Fig8-1 stretched and
Newton’s the state of
First
Law.
(a) An elastic is
hooked on the mandibular second
molar and is ready to be activated. The
orthodontist brings it forward with a force of 100
g. (b) Once the elastic is engaged, it remains
Equilibrium Principle
The most important concept from physics
that can be applied to orthodontics is the
equilibrium principle. It is based on
Newton’s First Law, which states that a body
remains at rest or in motion with a constant
velocity unless acted upon by an external
force. The overall mechanism that delivers
orthodontic forces to teeth and bones is a
spring, and this energystoring device is the
active component of all orthodontic
appliances. The spring, which can be
fabricated from many materials, including
metal, rubber, or polymer, stores the
mechanical energy charged by the
orthodontist during activation and releases
it slowly. The orthodontic spring comes in
many different applications and shapes:
archwires, coil springs, elastics, aligners,
and loops, among others.
It may be surprising that orthodontic
appliances are in equilibrium, because they
are required to deliver forces to move teeth.
Equilibrium means that no resultant forces
are acting on the orthodontic appliance. Let
us consider a simple appliance, an elastic. If
the elastic is hooked on the mandibular
second molar (Fig 8-1a), we can bring it
forward with an applied force of 100 g (Fig
8-1b). The two blue forces are responsible
for stretching the elastic, and they are
considered activation forces because they
are applied to the appliance to activate it.
The activated (stretched) elastic is also in
equilibrium, because the sum of all forces is
zero (100 g + [–100 g] = 0 g). Clinically, we
know that the elastic is in equilibrium; it is
not accelerating. Most important, it is not
exerting an unbalanced resultant force on
the patient. It does not push the patient up
to the ceiling, out the front door, or out of
the window. Once it is recognized that the
appliance is in equilibrium (not pushing,
pulling, or rotating the patient), the laws of
equilibrium can help us solve for unknown
forces. In Fig 8-1b, the force on the right
(100 g) was measured with a force gauge.
We do not need to measure the left force
because the elastic has to be in equilibrium;
keeps
rest in
equilibrium.
Fig 8-2 Newton’s Third Law.
Sisyphus pushes the rock up
(action, blue arrow) and the rock
pushes down on Sisyphus
(reaction, red arrow) with equal and
opposite forces to each other.
therefore, the left force must be equal in
magnitude and opposite in direction (–100
g). The activated elastic demonstrates
Newton’s First Law of a body at rest or at
uniform velocity. Figure 8-2,
on the other hand, demonstrates Newton’s
Third Law: For every action (or force), there
is an equal and opposite reaction (or force).
In this figure, Sisyphus pushes the rock up
(action, blue arrow), and the rock pushes
down on Sisyphus (reaction, red arrow). Now
let us take a closer look at the canine hook
(Fig 8-3). Two forces (blue arrow and red
arrow) are present: The hook holds the
stretched elastic forward; the blue activation
force deforms the appliance, and the red
deactivation force acts to move the teeth
during deactivation of the spring. Newton
tells us that there are always two equal and
opposite forces when bodies interact: the
activation force and
the reactive deactivation force. It is these
forces and their direction (red arrow) that
will move the teeth (see Fig 8-3). Note that
Fig 8-4 is the same as Fig 8-1b except that
the force directions are reversed. A diagram
showing only the force system and objects
of interest, such as forces from the spring
and the teeth (excluding forces from
mastication, gravity, etc), is called a force
(or free-body) diagram. Because the
activated appliance is always in equilibrium,
its forcé diagram should always be in
equilibrium.
Figure 8-1b is the activation force diagram
of the elastic; conceptually, it correctly
depicts the elastic (the appliance) in a state
of rest. Figure 8-4, however
Fig 8- 3 Two equal and
opposite forces from an
appliance and the tooth are
action and reaction. Clinically the
forcé required for activation of the appliance is
called activation force, and the force on the tooth
as the appliance deactivates is called
deactivation force.
