R.N.I. Registrations No.

17549/57 ISSN: 0258-05500

Volume : 80-3 Total Pages : 64 July- September 2019

CONTENTS
Paper No. 696
� Towards Sustainable Asphalt Binders: Evaluation of Bio-Asphalt Binders and
Mixes with Biochar 5-15
by Abhinay Kumar, Rajan Choudhary, Sanjay K. Nirmal, I K Pandey & Rupam Kataki

Paper No. 697

� Consistency Evaluation of Horizontal Curves on Two-Lane Rural Highways 16-24
by Anitha Jacob & Anjaneyulu M.V.L.R

Paper No. 698

� Experimental Study for Estimation of Capacity of Exclusive Motor Cycle
Journal of the
Lane in India 25-31
by Nischal Gupta & Ravi Sekhar Chalumuri Indian Roads Congress
Paper No. 699
� Construction of Bridges Over River Barak at Badrighat (Barenga) & Sadarghat
on Silchar-Kumbhagram Road in Silchar, Assam 32-48
by Alok Bhowmick, Sanjay Kr. Jain & D D Sharma

Paper No. 700

� Median Plantation: Safety Issues Arising from Prevailing Practices Across
India and Recommended Scientific Approach for Safety Enhancement 49-60
by Dhiraj Prakash Sethi & Keshav Lunani

https://www.irc.nic.in
 Journal Of The
Indian Roads Congress
Volume 80-3 ▪ JULY - SEPTEMBER, 2019 ▪ ISSN 0258-0500

Indian Roads Congress

Founded : On 10th December, 1934

Publisher & Editor: S.K. Nirmal, Secretary General, IRC

E-mail: secygen.irc@gov.in  Website: www.irc.nic.in
Headquarter: IRC Bhawan, Kama Koti Marg, Sector-6, R.K. Puram, New Delhi-110 022.
Satellite Office: IDA Building, Ground Floor, Jamnagar House, Shahjahan Road, New Delhi- 110 011
Phone No.: +91-11-26171548 (Admn.), 23387140 & 23384543 (Membership), 23387759 (Sale),
26185273 (Tech. Papers, Indian Highways and Tech. Committees)

No part of this publication may be reproduced by any means without prior written permission from the Secretary General, IRC.
The responsibility of the contents and the opinions expressed in this Journal is exclusively of the author(s) concerned. IRC and the Editor disclaim
responsibility and liability for any statements or opinion, originality of contents and of any copyright violations by the authors. The opinion expressed in
the papers and contents published in the Journal do not necessarily represent the views of the Editor or IRC.

Printed at: M/s Aravali Printers & Publishers Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi-110 020  `20
(All Rights Reserved, No part of this Publication shall be reproduced, translated
or transmitted in any from or by any means without the permission of the
Indian Roads Congress)

The opinions and conclusions in this Journal are those of the

Authous and not of the IRC
 PAPER NO. 696

TOWARDS SUSTAINABLE ASPHALT BINDERS: EVALUATION OF BIO-

ASPHALT BINDERS AND MIXES WITH BIOCHAR

Abhinay Kumar1 Rajan Choudhary2 Sanjay K. Nirmal3 I.K. Pandey4 Rupam Kataki5
ABSTRACT
Flexible pavements are the most widely used pavements in India, which extensively utilise asphalt (or bitumen) as a binder in
the wearing, binder and base courses. Bitumen is a treated fractional distillation residue obtained from petroleum crude—a
fossil fuel based, non-renewable, and a fast depleting natural resource. There has been increasing awareness around the world
to develop an economy that makes use of bio-based and renewable energy sources and has less dependency on non-renewable
resources. With the growing need, either for expansion, upgradation or maintenance of road infrastructure in India and
worldwide, engineers and researchers are continuously exploring the use of renewable and sustainable materials in pavement
construction, since both aggregates and asphalt/bitumen (the two extensively used materials in road construction) are obtained
from non-renewable resources.
The objective of this study is to evaluate the characteristics of bio-asphalt binders and mixes prepared using biochar derived
from pyrolys is of bamboo biomass. North-Eastern region of India has a great potential for energy generation with bamboo
biomass as it is home to more than 100 bamboo species. Biochar is a solid carbonaceous residue generated as by-product in
biomass pyrolysis. Bio-asphalt binders are prepared with five replacement percentages of 0%, 5%, 10%, 15%, and 20% of neat
binder with bamboo biochar. Bio-asphalt binders thus prepared are first tested for complex modulus and phase angle at different
temperatures and load frequencies. Complex modulus master curves are then developed to assess the rheological performance
of bio-asphalt binders. Zero Shear Viscosity (ZSV) and Multiple Stress Creep and Recovery (MSCR) tests are also done to
investigate the rutting performance of the bio-asphalt binders at different biochar contents. This is followed by fabrication
of bituminous mixes with bio-asphalt binders and evaluation of their resistance to moisture damage through indirect tensile
strength and tensile strength ratio tests. Mixes with bio-asphalt binders are also investigated through resilient modulus, static
creep, and dynamic creep tests. Results showed that bio-asphalt binders with bamboo biochar had enhanced stiffness, rutting
resistance, elastic properties, and overall high-service temperature performance when compared to the neat asphalt binder.
Bio-asphalt mixes showed an improved moisture damage and permanent deformation resistance compared to the control mix.
Bio-asphalt binders formed with partial substitution of crude petroleum derived asphalt binder with bamboo biochar, a bio-
based renewable material, show promising results in the direction of sustainable asphalt binders.

1. INTRODUCTION projects are being planned or are under execution, which

are aimed at expansion, up gradation and development
India has the world’s second largest road network that
of highways in India. More than 90 percent of the Indian
spans more than 5.89 million km and comprises of
roads are flexible pavements.
different categories of roads such as national highways,
state highways, and rural roads (MoRT&H, 2019). The Perhaps, the most important (and costly) component in the
highest category roads such as the National Highways and flexible pavements is the bituminous binder (or asphalt
Expressways account for just 2 percent of the total road binder), a material derived from fractional distillation
network. Therefore, many ambitious highway development of petroleum crude, a non-renewable energy resource.
1.
PhD Research Scholar, E-mail : abhinay.kumar@iitg.ac.in
2.
Professor, E-mail : rajandce@iitg.ac.in Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Guwahati
3.
Secretary General, Indian Roads Congress, New Delhi, Email : nirmalsanjay39@gmail.com
4.
Director General (Road Development) & Special Secretary, MoRT&H
5.
Professor, Department of Energy, Tezpur University, E-mail : rupam@tezu.ernet.in

Journal of the Indian Roads Congress, July-September 2019 5

 PAPER NO. 696
Bituminous binders are extensively utilised in construction
of wearing, binder and base courses in different pavement
types. Fossil fuel resources are fast depleting and their
supplies may dwindle in the near future. Also, petroleum
crude resources are not distributed evenly around the
world, which makes many countries dependent on import
of crude or crude based resources. India’s oil import
dependence was reported to be 83.7 percent of the total
consumption in 2018-19 (TET, 2019). India imports crude
from countries in Middle-East, and Venezuela, Mexico
and Canada (Reashma et al., 2006).
There has been an increasing awareness globally to develop
an economy that makes use of bio-based and renewable
energy sources and is less dependent on non-renewable
fossil based energy resources (Scarlat et al., 2015; Kumar
et al., 2018). Bio-based resources are renewable, cost
effective, and environment friendly. A proper utilisation
of these resources can be a significant asset for economic
development of a nation. In India, attention is growing
on the use of bio-fuels as complementary to or as partial
substitute of petroleum-based products such as petrol and
diesel (MNRE, 2009). It is also the high time to employ
bio-based materials and technologies in road construction.
Researchers and engineers are seriously looking for use
of renewable, sustainable and bio-based materials for
partial/complete substitution of asphalt binders/bitumen
and aggregates derived from non-renewable resources in
road construction.
Biomass refers to the organic material derived from
plants (including trees, crops and algae), and it stores the
energy harnessed from sunlight in the form of chemical
bonds (McKendry, 2002). North-eastern states of India
house many different varieties of biomass which have
good potential for production of bioenergy, biofuels,
and a number of chemicals and materials. Pyrolysis is a
technology used to convert biomass to bio-fuels, and bio-
materials. Pyrolysis converts biomass to liquid, gaseous
and solid fractions by heating the biomass in an oxygen-
deficient environment. Biochar is the solid carbonaceous
residue generated as by-product of biomass pyrolysis
(Zhao et al., 2014b; Demirbas and Balat, 2006). The
liquid and gaseous components may be used as bio-fuels
or feedstock to produce other chemicals. However, for the
biochar, which is obtained as a by-product, appropriate
channels are needed for its bulk utilisation. Bio-char is
a carbonaceous product, and carbonaceous products like
carbon black, carbon fibres, coke dust, and carbon nano-
tubes have shown good results when used with asphalt
binder/bitumen (Alliotti, 1962; Huang et al., 2009; Taha
et al., 1998; Ziari et al., 2014).
6 Journal of the Indian Roads Congress, July-September 2019
It has been reported in few studies that biochar obtained
from pyrolysis of different types of biomass could be
used as modifier/partial replacement of asphalt binder
and mixes. Chebil et al. (2000) used char obtained from
pyrolysis of softwood bark residue as an additive to asphalt
binder in dosages of 5–15%. It was reported that addition
of char enhanced viscoelastic properties of the binder
at high-temperatures. Zhao et al. (2014b) used biochar
derived from switchgrass pyrolysis as an asphalt binder
modifier and compared the results with commercial carbon
black. Results indicated that biochar reduced temperature
susceptibility and increased the rutting resistance of the
binder. The authors also concluded biochar as a more
effective modifier than commercial carbon black. Zhang
et al. (2018) used biochar from pyrolysis of waste wood in
asphalt binder. It was found that porous and rough surface
texture of biochar helped to increase binder’s rotational
viscosity, interaction with bitumen, rutting resistance, and
aging resistance. It was reported that biochar in the size
less than 75 µm achieved the best overall performance.
Zhao et al. (2014a) used biochar obtained from switch
grass pyrolysis at a dosage of 10% along with carbon
black and carbon fibre as other reference carbonaceous
additives. Results of the study showed that biochar proved
to be effective in increasing the rutting, moisture, and
cracking resistance of hot mix asphalt in comparison to
other additives. Utilisation of biochar as a binder partial
substitute/modifier in construction of bituminous mixes
for pavements can be a step towards sustainable road
construction in India. However, with limited studies, it
is a need of the hour to evaluate the feasibility of use of
biochar as a bio-based additive to conventional asphalt
binder, in road construction.
North-East India has an incredible potential for energy
generation with bamboo biomass. About 28 percent of
the total bamboo area of the country is located in the
North-East region, and the region is home to more than
100 bamboo species (NEDFI, 2019, Saikia et al., 2007).
The present study uses biochar generated from pyrolysis
of bamboo biomass in asphalt binder modification/partial
replacement in the dosages up to 20% by binder weight.
The binders obtained on addition of bamboo biochar are
referred as ‘bio-asphalt binders’, whereas the bituminous
mixes fabricated with bio-asphalt binders are referred as
‘bio-asphalt mixes’. Rheology of the bio-asphalt binders
is evaluated through the determination of complex
modulus and phase angle at different temperatures and
load frequencies. The performance over a wide range
of frequencies is assessed through the use of complex
modulus master curves. Rutting performance of the binders
is also evaluated through the use of zero shear viscosity
 PAPER NO. 696
(ZSV) and multiple stress creep and recovery (MSCR) was employed for determination of chemical elements
test results on bio-asphalt binderswith different biochar present in biochar. Results of the EDX analysis are shown
contents. This is followed by fabrication of bituminous in Fig. 3. The analysis indicates that carbon is the major
mixes with bio-asphalt binders. The performance of bio- element (89.5%), followed by oxygen (10.2%), and traces
asphalt mixes and control mixes (with neat binder alone) of silicon (0.2%), and sulphur (0.1%).
are compared in terms of resistance towards permanent Table-1 Properties of Base Asphalt Binder (VG-30)
deformation, cracking and moisture induced damage
Property Requirements* Results
through resilient modulus test, static creep test, dynamic
creep test, indirect tensile strength and tensile strength Penetration at 25°C, 100 g, 5 s, 0.1 mm min 45 51.6
ratio tests. Absolute viscosity at 60°C, poise 2400–3600 3410
Kinematic viscosity at 135°C, cSt min 350 525
2. MATERIALS AND METHODS
Flash point (COC), °C min 220 280
In the present study, a Viscosity Grade-30 (VG-30) Solubility in trichloroethylene, % min 99 >99
asphalt binder, commonly used in most of the regions of
Softening point (R&B), °C min 47 52.7
India for construction of bituminous mixes of the flexible
Tests on rolling thin film oven (RTFO) Residue
pavements, was selected as base binder for the study. The
Viscosity ratio at 60°C max 4 1.15
binder was provided by Tiki Tar Industries, Gujarat, India.
The physical properties of the binder are presented in Ductility at 25°C, cm min 40 >100
Table 1. Biochar used in the present study was obtained * Requirements as per IS:73 (2013), Indian Standard on ‘Paving
as residue (~10%) during the gasification, a type of Bitumen Specification’.
pyrolysis aimed at maximising gas production of bamboo
(Bambusa balcooa, vernacular name: Bhaluka bamboo)
biomass in an open top downdraft gasifier. The physical
appearance of biochar was in the form of black powder
Fig. 1. Biochar had a specific gravity of 1.64 and mostly
passed the 75 micron sieve. SEM analysis was performed
to understand the microscopic structure and morphology
of the biochar particles. The SEM images of biochar,
obtained at a magnification level of 500x, are shown in
Fig. 2. Biochar consists of irregularly shaped particles
and has a porous structure. The surface morphology is
rough and fibrous that may allow a better adhesion with
asphalt binder (Zhang et al., 2018; Zhao et al., 2014a).
Energy dispersive X-ray (EDX) spectroscopy analysis Fig. 1. Physical Appearance of Bio Char

