Basic Electronics By, Er. Swapnil V. Kaware

Chapter No. 1. Semiconductor Diode.
Points to remember…..
(i). Valence bond:- Outermost (highest) band filled with electrons & represents the valency of an atom.
(ii). Conduction bond:- Next highest band to valence band contains free electrons for conduction.
(iii). Covalent bond:-These bonds are formed due to sharing of electrons.
(iv). Doping:-Adding impurities to semiconductor& increases the conductivity of semiconductor.
(v). Forbidden gap:- It separates conduction & valence band. No electrons can normally exist in this
gap.
Q(1). Explain or Define Conductor?.
(i). Conductors are the substances or materials which allows the electric current to pass through them.
(ii). There is no ‘forbidden gap ’is present between valence band &conduction band. (iii). Hence it
contains larger number of free electrons in conduction band.(iv). In this conductivity is very high &
resistivity is very low.(v). In case of conductors, conductivity is directly proportional to the temperature.
e.g. copper, gold, silver, iron, aluminum, water, graphite etc.
Q(2). Explain or Define Insulator?.
(i). Insulators are the substances or materials which does not allows the electric current to pass through
them. (ii). There is large ‘forbidden gap’ is present between valence band & conduction band.
(iii). Hence it contains small or even zero number of free electrons.(iv). In this conductivity is very low &
resistivity is very high.
e.g. rubber, plastic, wood, glass, paper etc.
Q(3). Explain or Define Semiconductor?.
(i). These are the substances or materials which can acts as a conductor as well as an insulator.
(ii). A semiconductor material is one whose electrical properties lies in between those of insulators and
conductors. (iii). In semiconductors ‘forbidden gap’ is very small.(iv). The conductivity of the
semiconductor increases as temperature increases.(v). Hence as temperature increases electrical
resistance of the semiconductor decreases.
e.g. Germanium (Ge), Silicon (Si), Selenium (Se), Carbon (C) etc.
Classification of semiconductors:-
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* Basic Electronics Notes By Er. Swapnil V. Kaware (svkaware@yahoo.co.in)*

Q(4). Explain or Define Impurities or Dopant?.
Impurities/dopants are added to semiconductor for increasing the conductivity of semiconductor. There
are 2 types of impurities/dopants:
(i). Donors (N type): These are basically pentavalent atoms (i.e. having valency=5) &they increases
number of free electrons(i.e. negatively charged ions).
e.g. Arsenic (As), Phosphorus(P) or Antimony(Sb) etc.
(ii). Acceptors (P type ): These are basically trivalent atoms (i.e. having valency=3) &they increases
number of holes (i.e. positively charged ions).
e.g. Boron (B), Aluminium (Al) or Gallium(Ga) etc.
Q(5). Explain or Define Intrinsic or Pure Semiconductor?.
(i). An intrinsic semiconductor is made from the semiconductor material in its extremely pure form.
(ii). It is also called as ‘undoped semiconductor’ or ‘i-type semiconductor’. (iii). The ratio of impurity
atoms (other atoms) to the semiconductor part is <1:100 million. (iv). There is no concept of doping.
(v). The amount of charge carriers is therefore determined by the properties of the material itself
instead of the amount of impurities. (vi). The number of electrons in the conduction band is equal to the
number of holes in the valence band i.e. ‘n=p’.
(vii). No free electrons are available at zero temperature hence these type of
semiconductors acts as a perfect insulator at zero temperature. (viii). Hence intrinsic semiconductors
are not practically used for manufacturing of devices. (ix).Such type of semiconductors have total 4
electrons in its valence orbit section. (x). Hence to complete the valence shell section, each silicon (Si)
atom acquires four more electrons by sharing one electron from each of the four neighboring atoms.
Q(6). Explain Extrinsic or Impure Semiconductor?.
(i). An extrinsic semiconductor is made from the semiconductor material in its extremely impure form.
(ii). It is also called as ‘doped semiconductor’ or ‘impure type semiconductor’. (iii). The ratio of
impurity atoms (other atoms) to the semiconductor part is >1:100 million. (iv). There is a concept of
doping. (v). The amount of charge carriers is therefore determined by the amount of impurities instead
of properties of the material itself. (vi). The number of electrons in the conduction band is equal to the
number of holes in the valence band i.e. ‘n≠p’.
(vii). Free electrons are available at zero temperature hence these type of semiconductors
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acts as a perfect conductor at zero temperature. (viii). Hence extrinsic semiconductors are practically
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used for manufacturing of devices. (ix). Such type of semiconductors have total 3 electrons in its valence

orbit section. (x). Hence to complete the valence shell section, each silicon (Si) atom acquires four more
electrons by sharing one electron from each of the four neighboring atoms. (viii).Extrinsic
semiconductors can be sub-divided into two types:
(i). N-type semiconductors &(ii). P-type semiconductors.
Q(7). Explain N-type semiconductors?.
(i). Such type of semiconductors are obtained when a pentavalent impurity/material like Arsenic (As) or
Phosphorus(P) or Antimony (Sb) is added to pure germanium or silicon crystal. (ii). As shown in Fig.
below, each Arsenic (As) atom forms covalent bonds with the surrounding four silicon atoms with the
help of four of its five electrons. (iii). The fifth electron is loosely bound to the Arsenic (As) atom.
(iv). Hence, it can be easily excited/travel from the valence band to the conduction
band by the application of external electric field or temperature. (v). This extra electron becomes
available for conduction. (vi). Hence electrons are the majority carriers while holes constitute the
minority carriers. Hence such type of semiconductors are called as N-type semiconductors.
Q(8). Explain P-type semiconductors?.
(i). Such type of semiconductors are obtained when a Trivalent impurity/material like Boron (B),
Aluminium (Al) or Gallium(Ga)is added to pure germanium or silicon crystal. (ii).As shown in Fig. below,
each Gallium (Ga) atom forms covalent bonds with the surrounding four silicon atoms with the help of
its three electrons. (iii).Hence fourth covalent bond becomes incomplete because Gallium (Ga) atom has
only three valence electrons. (iv). Hence there is no electron around the Gallium atom. (v). Thus the
resulting charge carrier is known as ‘hole’ which is positively charged carrier. (vi). Hence holes are the
majority carriers while electrons constitute the minority carriers. So hence such type of semiconductors
are called as P-type semiconductors.
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Q(9). Compare/write differences between P type & N type semiconductor?.
Please refer the question numbers 7 & 8.
Q(10). Compare/write differences between Intrinsic type & Extrinsic type semiconductor?.
Please refer the question numbers 5 & 6.
Q(11). What is Diode (or P-N junction diode), draw its symbol & also give its construction
details?.
The symbol of a diode is as shown in above figure.

(i). The diodes are unidirectional & allows current to flow in one direction only and restrict such current
to flow in another direction. (ii). It has two terminals namely P side (as Anode) & N side (as cathode).
(iii). P side contains large number of free holes & N side contains large number of free electrons.
(iv). Diodes are used in rectifier circuits, power supply circuits& inverter circuits etc.
Q(12). Explain the formation of depletion region in P-N junction diode?. OR

Q(13). Explain working/operation of P-N junction Diode in forward bias mode?.
(i). In forward bias mode, positive terminal of battery is connected to P region while negative terminal
of battery is connected to N region of P-N junction diode. (ii). In forward bias mode, negative terminal of
battery repels/opposes the electrons present in N region towards P region. (iii). Similarly, positive
terminal of battery repels/opposes the holes present in P region towards N region.
(iv). As soon as, we provides increasing supply voltage, then the holes combine
with negative ions & electrons combine with positive ions and finally both ions get converted into
neutral atoms (i.e. immobile ions). (v). Such recombination of holes & electrons creates depletion region.
(vi). Due to neutral ions width of the depletion region decreases. (vii). As barrier potential is directly
proportional to depletion region width so hence barrier potential also reduces.
(viii). Finally, there is no opposition to the flow of charge carriers (i.e. electrons &
holes), which in turn helps to flow electric current also called as forward current (If). (ix). This forward
current (If) flows due to majority carriers & having order of few mA. (x). This current flows from anode
to cathode.
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Q(14). Define forward bias voltage?.
It is the defined as the voltage which overcomes the barrier potential voltage &due to which forward
current starts flowing in forward bias mode.
Q(15). Explain working/ operation of P-N junction Diode in Reverse bias mode? OR
Q(16). Why does not diodes conduct in reverse bias mode?.
(i). In reverse bias mode, negative terminal of battery is connected to P region while positive terminal of
battery is connected to N region of P-N junction diode. (ii). In reverse bias mode, negative terminal of
battery attracts the holes present in P region & similarly positive terminal of battery attracts the
electrons present in N region. (iii). As soon as, we provides increasing supply voltage, then the holes &
electrons moves away from the junction.
(iv). Hence width of the depletion region increases. (v). As barrier potential is
directly proportional to depletion region width so hence barrier potential also increases. (vi). Finally,
there is opposition to the flow of charge carriers (i.e. electrons & holes), which in turn does not allow to
conduct/flow electric current. (vii). The resultant current is known as reverse saturation current which
flows due to minority carriers thermally & having order of few µA. (viii). This current flows from
cathode to anode. (ix). This reverse saturation current is in the range of nA for Silicon (Si) diode & µA for
Germanium (Ge) diode.
Q(17). Draw V-I or forward& reverse characteristics of P-N junction diode?
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Q(18). Draw forward & reverse characteristics of Silicon & Germanium diode?.
Q(19). State/show cut in voltage of diode for silicon & germanium?.
Q(20). Compare the characteristics of silicon & germanium diode?.
Silicon diode Germanium diode

(i). Atomic number is 14. (i). Atomic number is 32.
(ii). Valence electrons are available in third shell. (ii). Valence electrons are available in fourth shell.
(iii). Cut in voltage is 0.7V. (iii). Cut in voltage is 0.3V.
(iv). Made up of silicon material. (iv). Made up of germanium material.
(v). Breakdown voltage is higher. (v). Breakdown voltage is lower.
(vi). Reverse saturation current is less (nA). (vi). Reverse saturation current is more (µA).
(vii). Operating temperature range up to 175°C. (vii). Operating temperature range up to 85°C.
(viii). Valence electrons are closer to the nucleus. (viii). Valence electrons are not closer to the nucleus.
(ix). They are less temperature sensitive. (ix). They are more temperature sensitive.
(x). Used in rectifiers, clippers, etc. (x). Used in voltage temperature applications.
Q(21). Draw the circuit/setup to obtain VI characteristics of P-N junction diode in forward &
reverse bias mode?.
Fig:- Forward Bias

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Fig:- Reverse Bias
(22). Define PIV (i.e. Peak Inverse Voltage) of diode?.
(i). It can be defined as the maximum reverse voltage which can be applied across a diode without
damaging it.
Q(23). Give/List any four applications of P-N junction diode or semiconductor diode?.
(i). As a freewhiling diode, (ii). In rectifier circuits, (iii). As a feedback diode, (iv). In amplifiers, etc.
Q(24). What is Zener diode & also draw its symbol?.
(i). A ‘Zener diode’ is a component which is designed to operate in breakdown region of PN junction to
prevent damaging of diode.(ii). It can be either forward biased or reverse biased. (iii). Such diodes are
made by heavily doped P and N type semiconductors. (iv). It has also two terminals namely, anode ‘A’ &
cathode ‘K’.(v). It has reverse breakdown voltage between 2V to 200V. (vi). It is mainly used in voltage
regulation.
Q(25). Describe Avalanche Effect & Zener Breakdown of P-N junction?.
Avalanche Effect:- (i).During such effect a large reverse voltage appears across the diode. (ii).It
generates due to presence due to large number of minority carriers. (iii). Due to which large reverse
current flows through it. (iv). So, junction temperature of the diode may exceed heavily. (v). Hence diode
will gets damaged.(vi). This happens when zener voltage (Vz) is higher than 8V.
Zener Breakdown:- :- (i).During such effect a large reverse voltage appears across the diode. (ii).It
generates due to presence due to large number of minority carriers. (iii). Due to which large reverse
current flows through it.(iv). This happens when zener voltage (Vz) is in between 5V to 8V. (v). In zener
breakdown, the breakdown voltage depends on the temperature of the P-N junction i.e. when
temperature increases then breakdown voltage decreases.
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Q(26). Draw V-I or forward & reverse characteristics of Zener diode?
Q(27). Draw the circuit/setup to obtain VI characteristics of zener diode in forward & reverse
bias mode?.
Fig:- Forward Bias
Fig:- Reverse Bias
Q(28). Give/List any four applications of Zener diode?.
(i). As a voltage reference element.(ii). In voltage regulator circuit.(iii). In regulated power supply.(iv). In
pulse amplifier. (v). In protection circuits for MOSFET, etc.
Q(29). Give/List any specifications of Zenerdiode?.
(i). Zener voltage. (ii). Power dissipation. (iii). Breakover current. (iv). Dynamic resistance. (v). Zener
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current. (vi). Temperature coefficient. (vii). Zener resistance.

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Q(30). Compare zener diode & P-N junction diode?.
P-N Junction Diode Zener Diode

(i). Mainly designed to operate in forward (i). Mainly designed to operate in reverse bias
bias mode. mode.
(ii). Used in rectifiers & voltage multiplifiers. (ii). Used in voltage regulators & voltage limiters.
(iii). It has no sharp reverse breakdown. (iii). It has sharp reverse breakdown.
(iv). It will damage easily if applied voltage (iv). It will not damage if applied voltage exceeds
exceeds breakdown voltage. breakdown voltage.
(iii). Symbol. (iii). Symbol.
(iv). V-I characteristics. (iv). V-I characteristics.
Q(31).Describe the working principle & construction of point contact diode?.
(i). It can be defined as the diode in which the junction is formed between tungsten wire and N type
semiconductor. (ii). It consists of N type semiconductor, tungsten wire, ceramic glass encapsulation and
a contact point. (iii). There is a N type semiconductor crystal which is made up of either silicon or
germanium material. (iv). This crystal is mounted on base.
(vi). There is point contact attached with this base. (vii). This point contact is so
smaller than the cross sectional area of the wire. (viii). A connection is taken out in terms of cathode.
(ix). Anode is connected with tungsten wire. (x). Hence these total materials are placed in ceramic or
glass capsule also called as encapsulation. (xi). This tungsten wire is coated with indium material which
acts as a accepter impurity. (xii) .Hence by this way there is a formation of P-N junction in between
tungsten wire & N-type semiconductor.
Q(32). Draw the symbol of point contact diode?.
Q(33). State applications of point contact diode?.
(i). In radio receivers. (ii). As a video detectors, (iii). In frequency mixer, (iv). In pulse circuits.
Q(34). Draw the symbol of schottky diode?.

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Q(35). Explain construction & working principle of schottky diode?.
Construction:- (i). As seen from the above diagram, there is a N-type material the form of gold or silver.
(ii). The thickness of N-type material is about 25µm. (iii). The resistivity of P-type substrate is 10-Ohm-
meter. (iv). The thickness of SIO2 layer is about 0.5µm. (v). SIO2 layer prevents diffusion of impurities
through it.
Working:- (i). There is a P-type impurity in the form of aluminium, (i). This metal (i.e. Al) acts as an anode
‘A’ & N type semiconductor acts as a cathode ‘K‘. (ii). A junction is formed by a combination of metal &
semiconductor. (iii). Due to this, the electrons present in N type material will immediately flow towards
metal. (iv). This results into creation of majority carriers.
(v). This carriers have higher strength than metal. (vi). Electrons are the majority
carriers in schottky diodes hence there is conduction due to majority carriers. (vii). Hence schottky diodes
are somewhat different than normal conventional diodes. (viii). This heavy strength of electrons will
combine with metal consists of holes & creates a junction similar to depletion region.
(ix). This region further prevents any current to flow & acts as a surface barrier
between two materials. (x). Finally, when we apply the forward bias voltage then there will be heavy flow
of electrons across the junction. (xi). Hence this diode acts as a fast switching diode. (xii). The SiO2 layer is
used to prevent the diffusion of impurities through it.
Q(36). Give applications of schottky diode?.
(i). In AC to DC converters, (ii). In SMPS, (iii). In RADAR systems, (iv). In Communication equipments,
(v). It is used in clamping & clipping circuits, (vi). It can be used a fast switching device, etc.
Q(37). What is varactor diode & also draw its symbol?.
(i). Varactor diode is a specially designed reverse biased PN junction diode. (ii). It has variable capacitor &
can be used as a voltage dependent variable capacitor. (iii). It is also known as ‘varicap’ or ‘voltacap’.
(iv). Varactor diodes are semiconductor devices that are widely used in the electronics industry. (v). They
are used in many applications where a voltage controlled variable capacitance is required.
Q(46). Give/List any four applications of varactor diode?.

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(i). FM Modulator. (ii). In frequency control circuit. (iii). In amplifier. (iv). In filter circuit. (v). In TV
receivers. etc.
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Q(47). Explain the working principle of varactor diode?.
Construction:- (i). As seen from the above diagram, holes are majority charge carriers in P-type
semiconductor material and electrons are majority charge carriers in N-type semiconductor material.
(ii). There is a neutral space charge region (Junction) between these two which do not have any majority
carriers. (iii). There are two plates in the capacitor between which there is a dielectric material.
Working:- (i). The diode is operated under reverse bias conditions and this gives rise to three regions.
(ii). At either end of the diode are the P and N regions where current can be conducted. (iii). However
around the junction is the depletion region where no current carriers are available. (iv). As a result,
current can be carried in the P and N regions, but the depletion region is an insulator.
(v). The capacitance of a capacitor is dependent on a number of factors including
the plate area, the dielectric constant of the insulator between the plates and the distance between the
two plates. (vi). In the case of the varactor diode, it is possible to increase and decrease the width of the
depletion region by changing the level of the reverse bias voltage. (vii). If the distance between the two
plates of capacitor is increased then its capacitance reduces.
(viii). Opposite to it, if distance between the two plates is reduced than dielectric
between them will also reduce and due to which its capacity increases. (ix). When varactor diode is
reverse biased, then the neutral region between P and N layers increases and when the reverse biasing is
decreases then this neutral region is also decreased. (x). Finally, it is concluded that diode also has the
capacity like a capacitor. (xi). Varactor diodes are available from 20 pF To 500 pF value.
Q(48). Draw symbol of LED (Light Emitting Diode)?.
Q(49). Explain working principle & constructional details of LED?.
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Construction:- (i). LED is a semiconductor device having single P-N junction. (ii). It is a two terminal
device having anode (A) & cathode (K). (iii). There is a active region present between P & N regions.
(iv). LED’s are made up of gallium phosphide (GaP) for generating green light, gallium arsenide (GaAs)
for generating infrared radiation & silicon carbide(SiC) for generating yellow light.
Working:- (i). When LED is forward biased, then the electrons from N region will combine with holes
present in P region. (ii). But due to heavily doped P region majority of free electrons will reside in
conduction band. (iii). Hence this free electrons goes into high energy state (i.e. at conduction band) &
holes goes into lower energy state (i.e. at valence band).
(iv). But after the recombination, this electrons return back to the valence band i.e. at
lower energy state. (v). Hence by this way, when electrons come from higher state to lower energy state
they generates excess amount of energy in the form of light or radiaton. (vi). This process of LED is also
known as ‘Electroluminescence’. (vii). Hence on this principle LED’s generates light.
Q(50). State materials used for LED to emit different color light?.
(i). LED’s are made up of gallium phosphide (GaP) for generating green light, gallium arsenide (GaAs) for
generating infrared radiation & silicon carbide(SiC) for generating yellow light.
Q(51). Give two advantages & disadvantages of LED?.
Advantages:- (i). Small size, (ii). Light weight, (iii). Can generate different colors, (iv). Longer life,
(v). Operating speed is high, (vi). Portable device, (vii). Easy to interface, etc.
Disadvantages:- (i). Can be damaged easily, (ii). Need larger power, (iii). Efficiency is low, (iv). Can be
affected by temperature, etc.
Q(52). Give/List applications of LED’s?.
(i). In calculators, (ii). In digital watches, (iii). In display boards, (iv). In digital electronics circuits.
(v). In opto-couplers, (vi). In indicators, (vii). In alarm systems, (viii). In remote controls, etc.
Q(53). Compare PN junction diode & LED?.
PN junction diode LED

(i). Made up of Silicon or Germanium. (i). Made up of GaAs, GaAsP or GaP.
(ii). Reverse breakdown is high. (ii). Reverse breakdown is very low.
(iii). Voltage drop is 0.7V for Silicon & 0.3V for Germanium. (iii). Voltage drop is between 1.2V to 2V.
(iv). It can not emits light. (iv). It emits light.
(v). Used in rectifiers, clippers circuits, etc. (v). Used in optical fibres, indicators, etc.
(vi). Symbol. (vi). Symbol.
Q(54). Draw the symbol for photodiode?.