Fig 8-4 Deactivation force diagram showing
separate unbalanced deactivation forces
on both arches. This is not an
Fig 8-5 Two
equilibrium
diagrams. (a) The spring
(yellow rectangle) with blue
activation forces. (b) The
tooth (yellow) with a red
deactivation force and
stresses (forces) in the
periodontium. Compression-side and vertical
components of the stresses in the PDL are not
depicted because they also sum to zero.
shows separate unbalanced forces on the
maxillary and mandibular arches. It is an
incomplete force diagram in that it does not
show all forces (eg, stresses at the
periodontal ligament [PDL]) acting on the
object (ie, the teeth). However, all of the
forces sum to zero, so we can call it a
deactivation force diagram, remembering
that the appliance is the only entity in
equilibrium, not the teeth as so represented.
Figure 8-5 shows two valid force diagrams in
equilibrium. Figure 8-5a demonstrates that
the appliance is in equilibrium from the
activation forces. Figure 8-5b shows the
deactivation forces, and the restraining
forces (stresses) from the periodontium are
also in equilibrium. Thus, teeth as well as
appliances can have suitable and correct
equilibrium diagrams if the PDL support is
considered. In Fig 8-6, an open coil spring is
shown pushing both canines distally.
Because only distal forces acting on the
canine are depicted in the figure, it might
imply that using an open coil spring
between the canines instead of a closed coil
spring between the canine and the first
molar can eliminate anchorage loss.
Fig 8-7 The equilibrium
diagram of the activated
intrusión arch (solid teal). The sum of forces and
moments is zero. The deactivated arch is shown
in transparent teal.
Fig 8-8 The deactivation force
diagram shows that the forces are acting on the
tooth. The direction of the deactivation force
equilibrium diagram, although all of the forces
sum to zero.
Fig 8-6 An
open coil
spring is
pushing
both
canines
distally.
No matter how noble and
sophisticated an appliance may be, it cannot
overcome the laws of physics, so a single distal
force is not possible.
However, that implication is wrong. No
matter how noble and sophisticated an
appliance is, it cannot overcome the laws of
physics; a single distal force is not possible.
In our simple example of a 100-g
maxillomandibular elastic attached to the
maxillary arch, what is the force on the
mandibular arch at the molar? The answer
comes from applying both Newton’s First
and Third Laws. Step 1 is to place the
appliance in equilibrium (see Fig 8-1b).
Because the measured forcé to the right is
100 g, the unknown force to the left must
also be 100 g in magnitude (First Law). Step
2 is to reverse the direction of the forces
determined from the appliance activation
force diagram (see Fig 8-4). This gives us
the deactivation forces acting on
the teeth (the dental arches); hence, the
conclusion
is that the elastic gives equal and opposite
forces to
the dental arches. Some orthodontists have
believed
that this conclusion comes from Newton’s
Third Law,
system (red) is the reverse of the activation force
system shown in Fig 8-7 (based on Newton’s Third
Law).
Fig 8-9 The force system acting on the molar can
be depicted in a number of ways: A force and a
couple at the center of the bracket (a), a
downward force and two single forces producing a
couple at the edge of the bracket (b), or two
forces with the larger force at the mesial (c).

but that is incorrect. It actually comes from
the equilibrium application of the First Law.
Although the Third Law is involved in
reversing force direction, no calculation is
involved in Step 2 because there is always
an equal and opposite force between bodies.
Some orthodontists have also incorrectly
assumed that it is Newton’s Third Law that
explains anchorage. For example, this
assumption would state that during space
closure, an appliance (eg, a loop) delivers
equal and opposite force systems to the
anterior and posterior segments. Newton’s
Third Law seems to support this supposition,
but it is not a correct application. The First
Law, on the other hand, provides the correct
answer that some forces may be equal while
the force system can differ between the
anterior and posterior teeth.