Fig. 2. SEM Images of Biochar

Journal of the Indian Roads Congress, July-September 2019 7

 PAPER NO. 696
Fig. 3. EDX Analysis Results of Biochar
2.1 Fabrication of Biochar Prepared Bio-Asphalt
Binders
To prepare the biochar modified asphalt binders (bio-
asphalt binders), bamboo biochar was first dried for 2 h at
110°C and the base binder was heated to 160°C. Desired
quantity of biochar (contents of 5%, 10%, 15%, and 20%
by weight of binder) was then added to the base binder in
small increments. Blending was performed using a high-
shear mixer at 160°C at 15000 rpm for 30 min. This was
followed by addition of sulphur (0.3% by wt. of binder)
and the high-shear blending was further continued for
15 min. Sulphur was used as a cross-linking agent to
enhance the thermal storage stability of biochar with base
VG-30 grade bituminous binder. The amount of sulphur
to be used was determined from preliminary trials. For
determining rheological characteristics representative to
the one obtained after compaction/construction, control as
well as bio-asphalt binders were subjected to short-term
aging using a rolling thin film oven (RTFO) as per ASTM
D2872 (2019) specifications at 163°C for 85 min.
2.2 Rheological Testing and Analysis of Control and
Bio-Asphalt Binders
Dynamic Shear Rheometer (DSR), Anton Paar MCR-102,
was used for conducting the rheological investigations on
control and biochar modified binders through a 25 mm
diameter parallel plate geometry with 1 mm gap. All
rheological tests described next were performed on short-
term aged control and bio-asphalt binders, as these binders
represent the ageing state of the binder reached after hot
mix asphalt production and placement/construction.
Firstly, complex shear modulus (G*) and phase
angle (δ) values were measured at different temperatures
(temperature sweep) and frequencies (frequency sweep).
The temperature sweep test covered temperature range
of 25 to 80°C at a strain amplitude of 0.1%. A series of
frequency sweep tests were performed at temperatures
8 Journal of the Indian Roads Congress, July-September 2019
from 30 to 70°C with 10°C increments. Each test
covered frequencies in three decades (0.1–1, 1–10, and
10-100 rad/s) on neat and bio-asphalt binders. Different
frequencies are used to represent a range of vehicle
speeds [for example, 1.59 Hz (10 rad/s) corresponds to
a speed of 90 kmph (Roberts et al., 1996)]. A strain level
of 0.1% was applied in frequency sweep tests to ensure
binders remained in linear viscoelastic domain. The
time-temperature superposition principle was used to
construct complex modulus master curves of binders with
and without biochar at a reference temperature of 40°C.
Sigmoidal model was used to construct the master curves
and is given as follows [Eq. (1)]:
(1)

where, ωr is the reduced frequency, υ is the lower
asymptote, α is the difference between the values of the
upper and lower asymptotes, β and γ are the parameters
defining the shape between the asymptotes and the
location of the inflection point. The Super pave rutting
parameter G*/sin δ was also measured for all binders at
60°C for comparison of rutting resistance with and without
biochar modification. The test was performed according
to ASTM D7175 (2015) at 10 rad/s frequency and 10%
strain amplitude. The test temperature of 60°C is selected
to represent the temperature critical for rutting/permanent
deformation resistance during summer.
Zero Shear Viscosity (ZSV) of the control and bio-
asphalt binders was also determined to further analyse
the resistance to permanent deformation. ZSV is the
viscosity of binder measured when shear rate approaches
zero, and it has been widely used to measure the rutting
performance of modified asphalt binders (Sybilski, 1993;
Biro et al., 2009). The ZSV was estimated using Cross-
Sybilski model from complex viscosity versus frequency
data derived from frequency sweep test at 60°C. Cross-
Sybilski model expression is as follows [Eq. (2)]:
(2)

where, ղ* is the complex viscosity at frequency ω, ղ0 is the
zero shear viscosity, K and m are the model coefficients.
A non-linear regression was performed using OriginPro
software on frequency sweep data to estimate the model
parameters of Eq. (2).
The G*/sin δ and ZSV parameters provide rutting potential
of the asphalt binders in the linear regime. It is also
important to test the binders in the non-linear regime since
it more realistically represents the strains experienced in
pavements under traffic loads. To this end, a multiple stress
creep and recovery (MSCR) test was performed to assess
 PAPER NO. 696
the rutting susceptibility of the control and bio-asphalt
binders at multiple stress levels. The test was conducted
following ASTM D7405 (2015) at 60°C at two stress levels
of 0.1 and 3.2 kPa. The test protocol requires 10 creep-
recovery (loading-unloading) cycles at each stress level.
Each cycle consists of application of the creep stress for 1 s
duration followed by 9 s for binder recovery (no load). Let
ε0 and εc respectively denote the strain at the beginning and
end of the creep portion. The strain at the end of recovery
portion is symbolised as εr. Percent recovery (R) can then
be calculated for each creep-recovery cycle as per Eq. (3):
(3)

Non-recovered strain (εnr) in each creep-recovery cycle
can be calculated as per Eq. (4):
 (4)
The non-recoverable creep compliance (Jnr) at a stress
level (σ) is then calculated from non-recovered strain as
per Eq. (5):
(5)
 For ITS testing, the specimens were loaded at a constant
Jnr values indicate the rutting performance of asphalt
binders, and it is desirable to have a lower value of Jnr for a
better rutting resistance. Difference in Jnrvalues calculated
at 0.1 and 3.2 kPa stress levels are used to calculate percent
difference in Jnr, denoted as Jnr,diff as follows [Eq. (6)]:
(6)

The parameter Jnr,diff indicates stress sensitivity of the
asphalt binder and should not exceed 75%.
2.3 Evaluation of Bituminous Concrete Mixes
Bituminous Concrete (BC) mixes of 13.2 mm NMAS
gradation was used in this study for evaluation of bio-
asphalt binders in bituminous mixes. Control BC mix (with
unmodified VG-30 binder) was designed as per Marshall
method of mix design as per Ministry of Road Transport
and Highways (MoRT&H) specifications (MoRT&H,
2013). Three specimens were prepared at each binder
content of 4.5%, 5.0%, 5.5%, 6.0% and 6.5% by weight
of mix. The specimens were compacted with 75 blows
per specimen face of the Marshall impact compactor. The
Optimum Binder Content (OBC) was determined as the
binder content corresponding to 4% air voids and meeting
other specifications of Marshall stability, Marshall flow,
Voids Filled with Bitumen (VFB), and Voids in Mineral
Aggregate (VMA). OBC was found to be 5.5% (by weight
of mix). Optimum binder content of BC mix with neat binder
was used to prepare mix specimens with biochar modified
binders as well. This approach allowed comparison of
Journal of the Indian Roads Congress, July-September 2019
performance of the control and bio-asphalt mixes without
introducing binder content as a separate variable.
Performance evaluation of the bituminous mixes with
control and bio-asphalt binders was done through indirect
tensile strength, tensile strength ratio, static creep, dynamic
creep, and resilient modulus tests. Except for resilient
modulus test, the specimens for other tests were prepared at
controlled air voids of 7±0.5%. For resilient modulus tests,
air voids were maintained at 4±0.5%. Each performance
test is described briefly in the following sections.
2.3.1 Indirect Tensile Strength (ITS) and Tensile
Strength Ratio (TSR) Tests
The ITS test is used to assess the resistance of compacted
bituminous mixes to cracking as well as to evaluate
moisture susceptibility characteristics. Six specimens
were fabricated for each binder type were divided in two
groups (three specimens in each group). The specimens
in ‘unconditioned’ group were subjected to ITS testing
at 25°C following a 2 h conditioning in a water bath,
following the specifications of ASTM D6931 (2017).
rate of diametral deformation of 50 mm/min. The ITS is
calculated from Eq. (7):
(7)

where, ITS = indirect tensile strength (kPa); P = maximum
load (N); h = specimen height (mm); D = specimen
diameter (mm). The specimens in ‘conditioned’ group
were subjected to moisture conditioning after partial
saturation (70-80% saturation level) in accordance
with the specifications of AASHTO T283 (2007). The
conditioning involved freezing the samples at –18°C
for 16 h followed by immediate thawing at 60 °C for
24 h. After being conditioned at 25°C for 2 h, the ITS
of the samples was determined. TSR (in percent) is then
calculated from Eq. (8):
(8)

where, ITSuc is the average unconditioned ITS, and ITSc is
the average conditioned ITS.
2.3.2 Resilient modulus (MR)
Resilient modulus is an important bituminous mix property
that is also used in mechanistic-empirical pavement design
procedures. It is the ratio of applied stress to the recoverable
(resilient) strain. Resilient modulus of bituminous mix
specimens was determined at a commonly used ambient
temperature of 25°C as per the specifications of AASHTO
TP31 (1996). Four mix specimens were prepared for each
binder type. Of these, two specimens were subjected to
9
 PAPER NO. 696
ITS testing to determine the cyclic and contact loads to be 3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
used for MR testing. Repetitive load level used was 15% of 3.1 Binder Results and Analysis
the ITS along with an assumed Poisson’s ratio of 0.35. The
compressive load in haversine waveform was applied on 3.1.1 Temperature Sweep
the vertical diametral plane of the specimen for a duration The complex modulus (G*) and phase angle (δ) results
of 0.1 s followed by a rest period of 0.9 s. The specimen in the temperature sweep test are shown in Fig. 4. A
was subjected to 100 load pulses for conditioning and next higher G* and a lower δ are both desirable attributes for
5 load pulses were used for the calculation of MR. The test an asphalt binder leading to better rutting resistance. The
was repeated after rotating the specimen by 90°. MR(in complex modulus values of bio-asphalt binders increase
MPa) was calculated as per Eq. (9): with increasing biochar content throughout the range of
temperatures considered in the test. A binder with high
(9) G* value indicates higher overall stiffness and a better