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Q(55). Explain construction & operation/working of photodiode?.
Construction:- (i). Photodiode is semiconductor device which is always operated in reverse biased
mode. (ii). It has a PN junction.(iii). It consists of Germanium material which is enclosed in a metal.
Working:- (i). Whenever a light (photon) falls on glass lens it then the value of reverse current
increases. (ii). Internally, there is a larger width depletion region& electron-holes pairs are present.
(iii). As soon as the photon rays strikes on the P type germanium material base, it generates electron-
holes pairs inside depletion region.
(iv). The generation of these pairs is totally depend on intensity of photons. (v). Then
electrons are attracted towards positive terminal of battery & holes are attracted towards negative
terminal of battery. (vi). Hence it generates a photo current there & this photocurrent is directly
proportional to light intensity.(vii). So, as light intensity increases then photocurrent also increases.
Q(56). Draw V-I characteristics of photodiode & define dark current& dark resistance?.
Dark current:- (i). It can be define as the current which flows due to thermally generated minority
carriers in the absence of light. (ii). Such current increases with increase in temperature.
Dark resitance:- (i). It defines as the resistance of photodiode in the absence of light.
Q(57). Give/List applications of photodiode?.
(i). In cameras, (ii). In photo detectors. (iii). In CD players, (iv). In fiber optic receivers. etc.
Q(58). Draw symbol of LASER (Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation)?.

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Q(59). Explain constructional details & working principle/operation of LASER diode?.
Construction;- As seen seen from the above diagram of LASER diode, there is a semiconductor material
in the form of Gallium Arsenide having P & N sides. This diode operates in forward bias condition.
Working:-(i). This LASER is special type of semiconductor material, it works in similar manner as LED.
(ii). i.e. when electrons travels from higher energy state to lower state they generates energy in the form
of light. (iii). This process is known as “spontaneous emission”. (iv). Further as we increases the value of
current then there will be more recombination of electrons & holes due to this photons (light) gets
emmited.
(v). Hence such photons started colliding with minority carriers such process is known as
“stimulation of minority carriers” (vi). In stimulated emission it is necessary that there will be large
number of excited electrons. (vi). Due to this more than one (i.e two) photons are released instead of
one& they travels in same direction. (vi). These photons have same frequency & energy level.
Q(60). Give/List applications of LASER diode?.
(i). In fiber optic communation, (ii). In infrared meters, (iii). In welding processes, (iv). In military
applications, (v). In medical applications. (vi). In automobile industries, (vii). For measuring long
distances. etc.
Q(61). Give applications of electronics?.
There are following applications of electronics,
(i). In automation industries, (ii). In medical laboratories, (iii). In aviation industries, (iv). In military,
(v). In agriculture, (vi). In robotics, (vii). In communication circuits, (viii). In power stations. etc.
******************************************* ALL THE BEST ***************************************

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Chapter No. 2. Rectifiers & Filters.
(i). Rectifier:- It converts alternating quantity (i.e. voltage or current) into direct quantity (i.e.
voltage or current).
(i). Inverter:- It converts direct quantity (i.e. voltage or current) into alternating quantity (i.e.
voltage or current).
(iii). Voltage Regulator:- It is used to obtain constant DC output voltage irrespective of
fluctuations/changes in load.
(iv). Center Tap:- In full wave rectifier it allows both half-cycles of the AC waveform to contribute
to the direct current, making it smoother than a half-wave rectifier.
Q(1). Define rectifier or state its principle?.
Rectifier:- It’s an electronic component which converts alternating quantity (i.e. voltage or
current) into direct quantity (i.e. voltage or current).
Q(2). State the need of rectifier?.
Basically rectification process is done to obtain DC output signal which is needful in many
electronics circuits. Hence such DC output signal can be obtained from AC input/source.
Q(3). List the types of rectifiers?.

Following are the types of rectifier circuits,
Rectifier
Half Wave Rectifier (HWR) Full Wave Rectifier (FWR)
Full Wave Centre Tapped Rectifier Full Wave Bridge Rectifier
Q(4). Explain the construction & working principle of Half Wave Rectifier with required
input & output waveforms?.
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Construction:- As seen from the above diagram, (i). The circuit needs a single phase 230V AC
supply. (ii). The positive terminal of diode ‘D’ is connected to one end of the secondary coil of
the step down transformer while negative terminal of the diode is connected to load resistance
‘RL’. (iii). One end of load resistance ‘RL’ is connected to other end of secondary coil of step down
transformer.(iv). The load voltage ’VL’ is to be measured across load resistance ‘RL’.
(v). The circuit contains two internal terminals namely i.e. terminal ‘A’ & terminal ‘B’.
Working Principle:-
(a). During Positive Half Cycle:- (i). The AC voltage which is to be rectified is applied to the primary
coil of the step down transformer. (ii). Then step down transformer reduces or converts the incoming
larger AC voltage into smaller voltage as per the requirement of the circuit. (iii). During positive half
cycle, the terminal ‘A’ becomes positive & terminal ‘B’ becomes negative. (iv). Hence as per the polarities
& position of the diode ‘D’ connected in the above circuit with respect to polarities of terminals ‘A’ & ‘B’,
we can say that the diode ‘D’ is in forward bias mode. (v). Hence diode ‘D’ starts conducting & due to this
there flow of load current ‘IL’ in the circuit. (vi). Hence path of load current ‘IL’ will be from terminal ‘A’
–diode ‘D’- load resistance ‘RL’- terminal ‘B’. (vii). Hence this current will flow only when the diode
‘D’ is in active state. (viii). Hence due to this, only half waveform is obtained during positive cycle of the
supply. (ix). So, finally we can say that, Vout =VL=Vin.
(b). During Negative Half Cycle:- (i). The AC voltage which is to be rectified is applied to the
primary coil of the step down transformer. (ii). Then step down transformer reduces or
converts the incoming larger AC voltage into smaller voltage as per the requirement of the
circuit. (iii). During negative half cycle, the terminal ‘A’ becomes negative & terminal ‘B’
becomes positive. (iv). Hence as per the polarities & position of the diode ‘D’ connected in the
above circuit with respect to polarities of terminals ‘A’ & ‘B’, we can say that the diode ‘D’ is in
reverse bias mode. (v). Hence diode ‘D’ does not starts conducting & due to this there will not
be flow of load current (IL) in the circuit. (vi). Hence as diode ‘D’ is in deactive state, no further
waveform is obtained during negative cycle of the supply. (ix). So, finally we can say that
Vout =VL= Vin=0.
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Q(5). Define Ripple Factor, Rectification Efficiency, % Regulation, TUF (Transformer
Utilization Factor), Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV) & Ripple frequency (‘Fr’) with respect to
the half wave rectifier?.
(a). Ripple Factor (i.e. ‘r’):- It indicates the closeness of the rectified output to the pure DC
output voltage. Also it can be defined as the ratio of R.M.S values of all AC components to the
Average values of DC output waveform. It is measured in terms of percentage (%).
(b). Rectification Efficiency (i.e. ‘Ƞ’):- It can be defined as the ratio of the DC output power to
the AC input power. It is measured in terms of percentage (%).
(c). % Regulation:- It can be defined as the percentage change in no load voltage (i.e. VNL) to
the full load voltage (VFL). It is measured in terms of percentage (%).
(d). Transformer Utilization Factor (TUF):- It can be defined as the ratio of DC output power
(i.e. PDC) to AC power rating of the transformer.
(e). Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV):- It can be defined as the maximum negative voltage
measured when the diode is in reverse bias mode or when the diode in non-conducting.
(f). Ripple frequency (‘Fr’):- It is always 50Hz & it is the frequency of the complete load
voltage waveform.
Q(6). Explain the construction & working principle of Center-Tapped Full Wave Rectifier
with required input & output waveforms?.
Construction:- As seen from the above diagram, (i). The circuit needs single phase 230V AC
supply. (ii). The positive terminal of diode ‘D1’ is connected to one end of the secondary coil of
the step down transformer while negative terminal of the diode ‘D1’ is connected to load
resistance ‘RL’. (iii). One end of load resistance ‘RL’ is connected to other end of secondary coil of
step down transformer. (iv). The circuit contains two internal terminals namely i.e. terminal ‘A’
& terminal ‘B’. (v). There are two diodes (i.e. D1 & D2) which are connected with ‘A’ & ‘B’
terminals of secondary transformer coil. (vi).The centre tap ‘C’ of the secondary coil is
connected to anode terminal of the diode ‘D2’ through load resistance ‘RL’.
Page 3 of 13
Working Principle:-
(a). During Positive Half Cycle:- (i). The AC voltage which is to be rectified is applied to the
circuit. . (iii). During positive half cycle, the terminal ‘A’ becomes positive & terminal ‘B’
becomes negative. (iv). Hence as per the polarities & position of the diode ‘D1’ & diode ‘D2’
connected in the above circuit with respect to polarities of terminals ‘A’ & ‘B’ we can say that,
the diode ‘D1’ is in forward bias mode (i.e. D1 becomes ‘ON’) & diode ‘D2’ is in reverse bias
mode (i.e. D2 becomes ‘OFF’). (v). Hence diode ‘D1’ starts conducting & due to this there flow of
load current ‘IL’ in the circuit. (vi). Hence path of load current ‘IL’ will be from terminal ‘A’ –
diode ‘D1’- load resistance ‘RL’- centre tap terminal ‘C’.
(vii). Full-wave rectification converts both polarities of the input
waveform to DC (direct current) (viii). It gives a higher mean output voltage. (ix). In such
circuits the value of the load current ‘IL’ in both half cycles is positive. (x). The output voltage is
available in both half cycles. (xi). Due to purely resistive circuit the shape of waveform in case
load voltage ‘VL’ & load current ‘IL’ are same. (xii). The main purpose to use the center tapped
transformer is that, it allows both half-cycles of the AC waveform to contribute to the direct
current, making it smoother than a half-wave rectifier. (xiii).The life cycle of waveforms during
such condition is in between ‘0’ to ‘π’ radians.
circuit. . (iii). During negative half cycle, the terminal ‘A’ becomes negative & terminal ‘B’
becomes positive. (iv). Hence as per the polarities & position of the diode ‘D1’ & diode ‘D2’
connected in the above circuit with respect to polarities of terminals ‘A’ & ‘B’ we can say that
the diode ‘D1’ is in reverse bias mode (i.e. D1 becomes ‘OFF’) & diode ‘D2’ is in forward bias
mode (i.e. D2 becomes ‘ON’). (v). Hence diode ‘D2’ starts conducting & due to this there flow of
load current ‘IL’ in the circuit. (vi). Hence path of load current ‘IL’ will be from terminal ‘B’ –
diode ‘D2’- load resistance ‘RL’- centre tap terminal ‘C’.
(vii). Full-wave rectification converts both polarities of the input
waveform to DC (direct current) (viii). It gives a higher mean output voltage. (ix). In such
circuits the value of the load current ‘IL’ in both half cycles is positive. (x). Note that even if the
cycle is negative, but the direction of load current ‘IL’ is same as that of positive half cycle, hence
the load current is positive. (xi). Due to purely resistive circuit, the shape of waveform in case
load voltage ‘VL’ & load current ‘IL’ are same. (xii). The main purpose to use the center tapped
transformer is that, it allows both half-cycles of the AC waveform to contribute to the direct
current, making it smoother than a half-wave rectifier. (xiii). The life cycle of waveforms during
such condition is in between ‘π’ to ‘2π’ radians.
Page 4 of 13
Q(7). Explain construction & working principle of Full Wave Bridge Rectifier & also draw
its required input & output waveforms?.
Construction:- As seen from the above diagram, (i). The circuit needs single phase 230V AC supply.
(ii). There are 4 diodes are connected in the circuit namely D1, D2, D3 & D4. (iii). The load resistance ‘RL’
is connected between terminals ‘B’ & ‘D’.(iv). The circuit contains two internal terminals namely i.e.
terminal ‘S1’ & terminal ‘S2’. (v). There is a formation of bridge by connecting all diodes together.
Working Principle:-
(a). During Positive Half Cycle:- (i). The AC voltage which is to be rectified is applied to the
circuit. (iii). During positive half cycle, the terminal ‘S1’ becomes positive & terminal ‘S2’
becomes negative. (iv). Hence as per the polarities & position of the diodes D1,D2,D3 & D4
connected in the above circuit with respect to polarities of terminals ‘S1’ & ‘S2’ we can say that,
the diode ‘D1’ & diode ‘D2’ is in forward bias mode (i.e. D1 & D2 becomes ‘ON’) also diode ‘D3’
& diode ‘D4’ is in reverse bias mode (i.e. D3 & D4 becomes ‘OFF’).
(v). Hence diodes ‘D1’ & ‘D2’ starts conducting & due to this there flow of load
current ‘IL’ in the circuit. (vi). Hence path of load current ‘IL’ will be from terminal ‘S1’ -
terminal ‘A’–diode ‘D1’- terminal ‘B’-load resistance ‘RL’- terminal ‘D’-diode ‘D2’-
terminal ‘C’- terminal ‘S2’. (vii). The life cycle of waveforms during such condition is in
between ‘0’ to ‘π’ radians.
circuit. (iii). During negative half cycle, the terminal ‘S1’ becomes negative & terminal ‘S2’
becomes positive. (iv). Hence as per the polarities & position of the diodes D1,D2,D3 & D4
connected in the above circuit with respect to polarities of terminals ‘S1’ & ‘S2’ we can say that,
the diode ‘D3’ & diode ‘D4’ is in forward bias mode (i.e. D3 & D4 becomes ‘ON’) also diode ‘D1’
& diode ‘D2’ is in reverse bias mode (i.e. D1 & D2 becomes ‘OFF’).
(v). Hence diodes ‘D3’ & ‘D4’ starts conducting & due to this there flow of
load current ‘IL’ in the circuit. (vi). Hence path of load current ‘IL’ will be from terminal ‘S2’ -
terminal ‘C’–diode ‘D3’- terminal ‘B’-load resistance ‘RL’- terminal ‘D’-diode ‘D4’- terminal
‘A’- terminal ‘S1’. (vii). The life cycle of waveforms during such condition is in between ‘π’ to
‘2π’ radians.
Page 5 of 13
Q(8). Compare/write differences between Half Wave Rectifier, Full Wave Rectifier &
Bridge Rectifier?.
Half Wave Rectifier Full Wave Rectifier Bridge Rectifier

(1). Number of diodes (1). Number of diodes (1). Number of diodes
required is 1. required is 2. required is 4.
(2). Ripple factor is poor. (2). Ripple factor is better. (2). Ripple factor is better.
(3). Ripple frequency is 50Hz. (3). Ripple frequency is (3). Ripple frequency is
100Hz. 100Hz.
(4). Center tap transformer is (4). Center tap transformer is (4).Center tap transformer is
not required. required. not required.
(5). Efficiency is good. (5). Efficiency is better. (5).Efficiency is better.
(6). Circuit diagram of HWR. (6). Circuit diagram of FWR. (6). Circuit diagram of BR.
(7). Waveform of HWR. (7). Waveform of FWR. (7). Waveform of BR.
(8). TUF is 28.7% (8). TUF is 69.2% (8). TUF is 81.2%
(9). Average output (9). Average output (9). Average output
voltage=Vm/ᴨ voltage=2Vm/ᴨ voltage=2Vm/ᴨ
(10). R.M.S. output (10). R.M.S. output (10). R.M.S. output
voltage=Vm/2 voltage=Vm/√2 voltage=Vm/√2
(11). Average load (11). Average load (11). Average load
current=Im/ ᴨ current=2Im/ ᴨ current=2Im/ ᴨ
(12). R.M.S. load (12). R.M.S. load (12). R.M.S. load
current=Im/2 current=Im/√2 current=Im/√2
(13). Max. Efficiency is 40%. (13). Max. Efficiency is (13). Max. Efficiency is
81.2%. 81.2%.
(14). Ripple factor is 121%. (14). Ripple factor is 48%. (14). Ripple factor is 48%.
Q(9). Define filter? & explain why filter circuits are necessary?
(i). In electronic circuit theory, a filter is an electrical network that alters the amplitude and/or
phase characteristics of a signal with respect to frequency. (ii). Filter circuit’s gives ripple/error
free DC output. (iii). Filter circuits also removes any AC variations present in DC signals. (iv). It
produces smoothened or filtered output. (v). Hence so as to receive such proper output signal,
filter circuits are always connected at the output of rectifier.
Page 6 of 13
Q(10).List/Give the types of Filters?.
(i). LC filter, (ii). RC filter, (iii). Inductive filter, (iv). Capacitor filter, (v). Pi (ᴨ) type filter.
Q(11). Draw & explain shunt capacitor circuit of a Full Wave Rectifier (FWR)?. OR
Q(12). Which filter is practically preferred to get pure DC output? & Also draw the circuit
diagram of the same?. OR
Q(13). Explain the working of shunt capacitive input filter with required waveforms?.
Construction:- (i). As seen from the above diagram of FWR, we have used the shunt capacitive
filter at the output. (ii). This shunt capacitive filter is denoted by ‘C’. (iii). The name ‘shunt’ is
given because it is connected in parallel/across the load applied (RL).
Working Principle:- The working principle can be explained as follows,
(a). During Interval ‘0’ to ‘A’:- (i). During this interval, in first positive half cycle of the supply,
as per the polarities & positions of the diodes connected, the diode ‘D1’ becomes forward bias &
diode ‘D2’ becomes reverse biased. (ii). Hence diode ‘D1’ provides charging current for
capacitor ‘C’. (iii). As soon as the capacitor ‘C’ gets this charging pulse it starts charging itself to
maximum or peak value of secondary voltage (i.e. ‘Vm’). (iv). Hence voltage across capacitor
(i.e. ‘Vc’) will be equal to ‘Vm’ (i.e. ‘Vc’=’Vm’). (v). But after interval ‘A’ the secondary voltage
‘Vm’ starts reducing. (vi). This will reverse biases the diode ‘D1’ (i.e. D1 becomes OFF).
(vi). Hence capacitor ‘C’ further discharges.
Page 7 of 13
(b). During Interval ‘A’ to ‘B’:- (i). During this interval, the diode ‘D1’ & ‘D2’ becomes turned
‘OFF’. (ii). The voltage across the capacitor ‘Vc’ becomes higher than the rectified/secondary
output voltage ‘Vm’. (iii). Then the resulting capacitor starts discharging through load
resistance ‘RL’.
(c). During Interval ‘B’ to ‘C’:- (i). During this interval, i.e. during negative half cycle of the
supply, diode ‘D2’ starts conducting hence due to this the capacitor starts charging itself.
(ii). The rectified output voltage i.e. ‘Vm’ becomes equal to voltage across capacitor i.e. ‘Vc’.
(i.e. ‘Vm’=’Vc’). (iii). After interval ‘B’, ‘Vc’ becomes greater than ‘Vm’. (iv). Then the
corresponding diode current ‘Id’ starts decreasing.
(d). During Interval ‘C’ to ‘D’:- (i). During this interval, the diode ‘D1’ & ‘D2’ again becomes
turned ‘OFF’. (ii). The voltage across the capacitor i.e. ‘Vc’ becomes higher than the rectified
output voltage i.e. ‘Vm’. (iii). Then the resulting capacitor ‘C’ starts discharging through load
resistance ‘RL’. (iv). The resulting waveforms of secondary voltage ‘Vm’ & capacitor voltage ‘Vc’
becomes equal.
The capacitive type filter gives better results for lower value of loads & hence the
capacitive type filter is always connected in parallel with load resistance & also it reduces
ripples present in load voltage.
Q(14). Give the advantages of capacitive input filter?. OR