An elastic delivers forces only; let us now
consider an intrusion arch where both forces
and moments are present. Figure 8-7 shows
the equilibrium diagram with the forces and
moments on the intrusión arch given in
blue; the activated arch is depicted in teal,
and the deactivated arch shape is depicted
in transparent teal. A downward activation
forcé is present anteriorly, while an upward
force and a counterclockwise couple are
present at the posterior end of the arch. The
activated intrusion arch is in equilibrium
because the sum of the forces (100 g +
-100 g]) is zero. The sum of the moments,
measured from the molar tube, is also zero
(100 g × 35 mm = +3,500 gmm and a
molar couple of –3,500 gmm). In Fig 8-8, the
forces are reversed in red to show the
deactivation forces that are in the direction
of the tooth movement. The incisor brackets
feel intrusive force, and the molar bracket
feels an extrusive forcé and clockwise
moment that tips the crown backward and
the root forward. The forces acting on the
molar can be depicted in a number of ways
(Fig 8-9): (1) a force and a couple at the
center of the bracket (see Fig 8-9a); (2) a
downward force and two single forces
producing a couple at the edge of the
bracket
Fig 8-10 Anchorage assumed to be equal and
opposite. However, this is a misuse of Newton’s
Third Law.
Fig 8-11 Equilibrium tells us that the sum of all
forces and moments should be zero. Any
unbalanced force (a) or moment (b) is imposible
on the archwire.
(see Fig 8-9b); or (3) two forces with the
larger forcé at the mesial (see Fig 8-9c).
They are all equivalent. Figure 8-7 is the
force diagram showing the intrusión arch in
equilibrium. If a 100-g force is measured in
the incisor region, the activation force and
momento on the molar bracket need not be
measured.
Here Newton’s First Law is used to calculate
any unknowns Figure 8-8 reverses the
direction of all forces and moments based
on the Third Law to show the forces acting
on the teeth; no calculations are needed. It
is the no-brainer part of the analysis.
Clinicians are usually more interested in this
deactivation force diagram—forces acting on
the teeth (see Fig 8-8)—than the activation
force diagram from which it was derived.
Although all forces and moments sum to
zero, the deactivation force diagram does
not show any real object in equilibrium and
should not conceptually be called an
equilibrium diagram. Misinterpretations of
deactivation forcé diagrams are common;
the forces and moments in these diagrams
are independent and act separately at the
molar tube and at the incisor bracket. These
unbalanced forces are what move the teeth.
It is an incomplete equilibrium diagram
because the teeth are in equilibrium by the
deactivation force and the stresses in the
PDLs, which are not depicted. By contrast, in
the true equilibrium diagram the activation
forces and moments act on the entire arch
and not as independent entities.
Also, note that the incisor force system of
the active
teeth is equal and opposite to the force
system of the anchorage molar tooth (Fig 8-
10). The incisors feel an intrusive force, and
the molar brackets feel both an extrusive
force and a moment (see Fig 8-10).
However, this example demonstrates and
emphasizes the principle of equilibrium for
discussing
(see Fig 8-9b); or (3) two forces with the
larger forcé at the mesial (see Fig 8-9c).
They are all equivalent. Figure 8-7 is the
force diagram showing the intrusión arch
in equilibrium. If a 100-g force is
measured in the incisor region, the
activation force and momento on the
molar bracket need not be measured.
Here Newton’s First Law is used to
calculate any unknowns. Figure 8-8
reverses the direction of all forces and
moments based on the Third Law to show
the forces acting on the teeth; no
calculations are needed. It is the no-
brainer part of the analysis. Clinicians are
usually more interested in this
deactivation force diagram—forces acting
on the teeth (see Fig 8-8)—than the
activation force diagram from which it
was derived. Although all forces and
moments sum to zero, the deactivation
force diagram does not show any real
object in equilibrium and should not
conceptually be called an equilibrium
diagram. Misinterpretations of
deactivation forcé diagrams are common;
the forces and moments in these
diagrams are independent and act
separately at the molar tube and at the
incisor bracket. These unbalanced forces
are what move the teeth. It is an
incomplete equilibrium diagram because
the teeth are in equilibrium by the
deactivation force and the stresses in the
PDLs, which are not depicted. By contrast,
in the true equilibrium diagram the
activation forces and moments act on the
entire arch and not as independent
entities.