where, P = repeated vertical load (N); Hr = resilient resistance to deformation. Averaged over all temperatures,
horizontal deformation (mm); h = height of specimen; and there is increase of 5%, 30%, 65% and 92% in G* values at
µ = Poisson’s ratio (assumed 0.35). biochar contents of 5%, 10%, 15%, and 20%, respectively.
Therefore, the addition of biochar is beneficial to enhance
2.3.3 Static creep the overall stiffness of the asphalt binder at temperatures
The static creep test evaluates the rutting performance of ranging from 25 to 80°C (i.e. intermediate to high
a bituminous mix specimen by subjecting it to a constant temperatures). On the other hand, the phase angle slightly
uniaxial compressive load and measuring the deformation reduces with the increasing content of biochar. This
of the specimen during the application of load and after the decrease is observed throughout the temperature range
removal of the load. The test was performed as per BS 598- considered, which indicates improvement in the elastic
111 (1995) on a Cooper universal testing machine (UTM). The property of binders with the addition of biochar.
specimens and test accessories were conditioned in a controlled 3.1.2 G*/sin δ at 60°C
temperature environment for 4 h before commencing the
The Superpave rutting resistance parameter G*/sin δ was
test. The test temperature was 40°C. A compressive load of
measured at standard tests parameters (10 rad/s frequency
100 kPa was then applied for 1 h followed by an unloading
and 10% strain) using DSR at 60°C. The results are
time of 1 h. The deformation undergone by the specimen
presented in Fig. 5. It is clear that bio-asphalt binders have
during loading and unloading durations was recorded and
better high-temperature rutting resistance/properties than
correlated with rutting potential. Axial strain (εa) of the
the control binder. An increase of 13%, 34%, 56% and
specimen was calculated as per Eq. (9):
66% in G*/sin δ at biochar contents of 5%, 10%, 15%, and
(10) 20%, respectively are observed. The porous microstructure
 and rough morphology of biochar also results in larger
where, Δh = change in height of the specimen, h = initial interaction with the asphalt and thus helps to provides better
height of the specimen. deformation resistance to the binder (Zhang et al., 2018).
2.3.4 Dynamic Creep
Dynamic creep test uses a repeated uniaxial creep loading that
represents axle load repetition on a pavement surface. The
test is a destructive test conducted to determine permanent
deformation resistance of bituminous mixes as per BS DD
226 (1996) specifications. The specimens and loading platens
were conditioned in a controlled temperature environment
for 4 h before commencing the test. A pre-conditioning load
of 10 kPa was first applied for 600 s. The specimen was then
subjected to a square waveform compressive stress of 100
kPa for 1800 load cycles at the test temperature of 40°C.
Each load cycle consisted of 1 s creep load and 1 s recovery
(0.5 Hzfrequency). Axial strain of the specimen was
determined at the end of the rest period for each load cycle.
The expression for axial strain is the same as in Eq. (10). Fig. 4. Temperature Sweep Results

10 Journal of the Indian Roads Congress, July-September 2019

 PAPER NO. 696
3.1.3 Frequency Sweep
In order to understand the effect of varying vehicle speeds,
the frequency sweep test was conducted to measure binder
complex modulus at various frequencies. The results
shown in Fig. 6 are obtained at 60°C test temperature.
Results at other temperatures had similar trends and are
not shown individually for brevity. It is seen that as the
frequency increases, the binder exhibits higher stiffness.
This is because shorter the time of vehicle loading (or
higher the frequency), the higher is the resistance of the
binder to deformation. Increase in biochar content results
in increase in G* values over all frequencies. Averaged
over all frequencies, there is increase of 11%, 54%, 89%
and 149% in G* values at biochar contents of 5%, 10%,
15%, and 20%, respectively.
3.1.4 Complex modulus master curve Fig. 6. Frequency Sweep Results at 60°C
Master curves provide a convenient method to compare
properties of binders over a wide range of frequencies
beyond the frequencies experimentally measurable by the
dynamic shear rheometer. For construction of master curve
begins with collection of G* data at various temperatures
and frequencies. A standard reference temperature is then
selected (in this case, 40°C, a high temperature generally
used for comparison, and data at other temperatures are
shifted relative to the data at the reference temperature
to obtain a single smooth curve. From G* master curves
shown in Fig.7, it is found that addition of biochar
increased the complex modulus at all frequencies, and
higher biochar dosages result in higher increase in G*
compared to the control binder. This suggests that the
stiffness of the binders is improved over the wide range of
frequencies considered with the addition of biochar. Fig. 7. Complex Modulus Master Curves at 40°C
Reference Temperature
3.1.5 ZSV
The concept of ZSV is based on the fact that at very low
shear rates, pseudoplastic (shear-thinning) liquids such
as asphalt binders behave similarly to Newtonian liquids
such that their viscosity becomes independent of shear
rate (Anderson et al., 2002). This viscosity is called the
ZSV. Complex viscosity (ratio of complex modulus to
frequency) versus frequency data was fitted to Cross-
Sybilski model. To estimate the ZSV values, the data was
extrapolated to a frequency approaching 0 Hz using non-
linear regression analysis. In all cases, the fitting yielded a
coefficient of determination of more than 0.98. The results
of ZSV are presented in Fig. 8 at 60°C. The addition of
biochar significantly increases the ZSV values of the
binders, when compared to the base binder, indicating
Fig. 5. G*/sin δ Results at 60 °C higher binder stiffness and resistance to deformation of

Journal of the Indian Roads Congress, July-September 2019 11

 PAPER NO. 696
bio-asphalt binders. There is increase of 14%, 39%, 69%
and 114% in ZSV values at biochar contents of 5%, 10%,
15%, and 20%, respectively, compared to the ZSV of
control (neat) binder. These results are in agreement with
the results from G*/sin δ and temperature sweep.

Fig. 9. MSCR Strain Versus Time Plots

Fig. 8. ZSV Results at 60 °C

3.1.6 MSCR
The strain-time curves generated during MSCR tests
for the control and bio-asphalt binders are shown in
Fig. 9. Results from 0 to 100 s correspond to 0.1 kPa
stress level, whereas those from 100 to 200 s represent the
3.2 kPa stress level. The control binder displays the highest Fig. 10. MSCR Jnrresults
strains at both stress levels (0.1 and 3.2 kPa), followed by
the 5%, 10%, 15%, and 20% biochar modified binders.
The results indicate that bio-asphalt binders undergo
lower deformation than the control binder under both low
(0.1 kPa) and high (3.2 kPa) stress levels.
The non-recoverable creep compliance (Jnr) obtained
from MSCR tests is shown in Fig. 10. Jnr is widely used
to characterize rutting resistance of the binders and lower
Jnr indicates lower non-recovered strain, and hence a better
rutting resistance. Based on Jnrresults, rutting resistance
of bio-asphalt binders is superior to the control binder,
and shows further improvements with increase in biochar
dosage. The ranking of binders based on MSCR results is the Fig. 11. MSCR Recovery Results
same as obtained from Superpave rutting parameter G*/sin δ 3.2 Mix Results and Analysis
and ZSV. The Jnr,diff parameter, which indicates the binder
stress sensitivity, was also found to be less than 20% for all 3.2.1 ITS and TSR tests
binders, thus meeting the maximum stipulated limit of 75%. The ITS results for unconditioned and conditioned mixes are
Fig.11 displays the MSCR recovery values obtained at both presented in Fig.12. The ITS values increase with increase in
stress levels. Results show that recovery of the bio-asphalt biochar content. As expected, the conditioned ITS is lower
binders is comparatively higher than the control binder. than the unconditioned ITS due to the effect of moisture
Binders with higher recovery can more easily recover the conditioning. Higher ITS values are desirable and indicate
deformation undergone at high temperatures. The increase enhanced tensile strength of the bio-asphalt mixes compared
in recovery is also in agreement with the improved elastic to the control. Increase in ITS with increase in biochar
response observed from phase angle results. content is likely due to increased stiffness and deformation

12 Journal of the Indian Roads Congress, July-September 2019

 PAPER NO. 696
resistance of the bio-asphalt binders compared to the control indication that bio-asphalt binders have a good interaction
binders. Fig. 13 shows the TSR results of control and bio- with the aggregates, and the bio-asphalt mixes thus are also
asphalt mixes. The control as well as bio-asphalt mixes have better performance against rutting distress.
demonstrate the ability to meet the MoRT&H requirement
of minimum 80% TSR. The TSR values increase with
increase in biochar content, with maximum TSR observed
for 20% biochar mix. Biochar is also reported to have
hydrophobic property (Kinney et al., 2012; Mao et al., 2019)
which allows the resulting mix to have good resistance to
water induced damage. A good adhesion of bio-asphalt
binders and aggregates as well as an increased stiffness of
the mix resulted in better ITS of bio-asphalt mixes in both
unconditioned and moisture conditioned stages along with
improved resistance to moisture induced damage.

Fig. 14. Results of Resilient Modulus at 25°C

Fig. 12. Results of Unconditioned and Conditioned ITS
3.2.3 Static creep
The following three important components can be derived
from strain versus time curves shown in Fig.15: (1) total
strain (strain at the end of creep load duration, i.e., at
time= 3600 s); (2) permanent strain (strain at the end of
recovery duration, i.e., at time = 7200 s), (3) recovery (ratio
of recovered strain to the total strain), where recovered
strain is the difference between total and permanent
strains. It can be seen from Fig.15 that bio-asphalt mixes
experienced lower strains in the static creep test than the
control mix. The strains reduce further with increase in
biochar content. Fig.16 presents the compiled results of total
strain, permanent strain, and percent recovery of mixes with
and without bio-asphalt binders. Both total and permanent
strain for bio-asphalt mixes are lower than the control mix.
Hence, these mixes exhibit lower permanent deformation.
Further, the percent recovery increases with increase in
biochar dosage, indicating that a larger proportion of the
total strain is recovered when bio-asphalt binders are used.

Fig. 13. Results of TSR

3.2.2 Resilient modulus
Resilient modulus is an important parameter in the design of
asphalt pavements. Results of resilient modulus determined
at 25°C are presented in Fig.14. Increase in biochar
percentage increases the resilient modulus of asphalt mixes.
The biochar contents of 5%, 10%, 15%, and 20% increase
resilient modulus values by 13%, 23%, 37% and 66%
compared to the control mix. Among the tested specimens,
the bio-asphalt mix containing 20% biochar has the highest
resilient modulus. Improved resilient modulus values are an Fig. 15. Results of Static Creep Test at 40° C