Q(15). Why capacitor input filter is preferred over choke input filter?.
(i). Size is smaller, (ii). Lower cost, (iii). Design is easier, (iv). Gives error free DC voltage,
(v). Increases load voltage.
Q(16). Draw & explain shunt capacitor circuit of a Half Wave Rectifier (HWR)?. OR
Q(17). Draw & explain the working of capacitor filter of HWR with required waveforms?.
Page 8 of 13
Construction:- (i). As seen from the above diagram of HWR, we have used the shunt capacitive
filter at the output. (ii). This shunt capacitive filter is denoted by ‘C’. (iii). The name ‘shunt’ is
given because it is connected in parallel/across the load applied (RL).
Working Principle:- The working principle can be explained as follows,
(a). During Interval ‘0’ to ‘A’:- (i). During this interval, in first positive half cycle of the supply,
As per the polarities & positions of the diode connected, the diode ‘D’ becomes forward bias
(ii). Hence diode ‘D’ provides charging current for capacitor ‘C’. (iii). As soon as the capacitor
gets this charging pulse it starts charging itself to maximum or peak value of secondary voltage
(i.e. ‘Vm’). (iv). Hence voltage across capacitor (i.e. ‘Vc’) will be equal to ‘Vm’ (i.e. ‘Vc’=’Vm’).
(v). But after interval ‘A’ the secondary voltage ‘Vm’ starts reducing. (vi). This will reverse
biases the diode ‘D’ (i.e. Diode becomes OFF). (vii). Hence capacitor further discharges.
(b). During Interval ‘A’ to ‘B’:- (i). During this interval, the diode ‘D’ becomes turned ‘OFF’.
(ii). The voltage across the capacitor ‘Vc’ becomes higher than the rectified/secondary output
voltage ‘Vm’. (iii). Then the resulting capacitor starts discharging through load resistance ‘RL’.
(c). During Interval ‘B’ to ‘C’:- (i). During this interval, diode ‘D’ starts conducting hence due to
this the capacitor starts charging itself. (ii). The rectified output i.e. ‘Vm’ becomes equal to
voltage across capacitor i.e. ‘Vc’. (i.e. ‘Vm’=’Vc’).
(d). During Interval ‘C’ to ‘D’:- (i). During this interval, the diode ‘D’ again becomes turned
‘OFF’. (ii). The voltage across the capacitor ‘Vc’ becomes higher than the rectified/secondary
output voltage ‘Vm’. (iii). Then the resulting capacitor starts discharging through load
resistance ‘RL’. (iv). The resulting waveforms of secondary voltage ‘Vm’ & capacitor voltage ‘Vc’
becomes equal.
The capacitive type filter gives better results for lower value of loads & hence
the capacitive type filter is always connected in parallel with load resistance & also it reduces
ripples present in load voltage.
Q(18). Draw the circuit diagram of series induction filter circuit?.

Q(19). Draw the circuit diagram of L-type filter circuit & state the function of each
components used in the circuit?.
Page 9 of 13
Construction:- (i). As seen from the above diagram of FWR, we have used the series induction
filter at the output. (ii). This series induction filter is denoted by ‘L’. (iii). The name ‘series’ is
given because it is connected in series with the load applied (RL).
Working Principle:- (i). The L-type or series induction filter is always connected in series
with load resistance ‘RL’. (ii). This filter avoids higher output signals entering into load (iii). It
also it reduces ripples/errors present in load current ‘IL’. (iv). This ‘L’-type filter gives better
results for higher value of loads & functions well with larger value of current.
(vi). Also we know that inductor opposes any changes happen in current
due to presence of back e.m.f. in it. (vii). If we connect inductor in parallel with load resistance
then higher range output signal may damage the load resistance ‘RL’. (viii). When this value of
‘L’ is greater, then the pulses of current are smoothened & made to flow for larger durations
with reduced amplitude. (ix). Hence such circuits are useful for giving sharper/smoothened
output.
Q(20). Draw the waveforms of input, output at the series inductive filter of a FWR?.
Q(21). Draw the circuit diagram of Half Wave Rectifier with choke input filter & explain
the same?.
Construction:- (i). As seen from the above diagram of HWR, we have used the series induction
filter at the output. (ii). This series induction filter is denoted by ‘L’. (iii). The name ‘series’ is
given because it is connected in series with the load applied ‘RL’.
Please refer the question numbers 18 & 19 for working principle.
Page 10 of 13
Q(22). Write difference between ‘L’ type Filter & ‘C’ type Filter?.
Q(23). Compare series induction & shunt capacitor filter circuits?.
‘L’ type filter ‘C’ type filter

(i). Preferred for lower value of load (i). Preferred for higher value of load
resistance (RL). resistance (RL).
(ii). Connected in series with load. (ii). Connected in parallel with load.
(iii). Reduces ripples from load current. (iii). Reduces ripples from load voltage
(iv). Better for heavy loads. (iv). Better for lighter loads.
(v). Size is small & compact. (v). Size is larger & extended.
(vi). Ripple Factor= 1/(4√2*F*C*R) (vi). Ripple Factor= 1/(3√2*W*L)
(vii). Circuit diagram. (vii). Circuit diagram.
(viii). Better voltage regulation. (viii). Voltage regulation is poor.
(ix). Used in high current applications. (ix). Used in charging applications.
Q(24). Explain the operation of Center–Tapped Full Wave Rectifier with LC filter circuit?
Also draw the required waveforms?.
Construction:- (i). As seen from the above diagram of FWR, we have used the shunt capacitive
filter & series induction filter (i.e. LC filter) at the output. (ii). This LC filter is denoted by ‘L’ &
‘C’. (iii). The name ‘LC filter’ is given because it is connected at the output with the load applied
(RL). (iv). There is a bleeder resistance ‘RB’ is present at the output.
Working Principle:- (i). It is found that the ripple/error factor increases with increase in value
of load resistance ‘RL’. (ii). A combination of these two filters makes ripple/error factor
independent of load resistance ‘RL’. (iii). The ‘L’ type filter is always connected in series with
load resistance so as to avoid higher output signals entering into load (iv). It also reduces
ripples/errors present in load current ‘IL’. (v). This ‘L’ type filter gives better results for higher
value of loads & functions well with larger current.
(vi). Also we know that inductor ‘L’ opposes any changes happen in
current due to presence of back e.m.f. in it. (vii). If we connects inductor ‘L’ in parallel with load
resistance ‘RL’ then higher range output signal may damage the load resistance ‘RL’. (viii). But
when the value of ‘L’ is greater, then the pulses of current are smoothened & made to flow for
larger durations with reduced amplitude. (ix). The ‘C’ type filter is always connected in parallel
with load resistance ‘RL’ & also it reduces ripples present in load voltage ‘VL’. (x). This ‘C’ type
Page 11 of 13
filter gives better results for lower value of loads. (x). Hence we have used ‘LC’ filter for better
ripple free outputs. (xi). In above circuit we have connected bleeder resistance ‘RB’ in parallel
with the load resistance ‘RL’. (xii). Hence it provides minimum/continuous value of current.
(xiii). It is also used to maintain voltage below PIV rating of rectifier. (xiv). Hence by this way
this circuit is designed for better voltage regulation & thus output becomes sharper.
Q(25). State/List the advantages of LC filter?.
(i). It gives smoothened output voltage. (ii). It gives ripple/error free output signal. (iii). It is
suitable for high as well as lower value of loads. (iv). Damaging of diodes is prevented. (v). It
gives better voltage regulation.
Q(26). Draw & explain the operation of Bridge Rectifier with LC type filter circuit also
draw its required waveforms?.
Construction:- (i). As seen from the above diagram of Bridge rectifier, we have used the shunt
capacitive filter & series induction filter (i.e. LC filter) at the output. (ii). This ‘LC’ filter is denoted
by ‘L’ & ‘C’. (iii). The name ‘LC filter’ is given because it is connected at the output with the load
applied ‘RL’. (iv). There is a bleeder resistance ‘RB’ is present at the output.
Please refer the question number 24 for working principle.
Q(27). Draw & explain the operation of Full Wave Bridge Rectifier circuit with ᴨ (i.e. pi)
type or CLC type filter circuit?.
Q(28). Draw ᴨ (i.e. pi) type or CLC type filter circuit & also draw its input & output
waveforms?.
Page 12 of 13
Construction:- (i). As seen from the diagram of full wave bridge rectifier circuit with ᴨ (pi) type
or CLC type filter circuit there are mainly two number of capacitors (i.e. C1 & C2) & one
inductor component (i.e. L) is required. (ii). The inductor ‘L’ is connected in between two
capacitors. (iii). The capacitors are connected across the load resistance ‘RL’. (iv). The name ᴨ
(pi) type or CLC type is given because this structure is made by the combination two capacitors
& one inductor by connecting together.
Please refer the question number 24 for working principle.
Q(29). State the formula for ripple factor for ᴨ (i.e. pi) type or CLC type filter circuit &
Also state its dependence on load?.
The formula for ripple factor in case of full wave rectifier is:- (r) =1/(2√3(w²*L*C1*C2*RL)).
The formula for ripple factor in case of half wave rectifier is:- (r) =1/(√3(w²*L*C1*C2*RL)).
Dependence of ripple factor on load:- As observed from the above relation we can say load
resistance ‘RL’ is inversely proportional to ripple factor (r). Hence (pi) type or CLC type filter
circuit is mainly designed for lighter loads & not suitable for heavy loads.
***************************************** ALL THE BEST ************************************
Page 13 of 13
Chapter No. 3. Transistor.
Points to Remember……
(i). Voltage Gain:- It is defined as the ratio of output voltage (Vo) to the input voltage (Vi).
(ii). Current Gain:- It is defined as the ratio of output current (Io) to the input current (Ii).
(iii). Power Gain:- It is defined as the ratio of output power (Po) to the input power (Pi).
(iv). Base:- (i). It acts as a control terminal. (ii). It is lightly doped. (iii). It is thin in size.
(v). Emitter:- (i). It acts as a source/origin for majority carriers. (ii). It is heavily doped.
(vi). Collector:- (i). It acts as a collector for majority carriers. (ii). It is also heavily doped.
(vii). Amplification:- It is the process of raising the strength of weak signal without changing its
general shape.
Q(1). Define transistor?.
(i). Transistor is a three terminal device. (ii). Having three terminals as emitter, base & collector.
(iii). The term ‘Transistor’ was derived from the words TRANSfer and resISTOR. (iv). It
describes the transfer of an input signal current from a low-resistance circuit to a high resistance
circuit. (v). Hence it can be used for an amplification purpose. (vi). Basically, Transistor is an
electronic device composed of layers of a semiconductor material. (vii). It regulates current or
voltage flow and acts as a switch or gate for many electronic circuits.
Q(2). Why transistor is called as ‘Bipolar Junction Transistor’?.
(i). Because in case of transistors, the conduction takes place due to both type of charge carriers
i.e. electrons & holes. (ii). Hence it is also called as ‘Bipolar Transistor’ or ‘Bipolar Junction
Transistor’.
Q(3). Give the types of transistors & also draw their symbols?.
There are mainly two types of transistors,

(i). P-N-P Transistor, (ii). N-P-N Transistor, The required symbols are as given below,
Page | 1
*Basic Electronics NOTES By, Er. Swapnil V. Kaware (svkaware@yahoo.co.in)*
Q(4). Give the names of four operating regions of transistor?.
Q(5). Explain construction & working principle of BJT or N-P-N Transistor?.

Q(6). Give the size & doping concentration of each region in case of BJT?.
Construction:- (i). As seen from the above diagram of NPN transistor, there are mainly three terminals i.e.
emitter, base & collector. (ii). The negative supply of battery is connected to N type emitter & positive
supply of battery is connected to N type collector. (iii). The above NPN transistor is formed by combining
two N type semiconductors & between them there is a single P type semiconductor. (iv). There are two
battery supply present namely VEE & VCC.
Working:- (i). As per the positions & polarities of the battery supply connected with the NPN transistor we
can say that, the Emitter-Base junction is forward bias & Base-Collector junction is reverse biased. (ii). So,
width of the depletion region for E-B junction becomes very small & width of the depletion region for B-C
region becomes very large. (iii). As soon as we gives the battery supply to the circuit, the electrons from N
type emitter terminal started travelling towards P type base terminal.
(iv). Also we know that, base terminal is very thin & lightly doped as compared to
emitter terminal. (v). So, majority of electrons from N type emitter terminal recombine with minority of
holes present in P type base terminal. (vi). As a result, such a smaller recombination of electrons & holes
creates base current IB. (vii). Typically 2% of the electrons flow/comes out from the base terminal because
base terminal is lightly doped (i.e. it contains very few holes).
(viii). Hence this base current (IB) is about 2% of emitter current IE. (ix). Remaining
98% of electrons & holes crosses the reverse biased B-C junction. (x). This operation creates the collector
current known as IC. (xi). Hence this collector current (IC) is about 98% of emitter current IE. (xii). Hence
finally we can say that, the emitter current IE is combination of base current IB & collector current IC.
Page | 2
(xiii). The collector current IC is much larger as compared to base current IB. (xiv). The majority of carriers
in NPN transistor are electrons. (xv). Therefore, IE=IB+IC.
Q(7). Explain construction & working principle of BJT or P-N-P Transistor?.
Construction:- (i). As seen from the above diagram of PNP transistor, there are mainly three terminals i.e.
emitter, base & collector. (ii). The positive supply of battery is connected to P type emitter & negative
supply of battery is connected to P type collector. (iii). The above PNP transistor is formed by combining
two P type semiconductors & between them there is a single N type semiconductor. (iv). There are two
battery supply present namely VEE & VCC.
Working:- (i). As per the positions & polarities of the battery supply connected with the PNP transistor
we can say that, the Emitter-Base junction is forward bias & Base-Collector junction is reverse biased.
(ii). So width of the depletion region for E-B junction becomes very small & width of the depletion region
for B-C region becomes very large. (iii). As soon as we gives the battery supply to the circuit, the holes
from P type emitter terminal started travelling towards N type base terminal.
(iv). Also we know that, base terminal is very thin & lightly doped as compared to
emitter terminal. (v). So, majority of holes from P type emitter terminal recombine with minority of
electrons present in N type base terminal. (vi). As a result, such a smaller recombination of holes &
electrons creates base current IB. (vii). Typically 2% of the holes flow/comes out from the base terminal
because base terminal is lightly doped (i.e. it contains very few electrons). (viii). Hence this base current
(IB) is about 2% of emitter current IE. (ix). Remaining 98% of electrons & holes crosses the reverse biased
B-C junction. (x). This operation creates the collector current known as IC.
(xi). Hence this collector current (IC) is about 98% of emitter current IE. (xii). Hence
finally we can say that, the emitter current IE is combination of base current IB & collector current IC.
(xiii). The collector current IC is much larger as compared to base current IB. (xiv). The majority of
carriers in PNP transistor are holes. (xv). Therefore, IE=IB+IC.
Q(8). State the different configurations of transistor?.
(i). Common Base (or C-B) configuration, (ii). Common Emitter (or C-E) configuration, (iii). Common
Collector (or C-C) configuration,
Page | 3
Q(9). Explain/Draw the circuit diagram of Common-Base (CB) configuration of transistor?.
OR
Q(10). Define α of transistor?.
(i). As seen from the above diagram, The base terminal is common between input terminal and output
terminal. (ii). Hence the given transistor is said to be in CB configuration. (iii). In CB configuration, the
input is connected between emitter and base terminals and output is taken across collector and
base terminals. (iv). Also base terminal is common to both supply voltages i.e. VEE & VCC.
(v). As the transistor used is NPN type, hence The EB junction is forward biased
and CB junction is reverse biased. (vi). Hence IE is the input emitter current, IC is the output collector
current. (vii). As we have provided the input voltage to the emitter & base terminals hence VEB is the
input violtage. (viii). As output voltage is taken across collector & base terminal hence VCB is the required
output voltage. (ix). So the current gain (α) or current amplification factor is given by, (α)=IC/IE also
IC=(α)*IE. (x). The value of (α) is very small i.e. should be equal to 1 (from 0.95 to 0.99).
(xi). As value of IE deccreses the resulting value of IC also decreases to 0. (xii). There is a
another current present known as reverse saturation current denoted as ICB which flows due to minority
carriers at IE=0. (xiii). This current can be neglected practically. (xiv). Hence during this condition the
reverse/leackage/minority current will flow i.e. ICB also called as cutoff current from collector to base
terminal at IE=0. (xv). Hence finally we can also say that, IC=(α) * IE+ICB.
Q(11). Explain/Draw the circuit diagram of Common-Emitter (CE) configuration of

transistor?. OR
Q(12). Define β of transistor?.
(i). As seen from the above diagram, The Emitter terminal is common between input terminal
and output terminal. (ii). Hence the given transistor is said to be in CE configuration. (iii). In CE
configuration, the input is connected between emitter and base terminals and output is taken
across emitter & collector terminals. (iv). Also emitter terminal is common to both supply
voltages i.e. VBB & VCC. (v). As the transistor used is PNP type, hence The BE junction is forward
Page | 4
biased and CE junction is reverse biased. (vi). Hence IB is the input base current, IC is the output collector
current. (vii). As we have provided the input voltage to the emitter & base terminals hence V EB is the
input voltage. (viii). As output voltage is taken across collector & emitter terminals hence VCE is the
required output voltage. (ix). So the current gain (β) or current amplification factor is given by,
(β)=IC/IB also IC=( β)*IB. (x). The value of (β) is very small i.e. should be equal to 1 (from 0.95 to 0.99).
(xi). As value of IB deccreses the resulting value of IC also decreases to 0.
(xii). There is a another current present known as reverse saturation current denoted as
ICE which flows due to minority carriers at IB=0. (xiii). This current can be neglected practically. (xiv).
Hence during this condition the reverse/leackage/minority current will flow i.e. ICE also called as cutoff
current from collector to emitter at IB=0. (xv). Hence finally we can also say that, IC=( β) * IB+ICE.
Q(13). Express/Derive the relation between α & β with respect to BJT?. OR

