
around it in the evening to watch programs together. Recognizing this trend, the
networks produced programs that were suitable for a general audience, such as
variety shows and family comedies. From the beginning, fictional TV families
new technology was quite a novelty. Since the networks only broadcast shows for
a few hours in the evening, watching TV was a form of entertainment that people
New York City. Most of the shows featured the same forms of entertainment that
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were popular before television came along. Playwrights and actors who had
become famous through their work in the theater began staging dramas for TV
(McDonald, 1990).
York City. In that same year was also the first live broadcast of a news event as it
was going on. At the time there were few regular television shows as we know
them today, and programming changed a lot from day to day. By 1946, network
series started taking off. Television programming was often funded and produced
Just as radio had caused a drop in newspaper sales figures in the 1930s,
device that could bring entertainment, news, sports, etc. into the home of the
While before World War II mass media consisted mainly of print media,
movies, and radio, the advent of the television was a big shift in media
forms of media. There was a greater reliance on television to provide news and
people turned to television instead of radio, print media, and movie theaters
(Bradley, 2009).
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Paik looked specifically at media use of youth and how it has changed
over the years with more and more media options becoming available. He notes
that the introduction of new media typically changes the uses of and interactions
The research shows that children from 8 to 18 years old get almost 8 hours of
media exposure every day. The distribution between different media varies per age
group, but television is most popular among all researched groups. The 15 to 18
year old age group watches over 2.5 hours of television per day. Roberts and
Foehr distinguish between media use and media exposure. Where media exposure
background), media use is indicating actively using the particular type of media
"prime time" from the 1940s through the 1970s. In the 1980s, however, the
percent of American households by 1990. In addition, the 1980s saw the rise of
specific tastes of smaller segments of the viewing audience. Instead of the four or
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five broadcast channel options that were previously available, American viewers
suddenly had up to fifty cable channels from which to choose (Jost, 1994).
In the television industry, the competition that had emerged during the
1980s became more intense in 1987 when the new Fox broadcast network
introduced several hit programs aimed at younger audiences, like 21 Jump Street,
while cable networks continued to grow and draw more viewers away from
broadcast offerings. Soon the Big Three networks followed Fox's lead and began
the mass audience meant that a program could be considered a hit by reaching
fewer viewers than ever before. For instance, the ratings that made Seinfeld the
top show of 1995 would not even have placed it in the top 25 two decades earlier.
This situation encouraged the networks to experiment and take more risks in order
to create quality programs that would appeal to the upscale viewers favored by
advertisers.
Although it took a while for the new broadcast and cable networks to
break into the national TV ratings, the availability of multiple channel options had
smaller segments of the market led to more experimentation and greater diversity
of programs. Even though the networks produced some hit shows, they saw their
1990s. By the 2000s, original cable programming was earning critical acclaim and
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Like the rest of the country, the American television industry faced tough
economic times in the early 2000s. The networks continued to lose viewers to
cable TV, while the Internet and other emerging technologies increasingly
competed with television for Americans' time and attention. TV programs became
more expensive to produce, while the basic genres started to seem uninteresting
and predictable. The answer to these problems came in the form of reality
television shows, which became very popular in the early 2000s (Newcomb, 2004,
pp. 1481-1483).
Technological Advancements
Introduction of VCRs.
recorder (VCR) for TV viewers to use at home. VCRs allowed viewers to record
television programs for later viewing. They used magnetic videotape enclosed in a
plastic cassette. Competing companies soon offered similar machines that used
The earliest VCRs were large, expensive, and the subject of serious debate.
major Hollywood movie studios joined in a lawsuit against the companies that
manufactured the machines. The studios argued that VCRs should be outlawed
because their main purpose was making illegal copies of television shows and
movies. The studios felt that people who used home VCRs to tape movies were
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The basic question that was posed by this case was: Are manufacturers
responsible for the potential copyright infringing actions that can be made with
their devices. The Supreme Court ruled that a company was not liable for creating
a technology that some customers may use for copyright infringing purposes. If a
technology has different uses, the public cannot be denied the use of this device
just because some people maybe use it to infringe on copyrights. The EFF
(Electronic Frontier Foundations) notes the parallel between this particular case
and later efforts by the media industry to regulate use of other technologies like
the iPod, DVRs, or file sharing software. Without the particular outcome in the
Betamax case the entertainment industry would have looked very differently than
from the VCR as the sale and rental of motion pictures on video tapes became a
major new stream of revenue for them. It was a different story for the television
industry. Now that viewers could use the VCR to fast forward through
commercials, the networks had to find new ways to keep their advertisers happy
(Castonguay, 2006).
