2 Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering

1.2 ORIGIN OF SOILS

The earth’s crust consists of both rock and weathered rock (as soil) up to an approximate
depth of 20 km. Soils (weathered rocks) originated from the rocks and minerals of the earth’s
crust. The principal minerals subjected to weathering to produce soil at or near the earth’s
surface and available in the order of abundance are quartz, feldspar, pyroxene, amphibole, etc.
Continuous slow weathering processes, aided by crustal deformities in the past, are believed
to have decomposed the solid rock to fragments, creating soils. The type of soil developed
depends on the rock type, its mineral constituents, and the climatic regime of the area. Rock
types are grouped into three major classes: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic.
Cooling and hardening of molten magma resulted in the formation of igneous rocks. Slow
cooling of molten magma yields large crystals, while rapid cooling results in small crystals.
Granite, syenites, diorites, and gabbros have large crystals, while basalts, rhyolites, and
andesites have small crystals.
Rocks containing quartz or orthoclase minerals with high silica content (e.g., granite and
rhyolite) mostly decompose into sands* or gravelly** soils with a little clay.*** On the other
hand, rocks (e.g., gabbros and basalt) whose minerals contain iron, magnesium, calcium, or
sodium with a little silica decompose to yield fine-textured silty+ and clayey soils. Clays are
not fragments of primary minerals from the parent rock but secondary minerals formed by
the decomposition of primary minerals. Thus, the behaviour of clay is different from that of
gravel and sand as the latter are composed of primary minerals.
Transportation agents such as wind, water, and ice may move the loose weathered
rock materials and deposit them in layers called sediments. Such sediments, with the
cementing properties of fragments, when subjected under heavy pressure to compaction
and cementation, result in sedimentary rocks. Sedimentary type of rocks are classified as
chemical (e.g., limestones and dolomites), clastic (e.g., shale and sandstone), and biochemical
or organic (e.g., fossil limestone, chalk, coral, and coal in the form of peat, lignite, bitumen,
or anthracite).
Sedimentary rocks, and to a lesser extent igneous rocks, when subjected to metamor-
phism (changes brought about by combinations of heat, pressure, and plastic flow),
undergo changes in their texture, structure, and mineral composition, resulting in rocks
called metamorphic rocks. Metamorphism is of two types, thermal and dynamic. Thermal
metamorphism occurs primarily due to temperature increase and high hydrostatic pressure,
whereas dynamic metamorphism is due to differential pressure. Metamorphism changes
limestone to marble, sandstone to quartzite, and shale to slate.
Metamorphic rocks may be categorized as foliated or non-foliated. Foliation occurs during
the process of metamorphism when some metamorphic rocks reduce back to sedimentary
rocks. Gneiss and schist decompose into silt–sand mixtures with mica, slates and phyllites
to clays, marble to limestone, and quartzite to sands and gravels.
The cyclic process of transforming rock to soil and vice versa is a continuous process
occurring over millions of years through complex chemical and physical processes. This
phenomenon, referred to as the geological cycle, is schematically shown in Fig. 1.1.

Particle sizes: *sand, 0.075 to 2 mm; **gravel, 2 to 4.75 mm; ***clay, < 0.002 mm; +silt, 0.002 to 0.075 mm.