Q(14). With reference to transistor derive the expression α= β/(β+1).
Q(15). Draw & explain the input & output characteristics of CE configuration transistor?. OR
Q(16). Show various/all the regions with repect to input & output characteristics of CE
configuration transistor?.
Fig(a). Input Characteristics Fig(b). Output Characteristics
Please refer the question numbers 11 for explanation.
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Please refer the question number 4 for explanation regarding various regions.
Q(17). Explain/Draw the circuit diagram of Common-Collector (CC) configuration of

transistor?. OR
Q(18). Draw emitter follower circuit using BJT?.
(i). As seen from the above diagram, The collector terminal is common between input terminal and output
terminal. (ii). Hence the given transistor is said to be in CC configuration. (iii). In CC configuration, the
input is connected between collector and base terminals and output is taken across collector and emitter
terminals. (iv). Also collector terminal is common to both supply voltages i.e. VBB & VCC. (v). As the
transistor used is NPN type, hence The CB junction is forward biased and CE junction is reverse biased.
(vi). Hence IB is the input base current, IE is the output emitter current. (vii). As we
have provided the input voltage to the collector & base terminals hence VCB is the input voltage. (viii). As
output voltage is taken across collector & emitter terminal hence VCE is the required output voltage.
(vii). So the current gain (γ) or current amplification factor is given by, (γ)=IE/IB also IE=( γ)*IB.
(viii). The value of (γ) is very small i.e. should be equal to 1 (from 0.95 to 0.99).
(ix). As value of IB deccreses the resulting value of IE also decreases to 0. (x). There is
a another current present known as reverse saturation current denoted as ICB which flows due to
minority carriers at IE=0. (xi). This current can be neglected practically. (xii). Hence during this condition
the reverse/leackage/minority current will flow i.e. ICB also called as cutoff current from collector to base
terminal at IE=0. (xiii). Hence finally we can also say that,
IE=( γ)*IB+ICB.
Q(19). Express/Derive the relation between α ,β & γ with respect to BJT?.
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Q(20). Compare CE, CB & CC configurations of transistors or BJT?.
CE Configuration CB Configuration CC Configuration

(i). Emitter terminal is (i). Base terminal is (i). Collector terminal is
common. common. common.
(ii). Input resistance is low. (ii). Input resistance is very (ii). Input resistance is High.
low.
(iii). Output resistance is (iii). Output resistance is (iii). Output resistance is
very high. High. Low.
(iv). Current gain (β)=IC/IB. (iv). Current (α)=IC/IE. (iv). Current gain (γ)=IE/IB.
(v). Voltage gain is medium. (v). Voltage gain is medium. (v). Voltage gain is less than
1.
(vi). Input current is IB. (vi). Input current is IE. (vi). Input current is IB.
(vii). Output current is IC. (vii). Output current is IC. (vii). Output current is IE.
(viii). Input voltage is VBE. (viii). Input voltage is VBE. (viii). Input voltage is VBC.
(ix). Output voltage is VCE. (ix). Output voltage is VCB. (ix). Output voltage is VCB.
(x). Used as a voltage (x). Used as a low noise (x). Used as a Voltage buffer
amplifiers. amplifiers. amplifier.
(xi). Phase shift between Vi (xi. Phase shift between Vi & (xi). Phase shift between Vi
& Vo is 180°. Vo is 0. & Vo is 0.
Q(21). List/Give any four important specifications of transistor or BJT?.
(i). α, (ii). β, (iii). γ, (iv). VCE(max), (v). VCE(sat), (vi). VCE(breakdown), (vii). Ic(max), (viii). Power
Dissipation.
Q(22). Give/List the applications of transistors/BJT?.
(i). As a electronic switch, (ii). As an amplifier, (iii). In oscillators, (iv). In timer circuits,
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(v). In digital circuits, (vi). In logic circuits. (vii). As a low noise amplifier.
Q(23). Explain/Describe the operation/working principle of transistor as a switch?.
For transistor to be acts as a switch then it should be operated in saturation region (for switch
‘ON’) & in cutoff region (for switch ‘OFF’).
(i). Transistor as a ‘open switch’:- (i). Hence for transistor to be switched ‘OFF’ i.e. open switch,
it should operate in cutoff region. (ii). In cutoff region, the collector to base junction should be
reversed biased & base to emitter junction also should be reversed biased. (iii). As both junctions
are reversed biased so hence reverse saturation current will flow in the given circuit. (iv). Due to
this the voltage drop across the collector to emitter junction should be very high. (v). So, no
current will exists during this condition (vi). i.e. Ic=0 & IB=0 hence VcE=Vcc. Hence transistor
acts as an open switch.
(ii). Transistor as a ‘closed switch’:- (i). Hence for transistor to be switched ‘ON’ i.e. closed switch, it
should operate in saturation region. (ii). In saturation region the collector to base junction should be
forward biased & base to emitter junction also should be forward biased. (iii). As both junctions are
forward biased so hence forward current should flow in the given circuit. (iv). Due to this, the voltage
drop across the collector to emitter junction should be very less (i.e. from 0.2V to 1V) (v). Hence the
resulting value of collector current (Ic) becomes very large. (vii). Hence transistor acts as a closed switch.
Q(24). Explain/State the need of biasing in transistor?.

(i). Biasing is the process to connect the transistor with external DC power supply. Such external
DC power supply should be connected with correct polarity & magnitude for better outputs.
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Q(25). Describe the concept of DC load line & also state its importance?.
(i). DC load line means we have to apply only DC signal at the input. (ii). Such DC load line should
be drawn under the DC operating conditions only. (iii). The slope of such DC load lines is always
depends on value of load resistance ‘RL’. (iv). The DC load line is important in showing location of
quiscent point (i.e. Q-Point). (v). The DC load line is nothing but the set of infinite numbers.
Q(26). What is meant by ‘Q point’ or ‘Operating point’ or ‘Bias point’?.
(i). It is defined as the point present on DC load line which indicates a DC current & voltage
obtained across the transistor when no AC signalis applied. (ii). Such operating point can be
chosen among various points present on DC load line. (iii). Hence by this way it is used to
represent a DC biasing condition.
Q(27). State the position of Q point on DC load line?. OR

Q(28). State/Show the co-ordinates of operating point Q?.
Q(29). Draw DC load line on output characteristics of BJT & show different points on DC
load line?.
Q(30). State stabilization & also state the need of stabilization of ‘Q’ point?. OR
Q(31). Explain/Describe the need of bias stabilization?.
(i). Basically to avoid the fluctuations or changes occured in positions of Q point, due to change in
temperature or device to device variations. (ii). We should maintain or stabilize the position of the Q point
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or bias point. (iii). Because if due to excess temperature if such Q point gets shifted towards saturation or
cutoff region then the resulting amplified waveform will gets distorted. (iv). Hence to avoid such action or
to maintain operating point independent on temperature there is a need of stabilization. (v). The main
purpose behind transistor biasing is that, to keep emitter-base junction as forward biased & base-
collector as reversed biased during the application of signal. (vi). Biasing is also helpful for gettting proper
values of Ic & VBE & VcE. (vii).Hence biasing increases the strength of weak signal.
Q(32). What is stability factor of biasing point & also give its significance?.
Basically the stability factor (‘S’) depends on following parameters,

(i). Voltage flowing from base to emitter (i.e. VBE),
(ii). Leakage current (i.e. ICO), (iii). Current amplification factor (i.e. βDC).
Q(34). List the different biasing circuits/methods of transistor?.

Q(35). List types of biasing & Also state which biasing circuit is widely used in transistor?.
Following are the required biasing methods,

(i). Voltage divider biasing, (ii). Emitter biasing, (iii). Base biasing with emitter feedback, (iv). Fixed
biasing, (v). Base biasing with collector feedback.
The popular or widely used biasing method is “voltage divider biasing”.
Q(36). State the different steps to be taken to design the transistor biasing & stabilizing circuit?.
Consider the following required steps for designing transistor,

Step 1:- Draw the required base circuit.
Step 2:- Calculate value of base current (‘IB’) by using kirchoffs voltage law (‘KVL’) to the base
circuit.
Step 3:- Calculate value of collector current (‘ICQ’) by using relation (“ICQ=β*IB”).
Step 4:- Draw the required collector circuit.
Step 5:- Calculate the collector to emitter voltage (‘VCEQ’) by by using kirchoffs voltage law (‘KVL’) to the
collector circuit.
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Q(37). Draw the circuit diagram of fixed bias circuit of BJT & also state its operation?.
As seen from the above circuit Diagram,

(i). We have used the NPN type transistor. (ii). For biasing the transistor we have used two power
supplies namely VCC & VBB. (iii). For supplying power to the circuit as well as to the collector & base
circuit we have used VCC. (iv). RB is the biasing resistor. (v). Rc is the collector resistor. (vi). As we have
used only one biasing resistor i.e. ‘RB’ hence the above circuit is called as single base resistor biasing.
(vii). The required value of collector current i.e. Ic can be calculated as, Ic=β*IB+(1+ β)*ICBO.
(vii). In fixed bias circuit the value of IB is always constant. (viii). This in turn will
helps to maintain/stabilize the operating point or Q point. (ix). Hence no extra stabilization is needed.
(x). So finally the value of operating point or Q point can be shifted into active region by adjusting the
value of RB.
Q(38). Draw & Explain the voltage divider (Self Biasing) biasing method of BJT with the help of
circuit diagram?.
(i). As seen from the above diagram of voltage divider biasing circuit, we have used resistors R1 & R2,
collector resistance Rc & emitter resistance RE. (ii). This emitter resistance is present only in voltage
divider bias circuits & absent in fixed or collector to base bias circuits. (iii). This emitter resistance ‘RE’ is
useful to maintain stabilization. (iv). We have used NPN type transistor.
(v). The voltage source Vcc is used to sypply power to the circuit. (vi). As soon as we
gives power supply to the circuit, then the required current ‘I+IB’ starts flowing. (vii). This current then
gets divides into I & IB through resistors R1 & R2. (viii). In above circuit the value of collectror current Ic
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increases due to internal device temperature or due to current amplification amplification factor ‘β’.
(ix). This is in turn also increases emitter current IE. (x). As the value of IE increases then there will be a
voltage drop across RE.
(xi). Hence voltage across emitter i.e. VE=IE*RE. (xii). but as VB is constant hence VBE
decreases. (xiii). As VBE decreases then VB also decreases. (xiv). Hence base current IB also decreases.
(xv). This value of base current IB is directly proportional to collector current IC. (xvi). Hence collector
current IC also decreases. (xvii). This condition is helpful for stabilization.
Q(39). State two advantages of voltage divider circuit?.
(i). In such circuits, there will be negative feedback effect dur to presence of RE. (ii). This circuit has
smallest value in terms of stability i.e. ‘S’. (iii). Signal loss is less. (iv). Stability is highest.
Q(40). Draw the circuit diagram of emitter bias method of BJT & also describe its operation?. OR
Q(41). Draw & explain emitter feedback bias circuit of BJT?.
(i). As seen from the above diagram of emitter biasing circuit, we have used base resistor RB,
collector resistance Rc & emitter resistance RE. (ii). This emitter resistance ‘RE’ is useful to
maintain stabilization. (iii). We have used NPN type transistor. (iv). The circuit contains positive
voltage source as Vcc & negative voltage source as VEE. (v). The positive voltage source Vcc is
used to reverse bias the collector base junction. (vi). The negative voltage source VEE is used to
forward bias the base emitter junction. (vii). Due to emitter resistance RE there will be negative
feedback in the circuit.
(viii). When a split supply (dual power supply) is available, this biasing
circuit is the most effective, and provides zero bias voltage at the emitter or collector for load.
(ix). Also we know that, VB - VE = VBE. (x). If RB is small enough, base voltage will be
approximately zero. (xi). Therefore emitter current is, IE = (VEE – VBE)/RE. (xii). The operating
point is independent of β if RE >> RB. (xiii). Hence this will be helpful for getting operating point
more stable.
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Q(42). What do you mean by thermal runway?. & why it should be avoided?.
Thermal Runway:- (i). Thermal runway occurs when the power dissipation of a device
increases rapidly with temperature. (ii). Such process can damage transistor. (iii). In case of
transistors this condition occurs mainly due to rise in value of voltage from collector to base
junction. (iv). Due to this, the value of collector current ‘Ic’ also increases.
(v). This maximum value of ‘Ic’ further dissipates maximum power in the device.
(vi). Hence internal temperature of the transistor also gets increases with reduction in
resistance. (vii). Hence finally there will be presence of a higher internal temperature inside the
device. (viii). This will in turn can damage the transistor. Let us consider the following diagram,
How to avoid thermal runway?:- (i). There will be minimum collector current Ic. (ii). Use heat
sink paste. (iii). Maintain internal temperature of device as less. (iv). Provide convenient power
to the device.
Q(43). Define amplifier & state the need of amplification?.
Amplifier:- (i). An electronic amplifier or amplifier or (informally) amp is an electronic device
that increases the strength of a signal. (ii). The amplifier performs this process by taking energy
from a power supply and controlling the output to match the input signal shape but with a
larger amplitude.
Amplification:- (i). It is the process of raising the strength of weak signal or input signal
without changing/modifying its general shape. (ii). The circuit which performs such action
known as “amplifier”. (iii). Basically the amplification process can be done to magnify the input
signal because sometimes the input signal may be of very smaller magnitudes that cannot be
directly applied to the output. (iv). In amplification process the frequency of the signals remains
unchanged.
Q(44). Explain/Define the term gain with reference to amplifiers?.
(i). Voltage gain:- The voltage gain of an amplifier can be defined as the ratio of output voltage
(i.e. Vo) to the input voltage (i.e. Vi). It can be denoted as Av.
Therefore, Av=Vo/Vi.
(ii). Current gain:- The current gain of an amplifier can be defined as the ratio of output current
(i.e. Io) to the input current (i.e. Ii). It can be denoted as Av. Therefore, Ai=Io/Ii.
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Q(45). Give the types/classification of amplifiers?.
The amplifiers can be classified on the basis of following factors,
(i). Need of amplification, (ii). Type of coupling used, (iii). Position of operating point or Q point,
(iv). Frequency range.
Q(46). Give the types/classification of amplifiers based on frequency?.

The amplifiers can be classified on the basis of frequency as follows,
(i). Audio frequency (AF) amplifiers, (ii).Radio frequency (RF) amplifiers, (iii). Wide band
frequency amplifiers.
Q(47). Give the types/classification of amplifiers based on frequency?.
(i). RC coupled amplifiers, (ii). Transformer coupled amplifiers, (iii). Direct coupled amplifiers.
Q(48). Explain the amplifying action of transistor?.
Transistor can be acts as a current amplifier as well as voltage amplifier,
(i). As a current amplifier:- (i). Amplifiers that are driven by a current at the input and deliver a
current to the output are called current amplifiers. (ii). For transistor to be acts as a current
amplifier it should be operate in CE or CC configuration. (iii). Because, in such configurations the
value of current amplification factor is greater than 1.
(iv). Hence there will be larger current gain. (v). Hence such a smaller change in
current will tends to higher change in output current. (vi). This process can only be possible with
the amplification of transistor.
The value of current gain in CE configuration is (β)=IC/IB.
The value of current gain in CC configuration is (γ)=IE/IB.
(vii). In most of the applications current amplifiers operate as low gain amplifiers without overall
feedback. (viii). The frequency bandwidth of current amplifiers is much higher than that of
voltage amplifiers (ix). It is of the order of the fT of the transistors used. (x). The bandwidth is
almost independent of the gain of the amplifier. (x). In addition, The current amplifiers are very
simple in structure and can be implemented as integrated circuits in CMOS or BJT
technology. (xi). Real current amplifiers have a small input equivalent resistance and a very large
output resistance.
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(ii). As a voltage amplifier:- (i). An electronic circuit whose function is to accept an input
voltage and produce a magnified, accurate replica of this voltage as an output voltage. (ii). The
voltage gain of the amplifier is the amplitude ratio of the output voltage to the input voltage.
(iii). Often, electronic amplifiers designed to operate in different environments are categorized
by criteria other than their voltage gain, even though they are voltage amplifiers in fact.
(iv). Many specialized circuits are designed to provide voltage amplification.
Q(49). Draw & Explain single stage RC coupled CE amplifier? OR

Q(50). Explain CE amplifier & also state its working? OR
Q(51). Explain single stage CE amplifier using NPN transistor?. OR
Q(52). Explain the function of each component of RC amplifier?.
The circuit diagram for single stage RC coupled amplifier is as shown in above figure.
Construction:- (i). In above circuit the transistor is connected in CE configuration hence we

called it as CE amplifier. (ii). As seen from the above diagram, The above circuit contains NPN
transistor. (iii). The capacitors C1 & C2 are coupling capacitors, CE is the emitter bypass
capacitor, RE is the emitter resistance. (iv). R1 & R2 are biasing resistors, there is load resistor
Page | 15
also known as collector resistance (RC) is present. (v). In above circuit the load resistance (Rc) is
coupled/grouped with coupling capacitors C1 & C2 hence we called it as RC coupled amplifier.
Working:- (i). For transistor to be acts as an amplifier it is required that transistor should
operate in the active region. (ii). Hence we have used resistors R1,R2 & RE for
biasing/connecting the transistor in active region. (iii). Rc is the collector resistor used for
controlling collector current. (iv). We have used the capacitor C1 for coupling AC voltage input
(Vi) to the base of the transistor. (v). This capacitor (C1) blocks any DC component present in AC
input voltage (Vi) and only couples AC components of the input signal.
(vi). The capacitor which is connected in parallel with emitter resistance RE is
known as emitter bypass capacitor (CE). (vii). The value of RE should be as small as possible for
better AC voltage gain & it should be very high as possible for better stability. (viii). The CE
terminal acts as open circuit for DC component i.e. CE will not allows any DC component to flow
& also the CE terminal acts as a closed circuit for AC component i.e. CE will allow any AC
component to flow. (ix). It uses bypass resistor RE for allowing only AC signals.
(x). Hence it will increase the voltage gain of amplifier. (xi). The coupling
capacitor C2 couples the amplifier output to the load resistance or to the next stage of amplifier.
(xii). It passes AC part of amplified signal to the load. (xiii). Finally the collector voltage is given
by VC=VCC-IC*RC. This collector voltage is then coupled/connected to the load through coupling
capacitor C2. (xiv). Then C2 amplifies this voltage & removes DC component from it.
(xv). So, finally we gets amplified AC signal at the output. (xvi). The shape of
this signal is exactly same as input signal but its magnitude is much higher than that of input
signal (Vi). (xvii). Finally we can observe that there is a 180° phase shift between Vi & Vo.
(xviii).In above circuit the transistor is connected in CE configuration hence the circuit is called
as CE amplifier.
Q(53). Draw required input & output waveforms of CE amplifier?.OR

Q(54). Draw required input & output waveforms of RC coupled amplifier?.
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Q(55). Explain how the gain in single stage amplifier is calculated graphically?.
For calculating gain graphically consider the following steps,