The impact of home VCR use on the broadcast TV networks has not been
as positive as it has been on the movie industry. The most frequent use of the VCR
draws viewers away from network television to watch movies that played in
theaters. Many people also use their VCRs to record television programs for later
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viewing. When they watch these programs, however, they often use the VCRs
den Buick suggests that the time-shifting that is made possible by the VCR leads
to more selectivity in what the television viewer watches. It does not necessarily
mean that people will watch less television, but rather that the television they do
Because the VCR lifts the restraint of having to sit down to watch a program at
the time designated by the broadcaster, it allows the viewer to better manage their
VCR devices had a relatively slow adoption rate, from 36 percent in 1986
homes were equipped with VCRs (Campbell, 1998). The use of VCR devices
varies. Levy (1987) found that while some VCR users use their device to record
and play back television programming and skip commercials, others use it as an
(Levy, 1987).
college environment. The study mentions that viewing habits of college students
are often very different from the general population, due to a demanding school
schedule. At the time of the study, the average amount of time the surveyed
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students watched television was two hours a day, compared to an average of seven
the general population (97 percent of the respondents indicated they owned at
least one VCR). Sixty-six percent of the respondents indicated using their VCRs
up to two hours per week, whereas 23 percent indicated using it two to four hours
per week.
The motives for using their VCRs leaned heavily towards watching
movies (58 percent) and movie ownership (34.3 percent). Another important
motive for ownership of a VCR was being able to view taped shows and the added
indicated that they used their VCR to skip commercials in regular network or
cable programming.
The authors of the study indicate that the motives of the surveyed students
for using a VCR are similar to those ofthe general public, suggesting that the
technology serves the same purposes for both, namely, for entertainment and to
have more control over their television viewing experience (Alali & Conner,
1999).
DVR usage.
Moving beyond VCRs, DVRs, or Digital Video Recorders, are the next
The quality of DVR recordings is much higher than VCR recordings, because of
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Figure 1. Percentage of DVR Playback and TV Usage by Hour Across Total Day.
Reprinted from “How DVRs Are Changing the Television Landscape,” by
Nielsen
the digital nature. While video cassettes deteriorate in quality over time, DVR
All DVRs, whether that be a set top box receiver that includes DVR
functionality or a stand alone DVR device like TiVO, are based on the concept of
recording on a hard disk, like that found in a computer. Users can set the recording
quality of the video lower or higher, which allows them to fit more or fewer
The first DVR was introduced in 1999 by Dish Network as part of their
functionality. Since the first versions only had a single built-in tuner, the user
could only watch the show that was being recorded. This severely limited the
usefulness of these devices for consumers. When dual tuners were introduced
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later, it became possible to watch one show while recording another (Willis,
1999).
whose brand name has become almost synonymous with the concept of DVRs.
The first TiVo device was introduced in January of 1999 at the Consumer
their user-friendly software, which is possibly the reason for their big success. The
device can automatically record shows, and it also allows the viewer to pause,
rewind and fast forward live television as if it were a video tape or a DVD. In
order to do this, the device starts recording at the beginning at the show. The user
then starts watching a few minutes later, effectively creating a buffer for the user
to rewind and fast forward.The TiVo system also incorporates user ratings for
television shows. Based on the ratings the television viewer gives to a show, the
TiVo system recommends other shows the user might like and can record these
DVRs make it easy for consumers to break free from network scheduling, and
perhaps more importantly to use fast forwarding to skip the advertising that
eighteen months between 2005 and 2008 found that not all brands are being
equally impacted by consumers skipping their ads. According to this study, about
20 percent of all brands included in the study, had a significant negative impact
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from viewers skipping their ads. Some brands however, actually saw slight
increases in sales in DVR households. The study suggests that the impact of ad
advertising strategies, i.e. investing more in print or other media. The study also
DVR users are selective in the types of ads that they choose to watch.
Although it is easy to skip all advertising and resume a television show after the
exception is movie advertising. Movie ads make up a big share of the most
2008).
Advertisers and networks are coming up with creative ways to get viewers
to watch their ads. One approach is represented by commercials that networks and
placement, a character from one of NBC’s shows promotes the Microsoft product.
In this particular example, the ads were tied to comedian Joel McHale’s show
Community. Because of the close integration with the familiar show and
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characters, the ads become less obvious and intrusive for viewers who in turn are
developing eight 45-second advertising spots to pair with their show Desperate
looks at users’ viewing habits, more than twice as many people watched the
integrated commercials, the first of which was broadcast during the season
style and tone of the show it is incorporated into. When FOX offered Microsoft
the chance to have the creator of Family Guy make a 30 minute Family Guy
reading the script, though, they backed out of the partnership because the type of
humor in the show didn’t reflect the brand values that Microsoft wanted to portray
(Helm, 2009).
Although advertisers are finding new ways to make their ads more
effective, a January 2010 report from media agency MPG suggests that most
commercials are viewed during live broadcast: i.e. not from a DVR. According to
the study, conducted in the first 11 weeks of the broadcast season of 2009-2010,
only nine percent of all commercial viewing occurred from DVR playback. This
pattern is true across the board. Different television genres, networks, and days of
the week all have comparable numbers. Although particular shows, like The Office
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and Heroes, sometimes have higher ratios of commercials viewed (24 percent and
23 percent respectively), these are the exceptions to the rule (Crupi, 2010).