Journal of the Indian Roads Congress, July-September 2019 13

 PAPER NO. 696
Fig. 16. Results of Total Strain, Permanent Strain, and
Recovery from Static Creep Test
3.2.4 Dynamic creep
The results of dynamic creep test are shown in Fig.17, where
the accumulated permanent strain versus load cycles are
shown. The results indicate that the use of biochar results in
decreased permanent deformation. The biochar contents of
5%, 10%, 15%, and 20% resulted in reductions of 11%, 22%,
31% and 40% in the final permanent strain (at the end of
1800 load cycles), respectively. It shows that preparation of
bio-asphalt binders with incorporation of bio-char improves
the resistance to permanent deformation of bio-asphalt
mixes compared to the control mix. These results are also
in agreement with the results of the rheology of bio-asphalt
binders and static creep test on the mixes. The rutting
resistance increases further with increase in biochar dosages.
At higher dosages, the rigid biochar particles come into
contact and form a skeletal framework. Further, the fibrous
and porous structure helps to create a stronger carbon-binder
matrix that enhances the stiffness of the binder and results in
improved deformation resistance (Zhao et al., 2014).
Fig. 17. Results of Dynamic Creep Test at 40°C
4. CONCLUSIONS
This study aimed to investigate the use of biochar, a by-
product of gasification/pyrolysis of bamboo biomass
14 Journal of the Indian Roads Congress, July-September 2019
abundantly availablein North-Eastern states of India, to
produce bio-asphalt binders. The biochar was used at
partial replacement dosages of 0, 5, 10, 15, and 20 percent
by weight of the neat binder. Rheology of bio-asphalt
binderswere evaluated using complex modulus and phase
angle at different temperatures and frequencies, master
curves, ZSV, and MSCR tests. Bio-asphalt mixes prepared
with bio-asphalt binders (having different contents of
biochar) as well as control mixes with neat (control)
binder were fabricated and analysed through indirect
tensile strength, tensile strength ratio, resilient modulus,
and resistance to permanent deformation through static
and dynamic creep tests.
• Incorporation of biochar derived from bamboo
biomass for preparation of bio-asphalt binders
enhanced the stiffness, rutting resistance, elastic
properties, and overall high-service temperature
performance of the asphalt binder.
• MSCR results indicated that under both low and
high stress levels, bio-asphalt binders showed
improved resistance to permanent deformation and
better recovery.
• Both static creep and dynamic creep results
demonstrated that bio-asphalt binders from bamboo
biochar aid to improve permanent deformation
resistance of bio-asphalt mixes when compared to
the control mix.
• Porous microstructure, rough surface texture and
hydrophobic characteristics of the biochar help
to enhance the bio-asphalt binder adhesion and
performance with aggregates.
• TSR results showed that bio-asphalt mixes have
adequate and improved resistance against moisture
induced damage.
In summary, partial substitution of asphalt/bitumen with
bio-based renewable materials such as biochar has shown
promising results, and can help reduce dependency on non-
renewable resources. Increased confidence in the performance
of bituminous mixes containing bio-based materials would be
of benefits not only to the highway construction stakeholders
but also to the pyrolysis industries who are making efforts
to make a shift from non-renewable to renewable sources
of energy. Use of bamboo as a renewable bioresource for
production of bioenergy and biochar also has a distinct
socio-economic advantage associated with its diversification.
Trading of bamboo is one of the few livelihood options of
the rural populace of North-Eastern states. Diversification of
bamboo use like pavement construction will certainly increase
the demand of bamboo and subsequently lead to expansion
in its area under production and involvement of more and
more rural people in its cultivation and trading leading to
rural employment generation, better socio-economics and
afforestation activities.
 PAPER NO. 696
More studies are needed to further the understanding of
bio-asphalt binders and mixes with biochar from different
biomasses. It is also envisioned that with further research
and field demonstrations, national guidelines need to be
developed to assist highway agencies in the use of bio-based
materials in bituminous binders and mixesso as to achieve
sustainability in pavement construction, a need of the hour.
5. Acknowledgements
The authors thank Central Instruments Facility, IIT
Guwahati for SEM analysis of biochar. The authors
are also grateful to Mrs. Rumi Narzari (PhD Research
Scholar, Tezpur University) and Mr. Ankush Kumar (PhD
Research Scholar, IIT Guwahati) for their suggestions and
helpful comments.
References
i. Alliotti, A. G. (2002). “Carbon black– its Nature and
Possible Effects on the Characteristics of Bituminous
Road Binders”. Proceedings of the 1st Australian Road
Research Board, Canberra, Australia(Part I), 1962.
ii. Anderson, D. A., Le Hir, Y. M., Planche, J. P., Martin, D.,
& Shenoy, A. (2002). “Zero Shear Viscosity of Asphalt
Binders”. Transportation Research Record, 1810(1), 54-
62.
iii. Biro, S., Gandhi, T., & Amirkhanian, S. (2009).
“Determination of Zero Shear Viscosity of Warm Asphalt
Binders”.  Construction and Building Materials,  23(5),
2080-2086.
iv. Chebil, S., A. Chaala, & C. Roy. (2000). “Use of
Softwood Bark Charcoal as a Modifier for Road
Bitumen”. Fuel, 79 (6): 671-683.
v. Demirbas, M. F., & Balat, M. (2006). “Recent Advances
on the Production and Utilization Trends of Bio-
Fuels: a Global Perspective”.  Energy Conversion and
Management, 47(15-16), 2371-2381.
vi. Huang, B., Chen, X., & Shu, X. (2009). “Effects of
Electrically Conductive Additives on Laboratory-
Measured Properties of Asphalt Mixtures”.  Journal of
Materials in Civil Engineering, 21(10), 612-617.
vii. Kinney, T. J., Masiello, C. A., Dugan, B., Hockaday,
W. C., Dean, M. R., Zygourakis, K., & Barnes, R. T.
(2012). “Hydrologic Properties of Biochars Produced at
Different Temperatures”.  Biomass and Bioenergy,  41,
34-43.
viii. Kumar, A., Choudhary, R., Narzari, R., Kataki, R., &
Shukla, S. K. (2018). “Evaluation of Bio-Asphalt Binders
Modified with Biochar: a Pyrolysis by-Product of Mesua
ferrea Seed Cover Waste”.  Cogent Engineering,  5(1),
1548534.
ix. Mao, J., Zhang, K., & Chen, B. (2019). “Linking
Hydrophobicity of Biochar to the Water Repellency
and Water Holding Capacity of Biochar-Amended
soil. Environmental Pollution”, 253, 779-789.
x. McKendry, P. (2002). “Energy Production from
Biomass (Part 1): Overview of Biomass.  Bioresource
Technology”, 83(1), 37-46.
Journal of the Indian Roads Congress, July-September 2019
xi. MNRE (2009). National Biofuels Policy. Ministry of
New and Renewable Energy, Govt. of India. Retrieved
May 15, 2017, Accessed from http://mnre.gov.in/file-
manager/UserFiles/biofuel_policy.pdf
xii. MoRTH. (2013). “Specifications for Road and Bridge
Works” (Fifth Revision). Indian Roads Congress, Govt.
of India, Ministry of Road Transport and Highways,
New Delhi.
xiii. MoRTH (2019). Annual Report 2018-19 (01.01.2018-
31.03.2019), Ministry of Road Transport & Highways,
Government of India, New Delhi.
xiv. NEDFI (2019). Bamboo, North Eastern Development
Finance Corporation Limited, Accessed from https://
www.nedfi.com/node/402
xv. Readhma, P. S., Nivitha, M. R., Veeraragavan, A., &
Krishnan, J. M. (2014). Development of Unmodified
Binder Specifications for India, Association of Asphalt
Paving Technologists-Proceedings of the Technical
Sessions 83:653-669.
xvi. Roberts, F. L., Kandhal, P. S., Brown, E. R., Lee, D. Y.,
& Kennedy, T. W. (1996). Hot Mix Asphalt Materials,
Mixture Design and Construction, 2nd Ed., NAPA
Education Foundation, Lanham, Md.
xvii. Saikia, P., Kataki, R., Choudhury, P. K., & Konwer,
D. (2007). Carbonization of Eight Bamboo Species of
Northeast India, Energy Sources, Part A: Recovery,
Utilization, and Environmental Effects, 29(9), 799 – 805.
xviii. Scarlat, N., Dallemand, J. F., Monforti-Ferrario, F., &
Nita, V. (2015). The Role of Biomass and Bioenergy in a
Future Bioeconomy: Policies and facts. Environmental
Development, 15, 3-34.
xix. Sybilski, D. (1993). Non-Newtonian viscosity
of Polymer-Modified Bitumen’s.  Materials and
Structures, 26(1), 15-23.
xx. Taha, R., Ali, G., & Delwar, M. (1998). Evaluation of
Coke Dust-Modified Asphalt using Super pave. Journal
of Materials in Civil Engineering, 10(3), 174-179.
xxi. TET (2019). India’s oil Import Dependence Jumps
to 84 percent, The Economic Times. Accessed from
https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry/energy/
oil-gas/indias-oil-import-dependence-jumps-to-84-pc/
articleshow/69183923.cms?from=mdr
xxii. Zhang, R., Dai, Q., You, Z., Wang, H., & Peng, C. (2018).
Rheological Performance of Bio-Char Modified Asphalt
with Different Particle Sizes.  Applied Sciences,  8(9),
1665.
xxiii. Zhao, S., Huang, B., Shu, X., & Ye, P. (2014a).
Laboratory Investigation of Biochar-Modified Asphalt
Mixture. Transportation Research Record, 2445(1), 56-
63.
xxiv. Zhao, S., Huang, B., Ye, X. P., Shu, X., & Jia, X.
(2014b). Utilizing Bio-char as a Bio-modifier for
Asphalt Cement: A Sustainable Application of Bio-fuel
by-Poduct. Fuel, 133, 52-62.
xxv. Ziari, H., Farahani, H., Goli, A., & Sadeghpour Galooyak,
S. (2014). The Investigation of the Impact of Carbon Nano
Tube on Bitumen and HMA Performance.  Petroleum
Science and Technology, 32(17), 2102-2108.
15
 PAPER NO. 697

CONSISTENCY EVALUATION OF HORIZONTAL CURVES ON TWO-LANE

RURAL HIGHWAYS

Anitha Jacob1 Anjaneyulu M.V.L.R2

ABSTRACT
The decade of 2011-2020 is being marked as decade for road safety. In India, the issue of road crashes is of great concern as
India leads the world in road crash fatalities. The rate of severity and fatality is found to be more on rural highways than urban
highways because of higher speed of vehicles on rural highways. As geometry of road influences the operating speed of vehicles
on such highways, maintaining consistency in the road geometry is a measure to enhance safety. Consistency of a highway can
be evaluated using operating speed of vehicles. This research work explores various measures to evaluate consistency and safety.
Among the measures, the most suitable ones are identified and these measures are used to develop criteria for evaluating the
horizontal highway alignment. The study identifies Operating speed Deviation from Design speed (ODD) and Speed Reduction
(SR) as measures for evaluating horizontal curve and tangent/curve combination respectively. The threshold values identified in
the study will be useful for highway engineers and designers while designing a new highway or realigning an existing highway.

1. INTRODUCTION geometry directs the drivers to choose the operating speed

Safe and efficient movement of people and goods is stated
as one of the goals of transportation. But crash statistics
show that road traffic crashes are one of the major global
killers. India leads the world in road traffic crash deaths with
a record of more than 1.47 lakh per year1.Though India’s
road network contain only less than 5 percent of highways,
more than 50 percent of crashes, fatalities and injuries take
place on these highways, especially in the rural areas2.
Unlike in urban roadways, the influence of road geometry
on speeds of vehicles is much more distinguishable than
the influence of traffic volume, in rural highways. Rural
highways generally cater to intercity travel and the drivers
may or may not be fully familiar with the prevailing road
ambience. In such environs, the drivers tend to choose the
speeds that they perceive to be comfortable to them based
on their perception of the criticality of the road geometrics
ahead. Any unexpected road feature in the highway may
surprise the drivers and may result in erroneous driving
man oeuvres, which in turn, may end up in road crashes3,4.
As highways are meant for high speed travel, the impact
of any collision that takes place will be grievous or fatal.
Hence, the highways have to be designed such that their
1. 
Lecturer, Department of Civil Engineering, Government Polytechnic College, Chelakkara, Thrissur, Kerala
E-mail : anithajacob_in@yahoo.com
2.
Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, National Institute of Technology, Calicut, Kerala, E-mail : mvlr@nitc.ac.in
which is in harmony with the environs and alignment
configuration.
Many studies have reported that crash rate is more on
sections where geometry deviates from the straight
alignment, or where geometric consistency is lacking5.
For example, horizontal curvature is mostly identified
as location of high crash potential6,7,8.This is because,
negotiating a curve requires more attention than driving
on a straight section of road. Drivers need to foresee the
curve geometrics and adjust their speed and lane position
to accommodate the sharpness of the curve9.Thus,
consistency in road geometric design is well accepted as a
significant contributor to road safety10,11. By making every
element in the roadway alignment conform to driver’s
expectation, safety can be achieved to a great extent,
especially on rural highways.
Among the various approaches for evaluating design
consistency12,13, operating speed based approach is the
most adopted one. It is considered to be the common and
simple measure of consistency, which has the unique ability
to explicitly indicate driver’s expectancy of road design.
Also, variation in speed of a vehicle is a visible indicator of