(i). The operating point or Q point should be close to the cutoff region. (ii). The operating point or
Q point should be far away from the saturation region. (iii). The operating point or Q point
should be at the center of DC load line. (iv). By placing Q point at the center of Dc load line, the
amplified output signal obtained will be exact mirror image of input signal. (v). This will also
helps in maintaining any variations any amplified output signal with respect to the positive &
negative half cycles of input signal. (vi). As observed from the above graph, there will not be any
distortion/change in waveform.
Q(56). Draw & explain AC load line?. OR

Q(57). Draw AC equivalent circuit of CE amplifier & also construct AC load line on the
output characteristics of transistor?.
AC load line:- (i). The slope of the AC load line depends on the frequency of the applied signal.
(ii). So, there will be many AC load lines, that vary from the DC load line (at low frequency) to a
limiting AC load line (iii). All AC load lines having a common intersection at the DC operating
point. (iv). This limiting load line, generally referred to as the AC load line, is the load line of the
circuit at "infinite frequency".
(v). It can be found by replacing capacitors with short circuits, and inductors
with open circuits. (vi). The AC load line represents the AC operating conditions of a circuit. (vii).
The parallel combination of Rc & RL is always less than Rc. (viii). Hence the required slope will be
higher as compared to DC load line. (ix). Hence AC load line is used when transistor is operating
as an amplifier. Consider the following required diagram,
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Q(58). Give/Draw the frequency response of RC coupled amplifier?. OR
Q(59). Draw the frequency response of single stage CE amplifier?.
Q(60). Explain why the upper & lower cutoff frequencies are called half power
frequencies?.
(i). As seen from the above frequency response of RC coupled amplifier, the above curve shows
how the magnitude of voltage gain (AV) of amplifier changes with the frequency (F) of the input
signal. (ii). Av (max) is the high voltage gain while Av(max)/√2 is the lower voltage gain which
is near about 70.7% of the maximum voltage gain. (iii). For the limited band of frequency the
gain is constant known as ‘mid band gain’ & the corresponding range of frequency is known as
‘mid frequency range’.
(iv). When the values of frequencies are very high & very low then the gain
of amplifier reduces to almost zero value. (v). The frequency response curve can be plotted with
output voltage or gain against frequency. (vi). The frequency response curve contains following
important factors,
(i). Lower frequency region:- This region has lower output voltage or gain, This lower gain is
obtained because there will be increased reactance of the coupling capacitors & bypass
capacitors.
Page | 18
(ii). Mid frequency region:- This region has constant output voltage or gain.
(iii). Higher frequency region:- This region has lower output voltage or gain. This lower gain is
obtained because there will be increased reactance of the coupling capacitors & bypass
capacitors.
Q(61). Explain the terms: (a). Lower Cutoff Frequency, (b). Higher Cutoff Frequency?. OR
Q(62). Define the terms:- (c). Bandwidth, (d). Half Power Point.
(a). Lower Cutoff Frequency (FL):- f1 represents the lower cutoff frequency which is always
lesser than f2. f1 is the frequency of the input signal at which gain of amplifier reduces to 70.7%
of their ‘mid frequency range’ value. This will be in terms of few Hertz.
(b).Higher Cutoff Frequency (FH):- f2 represents the upper cutoff frequency which is always
higher than f1. f2 is the frequency of the input signal at which gain of amplifier reduces to 70.7%
of their ‘mid frequency range’ value. This will be in terms of few kilo Hertz.
(c). Bandwidth (B.W.):- It is defined as the difference between upper cutoff frequency (f2) &
lower cutoff frequency (f1).
So, B.W.= f2-f1.
(d). Half Power Point:- The point or region formed by frequencies f1 & f2 known as half power
point. (Region represented by Av(max)/√2 ).
Q(63). Explain the effect of coupling on gain?.
(i). Due to coupling the lower & higher frequency region has lower output voltage or gain.
(ii). This lower gain is obtained because there will be increased reactance of the coupling
capacitors, bypass capacitors & internal capacitance of transistor.
Q(64). Explain the effect of coupling & emitter bypass capacitor on bandwidth?.
(i). Due to presence of coupling & emitter bypass capacitor there will be decrease in frequency
with the increase in capacitive reactance. (ii). When capacitive reactance decreases then the
frequency gets increases. (iii). Hence bandwidth level may also gets increased or decreased.
(iv). This capacitive reactance is given by, Xc=1/2πFC. (v). The presence of bypass capacitor ‘CE’
along with the emitter resistance ‘RE’ offers low reactance at medium & high frequencies.
(vi). Hence due to this there will be reduction in gain or output voltage at low frequencies occurs.
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Q(65). Compare/Write differences between CE,CB & CC configurations of transistor
amplifiers?.
CE Configuration CB Configuration CC Configuration

(1). Emitter terminal is (1). Base terminal is (1). Collector terminal is
common. common. common.
(2). Input resistance is (2). Input resistance is Low. (2). Input resistance is High.
Medium.
(3). Output resistance is (3). Output resistance is (3). Output resistance is
Medium. High. Low.
(4). Current gain is High. (4). Current gain is less than (4). Current gain is High.
1.
(5). Voltage gain is High. (5). Voltage gain is High. (5). Voltage gain is less than
1.
(6). Used as a voltage (6). Used as a low noise (6). Used as a Voltage buffer
amplifiers. amplifiers. amplifier.
(7). Phase shift between Vi (7). Phase shift between Vi (7). Phase shift between Vi
& Vo is 180°. & Vo is 0. & Vo is 0.
Q(66). State the need of cascaded or multistage amplifier?.

(i). The performance obtained from a single stage amplifier is often insufficient for many
applications. (ii). hence several stages may be combined forming a multistage amplifier.
(iii). These stages are connected in cascade, i.e. output of the first stage is connected to form
input of second stage, whose output becomes input of third stage, and so on. (iv). The overall
gain of a multistage amplifier is the product of the gains of the individual stages (ignoring
potential loading effects).
(v). Gain (A) = A1* A2*A3 *A4 *... *An.
(vi). Alternately, if the gain of each amplifier stage is expressed in decibels (dB), the total gain is
the sum of the gains of the individual stages:
(vi). Gain in dB (A) = A1 + A2 + A3 + A4 + ... An.
(vii). For many amplification purposes, a single transistor does not provide enough gain, so multiple
circuits, or ´stages of amplification´ are needed. (viii). The multistage amplifiers are helpful in fulfilling the
requirements like input impedance, voltage gain, bandwidth & output resistance. (ix). In such circuits, the
design of amplifiers input as well as output stage amplifier takes care of both impedances. (x). While the
amplifiers which are connected at the middle position takes care of high voltage gain requirements.
(xi). Hence there is a need of cascading of amplifiers. (xii). Consider the following diagram,
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Q(67). Explain gain in DB?.
The gain can be defined as the ratio of output voltage to the input voltage. It can be defined in
decibel (DB) as,
Power gain DB:- 10log₁₀[Po/Pi].
Q(68). Explain single stage RC coupled CB amplifier? OR

Q(69). Explain/Draw CB amplifier & also state its working? OR
Q(70). Explain single stage CB amplifier using NPN transistor?.
Please refer the question no. from 49 to 52 for construction & working.
Q(71). Draw frequency response characteristics of single stage RC coupled amplifier?. OR

Q(72). Explain frequency response curve & bandwidth of RC coupled amplifier?. OR
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Q(73). State/Give the different types of coupling amplifiers?. OR
Q(74). Classify amplifiers based on the type of coupling used?.
(i). RC coupling, (ii). Transformer coupling, (iii). Direct coupling.
Q(75). Draw the circuit diagram of two stage (multi stage) RC coupled amplifier & also
explain its working?.
Q(76). Draw & explain frequency response curve/characteristics of two stage RC coupled
amplifier?.
Q(77). Give the advantages of two stage RC coupled amplifier?.

called it as CE amplifier. (ii). As seen from the above diagram, The above circuit contains two
number of NPN transistors. (iii). The capacitors C1 & C2 are coupling capacitors, CE is the emitter
bypass capacitor, RE is the emitter resistance.
(iv). R1 & R2 are biasing resistors, there is load resistor also known as collector
resistance (RC) is present. (v). In above circuit the load resistance (Rc) is coupled/grouped with
coupling capacitors C1 & C2 hence we called it as RC coupled amplifier.
Please refer the question no. from 49 to 52 for explanation.
Advantages:- (i). Efficiency is higher, (ii). Coupling in convenient, (iii). Distortion is less,
(iv). Component losses are less, (v). Frequency response is larger, (vi). Coupling is less expensive.
(vii). Bandwidth is larger, etc.
Q(78). Give applications of RC coupled amplifiers?.
(i). TV,VCR,CD,DVD players. (ii). Tape recorders.
Q(79). Draw the circuit of transformer coupled amplifier & also explain its working?.
Q(80). Draw frequency response curve/characteristics of transformer coupled amplifier?.
Q(81). Draw circuit diagram of two stage transformer coupled amplifier & also give its
applications, advantages & disadvantages?.
Q(82). Draw frequency response curve of two stage transformer coupled amplifier?.
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number of NPN transistors. (iii). The capacitors CE is the emitter bypass capacitor, RE is the
emitter resistance. (iv). R1 & R2 are biasing resistors, there is load resistor also known as
collector resistance (RC) is present. (v). In above circuit the two NPN transistors are coupled with
the help of transformer hence we called it as transformer coupled amplifier.
Working :- (i). As seen from the above circuit the given transformer is helpful in blocking DC
quantity from primary side coil of the transformer towards secondary side coil. (ii). Hence it will
not allow any DC quantity to flow from output of first stage to the input of next stage transistor
amplifier. (iii). For transistor to be acts as an amplifier it is required that transistor should
operate in the active region.
(iv). Hence we have used resistors R1,R2 & RE for biasing/connecting the
transistor in active region. (v). Rc is the collector resistor used for controlling collector current.
(iv). (vi). The capacitor which is connected in parallel with emitter resistance RE is known as
emitter bypass capacitor (CE). (vii). The value of RE should be as small as possible for better AC
voltage gain & it should be very high as possible for better stability.
(viii). The CE terminal acts as open circuit for DC component i.e. CE will not
allows any DC component to flow & also the CE terminal acts as a closed circuit for AC
component i.e. CE will allow any AC component to flow. (ix). It uses bypass resistor RE for
allowing only AC signals. (x). Hence it will increase the voltage gain of amplifier. (xi). Finally the
collector voltage is given by VC=VCC-IC*RC. (xii). So finally we gets amplified AC signal at the
output. (xiii). The shape of this signal is exactly same as input signal but its magnitude is much
higher than that of input signal (Vi).
Applications:- (i). in audio power amplifiers, (ii). In power amplifiers, (iii). For amplification of
radio frequency signal. (iv). For transferring power.
Advantages:- (i). Impedance matching can be possible. (ii). Voltage gain is higher. (iii). DC
biasing remains unchanged. (iv). Different ranges of transformer can be used.
Disadvantages:- (i). Component losses will be higher, (ii). Frequency response is not better,
(iii). Low efficiency, (iv). Coupling process becomes expensive.
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Q(83). Draw the circuit diagram of two stage direct coupled (DC) amplifier & also explain
its working?.
Q(84). Draw frequency response curve/characteristics of direct coupled (DC) amplifier &
also give its applications, advantages & disadvantages?.

number of NPN transistors. (iv). R1 & R2 are biasing resistors, there is load resistor also known
as collector resistance (RC) is present. (v). In above circuit the two NPN transistors are coupled
directly hence we called it as direct coupled (or DC) amplifier.
Working:- (i). As seen from the above diagram both transistors Q1 & Q2 are direct coupled with
their signals each other. (ii). In this output signal of first stage amplifier is directly connected to
the input of second stage amplifier without help of any component. (iii). This type of biasing
allows the collector current to pass through the next stage amplifier thereby affecting its biasing
conditions.
(iv). Hence whatever be the changes occurred in second stage amplifier will
affects signal conditions of first stage amplifier due to direct coupling. (v). This problem of such
amplifiers is known as ‘DRIFT’. (vi). In case of ‘DRIFT’ problem both DC & AC voltages are
coupled from first stage to second stage. (vii). That means DC signal is also amplified in this
model hence it is called as DC (direct coupled) amplifier. (viii). The frequency response of such
amplifier is lower but better because of absence of coupling capacitors.
Applications:- (i). In analog communication, (ii). In voltage regulators, (iii). In operational

amplifiers. (iv). In DC signal amplification.
Advantages:- (i). Gain will not be reduced, (ii). It can amplify DC signal, (iii). Less expensive,
(iv). Frequency response is better. (v). less complex circuit. (vi). Bandwidth is larger.
Disadvantages:- (i). The output waveform can contain DC variations. (ii). Not stable in case of
temperature, (iii).Poor frequency response at higher frequencies.
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Q(85). Draw & explain working of 3-stage direct coupled (DC) amplifier?.
Q(86). Draw frequency response curve/characteristics of 3-stage direct coupled (DC)
amplifier?.
Please refer the question no. 83 & 84 for working.
Q(87). Compare/Write differences between RC coupled, Transformer coupled & Direct

coupled (DC) amplifiers?.
RC coupled Transformer coupled Direct coupled (DC)

(1). Coupling components (1). Coupling component used (1). No coupling components
used are resistors & is transformer. are used.
capacitors.
(2). Only AC signal can be (2). Only AC signal can be (2). Both AC & DC signals can
coupled. coupled. be coupled.
(3). DC amplification is not (3). DC amplification is not (3). DC amplification is
possible. possible. possible.
(4). ‘Drift’ problem is absent. (4). ‘Drift’ problem is absent. (4). ‘Drift’ problem is present.
(5). Frequency response is (5). Frequency response is (5). Frequency response is
good. poor. best.
(6). Cost is small. (6). Cost is very high. (6). Cost is very small.
(7). Used in radios & TV. (7). Used in power amplifiers. (7). Used in DC amplification
devices.
(8). Applications. (8). Applications. (8). Applications.
(9). Advantages. (9). Advantages. (9). Advantages.
(10). Disadvantages. (10). Disadvantages. (10). Disadvantages.
Q(88). What is meant by power amplifier?.
(i). Basically power amplifiers are used whenever load requires large amount of power. (ii). Such
amplifiers produces high voltage & high current output signal. (iii). Hence this amplifier is also
known as larger output amplifier.
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Q(89). Explain the classification of power amplifiers?.
Depending on the location of Q-point or operating on the load line, the power amplifiers can be
classified as follows,
(i). Class-A amplifier, (ii). Class-B amplifier, (iii). Class-C amplifier, (iv). Class-AB amplifier.
Sr. No. Type of Amplifier Location of Q Point

(i). Class-A amplifier At the center of load line.
(ii). Class-B amplifier In the cutoff region.
(iii). Class-C amplifier Below the cutoff region.
(iv). Class-AB amplifier Just above the cutoff region.
Q(90). Draw input & output waveforms of Class-A amplifier?.
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Q(91). Draw input & output waveforms of Class-B amplifier?.
Q(92). Draw input & output waveforms of Class-C amplifier?.
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Q(93). Draw input & output waveforms of Class-AB amplifier?.
Q(94). Compare/Write differences between class A, class B, class C & class AB amplifiers?.
Class-A Class-B Class-C Class-AB

(1). Efficiency is (1). Efficiency is (1). Efficiency is (1). Efficiency is
between 25% to 78.5% 95% between 50% to
50%. 78.5%.
(2). Power (2). Power (2). Power (2). Power
dissipation is very dissipation is low. dissipation is very dissipation is
high. low. medium.
(3). No distortion in (3). Distortion in (3). Distortion in (3). Distortion in
output. output is more than output is more than output is low.
class A. A, B & AB.
(4). Location of (4). Location of (4). Location of (4). Location of
operating point is at operating point is on operating point is operating point is
the center of load the X axis of load below the X axis of above the X axis but
line. line. load line. below the midpoint
of load line.
(5). Conduction (5). Conduction (5). Conduction (5). Conduction
angle of collector angle of collector angle of collector angle of collector
current is 360°. current is 180°. current is less than current is between
180°. 180° & 360°.
(6). Used as a (6). Used as a radio (6). Used in music (6). Used in
voltage amplifier. amplifier. systems. transmitters.
(7). Diagram. (7). Diagram. (7). Diagram. (7). Diagram.
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Q(95). Draw symbol & equivalent diagram of UJT (Unipolar Junction Transistor)?.
(96). Explain/State working principle of UJT?.
With reference to above equivalent circuit diagram of UJT (refer question no. 37). There are two
resistances i.e. RB1 (variable resistance) & RB2 are present. There are mainly two operating
conditions.
(i). When Emitter terminal is open or disconnected:- When we apply the voltage VBB with ‘E’
as open terminal, then voltage gets divided into RB1 & RB2. Hence by voltage divider rule, Hence
voltage across RB1 is given by, VRB1= RB1*VBB/ RB1+ RB2, but η=RB1/RB1+RB2, therefore
VRB1=η*VBB. Where ‘η’ is said to be ‘intrinsic standoff ratio’. Hence UJT is turned ‘OFF’ during
this condition. i.e. voltage across diode becomes zero i.e. VD=0.
(ii). When Emitter terminal is close or connected:- During this condition voltage ‘VD’ comes
into action so, emitter current (IE) starts flowing, so hence UJT becomes turned ‘ON’ & hence the
voltage at which UJT is turned ‘ON’ known as ‘peak’ voltage & it is given by VP=ηVBB+VD.
Therefore finally we can say that for all values of VD below VP, the UJT becomes turned ‘OFF’ and
the resulting diode becomes reverse biased. And hence the value of emitter current becomes zero
i.e. IE=0.
Q(97). Define ‘η’ i.e. intrinsic standoff ratio of UJT & write its formula?.
‘η’ is said to be intrinsic standoff ratio, ‘η’=RB1/RB1+RB2 at IE=0. Or ‘η’=RB1/RBB at IE=0.
Q(98). Draw V-I characteristics of UJT?.
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Q(99). Give/List applications of UJT?.
(a). In pulse generator. (b). In time delay circuit. (c). In oscillators. (d). In automobile ignition
circuits.
Q(100). Give/List difference types of triggering devices?.
(a). UJT (b). SCR.
***************************************** All The Best ******************************************
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Chapter No. 4. Field Effect Transistor
(i). FET= Field Effect Transistor,

(ii). JFET= Junction Field Effect Transistor,
(iii). MOSFET= Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor.
(iv). BJT= Bipolar Junction Transistor.
(v). Pinch-off Voltage (VP):- It can be defined as the value of VDS at which drain current (‘ID’) reaches to its
constant saturation value.
Q(1). Define JFET & also draw its symbol?.
(i). The Junction Field Effect Transistor or JFET is the simplest type of field-effect transistor. (ii). It can be
used as an electronically-controlled switch or as a voltage-controlled resistance. (ii). In case of JFET, the
Electric charge flows through a semiconducting channel between "source (‘S’)" and "drain (‘D’)" terminals.
(iii). The JFET consists of long channel of semiconductor material. (iv). It contains an maximum amount of
positive charge carriers i.e. holes (p-type) or of negative carriers i.e. electrons (n-type). (v). JFET is a three
terminal device. (vi). The terminals are source (‘S’), Gate (‘G’) & Drain (‘D’).
Q(2). Why JFET is called as unipolar device?.
(i). JFET is a unipolar device because, in case of JFET the electric current flows only due to one type of
charge carriers i.e. either electrons or holes. (ii). In other words, JFETs can be called as unipolar device
because the charge carriers that carry the current through the device are all of the same type i.e. either
holes or electrons, but not both. (iii). This distinguishes FETs from the bipolar devices in which both holes
and electrons are responsible for current flow in any one device
Q(3). Explain JFET as a voltage controlled device?.
(i). In case of JFET, The output characteristics are determined by the field which depends on the voltage
applied. (ii). In JFET, The gate to source voltage (i.e. ‘VGs’) is responsible for controlling nature of drain
current ID. (iii). In JFET, the current varies with temperature. (iv). Hence JFET is a voltage controlled device.
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Q(4). Explain BJT as a current controlled device?.
(i). In case of BJT (i.e. Bipolar Junction Transistor), The output characteristics are determined by the input
current. (ii). The input current (i.e. ‘IB’) is responsible for controlling nature of output collector current ‘Ic’.
(iii). In BJT, the voltage varies with the temperature. (iv). Hence BJT is a current controlled device.
Q(5). State advantages of JFET/FET over BJT?.
(i). FET has high input impedance. (ii). FETs are more temperature stable than BJT. (iii). FETs are usually
smaller in construction than BJTs. (iv). In FET "thermal runaway" never occurs but in BJT it occurs.
(v). FET is a unipolar device so only one carrier type is required. (vi). FET is smaller in size than BJT.
(vii). FET is produces less noise. (viii). FET can handle sufficient radiations.
Q(6). State/Give classification of JFET/FET?.
FET (Field Effect Transistor)
JFET (Junction FET) MOSFET (Metal Oxide Semiconductor FET)
n-channel JFET p-channel JFET Depletion MOSFET Enhancement MOSFET
Q(7). Compare/write differences between BJT & JFET?.
BJT JFET
(i). It is a current controlled device. (i). It is a Voltage controlled device.
(ii). Bipolar device. (ii). Unipolar device.
(iii). Current flows due to majority & minority of (iii). Current flows only due to majority of
charge carriers. charge carriers.
(iv). Larger in size. (iv). Smaller in size.
(v). Transfer characteristics are linear. (v). Transfer characteristics are not linear.
(vi). Noise generation is high. (vi). Noise generation is small.
(vii). Low input impedance. (vii). High input impedance.
(viii). Thermal stability is poor. (viii). Thermal stability is better.