DVR ownership has seen a steady increase since its introduction. When
Nielsen first started measuring DVR ownership in January 2007, ownership was
12.3 percent. In March 2009, that number increased to 30.6 percent. As noted in
the report, one of the key factors in adoption of DVR technology is the fact that
many television providers are implementing DVR functionality into their set top
receivers. In fact, the majority of DVRs are used through one of these set top
boxes (95 percent), either cable or satellite. Only 5 percent of households have a
when they want, they have more opportunity to watch their favorite shows. The
report found that households that own a DVR watch less live television, but that
their viewing frequency when accounting for live viewing plus seven days is
conducted by Nielsen during the 2008 sweep, households without a DVR watched
1.9 broadcasts, versus households with a DVR watching 2.5 broadcasts. The
So, while this gives no idea of total viewing time, it does indicate that DVR
owners are more likely to watch shows more frequently (Nielsen, 2009b).
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summers. Since DVR users are generally more loyal to the television shows they
view, it will be less likely that the reruns will be new to them and it is less likely
they will be tuning in to these reruns. Another interesting side note that is made in
the report is that users viewing more content through DVRs could be less likely to
“channel surf” and sample new shows the networks are putting out.
Nielsen split up DVR owners into three groups: heavy, medium and light
shifters. Users are divided into these groups based on the amount of television
they watch time-shifted. Whereas heavy shifters are watching over 30 hours of
television time shifted, light shifters are watching an average of almost 6 hours
daytime programming on their DVRs. For example, the morning hours from 6AM
to 12PM account for only 15.8 percent of overall DVR playback. Just over 32
The CW, a joint venture between CBS, UPN and Time Warner, is one of
the networks that is feeling a severe impact from viewers using a DVR to view
percent of the CW’s viewership came from DVR audiences. Two years earlier, this
was less than 5 percent. When looking at individual shows the changes can be
even more dramatic. One week the 18-34 female demographic for the show 90210
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viewing.
According to the article, the most time shifted show on television is The
Office, with 28 percent of its audience time shifting the show. This is partly due to
the tough time slot that The Office is in. The show is competing against popular
shows on the other networks like CSI and Grey’s Anatomy (Bauder, 2008).
different time slots during prime time television. The 10PM time slot was having a
lot of trouble pulling in audiences at the time of the writing of the article in 2008.
Only three of Nielsen’s top 20 prime-time shows were in this particular time slot.
This was due to the fact that a lot of DVR users are recording shows in the 8 to 9
PM time slot, then watching them later at the expense of other shows. Late-night
Bauder mentions that television networks will likely move their top shows
up earlier on the night in order to grab a larger audience, although local stations
are putting pressure on the networks to keep providing a strong lead in for their
show, it is a challenge for networks is to get accurate insights into how well shows
are doing. For example, when the CW was debuting their show Gossip Girl the
success was not reflected in the overnight ratings, but the show had a big pickup
in DVR audience. Also, a lot of the younger audience were watching the show
online. When The CW stopped streaming the show online, in order to increase the
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television audience, fans found their way to illegal versions of the episodes on the
web, after which the network put the episodes back on their site (Bauder, 2008).
Although audiences are moving to DVRs and the Internet to watch episodes,
advertisers are still very much tied to a traditional advertising model based on
ratings for television shows. If ratings go down, advertisers expect to pay less for
the same slot and in the end the network is missing out on this advertising
2013. In addition the company looked at online advertising revenue. This market
is on the rise, but still not nearly as big as television advertising. The projected
advertising revenue from long-form network content on the web is 1.45 billion
dollars. Most of the advertising revenue from online television programming was
engaged with the advertising and the viewing experience. As of April 2010, Hulu
Hulu sometimes opts to present multiple advertising options to the user. The user
gets to pick the commercial they want to view, which makes the ad more effective
The advertising is sold based on a CPM (Cost Per Thousand) basis. This means
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that the advertiser is only paying for actual impressions of the ads, not an
television shows. The shows that see the biggest lift in ratings from the use of
DVRs are the shows that are in the competitive prime-time television time slot.
The DVR is also having a big effect on viewers’ loyalty to their favorite television
shows. Quoted in the article is CBS research chief David Poltrack, saying that the
people owning DVRs watch shows at a much higher rate than the general
Although this was already possible with VCRs, it became much easier with digital
recording: Fast forwarding and rewinding the footage is much easier and faster
and the quality of the video does not deteriorate over time as with VHS tapes. In
make television viewing more convenient for the viewer. With a built-in television
guide you can easily set up recordings without having to set a timer. You can set a
so-called Season Pass to record all shows in a certain season, and some models
even allow for scheduling recordings over the Internet (Baig, 2005).
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Viewership Shift
Report for the third quarter of 2009 contains statistics about the use of different
types of media. The report estimates that the average American is watching 31
hours of television per week. The report also notes that 99 percent of video
the amount of time spent watching television has declined slightly (28 minutes).
All demographic groups that are represented in the study spend the
content on a DVR, using the Internet, watching video on the Internet or watching
video on a mobile phone. The demographic group that is watching television the
to take place. The use of online video is steadily increasing. Comparing the third
quarter of 2008 to the third quarter of 2009, viewers watched 53 minutes more
video online. Online video viewing is most popular among young adults, aged 18
to 24 years old). This is the only demographic group that spends more time
watching online video than time-shifted video from a DVR (Nielsen, 2009b).