16 Journal of the Indian Roads Congress, July-September 2019

 PAPER NO. 697
inconsistency in geometric design14. Researchers have well
established the existence of correlation between speed and
consistency and have identified inconsistency as one major
factor causing crashes in rural highways15,16. The approach
requires the development of models for predicting operating
speeds at various highway features which can be made use
for the design of safe and consistent highways. Though a
well appreciated and well adopted method for the design
of highway geometry by many of the European countries
and Australia, operating speed based approach of design is
only in the early stages of research in India. Also, very few
studies are available that give certain criteria or threshold
values of consistency measures for evaluating a highway
stretch17,10. But those studies are done in countries where
homogenous traffic flow exists. So far, no criterion has been
developed for two lane rural highways with mixed traffic.
Objectives of this research work are to explore various
operating speed based measures that can logically explain
the relationship between consistency and safety of single
horizontal curves on two lane highways under conditions
of mixed traffic and vulnerable road users; identify the
most suitable ones; and develop criteria for evaluating the
horizontal highway alignment. Scope is limited to isolated
horizontal curves on two-lane rural highway.
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
Operating speed and its variation along a highway
alignment can be good indicators of consistency in the
highway geometric design. AASHTO18 defines operating
speed as “the speed at which drivers are observed operating
their vehicles during free flow conditions”. It is estimated
as the 85th percentile of speeds observed at a location under
free flow condition19.
2.1 Speed Prediction at Horizontal Curves
Misaghi and Hassan20 and Hassan et al.21briefed the
operating speed models developed in different regions of
the world along with the predictor variables and sample
size. Radius of curve (R) or its transformed forms (like
inverse, square, square root, etc.), or any function of
radius like deflection angle (I), Degree of Curvature
(DC) and Curvature Change Rate (CCR) is found to be a
major independent variable. Other probable independent
variables are Curve Length (CL), Preceding Tangent
Length (PTL), Sight Distance (SD), super elevation (e)
and preceding tangent speed (VT). In India, based on the
studies conducted on two lane rural highways, Anitha and
Anjaneyulu22 came up with two significant influencing
variables viz. radius and curve length.
2.2 Speed Prediction at Horizontal Tangents
Length of tangent and influence of preceding curves are
Journal of the Indian Roads Congress, July-September 2019
the frequently identified independent variables15, 23. Some
researchers classified tangents as independent tangents and
non independent tangents24. Anitha and Anjaneyulu22found
that operating speed at tangent on two lane roads is having
a non-linear relationship with tangent length.
2.3 Prediction of Speed Reduction from Horizontal
Tangent to Curve
Variation in operating speeds of vehicles moving from a
tangent to the curve is a visible indicator of consistency.
If this variation exceeds a limit, then the driver finds it
difficult to safely negotiate the curve and it is a clear
indicator of inconsistency in the road design. Some
researchers tried to model the difference between
operating speeds at tangent and curve15, 25 where as
some other researchers modelled the speed reduction as
the 85th percentile of the speed reductions from tangent
to curve26, 20, 27. Radius of curve, degree of curvature,
deflection angle, approach tangent length and operating
speed at tangent are a few of the variables identified by
the researchers. Radius and operating speed at approach
tangent are the two variables identified in the study by
Anitha and Anjaneyulu22.
2.4 Review on Design Consistency of Horizontal
Curves
One of the original and detailed works related to operating
speed based consistency was done and presented by Leisch
and Leisch28 and they proposed ‘15 km/h rule’ for evaluation
of highway consistency. There are two approaches
developed based on operating speed, viz. Single element
approach and successive element approach. Lammet al.17
recommended evaluation criteria for single element and
successive elements. Polus and Matter-Habib10 developed
a consistency model for the entire highway alignment.
Shankar et al.29 has applied the concept for evaluating
intermediate lanes in India.
3. Data Collection
Geometric, speed and crash data were collected for 152
sites from two-lane rural highways within the state of
Kerala in India. Each site consisted of an isolated circular
horizontal curve and straights/tangents on either side.
Following criteria were adopted for site selection
i. Grade of road between +2 percent and -2 percent.
ii. Tangent length equal to or greater than 100 m
iii. Away from the intersections
Total station survey was conducted to collect geometric
features. Though all the sites belong to two-lane two-way
highway of the same design classification, wide variations
exist in width of carriageway at tangent (6.0 m – 12.5 m)
17
 PAPER NO. 697
and at mid curve (6.0 m – 13.3 m). Similarly, shoulder was taken as the minimum distance visible to a driver, with
width was found to vary from 0.0 m to 5.5 m. Other eye level at a height of 1.2 m and object height of 0.15 m,
features of interest were radius of the curve (R), length of while proceeding along the curve. Sight distance deficiency
the curve (CL), Degree of Curve (DC), deflection angle (I), (SDD) was computed as the difference of the required
super elevation (e), and length of preceding tangent (PTL). stopping sight distance and the available sight distance. The
A separate field survey was done to determine the sight summary statistics of the geometric variables along with
distance (SD) available at each site. Available sight distance the notations adopted are given in Table 1.
Table 1. Summary Statistics of Geometric Data
Variable Notation Minimum Maximum Average Standard Deviation
Width of Carriageway at Tangent (m) CWT 6.00 12.50 8.39 1.42
Width of Carriageway at Midcurve (m) CWMC 6.00 13.30 8.70 1.52
Shoulder Width (m) SW 0.00 5.50 2.16 1.49
Radius (m) R 27.00 1682.00 255.01 256.40
Degree of Curvature (deg) DC 1.04 64.68 13.77 11.13
Length of Horizontal Curve (m) CL 20.00 364.00 97.48 64.09
Deflection Angle (deg) DA 5.38 95.16 31.14 17.48
Length of Preceding Tangent (m) PTL 100.00 880.00 286.26 146.62
Length of Preceding Tangent up to Speed PTLS 20.00 800.00 206.39 146.46
Observation Point (m)
Sight Distance (m) SD 26.40 220.00 79.46 31.57
Super elevation (%) e 0.00 13.80 4.67 2.48
Simultaneous spot speed survey was done both at tangent Crash data were collected for a period of three years from
and at middle of curve for obtaining the free flow speed police records. Data included severity of crash and type
of different classes of vehicles like car, two-wheeler, bus of vehicles involved in the crash along with time and
and truck. A pilot study conducted using GPS mounted location details. Weights were given to each accident
vehicles revealed that speed of a vehicle remains constant based on their severity. A weight of 1 is given to property
in the approach tangent up to a distance of 60 m ahead of damage only crash, 4 to injury crash and 12 to fatal crash
start of a curve. Speed is found to be the minimum within as deduced from a study of insurance claims cleared by
10 m of the middle of the curve. Hence, in this study, insurance companies. The weighted sum of crash count
tangent speed was observed at a location 60 m ahead of at a site is taken as the Equivalent Property Damage Only
point of curvature (AT) and speed at curve was observed (EPDO) for the site.
at the middle of curve (MC) as shown in Fig. 1. A trap
length of 15 m to 20 m was used at point of curvature 4. Consistency Measures for Single
(AT) and a 10 m trap was used at middle of curve (MC). Element and Successive Elements
Methodology adopted for data collection is explained in A quantification of design consistency is needed to be
the paper by Anitha and Anjaneyulu22. established based on appropriate consistency measures
and subsequently threshold values are to be identified for
deriving criteria for consistency evaluation. Operating
speed at curve and reduction in operating speed from
tangent to curve for all vehicle categories can be
predicted from models shown in the Table 2 (Anitha and
Anjaneyulu22). In the table, PTL represents Preceding
Tangent Length (m), R is the Radius of Curve (m), CL
is the length of horizontal curve (m) and VT represents
the operating speed at tangent to the curve. VMC is the
operating speed at mid curve section and (∆V)85 represents
the 85th percentile of the speed reduction from the tangent
to the curve. Operating speed and speed reduction are
Fig. 1. Spot Speed Measurement Locations represented in km/h.

18 Journal of the Indian Roads Congress, July-September 2019

 PAPER NO. 697
Table 2. Models for Finding Operating Speed and
Speed Reduction for A ll Category Vehicles
Measures related to operating speed at midcurve (Single
Element) and speed deviations from tangent to midcurve
(Successive Elements) are Operating speed Deviation from
Design speed (ODD), Standard Deviation at Midcurve
(SDM), Estimated Standard Deviation at Midcurve
(ESDM), Coefficient of Variation Index (CVI), Speed
Index (SI), Speed Reduction (SR), Average Deceleration
Rate (ADR), and Speed Reduction Ratio (SRR). Among
these, consistency measures for single element are ODD,
SDM, ESDM, CVI and SI whereas SR, ADR and SRR are
consistency measures for successive elements.
Operating speed Deviation from Design speed (ODD)
is the absolute deviation of operating speed at midcurve
from the design speed. Large variation of operating
speed from design speed indicates inconsistent geometric
design. Standard Deviation at Midcurve (SDM) is a
measure of dispersion in the speed data at middle of the
curve section. As the deviation of speed from the mean
speed increases, the speed environment of the section
becomes inconsistent. Estimated Standard Deviation
at Midcurve is the difference between the 98th and
85th percentile speed values in a cumulative frequency
distribution diagram of speed data at middle of the curve
section. Theoretically, for a normal distribution, higher
the value of ESDM, higher is the inconsistency in the
speeds of vehicles.
Coefficient of Variation Index is an index to represent the
variation in speeds of vehicles at a location in comparison to
variations in all other locations of the same characteristics.
Higher the CVI, higher is the inconsistency of the section
in comparison to other sections that can be expected.
Speed Index represents the average speeds maintained
on the sections. It is an indicator of variation of average
speed at a section in comparison to the mean and standard
deviation of average speeds at all the sections. Higher the
Speed Index, higher will be the inconsistency.
Eqs. 1-5 are used for calculating the consistency measures
for single element.
 (1)
 (2)
Journal of the Indian Roads Congress, July-September 2019
(3)

(4)

(5)

Here, V85MC is the 85th percentile speed in km/h at middle
of curve and VD is the design speed (km/h), calculated as
(6)