(ix). Symbol. (ix). Symbol.
(x). Power gain is higher. (x). Power gain is lower.
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Q(8). Explain the constructional details & working principle of n-channel JFET?.
Construction:- (i). The structure & symbol of n channel JFET is as shown in above figure. (ii). Since the
channel of JFET is made up of n type semiconductor so we called it as n channel JFET. (iii). In such JFET,
there is a single n type semiconductor and there are two p regions on the opposite ends of n region.
(iv). The ohmic contacts (or direct electrical contacts) are made on source (‘S’) & drain (‘D’) terminals.
(v). The two p regions are internally connected with each other & also externally
connected with Gate (‘G’) terminal. (vi). The area between the gates is known as channel. (vii). Source (‘S’)
is the terminal through which majority of carriers enters the region & Drain (‘D’) is the terminal through
which majority of carriers leaves the region. (viii). Gate (‘G’) terminal is formed by internally connected
heavily doped p region. (ix). The supply voltage is connected between Drain (‘D’) & Source (‘S’) terminals.
Working:- The positive voltage VDS is applied between Drain (‘D’) & Source (‘S’) for making Drain to
Source terminal in forward biased & The negative voltage ‘VGS’ is applied between Gate & Source for
making Gate to Source terminal in reverse biased. Consider the following required operations.
(i). When we apply voltage ‘VGS=0V’:- (i). During this condition, due to another voltage present there
(i.e. ‘VDS’) the drain current (‘ID’) starts flowing through the channel. (ii). But as n type semiconductor has
larger resistance therefore it causes voltage drop along the channel. (iii). Hence channel width available for
conduction reduces.(iv). The resulting drain current is called as source saturation current IDSS (at ‘VGS=0V’).
(ii). When we apply ‘small negative voltage VGS’:- (i). During this condition, it reverse biases the Gate to
Source junction. (ii). Due to this, channel width becomes reducing rapidly. (iii). As channel width reduces so
less number of electrons can pass through Drain to Source junction. (iv). Therefore value of Drain current
Id reduces.
(iii). When we apply ‘large negative voltage VGS’:- (i). During this condition, it again reverse biases the
Gate to Source junction. (ii). Due to this channel width available for conduction becomes negligible or zero.
(iii). Therefore value of drain current (‘ID’) becomes zero (i.e. ‘ID=0’) at larger negative ‘VGS‘ (also known as
‘VGS(cut off)’).
Q(9). Explain the constructional details & working principle of p-channel JFET?.
Construction:- (i). The structure & symbol of p-channel JFET is as shown in above figure. (ii). Since the
channel of JFET is made up of p type semiconductor so we called it as p-channel JFET. (iii). In such JFET,
there is a single p type semiconductor and there are two n regions on the opposite ends of p region.
(iv). The ohmic contacts (or direct electrical contacts) are made on source (‘S’) & drain (‘D’) terminals.
Page 3 of 8
(v). The two n regions are internally connected with each other & also externally connected with Gate (‘G’)
terminal. (vi). The area between the gates is known as channel. (vii). Source (‘S’) is the terminal through
which majority of carriers enters the region & Drain (‘D’) is the terminal through which majority of carriers
leaves the region. (viii). Gate (‘G’) terminal is formed by internally connected heavily doped n region.
(ix). The supply voltage is connected between Drain (‘D’) & Source (‘S’) terminals, as we know that in p
region there are majority carriers are holes hence current is caused to flow along with this p channel.
Working:- Please refer question no. 9.
Q(10). Explain or Draw drain/output characteristics of JFET ?
Explanation:- The drain characteristics can be stated as below,
It is observed that as the negative gate bias voltage (i.e.’VGS’) is increased,

(i) The maximum saturation drain current (‘ID’) becomes smaller because the conducting channel now
becomes narrower. (ii) Pinch-off voltage (‘VP’) is reached at a lower value of drain current ID than when
‘VGS = 0’. (iii). When an external bias of, say – 1 V is applied between the gate and the source, the gate-
channel junctions are reverse-biased even when drain current, ID is zero.
Page 4 of 8
(iv). Hence the depletion regions are already penetrating the channel to a certain extent when drain-|
source voltage, VDS is zero. (v). Due to this reason, a smaller voltage drop along the channel (i.e. smaller
than that for ‘VGS = 0’) will increase the depletion regions to the point where 1 they pinch-off the current.
(vi). Consequently, the pinch-off voltage ‘VP‘ is reached at a lower 1 drain current, ‘ID‘ when ‘VGS = 0’.
(vii). The ohmic region portion decreases. (viii). Value of drain-source voltage ‘VDS‘ for
the avalanche breakdown of the gate junction is reduced. (ix). Value of drain-source voltage, ‘VDS‘ for
breakdown with the increase in negative bias voltage is reduced simply due to the fact that gate-source
voltage, ‘VGS‘ keeps adding to the I reverse bias at the junction produced by current flow.
Q(11). Draw transfer/dynamic/mutual characteristics of JFET?.
Q(12). Draw experimental setup to study drain characteristics of JFET?
Page 5 of 8
Q(13). Draw the characteristics of p-channel JFET?.
Q(14). Define the term drain resistance (i.e. ‘rd’) with respect to JFET?.?.
Drain resistance:- It can be defined as the ratio of change in drain to source voltage (i.e. ‘VDS’) to the
corresponding change in drain current (i.e. ‘ID’) at constant value of gate to source voltage (i.e. ‘VGS’). It is
calculated in saturation region. It can be represented as rd=∆VDS/∆ID. The unit of drain resistance is ohm.
Q(15). Define the term transconductance (‘gm’) with respect to JFET?.
Transconductance:- It can be defined as the ratio of change in drain current (i.e. ID) to the corresponding
change in gate to source voltage (i.e. VGS) at constant value of drain to source voltage (i.e. VDS). It can be
represented as gm=∆ID/∆VGS. The unit of transconductance will be mA/V or mS.
Q(16). Define the term Amplification factor (‘µ’) with respect to JFET?.
Amplification factor:- It can be defined as the ration of change in drain to source voltage (i.e. VDS) to the
corresponding change in gate to source voltage (i.e. VGS) at constant value of drain current (i.e. ID). It can be
represented as, µ= ∆VDS/∆VGS. The amplification factor ‘µ’ has no unit.
Q(17). Give the mathematical relation between µ, gm & rd with respect to JFET?.
The amplification factor can be stated as, µ=(∆VDS/∆ID)*( ∆ID/∆VGS). So the required equation can be
written as, µ= rd * gm. Hence amplification factor µ is equals to the product of drain resistance ‘rd’ &
transconductance ‘gm’.
Q(18). Give/List applications of JFET?.
(i). FET is used as a buffer in measuring instruments & receivers. (ii). FETs are used in RF amplifiers in FM
tuners and communication equipment for the low noise lever. (iii). FETs are used in cascade amplifiers in
measuring and test equipment. (iv). it is used as a voltage variable resistor in operational amplifiers and
tone controls.
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(v). FETs are used in mixer circuits in FM and TV receivers, and communication equipment because inter
modulation distortion is low. (vi). It is used in oscillator circuits because frequency drift is low. (vii). FETs
are used in low frequency amplifiers. (viii). FETs are used in digital circuits in computers, LCD and memory
circuits because of its small size. (ix).It can be used as High Input Impedance Amplifier.
(x). It can be used as Low-Noise Amplifier. (xi). It can be used as Differential Amplifier.
(xii). It can be used as Constant Current Source. (xiii). It can be used as Analogue Switch or Gate. (xiv). It can
be used as Voltage Controlled Resistor.
Q(19). Define MOSFET & also state types of MOSFET?.
(i). The Metal–Oxide–Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistor (MOSFET, MOS-FET, or MOS FET) is

a transistor used for amplifying or switching electronic signals. (ii). Although the MOSFET is a four-terminal
device with source (‘S’), gate (‘G’), drain (‘D’), and body (‘B’) terminals. (iii). Because these two terminals
are normally connected to each other (short-circuited) internally, only three terminals appear in electrical
diagrams. (iv). The MOSFET is by far the most common transistor in both digital and analog circuits, though
the bipolar junction transistor was at one time much more common.
There are three types of MOSFET’s as given below,
(i). Depletion Type MOSFET, (ii). Enhancement Type MOSFET, (iii). Power MOSFET.
Q(20). Explain/Describe constructional details & working principle of depletion type MOSFET?.
Construction:- (i). The n channel depletion type MOSFET is as shown in above figure. (ii). MOSFET is a
four-terminal device with source (‘S’), gate (‘G’), drain (‘D’), and substrate (‘SS’) terminals.(iii). Because
these two terminals are normally connected to each other (short-circuited) internally, only three terminals
appear in electrical diagrams. (iii). In this Gate, Source & Substrate are connected to ground.
Page 7 of 8
(iv). All n type regions are linked with each other by n channel. (v). Also there is no
direct contact between gate terminal & n channel. (vi). Sio2 (silicon dioxide) is used as a insulating material
on gate terminal to be insulated from n channel.
Working:- (i). In a depletion-type MOSFET, the device is normally ‘ON’ at zero gate–source voltage.
(ii). Such devices are used as load "resistors" in logic circuits. (iii). For N-type depletion-load devices, the
threshold voltage might be about –3 V, so it could be turned off by pulling the gate 3 V negative.
(i). When we apply voltage VGS=0V:- (i). During this condition when ‘VGS=0V’, there is another voltage
present i.e. ‘VDD’ is applied between drain & source. (ii).Hence resulting current ‘IDSS’ flows due to ‘VDD’.
(ii). When we apply negative voltage VGS:- (i). During this condition the Gate terminal opposes the
electrons towards p type substrate & attracts the holes from substrate. (ii). Hence these electrons & holes
recombine with each other & reduces free electrons available for conduction. (iii). Hence as negative
voltage ‘VGS’ increases, the drain current ‘ID’ decreases.
(iii). When we apply positive voltage VGS:- (i). During this condition number of additional free electrons
increases through the channel for conduction. (ii). Hence as positive voltage VGS increases the resulting
drain current ‘ID’ also increases very rapidly.
Q(21).Give applications of MOSFET?.
(i). Used in digital circuits, (ii). Used as an inverter, (iii). Used in integrator circuits.
Q(22). Compare/ write differences between JFET & MOSFET?.
JFET MOSFET
(i). There are two types, (i). There are two types,
(a). P channel JFET, (a). Depletion type.
(b). N channel JFET. (b). Enhancement type.
(ii). Gate terminal is not insulated. (ii). Gate terminal is insulated.

(iii). Drain resistance is lower. (iii). Drain resistance is higher.
(iv). Lower input impedance. (iv). Higher input impedance.
(v). Complex in construction. (v). Simpler in construction.
(vi). It can be operated in depletion mode. (vi). It can be operated in depletion mode as
well as in enhancement mode.
(vii). Symbol. (vii). Symbol.
****************************************** ALL THE BEST ****************************************
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Chapter No. 5. Regulated Power Supply.
Points to Remember..…
(i). Regulator:- Regulator is a device which is designed to maintain a constant voltage level at output.
(ii). IC:- IC stands for Integrated Circuits.
(iii). Dual polarity power supply:- Used for generating positive as well as negative power supply.
(iv). Constant current circuits:- Constant current circuits are useful for charging the batteries.
(v). Power Supply:- The power supply converts the AC quantity into DC quantity and provides one or
more DC output voltages.
Q(1). Explain the concept of voltage regulator & also state its need?.
(i). A voltage regulator is an electronic device which is designed to maintain a constant voltage level at
output. (ii). it may be used to regulate one or more AC or DC voltages. (iii). mainly it used to maintain a
regulated output voltage level which should be independent of other parameters like temperature or
voltage fluctuations etc. (iv). Basically voltage regulators avoid any fluctuations existing in power
supply. (v). The IC-7805 is used in many electronic devices as a voltage regulator IC.
Q(2). Explain the concept of unregulated power supply?.
(i). In an unregulated power supply there are no voltage regulators are present. (ii). That means there
may be fluctuations present in supply voltage at the output. (iii). Such unregulated power supply is
used in un-expensive or cheaper electronic circuits. (iv). Eg. Mobile chargers.
Q(3). Draw & explain block diagram of Regulated Power Supply?.
Page | 1
*Basic Electronics Notes By Er. Swapnil V. Kaware (svkaware@yahoo.co.in)*
Construction:- (i). The block diagram for regulated power supply is as shown in above figure. (ii). It
contains circuit components like step down transformer, rectifier, filter & voltage regulator etc.
Working:- (i). As soon as we provides single phase 230V,50Hz AC supply as an input to the step down
transformer. (ii). The step down transformer then converts the given input voltage into smaller voltage
level as per the requirement of circuit. (iii). Then the output produced from the transformer is given to
the rectifier circuit. (iv).The rectifier circuit is a full wave type rectifier. (v). Then this circuits converts
the given AC voltage into DC voltage.
(vi). Then output produced from the rectifier is given to the filter circuit. (vii). The filter
circuit can be capacitive filter, inductive filter or CLC type filter. (viii). Then filter circuit removes any
unwanted components present in DC signal. (ix). It also removes any AC variations present in given DC
signal. (x). Then the filtered signal is given to the voltage regulator circuit. (xi). Then the voltage
regulator circuit which is connected at the output stage, maintains that given voltage at a constant
level (xii). i.e. it converts the given unregulated voltage into DC regulated voltage.
(xiii). Voltage regulator also makes such DC voltage independent of any changes in
temperature, current or any further voltage fluctuations. (xiv). Hence by this way regulated power
supply circuit works.
Q(4). Define Load Regulation & also give its formula?.
(i). It can be defined as the change in output voltage (i.e. Vo) when value of load current (i.e. IL)
changes from zero (i.e. IL=0A) to its maximum value (IL=maximum). (ii). practically it should be as
small as possible for better voltage regulation.
% L.R.= ((VN.L.-VF.L.)*100))/VF.L.
Here N.L.= No Load i.e. load current (IL=0A) & F.L.=Full Load i.e. (IL=maximum).
Q(5). Define Line Regulation& also give its formula?.
(i). It can be defined as the change in output load voltage (i.e. Vo) due to change in input supply voltage
(i.e. Vi). (ii). It is also known as source regulation (S.R.). (ii). Practically it should be as small as possible
for better voltage regulation.. (iii). It can be calculated as,
S.R.= VH.L.V.-VL.L.V.
Where, H.L.V.=High Line Voltage & L.L.V.=Low Line Voltage.
Q(6). Draw the graph of load regulation for IC voltage regulation?.
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Q(7). Draw & explain working of Zener Diode as a Voltage Regulator?.
Construction:- (i). The above circuit contains a series resistor or current limiting resistor ‘Rs’. (ii). The
zener diode is connected in parallel with the load resistance ‘RL’. (iii). There is a unregulated supply
(‘Vin’) present at the input which is obtained from rectifier & filter circuit.
Working:- (i). It can be observed from above diagram, A positive terminal of input supply ‘Vin’ is
connected to negative terminal of zener diode. (ii). A negative terminal of input supply ‘Vin’ is
connected to positive terminal of zener diode. (iii). Hence we can say that zener diode is in reversed
bias mode. (iv). As we are providing unregulated supply at the input side, so there is a voltage drop
across ‘Rs’.
(v). The main purpose behind the use of zener diode is that, zener diode is used for
providing constant reference voltage. (vi). The voltage obtained across zener diode i.e. ‘Vz’ will be
equals to ‘Vout’ because of the parallel circuit concept. (vii). For maintaining ‘Vz’ as constant, the ‘Vin’
should be higher than ‘Vz’. (viii). The zener diode also acts as a bypass valve through which more
current can pass.
(ix). Here zener diode provides/maintains the voltage at the output i.e. ‘Vout’ as
constant equals to ‘Vz’ when an increase in input voltage i.e. ‘Vin’ or decreases in load current i.e. ‘IL’
occurs. (x). Hence by this way zener diode keeps output voltage as constant which is independent of
any changes in temperature, voltage or current. (xi). It can also be observed from the above diagram
that, it satisfies the following equations,
i.e. I=Iz+IL,
it will be seen under all conditions that,
Vout=Vz,
Hence Vin=I*Rs+Vout =I*Rs+Vz,
Vin=(Iz+IL)*Rs+Vz,
The value of ‘Rs’ can be calculated using the above relation as below,
Vout (or Vz)=Vin-(IL+IZ)*Rs,
Rs=Vin-Vout/(IL+Iz).
Q(8). State the types of voltage regulators based on transistor?.
There are mainly two types,
(i). Transistor as a shunt voltage regulator,