Also, note that the incisor force system of
the active
teeth is equal and opposite to the force
system of the anchorage molar tooth (Fig
8-10). The incisors feel an intrusive force,
and the molar brackets feel both an
extrusive force and a moment (see Fig 8-
10). However, this example demonstrates
and emphasizes the principle of
equilibrium for discussing anchorage in
orthodontics, which is based on Newton’s
First Law and not his Third Law.
Basic Concepts and
formulas of
Equilibrium
The formulas used in equilibrium
calculation are very simple. Because the
appliance is at rest and not accelerating,
the following information is known:
1. Σ F = 0
2. Σ M = 0
where F is force and M is moment.
Imagine that we are inserting an archwire
into all of the brackets of a malocclusion
and we must apply forces to elastically
deform the wire or the PDL.
When the patient leaves the office, there
is no forcé acting on the archwire. The
equilibrium formula (1) tells us that any
unbalanced force is impossible on the
arch (Fig 8-11a). The balanced forces are
posible because they sum to zero. The
same is true with any moments (Fig 8-
11b). One cannot deliver only a moment
from an arch to rotate a molar (see Fig 8-
11b). Balanced moments produced by a
couple and a force or a couple alone are
possible to meet equilibrium
requirements. Thus, in Fig 8-11, the
unbalanced force system to the archwire
is imposible no amount of wire bending or
bracket placement can make it happen. A
simple equilibrium diagram can keep us
out of trouble by quickly identifying what
is impossible from a given archwire.
 that activate the archwire (Fig 8-12b) are
in equilibrium—the sum of the forces and
moments on the wire is zero. The force
system from this straight wire does not
always deliver desired tooth movement,
but at least we can be assured that the
archwire and the bracket geometry will
produce a forcé system that is in
equilibrium. It is better for us to do the
thinking than to let the appliance do it.
The primary value of the equilibrium
principle is that it gives us a powerful tool
to solve for unknown forces, so that we
can better design our appliances. The tool
is called boundary conditions, which
provide
simple equations to solve for unknown
forces. The deactivation force
diagram from the intrusión arch
shown in Fig 8-8 is very easy to
determine. We can measure the
force on the arch at the incisor and
replace it with an equivalent force
system at the molar bracket or some
posterior center of resistance
(CR). An activation force diagram of the
intrusión arch will give the same result
but is not necessary. A similar deep bite
scenario is depicted in Fig 8-13a. Let us
measure the activation moments at both
Fig 8-12 No matter how diverse and complicated
the incisors (500 gmm) and the molar
the forces on
the teeth may be, the archwire is always in bracket (–3,500 gmm). All of the other
equilibrium. (a) Deactivation forces (red arrows) forces do not need measurement and can
act independently on each tooth. (b) The now be calculated by boundary
activation force system (blue arrows) acts on the conditions.
entire archwire. Moments and forces sum to zero.
All forces and moments are artistic
Approximations 1. ΣM = 0
500 gmm + (–3,500 gmm) + M = 0
M = 3,000 gmm

M will come from vertical forces. There

No matter how diverse, complicated, and are no more couples at the incisor and
independent the forces on the teeth may molar because all moments
be, the archwire or the appliance is have been measured there. Any
always in equilibrium. In Fig 8-12a, a horizontal forces are ignored.
flexible nickel-titanium (Ni-Ti) wire is
placed into all of the brackets, which are FB × 35 mm = 3,000 gmm
badly misaligned. Many forces and FB at molar = +86 g
moments acting on the teeth (red arrows) 2. ΣF = 0
can be produced at every bracket, which FA at incisor = –86 g
are artistically depicted in the diagram.