R is the radius of curve in meter, e is the maximum
superelevation provided and f is the coefficient of lateral
friction (= 0.15).
V98MC and V85MC are the 98th and 85th percentile speeds in
km/h at middle of curve.
σiis standard deviation of speed, is mean speed and
CViis Coefficient of Variation at a site i.
are the mean and standard deviation of
average speeds at all the sections.
Speed Reduction measures the speed differential from a
tangent to the succeeding curve. It is an indicator of the
extent of coordination between successive geometric
elements. Higher speed reduction indicates the poor
coordination between successive geometric elements.
Average Deceleration Rate is the rate of deceleration
measured between the speed observation points at tangent
and midcurve. Deceleration takes place over a length of
tangent and curve. Higher the value of ADR, poorer is the
consistency. The 50th, 85th and 98th percentile values of
average deceleration rate were taken as candidate measures
for consistency evaluation. Speed Reduction Ratio is the
ratio of speed reduction from tangent to midcurve to the
approach tangent speed. Higher the ratio, higher is the
amount of speed reduction from tangent to curve and that
will be an indication of inconsistency.50th, 85th and 98th
percentile values of SRR were considered for consistency
evaluation.
Eqs.7-9 are used for calculating the consistency measures
for successive elements.
 (7)
 (8)
 (9)
(∆V)85 is the 85th percentile of speed reduction from
tangent to middle of curve.
19
 PAPER NO. 697
VAT and VMC are the speed in km/h at approach tangent and Thus there are five candidate measures for evaluation
middle of curve respectively. of single element and seven candidate measures for
LAT-MC is the length in metres over which deceleration evaluating successive elements. The summary statistics
takes place. for these measures are given in Table 3.
Table 3. Summary Statistics for Consistency Measures
Consistency Measures-Single Element
Statistic EPDO ODD SDM ESDM CVI SI
Minimum 0.00 0.21 4.47 3.22 3.27 0.42
Maximum 82.00 53.25 11.55 18.98 10.90 4.84
Average 13.78 19.04 7.60 9.07 5.83 2.98
Standard deviation 13.92 16.35 1.64 3.10 1.70 1.00
Consistency Measures - Successive Elements
SR ADR50 ADR85 ADR98 SRR50 SRR85 SRR98
Minimum 3.52 0.04 0.09 0.12 0.07 0.06 0.05
Maximum 49.73 1.77 2.80 3.42 0.77 0.58 0.51
Average 19.56 0.36 0.78 1.12 0.36 0.29 0.24
Standard deviation 9.49 0.27 0.47 0.64 0.15 0.11 0.10
4.1 Development of Consistency Evaluation Criteria drawn as shown in Fig 2. From the diagram, three ranges
Criteria for evaluating consistency of single as well as can be identified. Almost 75 percent of sites are having
successive elements were developed based on consistency EPDO value less than 20 (Good in Safety). Nearly 20
measure and crash measure. Following methodology was percent of sites are having EPDO value between 20 and
adopted for arriving at the criteria. 35 (Fairly Safe). 5 percent sites are having EPDO value
more than 35 (Poor in Safety). Sites which are coming
i. Firstly, a cumulative frequency distribution
diagram was prepared for each of the consistency under each of the above classes are identified.
and crash measures. The values corresponding
to the significant changes in the percentile
distribution are selected as the threshold values
for classification.
ii. Secondly, a safety – consistency matrix was
prepared. Each study site will occupy a cell in the
matrix based on its consistency and crash measure.
The matrix was visually observed to identify the
presence of clusters, if any.
iii. Thirdly, the various classes or clusters identified
by the above two methods were tested statistically
to select the most logical and representative Fig. 2 Cumulative Percentage Frequency Distribution of
consistency levels. Analysis of Variance test was Crash Measure
done to estimate whether significant difference
exists on the mean EPDO values of different
groups. The classification which gave maximum
variance between the groups and minimum
variance within the groups was selected as the
classification for that consistency measure.
iv. Selection of best consistency measure was based
on the proportion of misclassification of sites
under different safety levels.
4.2 Identification of Safety Classes
In order to demarcate safety of rural highways in to different
levels, a cumulative percent tile frequency diagram of
Equivalent Property Damage Only (EPDO) measure was Fig. 3 Cumulative Percentage Frequency Distribution of ODD

20 Journal of the Indian Roads Congress, July-September 2019

 PAPER NO. 697

Fig. 4. Safety – Consistency Grid for ODD

To get the best threshold values of consistency measure for 30 km/h. The first class is having EPDO less than 20 and
each class, Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) test was done Operating Speed Deviation less than 15 km/h. This group
for each classification. Results of some of the significant is named as ‘Good’ design. The second class consists of
trials are given in Table 4. sites with EPDO within 20 to 35 and Operating Speed
Deviation within 15 km/h to 30 km/h. This class is named
Table 4. Results of ANOVA Test for Selection of as ‘Fair’ design. The sites in the third group have EPDO
Consistency Measure Classification - ODD greater than 35 and Operating Speed Deviation greater
Classification Consistency Thresholds (km/h) FCAL FTAB than 30 km/h. This class is named as ‘Poor’ design.
< 15 4.4 Evaluation of the consistency measure
1 15-30 12.42 3.08 Even though many sites are found to lie well within the
>30 selected threshold values, some sites are found not to
<15 follow the above criteria. The proportion of such sites,
2 15-40 8.38 3.08 which are misclassified, is used to evaluate the consistency
measure and is given in Table 5.
>40
<20 Table 5. Proportion of Misclassification based on ODD
3 20-40 7.57 3.08 Safety Number of Number of sites Proportion of
>40 Level sites correctly misclassified Misclassification
classified (%)
Among the different classifications that showed significant Good 55 35 39
difference in the mean EPDO values between three Fair 6 16 73
clusters, classification 1 was found to have higher F-value Poor 5 1 17
and the corresponding threshold values were selected It was found that 61 percent of sites under the ‘Good’
as the consistency thresholds for ODD. Thus, threshold category were correctly classified by the consistency
values for the consistency measure ODD are 15 km/h and measure. Nearly 27 percent of sites under Fair category

Journal of the Indian Roads Congress, July-September 2019 21

 PAPER NO. 697
and 83 percent of sites under Poor category were correctly
classified by the consistency measure.
4.5 Consistency Evaluation Criteria for Single as
Well as Successive Elements
Similar kind of analyses were done for all the consistency
measures and Table 6 shows the threshold values identified and
the proportion of misclassification for the candidate consistency
measures for both single and successive elements.

Table 6. Consistency Thresholds and Proportion of Misclassification

Consistency Safety Number of sites Number of sites Proportion of
Consistency Measure
Thresholds Level correctly classified misclassified Misclassification (%)
< 15 Good 55 35 39
ODD, (km/h) 15-30 Fair 6 16 73
>30 Poor 5 1 17
<6 Good 18 72 80
SDM, (km/h) 6-9 Fair 12 12 50
>9 Poor 1 4 80
< 10 Good 54 27 33
ESDM, (km/h) 10-15 Fair 4 19 83
>15 Poor 1 5 83
<5 Good 60 30 33
CVI 5-8 Fair 5 18 78
>8 Poor 2 4 67
< 1.5 Good 13 77 86
SI 1.5-4.5 Fair 16 7 30
>4.5 Poor 0 6 100
< 15 Good 60 30 33
SR, (km/h) 15-25 Fair 8 15 65
>25 Poor 3 3 50
< 0.4 Good 55 35 39
ADR50,(m/s2) 0.4-0.8 Fair 6 16 73
>0.8 Poor 5 1 17
<1 Good 73 19 21
ADR85, (m/s2) 1-1.5 Fair 8 15 65
>1.5 Poor 0 5 100
< 1.5 Good 69 22 24
ADR98,(m/s2) 1.5-2.5 Fair 9 13 59
>2.5 Poor 0 6 100
< 0.3 Good 64 26 29
SRR50 0.3-0.6 Fair 11 12 52
>0.6 Poor 0 6 100
< 0.3 Good 53 39 16
SRR85 0.3-0.5 Fair 13 9 42
>0.5 Poor 0 6 100
< 0.2 Good 25 56 69
SRR98 0.2-0.35 Fair 13 10 43
>0.35 Poor 0 6 100
There were many measures that provided more than 60 Similarly many measures for successive elements gave
percent of correct classification in the Good category of more than 60 percent of correct classification (SR,
accident data for single element (ODD, CVI and ESDM). ADR50, ADR85, ADR95, SRR50 and SRR85). Only a few

22 Journal of the Indian Roads Congress, July-September 2019

 PAPER NO. 697
measures were able to give a minimum of 50 percent
correct classification, in the case of Fair category (SDM,
SI, SRR85 and SRR98). Still a few measures were able to
correctly classify at least 40 percent of sites in the Poor
category (ODD and SR). Considering all these factors,
Operating speed Deviation from Design speed (ODD) of
single element and Speed Reduction (SR) of successive
elements were found to be better in classifying Good as
well as Poor category of sites. Thus the criteria developed
for evaluating the geometric design consistency of both
single and successive horizontal elements are given in
Table 7.
Table 7. Consistency Evaluation Criteria for Two-lane
Rural Highways
Element Consistency Criteria Level of Consistency
Measure
< 15 km/h Consistent
Single ODD 15 – 30 km/h Fairly Consistent
>30 km/h Inconsistent
<15 km/h Consistent
Successive SR 15 – 25 km/h Fairly Consistent
>25 km/h Inconsistent
As per the criteria, a single horizontal curve is said to be
of Good design or consistent design when the deviation of
operating speed from design speed is less than 15 km/h.
If the speed deviation exceeds 30 km/h, design is said to
be Poor or inconsistent. For a speed deviation between 15
km/h to 30 km/h, design is said to be Fairly consistent.
Tangent to curve speed reduction for successive elements
has to be less than 15 km/h for the design to be classified
as Good or Consistent. If the speed reduction from tangent
to curve is more than 25 km/h, the design is Poor or
Inconsistent. Design can be classified as Fair for a speed
reduction between 15 km/h to 25 km/h.
5. CONCLUSIONS
Crashes on rural highways are mainly attributed to lack
of geometric design consistency. As speed is a visible
indicator of consistency in driving, a given design of the
highway can be evaluated based on the speed which drivers
used to adopt. This study analysed various speed based
consistency measures for evaluating simple horizontal
curves, identified their threshold values corresponding
to different safety levels and selected the most suitable
consistency measures. The measure identified for
evaluating single element is Operating speed Deviation
from Design speed (ODD) and for evaluating successive
element is Speed Reduction (SR). Design speed of a curve
depends on its geometry and the speed with which drivers
negotiate the curve should not deviate from the design
Journal of the Indian Roads Congress, July-September 2019
speed beyond a threshold value of 15 km/h. Similarly,
when the highway geometry changes from one element to
the other, such as from a straight to a curve, speed reduction
should not exceed 15 km/h to maintain consistency.
Illustration:- On a highway with design speed of 80 kmph,
a straight road section come across with a sharp curve. The
curve is so sharp that the safe speed on it is 40 kmph. To
comply with safe and consistent design, speed deviation
between successive sections should not be more than
15 kmph. Thus a transition from 80 kmph at straight to
40 kmph at curve can be brought about as, 80 kmph to
65 kmph, 65 kmph to 50 kmph and 50 kmph to 40 kmph at
the curve and again back to 80 kmph at straight as 40 kmph
at curve to 50 kmph, 50 kmph to 65 kmph and 65 kmph to
80 kmph. Fig. 5 explains the illustration.
Fig. 5 Illustration for Introducing Consistency at
Horizontal Curves
6. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Authors acknowledge the generous support given by
National Institute of Technology, Calicut.
REFERENCES
i. World Health Organization, WHO. (2018). “Global
Status Report on Road Safety.” https://www.who.int/
violence_injury_prevention/road_safety_status/2018/
English-Summary-GSRRS2018.pdf
ii. Ministry of Road Transport and Highways, (MORTH).
(2018). “Road Accidents in India 2017.” Transport
Research Wing, Government of India, New Delhi.
iii. Messer, C. J., Mounce, J. M., and Brackett, R. Q. (1981).
“Highway Geometric Design Consistency Related to
Driver Expectancy.” FHWA-RD-81-035. Washington,
DC: Federal Highway Administration.
iv. Kannellaidis, G. (1996). “Human Factors in Highway
Geometric Design.” Journal of Transportation
Engineering, ASCE, Vol. 122 (1), 59-66.
v. Krammes, R.A., Brackett, R. Q. Shaffer, M. A., Ottesen,
J. L., Anderson, I. B., Fink, K. L., Collins, K. M.,
Pendleton, O. J., and Messer, C. J. (1994). “Horizontal
Alignment Design Consistency for Rural Two-Lane
Highways.” Research Report FHWA-RD-94-034,
FHWA, U. S. Department of Transportation.
23
 PAPER NO. 697
vi. Glennon, J. C. (1987). “Effects of Sight Distance on
Highway Safety. Relationship between Safety and
Key Highway Features: State of the Art Report 6.”
Transportation Research Board, Washington, D.C.
vii. Zegeer, C. V., Stewart, J. R., Council, F. M., Reinfurt,
D. W., and Hamilton, E. (1992). “Safety Effects of
Geometric Improvements on Horizontal Curves.”
Transportation Research Record, 1356, Transportation
Research Board, Washington, D.C.
viii. Kentucky Transportation Center Annual Report (2005).
www.ktc.uky.edu
ix. Reymond, G., Kemeny, A., Droulez, J., and Berthoz, A.
(2001). “Role of Lateral Acceleration in Curve Driving:
Driver Model and Experiments on a Real Vehicle and a
Driving Simulator.” Human Factors, 43(3): 483−495.
x. Polus, A., and Mattar-Habib, C. (2004). “New
Consistency Model for Rural Highways and its
Relationship to Safety”. Journal of Transportation
Engineering, 133(3), 286-293.
xi. Cafiso,S., Grazianoa,AD, Silvestro GD, La Cavaa,G,
Persaud,B. (2010). “Development of Comprehensive
Accident Models for Two-Lane Rural Highways
using Exposure, Geometry, Consistency and Context
Variables.” Accident Analysis and Prevention 42 (2010)
1072–1079.
xii. Fitzpatrick, K., Wooldridge, M. D., Tsimhoni, O.,
Collins, J. M., Green, P., Bauer, K. M., Parma, K. D.,
Koppa, R., Harwood, D. W., Anderson, I. B., Krammes,
R. A., and Poggioli, B. (2000a). “Alternative Design
Consistency Rating Methods for Two-Lane Rural
Highways.” Federal Highway of Administration,
FHWA-RD-99-172. U.S. Department of Transportation,
Washington D.C.
xiii. Fitzpatrick, K., Elefteriadou, L., Harwood, D. W.,
Collins, J. M., McFadden, J., Anderson, I. B., Krammes,
R. A., Irizarry, N., Parma, K. D., Bauer, K. M., and
Passetti, K. (2000b). “Speed Prediction for Two-Lane
Rural Highways.” Federal Highway of Administration,
FHWA-RD-99-171. U.S. Department of Transportation,
Washington D.C.
xiv. Nicholson, A. (1998). “Super elevation, Side Friction,
and Roadway Consistency.” J. of Transp. Engrg.,
124(5), 411–418.
xv. Al-Masaeid, H. R., Hamed, M., Aboul-Ela, M., and
Ghannam, A. G. (1995). “Consistency of Horizontal
Alignment for Different Vehicle Classes.” Transportation
Research Record, 1500, National Research Council,
Washington D.C., 178–183.
xvi. Lamm, R., Hayward, J., and Cargin, J. (1986).
“Comparison of Different Procedure for Evaluating
Speed Consistency.” Transportation Research Record,
1100, National Research Council, Washington. D.C.
xvii. Lamm, R., Psarianos, B., and Mailaender, T. (1999).
“Highway Design and Traffic Safety Engineering
Handbook.” McGraw Hill, Inc., New York.
xviii. American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials (AASHTO). (2001). “A Policy
24 Journal of the Indian Roads Congress, July-September 2019
on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets.” Fourth
Edn., Washington, D.C.
xix. Poe, C. M., Tarris, J. P, and Mason, J. M, Jr. (1996).
“Relationship of Operating Speed to Roadway Geometric
Design Speed.” Federal Highway of Administration,
FHWA-RD-96-024. U.S. Department of Transportation,
Washington D.C.
xx. Misaghi, P., and Hassan, Y. (2005). “Modeling
Operating Speed and Speed Differential on Two-Lane
Rural Roads.” Journal of Transportation Engineering,
ASCE, 131(6), 408-417.
xxi. Hassan, Y., Sarhan, M., Porter, R., Dimaiuta, M.,
Donnell, E., Garcia, A., Himes, S., Perco, P., Psarianos,
B., and Taylor, M. (2011). “Modeling Operating Speed.”
Federal Highway of Administration, Transportation
Research Circular, E-C151, Transportation Research
Board, Washington D.C.
xxii. Anitha J. and Anjaneyulu MVLR. (2013). “Operating
Speed of Different Classes of Vehicles at Horizontal
Curves on Two-Lane Rural Highways” – Journal of
Transportation Engineering, Vol. 139 (3), March 2013,
287-294.
xxiii. Ottesen, L. J., and Krammes, R. A. (2000). “Speed Profile
Model for a Design Consistency Evaluation Procedure
in the United States.” Transportation Research Record,
1701, Transportation Research Board, National Research
Council, Washington D.C., Paper No. 00-3259.
xxiv. Lamm, R., Choueiri, E.M., Hayward, J. C., and Paluri,
A. (1988). “Possible Design Procedures to Promote
Design Consistency in Highway Geometric Design
of Two-Lane Rural roads.” Transp. Res. Rec. 1195,
Transportation Research Board, Washington. D.C., 111-
122.
xxv. Abdelwahab, W. M., Aboul-Ela, M. T., and Morrall,
J. F. (1998). “Geometric Design Consistency Based
on Speed Change on Horizontal Curves.” Road and
Transport Research, 7(1), 13-23.
xxvi. McFadden, J., and Elefteriadou, L. (2000). “Evaluating
Horizontal Alignment Design Consistency of Two Lane
Rural Highways: Development of New Procedure.”
Transp. Res. Rec. 1737, National Research Council,
Washington D.C., Paper No. 00-0813.
xxvii. Castro, M., Sanchez, J.F., Sanchez, J.A., and Iglesias,
L. (2011). “Operating Speed and Speed Differential for
Highway Design Consistency.” J. of Transp. Engrg.,
ASCE, 837-840.
xxviii. Leisch. J. E and Leisch. J. P. (1977). “New Concept in
Design Speed Applications, as a Control in Achieving
Consistent Highway Design.” Transportation Research
Record, 631, Transportation Research Board,
Washington. D. C., 4-14.
xxix. Shankar, A. U. R., Anjaneyulu, M. V. L. R. and Sowmya
N. J. (2013). “Consistency Evaluation of Horizontal
Curves on Rural Highways.” Journal of Indian Roads
Congress, Vol. 73(4):91-99.
 PAPER NO. 698