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Network innovations.
or television programming and distribution of that content. Now that much of the
model that television networks have been using for years is threatened.
implications for the networks. It means, for example, that the networks can no
longer dictate when the viewer consumes their programming. This in turn has an
the day are worth more in terms of advertising revenue than others. So, if a
consumer can watch programming at any time of the day, the advertising in that
Looking at the content side of the networks’ revenue model, the value of
content for the network is important. However, with many people now owning a
DVR and availability of episodes online being as high as it is, the value that can
when they can watch them at their own convenience at a time they like.
the networks are forced to focus more on what the viewer sees, that is, the content.
Arrango found that the majority of content that networks were broadcasting in
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(Arango, 2008).
content on YouTube and similar websites, the advertising income earned from
digital distribution of episodes online has been negligible in the bigger picture of
the networks. According to Jeff Zucker, CEO of NBC, it is unlikely that their
income from content online will ever match that of broadcast. By investing in
online video sites like Fancast and Hulu, networks are trying to get back some
digital cable subscription. The content gets streamed to a set-top box through the
coaxial cable that brings television into the homes. The fees for these services
depend on the cable provider the customer uses and what type of content they are
watching. Most cable companies offer some free on-demand content, but there is
Digital cable subscriptions are getting more common, and are taking an
the penetration of digital cable subscriptions was 65.8 percent of the overall
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video services is still relatively small compared to DVR usage and especially live
2004 and 2005, 47 percent of the households owning VOD capable set top boxes
Ownership of portable media devices like the popular iPod from Apple is
becoming more and more common, especially in younger age groups like teens.
player of some kind and, in the teen age group (12 to 17 years old), the ownership
The study does not specify whether the media players these people own
are capable of playing video content, but it does mention that the owners’ interest
in consuming video content on their players is high (39 percent - music videos; 33
In 2005, Apple was one of the first brands to introduce a portable media
player capable of playing video content. Since Apple is such a big player in the
portable media player market, with a market share of around 70 percent, they have
the power to create a big demand for new services like television episode
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downloads. In conjunction with the introduction of the first video capable iPod,
Apple opened up a video section in its iTunes store where consumers are able to
download full television episodes priced at $1.99. This is a very competitive price
fee every time you watch an episode. Once a television episode is downloaded
from iTunes, the consumer owns this video and can watch it as many times as he/
At this point all major television networks are putting content on iTunes
specialized content providers like NBA, Nascar and DC Comics (Apple, 2010).
File sharing.
online without the permission of the content creators or television network. One of
called EZTV. In September 2009 alone, the site has received 15 million visits.
people who are fans of US television shows but live outside of the United States .
Because of contracts with television networks in their own countries, their favorite
the United States. There are often no legal alternatives to watch the most recent
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the Internet, networks have started to offer the options for television viewers to
watch their shows online. Because networks are missing out on any advertising
revenue that might be gained from these shows if they are offered illegally online,
website to view television content. At first, mostly short clips of television shows
were provided to viewers, but full streaming episodes have become common. And
it has proven to be a big hit among consumers, Fox alone served approximately
. In October of 2007, News Corp. (owner of Fox) and NBC joined forces
to create the biggest offering of full streaming episodes (legally) available on the
content, meaning individual requests for content. This does not equal fully
watched episodes but rather the number of video streams that were fully or
follows: A&E, ABC, Bravo, CNBC, Comedy Central, Fox, FX, History Channel,
MyTV, National Geographic, NBC, PBS, SPEED, Starz, USA, and WB. The
biggest name missing from this list is CBS. Although they do offer full streaming
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episodes, they are not part of Hulu. Instead, CBS has opted to offer their content
content on the site. Main objections from CBS executives to including their
Hulu and relay 30 percent of the ad revenues on their content back to Hulu.
Another deal breaker for CBS was that Hulu did not allow CBS’s online video
marketed at the time of this writing, is that different media are getting integrated
into a single device. With regards to television, this means that there are
televisions being produced that allow the viewer to watch content that is streamed
from the internet on their television. These technologies can be integrated into the
television itself, but there are also set-top boxes available that make it possible for
The type of content that can be accessed depends on the software that is
integrated into the device. For example, an Apple device called the Apple TV
allows access to all content that is available on the Apple iTunes service. Other
manufacturers like Roku, offer access to a variety of internet video sources like
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The most prominent software that is being used by networks and other
television streaming websites is Adobe Flash. Since the Adobe Flash player is
almost standard on any computer (adoption rates are close to 99 percent), there is
no barrier to entry for consumers. Adobe Flash is used for rich media Internet
applications like video services or games, and has become the standard for
applications like these. The advantage of streaming video over services like
software or hardware to get the content, so they can do it right from their browser
(Adobe, 2010).
streaming video needs is higher than what dial-up connections can provide.
of 63 percent for homes. Although this is a fairly high adoption rate, it is still low
is flattening. Although there was a surge in broadband adoption over the past
websites. Many networks have their own services for streaming episodes on their
websites, but there are also aggregating websites where users can view video
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THE EVOLUTION OF ON-DEMAND MEDIA
is an example of one of these types of sites. According to Nielsen, Hulu was the
most used access point to network video content in the third quarter of 2009
(Nielsen, 2009a).