(ii). Transistor as a series voltage regulator.
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Q(9). Draw & explain circuit diagram of transistor as a shunt voltage regulator?.
Construction:- (i). The circuit diagram for transistor as a shunt voltage regulator is as shown in above
figure. (ii). There is a NPN transistor which is connected in parallel with the load resistance ‘RL’.
(iii). Hence the given configuration is known as transistor as a shunt voltage regulator (iv). There is
a zener diode which is also connected in parallel with the load resistance ‘RL’.
connected to positive terminal of zener diode. (ii). Hence zener current (i.e. Iz) flows through zener
diode in reverse direction as seen in above figure. (iii). The direction zener current (i.e.Iz) is same as
that of base current (i.e. IB). (iv). As we are providing unregulated supply at the input side, so there is a
voltage drop across ‘Rs’.
(v). The main purpose behind the use of zener diode is that, zener diode is used
for providing constant reference voltage. (vi). The zener diode also acts as a bypass valve through
which more current can pass. (vii). Here the NPN transistor acts as a voltage variable resistor, (viii). i.e.
the given transistor can change its voltage level so as to maintain proper value of load resistance ‘RL’.
(ix). Such proper value of load resistor will helps to maintain load current ‘IL’ in its limitation. (x). As it
controls load current so there will be regulated voltage obtained at the output. (xi). Consider the
following equation,
Vout=Vz+VBE (because current directions are same),
(xii). In above equation the value of Vz will be constant, hence we can say that Vout is directly
proportional to voltage from base to emitter ‘VBE’. (xiii). i.e. As ‘Vout’ increases then ‘VBE’ also increases
& due to this ‘Ic’ also increases. (xiv). As ‘Vout’ decreases then ‘VBE’ also decreases & due to this ‘Ic’ also
decreases. (xv). Hence by this way transistor acts as a shunt voltage regulator for obtaining regulated
output voltage.
Q10). Give applications of Transistor as Shunt Voltage Regulator?.
(i). In emitter follower regulator,

(ii). In low load voltage regulator circuits,
(iii). Used in un-expensive devices.
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Q(11). Draw & explain circuit diagram of transistor as a series voltage regulator?.
Construction:- (i). The circuit diagram for transistor as a series voltage regulator is as shown in above
figure. (ii). There is a NPN transistor which is connected in series with the load resistance ‘RL’.
(iii). Hence the given configuration is known as transistor as a series voltage regulator. (iv). There is
a zener diode which is also connected in parallel with the load resistance ‘RL’.
connected to positive terminal of zener diode. (ii). Hence zener current (i.e. Iz) flows through zener
diode in reverse direction as seen in above figure. (iii). The direction zener current (i.e.Iz) is same as
that of base current ‘IB’.
(iv). As we are providing unregulated supply at the input side, so there is a
voltage drop across ‘Rs’. (v). The main purpose behind the use of zener diode is that, zener diode is
used for providing constant reference voltage. (vi). The zener diode acts as a bypass valve through
which more current can pass. (vii). Here the NPN transistor acts as a voltage variable resistor, (viii). i.e.
the given transistor can change its voltage level so as to maintain proper value of load resistance ‘RL’.
(ix). Such proper value of load resistor ‘RL’ will helps to maintain load current ‘IL’ in its limitation.
(x). As it controls load current, so there will be regulated voltage at the output.
(xi). Consider the following equation,
Vout=Vz-VBE (because current directions are different),
(xii). In above equation the value of ‘Vz’ will constant, hence we can say that ‘Vout’ is inversely
proportional to voltage from base to emitter ‘VBE’. (xiii). i.e. As ‘Vout’ increases then ‘VBE’ decreases &
due to this ‘Ic’ also decreases. (xiv). As ‘Vout’ decreases then ‘VBE’ increases & due to this ‘Ic’ also
increases. (xv). Hence by this way transistor acts as a series voltage regulator for obtaining regulated
output voltage.
Q(12). Give applications of Series Voltage Regulator?.
(i). In 3-pin IC regulator, (ii). In IC-723 regulator, (iii). In a high quality voltage regulators,
Q(13). Compare/write differences between Shunt Voltage Regulator & Series Voltage Regulator.
Shunt Voltage Regulator Series Voltage Regulator
(i). Transistor in connected in parallel with load. (i). Transistor in connected in series with load.
(ii). Vout=Vz+VBE. (ii). Vout=Vz-VBE.
(iii). Efficiency is better. (iii). Efficiency is good.
(iv). Power dissipation is less. (iv). Power dissipation is more.
(v). Applications. (v). Applications.
(vi). Circuit diagram. (vi). Circuit diagram.
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Q(14). Explain IC Voltage Regulators & state its advantages with examples?.
(i). It is a three terminal device in which we have to set a predetermined output value. (ii). This IC is
having three terminals as, (a). Input, (b). Output, (c). Ground. (iii). There are mainly two types of IC
voltage regulators, (a). IC-78XX, (b). IC-79XX. (iv). The alphabets ‘XX’ represents specified/required
output voltage as per the requirement of device. (iv). Mainly these IC’s are used to provide dual
polarity power supply. (v). i.e. they provides positive as well as negative power supply to the device.
(vi). Eg. ‘Op-Amps’ needs dual polarity power supply between -12V to +12V.
Q(15). Explain IC-78XX?.
(i). The function of using IC-78XX is that, it is designed to provide a fixed positive supply voltage.
(ii). For example if we have to generate +12V power supply then we have to use IC-7812 & if we have
to generate +24V power supply then we have to use IC-7824 (iii). Consider following IC numbers &
their specified supply voltage.
IC number 7805 7806 7808 7812 7815 7818 7824
Output +5V +6V +8V +12V +15V +18V +24V

voltages
Q(16). Explain IC-79XX?.
(i). The function of using IC-79XX is that, it is designed to provide fixed negative supply voltage.
(ii). For example if we have to generate -12V power supply then we have to use IC-7912 & if we have to
generate -24V power supply then we have to use IC-7924. (iii). Consider following IC numbers & their
specified supply voltage.
IC 7905 7906 7908 7912 7915 7918 7924

number
Output -5V -6V -8V -12V -15V -18V -24V
voltages
Q(17). Define Drop Out Voltage?.
(i). It is defined as the difference between the unregulated input voltage (‘Vin’) & regulated voltage
(‘Vout’). (ii). It is the voltage which is required for proper operation of regulator. (iii). It should be
minimum 2V. (iv). It can be calculated as,
Drop Out Voltage=Vin-Vout.
Q(18). Give the advantages of IC voltage regulators:-
(i). Easily available, (ii). Simple connections to external circuit, (iii). External components required are
less, (iv). Cheaper in cost, (v). Consumes low power, (vi). Output current range required is 100mA to
3A. (vii). Portable device, (viii). Provides better output.
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Q(19). Draw the dual power supply capable of giving ±12V using three terminal regulator IC’s
and describe its working in brief?. OR
Q(20). Construct the dual power supply capable of giving ±12V using IC 78XX & 79XX?.
Construction:- (i).As seen from the above diagram, there is a step down transformer connected at the
input side. (ii). There are 4 number of diodes used named as, D 1, D2, D3 & D4. (iii). There are capacitive
filters present at the input & output side of rectifier circuit named as C1, C2, C3 & C4.
(iv). At the output side there are ‘red’ & ‘green’ LED’s are used. (v). In above circuit we
have used IC’s ‘7812’ & ‘7912’, because we have to generate ±12V output voltage. (vi). We have used
pin no. 1 of IC’s for providing input. (vii). We have used pin no. 2 for supplying ground signal. (viii). We
have used pin no. 3 for generating output signal. (ix). There are resistors ‘R1’ & ‘R2’ at the output side.
Working:- (i). As soon as we provides 230V, 50Hz AC supply to the step down transformer. (ii). The
step down transformer then converts that 230V into smaller voltage level as per the requirement of
circuit. (iii). The output produced from transformer is then given to the rectifier circuit. (iv). Here we
have used full wave type rectifier circuit. (v). Then this circuits converts the given AC voltage into DC
voltage. (vi). Then output produced from the rectifier is given to the filter circuit.
(vii).The filter circuit containing capacitors C1 & C2 is used as a capacitive type filter.
(viii). Then this filter circuit removes any unwanted components present in DC signal. (ix). It also
removes any AC variations present in given DC signal. (x). Then the filtered signal is then given as an
input to the voltage regulator IC-7812 & IC 7912 at pin no. 1. (xi). Then voltage regulator IC-7812
generates positive 12V supply voltage.
(xii). Another voltage regulator IC-7912 generates negative 12V supply voltage.
(xiii). At the output side of IC-7812 & IC 7912, again we have connected capacitive filters containing C3
& C4 for generating ripple free signal. (xiv). Then this ripple free signal can be made onstant/regulated
by using/selecting proper values of resistors R1 & R2.
(xv). We have used ‘red’ & ‘green’ LED’s for giving status of IC’s. (xvi). i.e. if ‘red’ LED
is ‘ON’ then corresponding IC-7812 will be in active state. (xvii). if ‘green’ LED is ‘ON’ then
corresponding IC-7912 will be in active state. (xviii). Hence by this way this circuit generates regulated
power supply of ±12V. (xiv). Hence such circuits are useful for providing dual polarity power supply.
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Q(21). Explain the use of IC-78XX with neat circuit diagram?.
For construction & working please refer question number ‘20’.
Q(22). Explain the use of IC-79XX with neat circuit diagram?.
For construction & working please refer question number ‘20’.
Q(23). Draw the pin diagram for IC-723?.
Q(24). Draw the block diagram of IC-723 & also explain its working?.
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Construction:- (i). The above circuit contains two number of zener diodes. (ii). There are two number
of NPN transistors i.e. Q1 & Q2 at the output side. (iii). There is an error amplifier & voltage reference
amplifier present in the circuit. (iv). The above circuit needs current source at the input side.
Working:- (i). In above circuit we have NPN transistor as a series pass transistor. (ii). Hence above
circuit can be used as series voltage regulator. (iii). Consider following blocks/terminals,
(i). +VCC and -VCC :- (i). These are the supply voltage terminals for the IC-723. (ii). +VCC is used for
supplying positive voltage & -VCC is used for supplying negative voltage. (iii). The voltage difference
between these terminals should be between 9.5V to 40V.
(ii). Non Inverting Input:- (i). This is the non-inverting input of the error amplifier whose output is
connected to the series pass transistor. (ii). We usually give reference voltage or a portion of it to the
non inverting input.
(iii). Inverting Input:- (i). This is the inverting input of the error amplifier whose output is connected
to the series pass transistor. (ii). We usually give output voltage or a portion of it to the inverting input.
(iii). This makes the output voltage constant.
(iv). Error amplifier:- (i). This amplifier contains two input levels i.e. inverting & non-inverting.
(ii). Hence this amplifier is also known as differential amplifier. (iii). An error amplifier is most
commonly used in unidirectional voltage control circuits. (iv). In such circuits the sampled output
voltage is compared with a stable reference voltage. (v). Any difference between these two voltages
represents a an error voltage which tends to move the output voltage towards the design specified
voltage.
(v). Series Pass transistor (Q1):- (i). A series voltage regulator provides an effective form of voltage
regulation for a given power supply. (ii). By changing the value of resistance of the series element, the
voltage dropped across it can be varied for getting the voltage across the load as constant. (iii). The
series pass transistor does not provides the full amount of current even when the load does not
requires any current. (iv). As a result the series regulator is considerably more efficient. (v). This series
pass transistor can dissipate power up to 800mW.
(vi). Frequency compensation terminal:- (i). The frequency compensation terminal is used for
deciding suitable frequency response of the error amplifier. (ii). This frequency compensation circuit is
internally connected with a capacitor of 100µF.
(vii). Zener diode:- (i). The main purpose behind the use of zener diode is that, zener diode is used for
providing constant reference voltage. (ii). For maintaining ‘Vz’ as constant, the Vin should be higher
than Vz. (iii). The zener diode also acts as a bypass valve through which more current can pass.
(iv). Here zener diode provides/maintains the voltage at the output. (v). It is also implemented for
maintaining better internal temperature of the circuit.
(viii). Current Source:- (i). The constant current source is used for making zener diode to operate at
fixed voltage by supplying a constant current to it.
(ix). Transistor (Q2):- (i). This NPN transistor is used for sensing/detecting the current by using ‘CS’
terminal. (ii). It is also used for limiting the value of current at better level by using ‘CL’ terminal.
(iii). This transistor can be turned ‘ON’ only by increasing the value of load current over a pre
Page | 9
determined limit. (iv). this transistor is used to control the magnitude of load current below a safe
limit.
Q(25). List/state important features of IC-723?.
(i) Input voltage:- Maximum 40V.

(ii) Output voltage:- adjustable from 2V to 37V.
(iii) Output Current:- Maximum 1.5 A
(iv) There is an internal thermal overload protection.
(v) Suitable for operation of high voltage applications.
(vi) Internal power dissipation:- 800mW.
(vii) Higher ripple rejection.
Q(26). List/state important applications of IC-723?.
(i). The IC-723 voltage regulator is commonly used for series voltage regulator applications. (ii). It can
be used as for both positive as well as negative voltage regulations. (iii). It has an ability to provide up
to 150mA of current to the load. (iv). It is used for current limiting. (v). It can also be used as a
temperature controller current regulator. (vi). It can be used as a switching regulator.
******************************************** ALL THE BEST *****************************************
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Chapter No. 6. Oscillators.
(i). Attenuation:- (i). It is the process of reducing the signal strength during transmission. (ii). If the
signal attenuates too much, it becomes unintelligible. (iii). It is measured in decibels.
(ii). Quartz crystals:- They are manufactured for providing frequencies from a few tens of kilohertz to
hundreds of megahertz.
(iii). Feedback:- It is the process in which part output signal is given back to the input signal.
(iv). Resonant circuit:- Such circuit has condition ‘XL=XC’ & phase shift is 0°.
(v). Piezoelectric material:- It converts mechanical vibrations into electrical signal.
Q(1). What is oscillator & also give its uses?
(i). They are derived from the term ‘amplifier’ by which they does not have requires any external AC
input signal. (ii). They operates on the principle of positive feedback for generating output signal.
(iii). Hence oscillators can be thought as an amplifier which produces its own input signal.
(iv). An Oscillator is an electronic circuit that produces a repetitive, oscillating electronic signal.
(v). They are also known as signal generators.
(vi). They can generate sinusoidal waveforms like a sine wave, a square wave or
triangular waves. (vii). The sinusoidal waveform can be AC or DC. (viii). The frequency & voltage level
of the oscillator can be variable. (ix). Oscillators are designed to produce a high-power AC output from
a DC supply. (x). Hence they are usually called as an inverters. (xi). Oscillators operates on DC power
supply.
Uses:- (i). Used in signal generation by radio and TV transmitters. (ii). Used for generating clock
signals that regulate computers. (iii). Used in power transmitters. (iv). Used in high frequency devices.
Q(2). Draw the block diagram of oscillator?. OR

Q(3). Explain the operation of sine wave oscillator with block diagram?. OR
Q(4). Why positive feedback signal is required in oscillator circuit?.
(i). As seen from the above block diagram of oscillator, there are mainly two blocks as, amplifier &
feedback network. (ii). The given amplifier is assumed to be inverting type amplifier. (iii). This
amplifier produces the output voltage signal ‘Vo’ having phase shift of 180° with input voltage signal
‘Vi’. (iv). A part of such output waveform is then given back to the feedback network.
(v). Such feedback network generates feedback signal having phase shift of
180° as compared with output voltage signal ‘Vo’. (vi). Thus the signal is finally shifted by total of 360°
or 0° & it is given back in the form of input to the amplifier. (vii). Such feedback voltage signal ‘Vf’
should be in phase with the original input voltage signal ‘Vi’. (viii). Hence oscillators works on the
Page 1 of 10
* Basic Electronics NOTES By, Er. Swapnil V. Kaware (svkaware@yahoo.co.in) *
principle of positive feedback. (ix). Such positive feedback signal is needed for continuous oscillations.
(x). Hence oscillator is a circuit which produces oscillations without any external input signal source.
Q(5). Define feedback also give its types?.
Feedback:- (i). It can be defined as the process in which part output signal is given back in the form of
input signal. (ii). Feedback is a process in which information about the past or the present affects the
same properties in the present or future. (iii). There are two types of feedback,
(i). Positive Feedback:- It can be defined as the process in which original input signal should be in
phase with feedback signal. Such types of feedbacks are used in oscillators.
(ii). Negative Feedback:- It can be defined as the process in which original input signal should not be
in phase with the feedback signal. Such types of feedbacks are used in amplifiers.
Q(6). Give classification of oscillators?. OR

Q(7). State types of LC oscillators?.
The classification of oscillators is as shown below,
Oscillators
RC Oscillators. LC Oscillators
(i). Phase shift oscillator, (i).Hartley oscillator