Experimental Study for Estimation of Capacity of

Exclusive Motor Cycle Lane in India

Nischal Gupta1 Ravi Sekhar Chalumuri2

ABSTRACT

Motorised Two-Wheelers (MTW) are becoming popular transport mode in urban cities of India. With rising MTW proportion
in Indian traffic, it is important to find ways to better manage this mode to reduce traffic accidents. Segregating the MTW by
means of an exclusive motorcycle lane is an effective method where two-wheeler composition is more predominant than the
other traffic compositions. The main objective of this study is to estimate the capacity of an exclusive motorcycle lane and to
study the impact of segregation of MTW on traffic flow. An experimental study was carried out on VIP road in Vadodara city.
The speed-flow behaviour was determined and the capacity of an exclusive motorcycle lane was estimated at 3005 mc/hr. The
effect of segregation of MTW on the speed of MTWs and the PCU factors of various vehicle categories are also studied.

1. Introduction The main objective of the present study is to estimate

Motorised Two-Wheelers (MTW) offer an affordable,
convenient and flexible mode of transportation in urban
cities compared to four-wheelers and public transport. This
trend can be seen predominantly in South Asian countries
including India where motorcycles and scooters comprise
up to 95% of motor vehicles on a road (Bakker S, 2018).
Currently, cars constitute just over 13 per cent of the
vehicle population in India, while two-wheelers constitute
more than 70 per cent (Ministry of Road Transport &
Highways India, 2017). Due to this, it is less surprising that
motorized two-wheelers account for a large and growing
number of trips in many urban cities of India.
The two-wheeler population on the road poses a serious
traffic safety problem. Nearly 34% of total road accidents
that occurred in India in 2018 involved two-wheelers
which are the highest for any vehicle category (Ministry
of Road Transport & Highways, 2018). Due to their better
manoeuvrability, the two-wheeler riders are capable of
making zigzag movement and thus create conflicts and
stop and go conditions for other vehicles. One possible
solution to better manage the motorcycle traffic is to
provide a separate lane for these vehicles and segregate
them from the rest of the traffic stream. Segregation of
these MTW road users can help reduce conflicts.
1
Doctoral Student, Michigan State University, USA, E-mail: nischal5495@gmail.com
2
Principal Scientist, Transportation Planning & Environment Division, CSIR-Central Road Research Institute, New Delhi
E-mail: chalumuri.ravisekhar@gmail.com
the capacity of an exclusive motorcycle lane and to
investigate the impact of segregation of MTW from the
main carriageway. For this purpose, an experimental
motorcycle lane is implemented at the chosen study section
and speed-volume data are collected and analysed. The
capacity is estimated before any segregation of MTWs
and after the segregation of MTWs. Thereafter, an attempt
is made to study the effect of segregation of MTWs on the
operating speeds of MTWs and the PCU values of various
categories of vehicles, plying on the road.
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
The concept of segregating MTWs with the help of
motorcycle lanes is becoming quite popular in South Asian
countries such as Malaysia, Taiwan and Thailand (Radin
et al., 1995; Hussain et al., 2001; Law and Radin Sohadi,
2005; Faezi et al., 2010; Hussain et al., 2011; Leksmono et
al., 2011; Mama and Taneerananon, 2016). Two types of
motorcycle (MC) lanes are found in the literature. These
are Shared or Inclusive motorcycle lanes and Exclusive
motorcycle lanes. Inclusive MC lane allows other vehicles
to share the motorcycle lane whereas an exclusive MC
lane is limited to use by motorcycles only. Quite extensive
research on motorcycle lanes has been carried out in
Malaysia. However, India has yet to explore the feasibility

Journal of the Indian Roads Congress, July-September 2019 25

 PAPER NO. 698
and benefits of such lanes along its corridor with high two-
wheeler proportion.
When providing any new facility on the roads, it is
important to estimate its capacity. The capacity of a facility
is the maximum hourly rate at which persons or vehicles
can be expected to traverse a point or a uniform section
of a lane or roadway during a given time period under
the prevailing roadway, traffic and control conditions
(Highway Capacity Manual (HCM), 2000). Very few
studies in the literature are focused on estimation of the
capacity of motorcycle lanes.
Hussain et al., (2001) developed a relation to determine
the capacity of exclusive motorcycle lanes as a function
of effective lane width. The relation is given in equation
1. This equation was developed based on the Greenshield
model and multiple regression models.
Qmax = 3329.808*W  (1)
Where, Qmax = capacity of motorcycle lane, mc/hr and W
= motorcycle lane width in meters.
Hussain et al., (2011) estimated the capacity of an exclusive
motorcycle lane as 3306 mc/hr/lane when the motorcycle
a) Shared Lane
Fig. 1. Relationship between MC Volumes, Lane Width and LOS
3. STUDY METHODOLOGY
3.1 Study Area Characteristics
For the purpose of the present study, video graphic data
is collected on an identified study corridor in Vadodara
city. Mid-block section without any interference from
intersections or pedestrian crossings is selected. The width
of the main carriageway is 10.5 m with 3.5 m wide hard
shoulder. For the purpose of data collection, a 100 m section,
free from any interference or influence from intersections,
pedestrian crossings, turns, street roads, gap in median, etc,
26 Journal of the Indian Roads Congress, July-September 2019
lane width is between 1.4 to 1.7 m, corresponding to a
critical speed of 13 km/h and critical density of 235 mc/
km/lane. When lane width exceeds 1.7 m, the capacity
was found to be 2207 mc/hr/m which corresponds to a
critical motorcycle speed of 13 km/h and critical density
of 166 mc/km/lane.
Mama and Taneerananon, (2016) developed a relationship
between Motorcycle (MC) volume, lane width and level of
service using micro simulation-based software. Based on
the simulation results, the authors estimated the capacity of
shared as well as exclusive motorcycle lanes as a function
of lane width and Level of Service (LOS). Fig. 1 shows
the relation for both shared as well as exclusive MC lane.
For example, at LOS D, a 2.5 m wide shared motorcycle
lane can carry 320 mc/hr.
As such, no study related to exclusive (or inclusive)
motorcycle lanes has been carried out in India. Therefore,
an attempt has been made to introduce the concept of
exclusive motorcycle lanes in India. In the present study,
an exclusive motorcycle lane is introduced on an existing
section of a road in Vadodara city in India and the capacity
of this exclusive motorcycle lane is estimated using
Greenshield Model (Greenshield, 1935).
b) Exclusive MC lane
is identified on this road. Traffic data is collected without any
changes in the prevailing road conditions and this scenario
is referred to as Business as Usual (BAU). Thereafter,
a 3.5 m wide lane is physically separated from the main
carriageway using traffic barricades. That means after
segregation, the carriageway width is reduced to 10.5 m
with obstructions on both sides (median on one side and
barricades on the other). The MTWs were requested to
make use of the Motorcycle (MC) lane instead of using
the main carriageway. Traffic operations have been carried
out with the help of Traffic Police personnel. This separate
 PAPER NO. 698
lane for MTW is referred to as exclusive motorcycle lane or
MC lane. All the MTWs did not make use of the designated
MC lane and some kept on the main carriageway. The
carriageway width of 10.5 m left after segregation which is
being used by other vehicles is referred to as Mixed Vehicle
(MV) lane. The data collected were extracted manually and
the capacity is estimated for both BAU scenario and for
exclusive MC lane by means of a longitudinal 30-m trap
length. Fig. 2 shows the site under the BAU scenario and
MC lane scenario.