than Hulu, Hulu has the upper hand when it comes to the offering of long-form
content. In financial terms, Hulu is also doing a lot better financially than
Google’s YouTube. While YouTube generated no gross profit in 2008, Hulu had
Although most television networks offer all of their most popular shows
on their websites, there are networks that choose to offer only clips of episodes or
only certain shows for online viewing. A common strategy among all networks is
to offer only a limited number of full episodes for each show. Since many
distributors are selling season DVDs of television series, an easily accessible full
archive of television episodes would cut into revenues of these products. There are
exceptions to the rule, though. For example, the television show South Park on the
Comedy Central cable network has a website that offers all the episodes ever
broadcast networks in addition to many cable networks are offering at least some
content through the Hulu website. The online video field is competitive, and so
Hulu has been protective of having its content distributed to other sites on the
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web. As noted earlier, competitor website TV.com, owned by rival network CBS,
was asked by Hulu to pull their content from the TV.com website.
content, networks are also offering incentives for people to go to their own sites.
After all, if a user goes to the network site to view programming instead of to
Hulu, the network is able to get more advertising return. Some television shows
have a unique web presence by which, in addition to the full episodes of the show
that is broadcasted on television, users can view web-exclusive content that is not
available on Hulu. Examples of this are NBC’s shows 30 Rock and The Office
(Steinberg, 2009b).
The incentive for television networks to offer their content online lies
mainly in the fact that they need to regain viewers who have gone to other
avenues to watch television content. By offering their own solution for viewing
their content online, television networks can earn advertising revenue on their
content.
With content available on-demand on the web, viewers have the flexibility
of consuming it whenever they like. Audiences for certain shows have gone up
substantially since they have been offered for viewing on the web. By having
content available for consumers at any time of the day, it then becomes more
flexible for viewers to consume the content at any time of the day they like. This
in turn gives viewers an extra opportunity to watch a show, because they do not
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Unlike in television, where viewers are getting more and more options to skip
commercials, the viewer of online television episodes has to watch the ads in
order to watch the rest of the show. The advantage of online advertising is that it
can be much more targeted to the individual than a television ad could ever be.
Since some basic demographic information about the user can be traced through
the internet connection, it offers advertisers the opportunity to target ads, for
This is why advertisers are willing to, proportionally, pay more for an
is more than one estimated impression on television, but it is highly more likely
that the viewer is actually paying attention to the ad. The demand for ads on sites
like Hulu far outweighs the spots that are available to advertisers. Online viewers
are much more likely to take action after seeing an ad than television viewers,
(Streisand, 2007)
desirable target group of the 18-34 year-old crowd. Another benefit of using
advertising in Internet video content is that the statistics that can be gathered are
much more specific than could ever be gained from television. Advertisers can
find out information about exactly how many people saw their ad, what the
demographics of those people was, and how many people clicked through to find
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out more information about their product. This can be very valuable information
for advertisers to measure the efficiency of their campaigns and make adjustments
about the respondents’ viewing habits and the conclusion was that over 50 percent
of the people were using online services to watch television. Watching television
content online does not necessarily mean that it has to be viewed on a computer.
As noted before, more and more television companies are releasing televisions
The study looked at the use of online media to watch television by people
under 25 and found that this group was more likely than the average respondents
of the study to watch most of their television content online. The study notes that
cheaper alternatives.
The study suggests some possible reasons for why people are switching to
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(Retrevo, 2010).
NBC Universal examined the use of full episodes available online. Among
the aspects studied were the number of users, time of use, reasons for using online
NBC found that 40 percent of online users are aware that full episodes are
available to watch online. Specific statistics on three major networks (NBC, ABC
and CBS) indicate that ABC has the biggest awareness (44 percent). In
comparison, 64 percent of online users are aware of being able to download music
from iTunes.
In examining the type of video content that users have looked at over the
past six months, the study identifies that the most popular type of content is movie
television episode in the past 6 months. Most people hear about the option of
Not only is the amount of people watching full episodes online increasing,
according to the statistics presented by NBC the number of episodes these people
watch is on the rise as well. Twenty-one percent of the respondents have watched
more than six episodes in the past month. People watching an episode usually
watch the full episode (66 percent says they always do; 26 percent says they
usually do). The time and place of use is mostly at night and at home, although
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there is a spike during lunch hour. The study suggests that this is possibly due to
The most common reason for watching television episodes online is that
the viewer missed the show in its original broadcast schedule (87 percent). Other
reasons the study suggest are watching a show that the viewer has not seen before
(browsing for new interesting content) or watching an episode that the viewer has
The profile of the online viewer is mostly male (56 percent) and in the age
group 35 to 49. Surprisingly, representation of this age group is higher than in the
18-34 age group. The percentages are 37 percent in the 18 to 34 year old age
group, compared to 42 percent in the 35 to 49 old year age group (NBC Universal
essential media for Americans today. In the survey, conducted among 1753
respondents, 42 percent picked the Internet as the medium they can’t do without,
2002 yielded very different results: Seventy-two percent of the respondents back
According to the latest comScore Video Matrix Report at this writing, the
amount of television that users view online is increasing. The results from the
report indicate a shift from watching a large amount of short-form content, like
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market share went from 2.9 percent to 3.2 percent of all videos viewed online. The
total audience for online video is estimated at 174 million people, equal to 83.1
audience segment, college students, are making use of online media to watch
television shows. Chapter 3 will discuss the methods that were used to conduct the
study.