(ii). Wien Bridge oscillator. (ii). Colpitts oscillator
(iii). Crystal oscillator
(iv). Armstrong oscillator
(v). Clapp oscillator
Q(8). Explain Barkhausen’s criterion for oscillators?.
For amplifiers to be worked as an oscillators they should satisfy ‘Barkhausen’s criterion’.
(a). Figure showing phase shift around the loop. (b). Fig. showing loop gain Aβ>=1.
Page 2 of 10
(i). As seen from fig. (a), The output signal waveform should be in phase with the feedback signal
waveform for continuous oscillations. (ii). Hence there should be phase difference of 0°. (iii). The
overall gain of the feedback amplifier is given by ‘Avf=Vo/Vi’. (iv). Where ‘Av’ is the gain of the
amplifier & ‘β’ is the feedback factor (portion of output voltage given back to the input).
(v). Hence better gain of the amplifier, ‘Avf’ should be larger. (vi). For ‘Avf’ to be
larger, the product ‘Av*β’ should be positive. (vii). i.e. They should be in phase with each other so that
their product becomes positive. (viii). Also the factor ‘Av*β’ should be greater than unity for producing
better loop gain. (ix). Hence ‘Av*β>=1’. (x). This criterion is known as ‘Barkhausen criterion’ for
oscillations.
Q(9). Explain RC phase shift oscillator using transistor & describe its working?. OR
Q(10). Give the formula for frequency of oscillation for RC phase shift oscillator?.
Construction:- (i). The required diagram for RC phase shift oscillator is shown in above figure.
(ii). The above circuit contains single ‘NPN’ transistor in CE configuration. (iii). The feedback network
contains components like resistors ‘R’ & capacitors ‘C’ hence known as RC phase shift oscillator.
(iv). ‘CE’ is known as bypass capacitor. (v). We have used NPN transistor, R1, R2, Rc & RE for making
transistor to act as an amplifier.
Working:- (i). The RC phase shift oscillators using passive-component’s phase shift becomes accurate
and almost drift-free. (ii). Sometimes the phase shift produced by active components is poor because it
varies with temperature. (iii). Hence there will be possibility of error signal at output. (iv). Capacitor
‘CE’ bypasses AC variations around the emitter resistor ‘RE’. (v). Capacitors C1, C2, and C3 and resistors
R1, R2 form the feedback and phase-shifting network.
(vi). The combination of resistor ‘R’ and capacitor ‘C’ can also effectively
produce good quality of oscillations. (vii). The phase angle is determined by the amount of resistance
and capacitance of the RC network. (viii). The single RC circuit can contribute up to 90° phase shift in
the network. (ix). Hence for introducing total phase shift of 180° for required oscillation, at least three
RC networks must be used in the oscillator design.
(x). The NPN transistor is connected in CE configuration hence it provides a
phase shift of 180°. (xi). The RC feedback network provides additional phase shift of 180°. (xii). Hence
there are two independent phase shifts present in the circuit. (xiii). By this way the total phase shift
becomes 360° or 0°. (xiv). Now when the phase shift of a circuit is 360° or 0° then its output must be in
phase with its input.
(xv). Hence this circuit follows the concept of positive feedback. (xvi). So in this
way the Barkhausan’s criterion is satisfied and the oscillations start continuing. (xvii). The gain of the
transistor in common emitter configuration is always greater than unity. (xviii). The frequency of the
oscillations can be changed by changing the values of resistors & capacitors present in the RC network.
Page 3 of 10
(xx). The range of these frequencies can be between few hertz to several kilo hertz. (xxi). The formula
for frequency of these oscillations is given by,
Q(11). Give the advantages/applications of phase shift oscillator?.
(i). Construction is simple. (ii). Suitable for wide frequency range of applications. (iii). Used for audio
frequency oscillations. (iv). Output signal produced is better. (v). Used in signal generators.
Q(12). Draw & Explain wien bridge oscillator & describe its working?. OR
Q(13). Give the formula for frequency of oscillation for wien bridge oscillator?.
Construction:- (i). The required diagram for wien bridge oscillator is shown in above figure. (ii). The
above circuit contains single non-inverting type amplifier. (iii). There is a RC network present in the
above circuit. (iv). In above circuit we have used resistors R1,R2,R3 & R4 & capacitors C1, C2 for
forming a feedback network.
Working:- (i). The Wien Bridge oscillator is a RC coupled amplifier circuit that has good stability at its
resonant frequency. (ii). The Wien Bridge Oscillator uses a feedback circuit consisting of a
series RC network connected with a parallel RC network. (iii). The combination of capacitors C1 & C2 is
known as the ‘Gang’ Capacitor. (iv). i.e. when we change the value of one capacitor ‘C1’ then value of
other capacitor ‘C2’ simultaneously changes.
(v). Thus, the frequency of the circuit can be changed by adjusting the value of
the gang capacitor C1 & C2 together. (vi). We have used resistors ‘R1’ & ‘R2’ for controlling reference
voltages. (vii). We have used transistor as an amplifiers and the feedback path is provided by using
wien bridge network. (viii). The input is to be applied at terminals ‘A’ & ‘C’.
(ix). The required output is obtained across ‘B’ & ‘D’. (x). This output is then
given to the non-inverting type amplifier for better amplification. (xi). Such amplifier does not
introduces any type of phase shift in the output. (xii). The output produced from the amplifier circuit is
then given to the feedback circuit. (xiii). This circuit also does not introduces any type of phase shift.
(xiv). i.e. We have used this feedback network for giving better attenuation.
Page 4 of 10
(xv). By this way the total phase shift generated by above circuit becomes 0°.
(xvi). Now when the phase shift of a circuit is 0° then its output must be in phase with its input.
(xvii). The circuit contains an amplifier whose gain must is greater than unity. (xviii). Hence this
circuit follows the concept of positive feedback. (xix). So in this way the Barkhausan’s criterion is
satisfied for continues oscillations. (xx). The frequency of the oscillations can be changed by changing
the values of resistors & capacitors present in the RC network. (xxi). The range of frequencies of
oscillations can be between 20 Hz to 200 KHz. (xxii). The formula for frequency of these oscillations is
given by,
Q(14). Give the advantages/applications of wien bridge oscillator?.
(i). It provides better platform for building AC bridge networks, (ii). It provides a signal for testing
filters. (iii). It produces better oscillations. (iv). Output signal contains less distortion.
Q(15). Give the condition for balancing wien bridge oscillator and minimum gain required for
the amplifier used in an amplifier?.
For wien bridge oscillator, the feedback factor is given by, β=(1/3) * oscillators frequency.
Hence the required amplifier gain i.e. ‘A’ should be greater than or equals to 3. i.e. A≥3.
Q(16). State the function of tuned circuit (i.e. LC circuits) in oscillator?. OR

Q(17). Describe how the oscillations generated in tuned circuits?.
(i). The LC circuit, also called as resonant circuit or tank circuit or tuned circuit. (ii). It consists of
an inductor represented by the letter ‘L’, and a capacitor represented by the letter ‘C’. (iii). The LC
circuits are used either for generating signals at a particular frequency, or picking out a signal at a
particular frequency from a more complex signal. (iv). The frequency of oscillations is determined by
the amount of capacitance and inductance values. (v). The resonance effect occurs when inductive and
capacitive reactance’s are equal in magnitude. (vi). Te following LC circuit (‘tank circuit’) is a
combination of a single capacitor ‘C’ and a single inductor ‘L’ connected in parallel.
(vii). It is clear that, the amplitude of the output wave produced by the tank circuit is not constant.
(viii). It decreases with respect to time. (ix). Such oscillations are called as damped oscillations.
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(x). These oscillations die out after some time. (xi). Such oscillations are not useful in practical
electronics circuit. (xii). So it is necessary to convert it into undamped or sustained oscillations.
(xiii). The frequency of such oscillations of tank circuit i.e. LC type is given by,
Q(18). Give the advantages/applications of LC oscillator?. OR

Q(19). Give the advantages/applications of Hartley oscillator?. OR
Q(20). Give the advantages/applications of colpitts oscillator?.
(i). LC oscillators have higher Q factor. (ii). Useful for higher frequency applications. (iii).They have
smaller size and easier design. (iv). They are available at very cheaper cost. (v). Better efficiency.
(vi). The output amplitude remains constant over the variable frequency range. (vii). Used in function
generators, (vii). Used in radio frequency applications. (viii). Used in TV receivers.
Q(21). Draw & Explain hartley oscillator & describe its working?. OR
Q(22). Give the formula for frequency of oscillation for hartley oscillator?.
Construction:- (i). The Hartley oscillator using ‘NPN’ transistor is as shown in above figure. (ii). The
above circuit contains capacitor ‘C’ & two transformer coils ‘L1’ & ‘L2’ inductively coupled with each
other. (iii). We have used ‘NPN’ transistor, R1, R2, Rc & RE for making transistor to act as an amplifier.
(iv). We have used capacitors ‘C1’ & ‘C2’ as a coupling components. (v).CE is used as a bypass capacitor.
Working:- (i). The above circuit contains mainly two blocks i.e. amplifier & feedback network. (ii). The
amplifier block contains ‘NPN’ transistor in CE configuration. (iii).In amplifier section we have used
‘C1’ capacitor for coupling feedback networks output with the base of the transistor. (iv). we have used
capacitor ‘C2’ for coupling collector output to the feedback network.
(v). This CE amplifier introduces 180° phase shift between input & output signal.
(vi). The components L1,L2 & C forms the feedback circuit (i.e. tank circuit) which also introduces
additional 180° phase shift between output & input signal. (vii). By this way the total phase shift
generated by above circuit becomes 360° or 0°.
(viii). Now when the phase shift of a circuit is 360° or 0° then its output must be in
phase with its input signal. (ix). The circuit contains an amplifier whose gain must is greater than
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unity. (x). Hence this circuit follows the concept of positive feedback. (xi). The frequency of the
oscillations can be changed by changing the values of inductors & capacitors present in the LC
network. (xii). The frequency of oscillations is given by, F= 1/(2ᴨ*√(2*C(L1+L2)).
Q(23). Draw the circuit diagram for Colpitt’s `oscillator & describe its working?. OR
Q(24). Draw the circuit diagram for Colpitt’s oscillator & describes how it satisfies
‘Barkhausen’s criterion’?. OR
Q(25). Give the formula for frequency of oscillations for Colpitt’s oscillator?.
Construction:- (i). The colpitts oscillator using ‘NPN’ transistor is as shown in above figure. (ii). The
above circuit contains capacitor ‘C’ & two transformer coils L1 & L2 inductively coupled with each
other. (iii). We have used NPN transistor, R1, R2, Rc & RE for making transistor to act as an amplifier.
(iv). We have used capacitors C1 & C2 as a coupling components. (v).CE is used as a bypass capacitor.
Working:- (i). The above circuit contains mainly two blocks i.e. amplifier & feedback network. (ii). The
amplifier block contains NPN transistor in CE configuration. (iii).In amplifier section we have used C1
capacitor for coupling feedback networks output with the base of the transistor. (iv). This CE amplifier
configuration introduces 180° phase shift between input & output waveform.
(v). The components C1,C2 & L formed the feedback circuit (i.e. tank circuit)
which also introduces additional 180° phase shift between output & input waveform. (vi). By this way
the total phase shift generated by above circuit becomes 360° or 0°. (vii). Now when the phase shift of
a circuit is 360° or 0° then its output must be in phase with its input.
(viii). The circuit contains an amplifier whose gain must is greater than unity.
(ix). Hence this circuit follows the concept of positive feedback. (x). The frequency of the oscillations
can be changed by changing the values of inductors & capacitors present in the LC network. (xi). The
frequency of oscillations is given by, F= 1/(2ᴨ*√(C*L)). Where C=C1+C2.
Q(26). Give the basic principle of piezoelectric crystal and also give the equivalent circuit
diagram?. OR
Q(27). What is piezoelectric effect?.
(i). This property tells that if mechanical force is applied to the quartz crystal then it starts vibrating
mechanically. (ii). In other words if we apply mechanical vibrations to a quartz crystal then under
operating conditions we can obtain electrical oscillations from it. (iii).It is useful for providing a
stable clock signal for digital integrated circuits.(iv). The most common type of piezoelectric resonator
used is the ‘quartz crystal’. (v).The other piezoelectric materials may includes polycrystalline ceramics.
Page 7 of 10
Q(28). Draw the circuit diagram for crystal oscillator & describe its working? OR
Q(29). Draw the circuit diagram for crystal oscillator & describes how it satisfies Barkhausen’s
criterion? OR
Q(30). Give the formula for frequency of oscillations for crystal oscillator? & State on which
factors it depends?.
(a) Fig. Crystal mounting, (b). Fig. Equivalent circuit.
(i). The required circuit diagram for the crystal oscillator is as shown in above figure. (ii). It can be
observed from the above diagram that, the crystal is equivalent to the resonant circuit. (iii). we have
used the quartz crystal for getting better accuracy & stability of the oscillators frequency. (iv). Quartz
crystals are used because they are readily available & also inexpensive. (v). A quartz crystal exhibits a
very important property known as piezoelectric effect.
(vi). For proper operation of the circuit, the crystal is to be cut suitably & then
placed in between metallic plates. (vii). When a mechanical pressure is applied across the sides of the
crystal. (viii). Then a voltage proportional to the applied mechanical pressure appears across
the crystal. (ix). Such alternating voltage applied to a crystal causes it to vibrate at its natural
frequency. (x). The crystal actually behaves as a series R-L-C circuit in parallel with Cp.
(xi). Where Cp is the capacitance of the mounting electrodes. (xii). The amount of
current that can safely pass through a crystal ranges from 50mA to 200mA. (xiii). The amount of
current is directly proportional to amplitude of mechanical vibrations, power dissipation and crystal
temperature. (xiv). The circuit contains parallel capacitor ‘Cp’ & series capacitor ‘Cs’ along with
resistor ‘R’ & inductor ‘L’. (xv). The components R, L & C together forms a resonant circuit.
(xvi). There are two types of resonant frequencies. i.e. for R-L-C series & R-L-C
parallel circuits.
(xvii). The formula for series resonant frequency is given by, Fs=1/(2ᴨ*√LCs).
(xviii). The formula for parallel resonant frequency is given by, Fp=1/(2ᴨ*√LCeqt).
Where Ceqt =(Cp*Cs)/(Cp+Cs).
(xix). Parallel frequency ‘Fp’ must be always greater than series frequency ‘Fs’.
Q(31). Give the advantages/applications of Crystal oscillator?.
(i). Used in function generators, (ii). Used in radio frequency applications. (iii). Used in TV receivers.
(iv). They have high stability. (v). Quality factor is better. (vi). They are smaller in size. (vii). Cost is
lower. (viii). Stability is good.
Page 8 of 10
Q(32). Explain Pierce Crystal oscillator?
(i). The pierce crystal oscillator is as shown in above figure. (ii). The crystal-controlled pierce oscillator
uses a crystal unit as a parallel-resonant circuit. (iii). The Pierce oscillator is a modified colpitts
oscillator. (iv). They operate in the same way except that the crystal unit replaces the parallel-resonant
circuit of the colpitts oscillator. (v). The feedback signal is supplied from the collector to the emitter
terminal through capacitor ‘C1’.
(vi). Resistors R1, R2, RC & RF provides the proper bias conditions for the circuit
and resistor RE is the emitter resistor. (vii). Capacitors C1 and CE form a voltage divider connected
across the output. (viii). The oscillating frequency is determined not only by the crystal but also by the
parallel capacitance caused by capacitors C1 and CE.
(ix). This parallel capacitance affects the oscillator frequency by lowering it. (x). Any
change in capacitance of either C1 or CE changes the frequency of the oscillator. (xi). The crystal unit
and capacitors C1 and C2 determines the output frequency of the oscillator. (xii). When a manufacturer
makes a "series" crystal, a technician uses a different tuning procedure. (xiii). When a "series" crystal is
used in a Pierce oscillator, the Pierce oscillator (as always) drives the crystal at nearly its parallel
resonance frequency. (xiv). But that frequency is few kilohertz higher than the series resonant
frequency printed on the package of a "series" crystal.
Q(33). Compare Hartley & Colpitt’s oscillator?.
Hartley oscillator Colpitt’s oscillator

(i). Stability is less. (i). Stability is greater.
(ii). No use of crystals. (ii). It is crystal controlled.
(iii). Cost is high. (iii). Cost is less.
(iv). Construction is complex. (iv). Construction is simpler.
(v). Efficiency is good. (v). Efficiency is better.
(vi). Suitable for medium frequency range. (vi). Suitable for higher frequency range.
(vii). F= 1/(2ᴨ*√(2*C(L1+L2)). (vii). F= 1/(2ᴨ*√(C*L)).
(viii). Circuit diagram. (viii). Circuit diagram.
(ix). Applications. (ix). Applications.
Page 9 of 10
Q(34). Compare RC & LC oscillators?.
RC oscillator LC oscillator
(i). Resonance phenomenon does not exist. (i). Resonance phenomenon exists.
(ii). RC oscillators are mostly used for (ii). LC oscillators are preferred for frequencies
frequencies less than 1MHz. greater than 1 MHz.
(iii). They stores only one kind of energy. (iii). They stores more than one than kind of
energy.
(iv). RC oscillators are less economical. (iv). LC oscillators are more economical.
(v). Energy moves only in one direction. (v). Energy changes periodically its direction.
(vi). The shape of RC oscillations are (vi). The shape of an LC oscillations are rounded
peaked or angular. or sinusoidal.
(vii). The shape of the RC oscillations can be (vii). The shape of the LC oscillations is precisely
asymmetrical. symmetrical.
(viii). Feedback elements used are resistors ‘R’ & (viii). Feedback elements used are inductors ‘L’
capacitors ‘C’. & capacitors ‘C’.
(ix). F=1/(2π√6*R*C). (ix). F=1/(2π√L*C).
(x). It may use components like resistors, (x). It may use components like inductors,
capacitors, FETs or OP-AMPs. capacitors, FETs or OP-AMPs.
(xi). Examples:- (i). Phase shift oscillator, (xi). Examples:- (i). Hartley oscillator,
(ii). Wein bridge oscillator. (ii). Colpitts bridge oscillator.
***************************************** ALL THE BEST ************************************
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Basic Electronics By, Er. Swapnil V. Kaware

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Basic Electronics By, Er. Swapnil V. Kaware

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Chapter No. 1. Semiconductor Diode.

Q(1). Explain or Define Conductor?.

Q(2). Explain or Define Insulator?.

Q(3). Explain or Define Semiconductor?.

* Basic Electronics Notes By Er. Swapnil V. Kaware (svkaware@yahoo.co.in)*

Q(5). Explain or Define Intrinsic or Pure Semiconductor?.

Q(6). Explain Extrinsic or Impure Semiconductor?.

* Basic Electronics Notes By Er. Swapnil V. Kaware (svkaware@yahoo.co.in)*

Q(7). Explain N-type semiconductors?.

Q(8). Explain P-type semiconductors?.

* Basic Electronics Notes By Er. Swapnil V. Kaware (svkaware@yahoo.co.in)*

The symbol of a diode is as shown in above figure.

Q(12). Explain the formation of depletion region in P-N junction diode?. OR

* Basic Electronics Notes By Er. Swapnil V. Kaware (svkaware@yahoo.co.in)*

Q(17). Draw V-I or forward& reverse characteristics of P-N junction diode?

* Basic Electronics Notes By Er. Swapnil V. Kaware (svkaware@yahoo.co.in)*

Q(20). Compare the characteristics of silicon & germanium diode?.

Silicon diode Germanium diode

Fig:- Forward Bias

* Basic Electronics Notes By Er. Swapnil V. Kaware (svkaware@yahoo.co.in)*

(22). Define PIV (i.e. Peak Inverse Voltage) of diode?.

Q(24). What is Zener diode & also draw its symbol?.

Q(25). Describe Avalanche Effect & Zener Breakdown of P-N junction?.

* Basic Electronics Notes By Er. Swapnil V. Kaware (svkaware@yahoo.co.in)*

Fig:- Forward Bias

Fig:- Reverse Bias

Q(28). Give/List any four applications of Zener diode?.

Q(29). Give/List any specifications of Zenerdiode?.

current. (vi). Temperature coefficient. (vii). Zener resistance.

* Basic Electronics Notes By Er. Swapnil V. Kaware (svkaware@yahoo.co.in)*

P-N Junction Diode Zener Diode

Q(31).Describe the working principle & construction of point contact diode?.

Q(32). Draw the symbol of point contact diode?.

Q(33). State applications of point contact diode?.

Q(34). Draw the symbol of schottky diode?.

* Basic Electronics Notes By Er. Swapnil V. Kaware (svkaware@yahoo.co.in)*

Q(36). Give applications of schottky diode?.

Q(37). What is varactor diode & also draw its symbol?.

Q(46). Give/List any four applications of varactor diode?.

* Basic Electronics Notes By Er. Swapnil V. Kaware (svkaware@yahoo.co.in)*

Q(48). Draw symbol of LED (Light Emitting Diode)?.

Q(49). Explain working principle & constructional details of LED?.

* Basic Electronics Notes By Er. Swapnil V. Kaware (svkaware@yahoo.co.in)*

Q(51). Give two advantages & disadvantages of LED?.

Q(52). Give/List applications of LED’s?.

Q(53). Compare PN junction diode & LED?.

PN junction diode LED

Q(54). Draw the symbol for photodiode?.

* Basic Electronics Notes By Er. Swapnil V. Kaware (svkaware@yahoo.co.in)*

Q(57). Give/List applications of photodiode?.

Q(58). Draw symbol of LASER (Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation)?.

* Basic Electronics Notes By Er. Swapnil V. Kaware (svkaware@yahoo.co.in)*

Q(60). Give/List applications of LASER diode?.

Q(61). Give applications of electronics?.

There are following applications of electronics,

******************************************* ALL THE BEST ***************************************

* Basic Electronics Notes By Er. Swapnil V. Kaware (svkaware@yahoo.co.in)*

Q(1). Define rectifier or state its principle?.

Q(2). State the need of rectifier?.

Q(3). List the types of rectifiers?.

Half Wave Rectifier (HWR) Full Wave Rectifier (FWR)

Full Wave Centre Tapped Rectifier Full Wave Bridge Rectifier

Half Wave Rectifier Full Wave Rectifier Bridge Rectifier

Working Principle:- The working principle can be explained as follows,

Q(14). Give the advantages of capacitive input filter?. OR

Working Principle:- The working principle can be explained as follows,

Q(18). Draw the circuit diagram of series induction filter circuit?.

***** ALL THE BEST *

***** ALL THE BEST

* All The Best **