The teeth move in response to these
deactivation forces, and yet the forces
The full answer is given in Fig 8-13b, the
activation force diagram in equilibrium. To
obtain the forces on the teeth, all forces
and moments have their direction
reversed (Fig 8-13c).
The principle of equilibrium applies not
only to rigid bodies but also to nonrigid
deformed bodies and even bodies with a
constant velocity. An activation force is
applied to a coil spring (Fig 8-14a).
Although it changes shape, it is
continually in equilibrium with the
activation forces. The spring in its original
shape before activation is the passive
shape, and the blue arrows are the
activation force system and the red
arrows the deactivation force system (Fig
8-14b). Movement can occur between
points A and B in Fig 8-14c, but still the
net force is zero, and no acceleration is
occurring. Other examples of objects in
equilibrium are a squeezed balloon
(where distances between points change)
and a flexible seesaw that changes its
shape.
Fig 8-13 The equilibrium principle provides
boundary conditions to solve for unknown forces.
(a) The activation moments at both the incisors
(500 gmm) and the molar bracket (–3,500 gmm)
are measured, and FA and FB are unknowns. (b)
The spring is in static equilibrium by vertical
forces of 86 g. The vertical forces do not need to
be measured. (c) The deactivation force system
acting on the tooth (red arrows). The direction of
the force system is reversed from the equilibrium
diagram (b).
Fig 8-14 The object of equilibrium does not need
to be a rigid body. (a) An activation force is
applied to a flexible coil spring in equilibrium. (b)
The green spring (top) in its passive shape before
activation. The blue arrows are the activation
force system (middle), and the red arrows are the
deactivation force system (bottom). (c) The shape
of the coil spring is continually changing as it
moves from point A to point B, but the spring is
always in equilibrium with the activation forces.
Solving Problems
Using
Equilibrium
Let us now follow the steps in applying
the equilibrium principle to clinical
situations. We decide to use a 2 × 4
appliance from the first molars to the
incisors (Fig 8-15). We would like to place
a 40-g intrusive force on the incisors. To
prevent flaring of the incisors, labial root
torque of 300 gmm is also applied. The
question is: What will happen to the first
molar?
Fig 8-15 The red force system is planned on the
incisor segment for intrusion without flaring.
Fig 8-16 The equilibrium diagram for the
activated intrusion arch shown in Fig 8-15. The
direction of the known force system on the incisor
is reversed in blue.
Fig 8-17 The vertical upward force at the molar is
added to maintain the equilibrium of force (a). It is
calculated as 40 g (b).
Step 1
Figure 8-15 shows the deactivation forces
acting on the teeth, from which we must
determine all other forces. In this step, we
start the force diagram (Fig 8-16) by
reversing the direction of the known
forces so they now become activation
forces—forces acting on the wire
(Newton’s Third Law). All activation forces
are in blue.
Step 2
Apply formula 1.
ΣF=0
Add any forces at the molar that will be
required for equilibrium. Because there is
a downward forcé acting at the incisors,
place an upward arrow at the molar (Fig
8-17a). The diagram is now in equilibrium
from the forces except for the magnitude
of the molar force. According to formula 1,
the force magnitude is –40 g (Fig 8-17b).

Step 3
Apply formula 2.
ΣM = 0
In order for equilibrium to exist, the sum
of the moments around any point must
equal zero. Let us sum the moments
around the red point on the incisors in Fig
8-18a. This point is selected as
convenient because it simplifies
calculation, eliminating the force at the
incisors. The equation holds true,
however, for any arbitrary point.
40 g × 30 mm + (–300 gmm) + Mmolar = 0
Mmolar = –900 gmm
The moment acting on the arch in the
molar región is a counterclockwise 900
gmm (Fig 8-18b). The equilibrium diagram
is now complete, and the vertical forces
balance. Couples on the wire at the molar
and at the incisors balance with the
couple produced by the 40-g vertical
forces.