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Chapter 3
Methods
Sample
The study was conducted among college students at Kutztown University
enrolled in general education classes. This was done in order to ensure a fairly
different majors would be represented in the sample. Also, the surveying of the
students would be easier, because the surveys can be distributed and returned
quickly.
The requirements that were set for the survey were that the students were
most of the older students. In order to make sure that the sample would not be
general education class. HPD 110 and SPE 010 were selected as classes to
conduct surveys in. These are fairly large classes and have a variety of different
majors, but a fairly consistent age group. The students taking these classes are
mostly freshmen.
Instrument
To study the viewing habits of the students a paper survey will be used. In
order to ensure the consistency of the sample, it was decided to conduct the survey
in class rather than put the survey online. This makes the results more reliable,
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since it is known who filled out the surveys, whereas an online survey can be
The survey consisted of 14 questions, and included questions about the
services on the network websites, how they use these services and how these
The main purpose of the survey was to find out about the subject’s viewing
habits regarding online television programming and how they may have changed.
Also, the survey was aimed at acquiring information about what some of the
motivations are for students to use online video services to consume television
content.
The questions on the survey were as follows:
1. Do you own a television set?
This question was put in the survey to find out whether ownership of a television
2. Do you have broadband internet?
E. Don’t know. The goal of this question was to figure out if people with a
broadband connection watch more online content than people without broadband
access.
3. How many hours of television do you watch in a week on average?
This question was intended to get a good idea of the average student’s television
consumption this question was included in the survey. The distribution for the
answers in this question were changed based on results from the pilot survey. The
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original answers had more variance, but the pilot resulted in a distribution that
was heavily leaning towards one answer. The available answers for the
4. Have you watched more or less television in the past year than the year
before?
This question was intended to test the hypothesis that traditional television had
gone down over the past year because of the availability of streaming episodes.
5. Do you use online video services like Hulu or television network
Since this survey was mainly aimed at obtaining information about online viewing
question 5 was included as a way to separate the respondents that use online video
services from those who don’t. Respondents who filled out they did not use online
video services were asked to indicate why they did not use these services and
instructed to skip to the end of the survey where they were asked to provide their
6. How long have you been using services like this?
This question seeks to answer both how much experience users have with these
services and when online video services started to gain traction within the sample
group. Answers were based on research into when networks started putting full
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7. What are your main reasons for using services like these?
This is one of the most important questions in the survey. The goal of the question
is to see what people are using services like this for, what the most common
reasons are, and how the availability of online episodes influences the viewing
habits of the respondent. The available answers were based on common recurring
reasons for use of online video services found in the literature review in addition
Discovering new television shows, D. Being able to view episodes at any time of
8. Do you watch any television programming exclusively on the web?
This question was intended to determine if the respondents were using online
A. Yes, all of it (for people that watch all the television they view online), B. Yes,
some on traditional television and some online (for people that switch between
traditional television and web services, but view one or more of the television
shows they follow exclusively online), C. No, I use both traditional television ad
internet (for people that switch between viewing their shows on traditional
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9. What websites do you use to view television content ?
This question was included in the survey to determine the most popular video
streaming site among the sample group. Respondents were given the opportunity
to fill in their own additions to the provided list of sites. The available answers
Another fact that can be determined from this question is if respondents are
primarily directly using the network websites, or if they are going through third
10. How many hours of television content do you watch online in a week
on average?
This question was included to see how many hours respondents watched online in
distribution of the provided answers was based on feedback from the pilot survey.
11. How many hours of television did you watch online in a week on
television content viewed online this second data point was added to be able to
compare online viewing behavior at the time of the survey with that of a year ago.
12. What is your preferred viewing method ?
This question was included to discover if users prefer to watch television online or
traditional television and has an open line to provide an explanation for the answer
they chose.
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13. Gender
14. Age
between gender or age and particular types of viewing habits. Distribution of age
was based on the class surveyed and adjusted based on returned surveys from the
pilot survey.
Procedures
The survey for the study was submitted for approval to the Department of
A pilot survey was then conducted by the researcher in two Introduction to
the survey with regards to language or distribution of the answers. After analysis
of the results, some minor adjustments were made in the age distribution and the
instruction text for the survey. For a copy of the pilot survey, refer to Appendix A.
In the pilot version of the survey no instructions were provided to skip to
the demographics questions at the end of the survey, causing some uncompleted
surveys where the answers to these questions were missing. In the final version
that was administered an instruction was added to skip to the last two questions of
the survey if the respondent did not have to fill out the online viewing section. For
In order to find classes in which to conduct the surveys, the researcher
contacted the department head of the Speech department, Mr. Robert Smith,
SPE 010 were contacted and arrangements were made to conduct and
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conduct the surveys. For the HPD 110 classes, the professor was contacted
After corrections were made, the survey was conducted with a total of 202
students. In the time frame between November and March, five Introduction to
Speech (SPE 010) classes and two Health (HPD 110) classes participated in the
survey.
The surveys were conducted by the researcher in the classroom. A short
introduction as well as instructions for filling out the survey were given to the
students. After the surveys were completed they were collected by the researcher
Data analysis
After all survey results were gathered, all the data was entered into the
Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) for analysis. All independent
variables (TV ownership, broadband internet access, gender and age) were cross
tabulated to find relationships between the variables. A Chi-square test was run to
Results were rendered in a table giving percentages and were also
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Chapter 4
Results
to one decimal. Any value of .5 percentage points was rounded up, anything under
this value rounded down. In each survey question, percentages provided are
Demographics
Of the 201 respondents who answered Question 13, 84 were male (41.6
percent) and 115 were female (57 percent). The distribution in age groups of the
18 or under 37 18.3%
19 to 20 108 53.5%
21 to 22 38 18.8%
23 to 24 8 4%
Above 24 10 5%
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Television Ownership
indicated they own a television set, and 16 (7.9 percent) did now own a television
set.
Broadband Access
For convenience, the results for the distribution of broadband Internet were
split into three groups: those who have broadband access, those who don’t, and
respondents who did not know whether they had access to broadband Internet.
Question 2 was answered by all 202 respondents, and indicated that a majority of
190 respondents have broadband access (94 percent). There were three
respondents who did not have broadband, representing 1.5 percent, and nine
respondents (4.5 percent) did not know whether they had broadband access.
watched television per week. Table 2 is based on the responses to Question 3. The
number of respondents that replied to this question was 202. The surveyed
respondents) watch television 10 hours or less per week. This percentage is based
on the combined responses to the first three options for this question.
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To see the change in viewing habits over the past year, the students
watching television at the time of the survey to a year ago. There were 201
watched less television over the past year. A common reason referred to in the
comment section of the question was that the students had a busy schedule. Of the
143 students that filled out the comment section of this question, 101 students
indicated time constraints as being the most important reason they were not
watching as much television. Many students spent more time doing school work
(97 respondents), working at a job (17 respondents) or spending time with friends
(5 respondents).
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watched more television over the past year, and 60 said the amount of television
television programming?, most students indicated that they did make use of these
services. This question was answered by 202 students. A majority of 123 students
students (38.6 percent) indicated not using these services. The total number of
online in the comments field of Question 5 was 64. Among the most common
reasons for not using these types of services were that the respondents were not
not spend much time watch television programming in the first place (16
respondents). Another 10 respondents indicated that they did not have time , 9
respondents indicated not knowing how to get access to the content as the reason
In Question 6, respondents were asked how long they have been using
online video services. A total of 123 students answered this question. Use of
online video services has only recently started to gain traction with most of the
respondents of the survey. Most students answered that they have been viewing
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to give the reasons they use online video services to watch television
possible. Table 3 reports the responses on all individual values for Question 7.
Question 7.
Other 3 2.4 %
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80
60
40
20
0
Number of respondents
Having to watch fewer commercials
Getting better video quality than traditional television
Discovering new television shows that I haven’t seen before
Being able to watch shows any time of day, on my own schedule
Catching up on older episodes that I haven’t seen before
Watching an episode that I missed on television
Watching an episode again after it was broadcasted on television
Other
respondents use both television and the Internet to watch their shows (72
respondents or 58.4 percent), and 43 respondents (35 percent) indicated that they
Websites
In Question 9, students were asked what websites they used to watch full
episodes online. Question 9 was answered by 124 respondents. This was a check-
The most popular outlets to obtain full episodes of television shows are Hulu (78
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Hulu 78 63.4%
TV.com 6 4.9%
YouTube 66 53.7%
Fancast 8 6.5%
Other 30 24.4%
Noteworthy in this row is YouTube, since the site is not targeted at being a
portal for full episodes of television shows and does not usually have current
Based on the comment section for this question, popular alternative to the
respondents).
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80
60
40
20
0
Number of respondents
viewing, the amount of online viewing was also relatively low among the students
who were surveyed: 88.6 percent of the respondents (109) to this question report
watching four hours of television programming or less online per week (this is a
combined percentage from values A and B). A majority of 79 of the students that
answered this question was in the lowest target (63.2 percent) of less than two
hours of online television programming viewing per week. Thirty students (24
percent) watch between two and four hours per week. Very few students watch
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video services a year ago. The question was answered by 125 respondents. The
most common amount of television watched online was Less than 2 hours, which
almost 26 percent (32 respondents). Fifteen respondents (12 %) indicated that they
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Chapter 5
Discussion
students is that they have a lot less time available to watch television, due to their
busy academic schedules. This clearly showed in the survey results, their
television consumption was dramatically lower than that of the average American.
Whereas the average American watches 31 hours of television per week (Nielsen,
2009a), almost all respondents to the survey (87.6 percent) indicated watching
This has some major implications for the effects of new technologies on
their viewing habits. Since the overall consumption of television content is low, it
proved hard to measure the increase in the use of new technology like video
group that could potentially benefit greatly from on-demand technologies like
streaming television online. This shows in the results of the survey: Almost 61
percent of all the surveyed students indicated that they use online video services to
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common reason given by the respondents to use online video services (79.7
percent). Taking into account the busy academic schedules, jobs, and social
activities of students, it is understandable that they do not have a lot of spare time
to watch television.
(74.8 percent) or older episodes (72.4 percent) of a television show. Most students
Viewing Experience
The majority of the respondents (58.4 percent) that used online video
services use both television and the Internet to watch television . In fact, most
set though.
making it a less comfortable situation than sitting on the couch watching TV. In
The survey clearly showed that Hulu was a dominant player (63.4 percent
among the surveyed students. This corresponds with the trends that came through
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in the literature review. According to comScore, the market share of Hulu is 83.1
percent of the total U.S. online audience. Hulu has been able to bring a very
strong content offering to television viewers, with most of the major networks
represented. Research also shows that the use of Hulu is still on the rise. Although
the increase in the number of new users is slowing down, the amount of content
viewed per user is increasing. Individuals spent more time online watching
The numbers from this study, however, show a different picture. This study
did show that the number of users is actually increasing (12 percent did not use
online video services in the year previous to the study), but the amount of
fact that many of the students who were surveyed were freshmen, and therefore
had a big change in the amount of free time they had available.
Although the students surveyed did not watch a lot of television content,
either online or on a traditional television set, their reasons for using online video
services indicated that the flexibility that online viewing brings is one of the
important factors for them to use it. Network schedules are no longer commanding
the viewing patterns of the students. The online services are often used to catch up
on episodes that the student hasn’t seen before (72.4 percent), or watching
episodes that the the student missed when they were broadcast the first time (74.8
percent).
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The online services make it possible for students to watch particular shows
on a more regular basis. If they miss an episode on television they can go online
wait for a rerun to see an episode they missed the first time it was broadcast. If
Integration of Technologies
integrated solutions. TiVO is releasing a new version of their DVR in 2010, called
the TiVO Premiere that allows users to watch YouTube, Netflix, Amazon, and
TiVO is not the only company releasing hardware like this. There were
playing video, and new devices like the iPad coming to the market, new
revenue declining this might be a valuable avenuefor networks to try. Netflix, for
example, has already announced that they are releasing applications for both the
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Apple iPad and iPhone / iPod Touch devices giving users the ability to view
movies and archive seasons of television shows when they are on the go.
Apple has also proven that people are willing to pay for the ability to take
content with them on their portable devices. Through their iTunes service, people
can buy episodes of television shows or a so-called Season Pass, which gives
advertising. Although the advertising revenue of streaming sites like Hulu is bleak
company as of 2009 and brought in more revenue than one of the biggest sites on
YouTube.
Because the sample from this study, college students, has a very particular
Many of the college students in the sample, indicated they have watched less
television in the past year. This can be explained by the fact that most surveyed
students were freshmen. Going from high school to college, they found that they
had a lot less time on their hands to spend on leisure activities, which influences
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conclusions with regard to television viewing trends and the use of online media
different types of on-demand media and the demographics of the people who use
them. Since this study only looked at the effects of online television content on
viewing habits, it gives a somewhat limited view on the issue because there are
numerous other on-demand technologies available that can be used to gain more
technologies that are currently available and studying their use, would give a more
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Appendix A
Please answer the following questions by checking the SINGLE box ()
representing the most accurate answer. For questions asking you to
check “all that apply” please check EACH circle () that applies to your
viewing. All questions apply to your viewing behavior during the school
semester.
* When talking about television, we refer to broadcast or cable programming being viewed on a
television set as distinct from television content distributed online.
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4. Have you watched more or less television in the past year than the year
before? *
! A. More, because ______________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
! B. Less, because ______________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________!
! C. About the same amount
! A. Yes
! B. No, because ______________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
7. What are your main reasons for using services like these? (check
circles for all that apply)
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10. How many hours of television content do you watch online in a week
on average ?
! A. Less than 5 hours
! B. between 5 and 10 hours
! C. between 11 and 20 hours
! D. more than 20 hours
11. How many hours of television content did you watch online in a week
on average a year ago?
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Appendix B
Please answer the following questions by checking the SINGLE box ()
representing the most accurate answer. For questions asking you to
check “all that apply” please check EACH circle () that applies to your
viewing. All questions apply to your habits during the school semester.
* When talking about television, we refer to broadcast or cable programming being viewed on a
television set as distinct from television content distributed online.
4. Have you watched more or less television in the past year than the year
before? *
! A. More, because ______________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
! B. Less, because ______________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
! C. About the same amount
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THE EVOLUTION OF ON-DEMAND MEDIA
! A. Yes
! B. No, because _______________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
7. What are your main reasons for using services like these? (check
circles for all that apply)
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10. How many hours of television content do you watch online in a week
on average ?
! A. Less than 2 hours
! B. Between 2 and 4 hours
! C. Between 5 and 7 hours
! D. Between 8 and 10 hours
! E. More than 10 hours
11. How many hours of television content did you watch online in a week
on average a year ago?
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Appendix C
If you would like to hear more specifics about the survey or the study
in general I'd be more than happy to set up an appointment with you
to discuss it further and please feel free to e-mail me with any
questions you might have.
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