a) BAU scenario b) Exclusive MC Lane

Fig. 2. Site for Data Collection
3.2 Traffic Data Collection
For the BAU scenario, the video graphic data were
collected for 5 hours, 3 hours in the morning and 2 hours in
the evening, this period includes peak and half peak hours.
After segregation of the MTWs, the data were collected
for 4 hours. Since the traffic is highly heterogeneous in
India, vehicles with similar characteristics are grouped
together and a total of 8 categories are identified. The
standard car (referred as small car in the present study)
comprises of cars having engine capacities up to 1400 cc.
Big cars comprise of all four-wheeled cars having engine
capacities greater than 1400 cc. The projected rectangular
area of standard car is 5.36 m2T (3.72 m x 1.44 m) and.
This category includes Sports Utility Vehicles (SUVs),
Compact Recreational Vehicles (CRVs) and Multi Utility Fig. 3. Speed Distribution of MTW under Different
Scenarios on VIP Road, Vadodara
Vehicles (MUVs) (Indo HCM, 2017). The classified traffic
volume counts and speed data for each category of vehicles
are determined for 5-min interval manually from the video.
The trap length method is used to extract the spot speeds
of different vehicle categories. The trap length in this case
is also 30 m and the speeds of all the vehicle categories are
extracted from the video. The spot speed distribution of
MTWs on the Vadodara section is presented graphically
in the figure 3. The average traffic composition observed
on the study corridor is given in figure 4. The average
traffic flow is 2900 veh/hr under BAU scenario and about
2060 veh/hr on MV lane under segregated conditions. It
is observed from figure 4 that the average composition of
the two-wheeler traffic on the existing lane is very high
(60%) as compared to other vehicle categories, followed
by car (19%). (a) BAU Scenario

Journal of the Indian Roads Congress, July-September 2019 27

 PAPER NO. 698
(b) MV Lane
Fig. 4. Average Vehicle Composition on the Study
Section
4. CAPACITY ESTIMATION
4.1 Background
The capacity is estimated by considering the fundamental
speed-flow relationship which is developed based on the
Greenshield Model (Greenshield, 1935). Greenshield
Model assumes a linear relationship between speed and
density which is of the form given in Equation 2.
(2)
 capacity of both MC lane and MV lane is estimated using
Where, uf = average free flow speed (km/h), uj = jam
density (veh/km). This model indicates that when density
approaches 0, the speed approaches the free-flow speed.
The major advantage of the Greenshield’s model is its
computational simplicity.
Fig. 5 a: Speed-Flow Relationship for BAU Scenario
28 Journal of the Indian Roads Congress, July-September 2019
For the purpose of estimating the capacity, the concept
of dynamic Passenger Car Units (PCU) is utilized. In the
present study, the PCU of a vehicle type is estimated using
Eq. 3 (Chandra and Sikdar, 2000). The dynamic PCU is
developed based on the ratio of speed to the area of the
vehicle with respect to the standard car.
(3)

Where Vc and Vi are the mean speeds for cars and type i
vehicles, respectively, in the traffic stream; and Ac and Ai are
their respective projected rectangular areas (length*width)
on the road. The projected rectangular areas are taken from
Indian Highway Capacity Manual (Indo-HCM, 2017).
4.2 Capacity Estimation for Various Scenarios
The data collected for the existing scenario is used to plot
the speed-flow diagram with speed on ordinate and traffic
flow on the abscissa. To estimate the capacity, the dynamic
PCU values mentioned in equation (3) are considered and
these values are multiplied by the number of vehicles that
are extracted at 5 minutes interval. Further, the hourly
flow rate is represented in PCU/hour. The capacity of
the section under BAU conditions, i.e., no segregation of
MTWs, is estimated to be 5412 pcu/hr (Fig 5a). The free-
flow speed for this scenario is estimated at 49.6 km/hr.
After segregation of MTWs on a 3.5 m motorcycle (MC)
lane, the remaining width of the carriageway (referred as
Mixed Vehicle Lane or MV Lane) is about 10.5 m. The
the same procedure. The capacity of MC lane is 7127 mc/
hr (Fig 5b) and that of MV lane is 4614 pcu/hr. The free
flow speeds are estimated at 33.1 km/h and 42.85 km/h
for MC lane and MV lane respectively. The capacity and
speed-density relations for all the three scenarios are
presented in Table 1.
 PAPER NO. 698

Fig. 5b : Speed-Flow Relationship for MC Lane

Fig. 5 : Speed-Flow Relationship for BAU and MC Lane at VIP Road, Vadodara
Table 1. Capacity and Speed-Density Relation
Scenario Section Width Capacity Speed-Density Relation
BAU 10.5m+3.5m paved shoulder 5412 pcu/hr Speed= -0.1137*Density+49.61
MC Lane 3.5 m 7127 mc/hr Speed= -0.036*Density +31.33
MV Lane 10.5 m 4614 pcu/hr Speed= -0.09948*Density +42.85

5. EFFECT OF SEGREGATION OF MTW with the same width can have varying capacities
The effect of segregation of MTWs is investigated by which can be attributed to different operating speeds
considering two variables; speed and PCU values. The and driving characteristics (Indo-HCM, 2017;
capacity depends mainly on the speed characteristics and Dhamaniya and Chandra, 2017). The operating
the Passenger Car units (PCUs). These two variables are speed of each scenario is derived from the best-fitted
compared before segregation and after segregation of distributions. It is observed that the operating speed
MTWs. The characteristics of these variables for the two of MTWs is 51 km/h under the BAU scenario. It
scenarios are discussed in the following sub sections. reduced to 42.5 km/h for MV lane and to 36 km/h for
5.1 Speed Distribution of Two Wheelers MTWs in MC lane.
The speed data of the motorised two-wheelers (MTWs)
extracted from the video are fitted to a suitable probability
distribution. The best fit distribution is identified for
each scenario based on Chi-Squared tests. Six different
distributions are considered for comparing the speed
distributions and the chi-square value of each scenario
is presented in Table 2. The best distribution for each
scenario is presented in Figure 4. It is observed that the
speeds of MTWs follow log-gamma distribution under the
BAU scenario. The speed of MTWs on the MV lane also
follows a log-gamma distribution. For MC lane, the MTW
speeds follow normal distribution.
Operating speed or the 85th percentile speed greatly
influences the capacity of a section. Different sections a) BAU Scenario

Journal of the Indian Roads Congress, July-September 2019 29

 PAPER NO. 698
the projected areas will remain constant after segregation
of the MTWs, the changes in PCU values, if any, will
be because of change in the speeds of the vehicles. As
stated in section 5.1, the operating speeds of MTWs in
BAU scenario and in MV lane differ significantly, it can
be concluded that the PCU values of MTWs will also
change due to change in speed of the vehicles. Similar
will be the case with other vehicle categories. Thus, any
change (increment or decrement) in the PCU values of
all the categories of vehicles is studied in this paper. The
recent highway capacity guidelines developed in India
(Indo-HCM, 2017) suggest the median values of PCUs
for various vehicle categories for urban roads in India
and these values are given in Table 3 for reference. The
b) MV Lane observed median PCU values under the BAU scenario
and MV lane are obtained from this study are also
presented in Table 3. It is observed that the PCU values
of heavy vehicles (including trucks, buses and LCV)
increase after segregation of the main carriageway. For
example, the PCU value of trucks and buses increases by
almost 11.24% and 8.9% respectively.
Table 3. Change in Median Value of PCUs due to
Segregation of Carriageway
Vehicle Category Indo-HCM BAU MV Lane
(2017) Scenario Scenario
(literature)
Big Car (SUV, CRV, etc) - 1.44 1.48

c) MC Lane MTWs 0.21 0.25 0.23

Fig. 6. Distribution Fitted to MTW Speed for different Three Wheelers 0.83 1.14 1.11
Scenarios LCV/Mini Bus 2.30 2.88 3.14
Table 2. Summary of Speed Distribution Fit Truck (2 or 3 axles) 3.90 4.05 4.51
S. Name of Chi-square Chi-square Chi-square Bus 4.60 5.47 5.79
No Distribution Statistic Statistic Statistic
(BAU Scenario) (MV Lane) (MC Lane) Statistical validation has been done to test whether
1 Gamma 22.18 9.81 142.53 there is any significant difference in the PCU values
before and after segregation (i.e. on BAU scenario
2 Log-Gamma 7.98 3.01 183.89 and MV lane). For this, two statistical tests, F-test
3 Logistic 38.39 8.56 102.89 and t-test are carried out. The results are presented
4 Log-Logistic 14.11 3.84 114.10 in Table 4. F-test is carried out to test any significant
change in the variation of the PCU values of the vehicle
5 Normal 47.35 9.95 87.24
categories under the two different scenarios. The t-test
6 Lognormal 8.61 5.72 162.92 is considered to observe any significant variation in the
mean values of PCUs. The critical value of F-stat and
5.2 Effect on Passenger Car Unit
t-stat are considered at 5% level of significance and the
The capacity is greatly influenced by PCU values. corresponding critical values are also given in Table
Equation 3 given in section 4.1 indicates that the dynamic 4. From the results, it is observed that for trucks and
PCU value depends on projected rectangular area and MTWs, the t-critical value is less than the t-stat. Thus
speeds of the vehicle (whose PCU is to be determined) the PCU values of these categories differ significantly
as well as of standard car (small car in this case). Since before and after segregation.

30 Journal of the Indian Roads Congress, July-September 2019

 PAPER NO. 698
Table 4. Statistical Validation of PCU values REFERENCES
Vehicle Category F-stat F-Critical t-stat t-Critical i. Bakker S Electric Two-Wheelers, Sustainable Mobility
Value and the City, Authenticity, Ambition and Dream
ii. Chandra, S. and Sikdar, P. K. (2000) ‘Factor affecting
Big Car 1.558 2.112 -1.170 1.993 PCU in mixed traffic on urban roads’, Road Transport
MTWs 4.219 2.112 2.600 2.003 Res, 9(3), pp. 40–50.
Three Wheelers 1.182 2.112 0.702 1.993 iii. Dhamaniya, A. and Chandra, S. (2017) ‘Influence
of Operating Speed on Capacity of Urban Arterial
LCV/Mini Bus 1.149 2.803 -1.382 2.001
Midblock Sections’, International Journal of Civil
Trucks (2 or 3 5.025 3.865 -2.243 2.069 Engineering. Springer International Publishing, 15(7),
axle trucks) pp. 1053–1062.
Bus 1.195 3.055 -1.112 2.015 iv. Faezi, S., Hamid, H. and Davoodi, S. (2010) ‘The
effect of pavement marking on speed reduction in
6. CONCLUSIONS exclusive motorcycle lane in Malaysia’, Contemporary
In this study, a separate lane for Motorised Two-Wheelers Engineering, 3(3), pp. 149–155.
(MTW) is provided on an experimental basis on an v. Greenshields, B. D. (1935). “A study in highway
urban road in India and an attempt is made to estimate capacity.” HRB Proc., Vol. 14, 448–477.
the capacity of exclusive motorcycle lane. The following vi. Highway Capacity Manual (HCM) (2000) Special
significant conclusions are drawn from the study. Report No. 209, Transportation Research Board,
National Research Council, 4th Edition. Washington,
i. The capacity of a 3.5 m wide exclusive motorcycle D.C.
lane is 7127 mc/hr.
vii. Hussain, H., Law, T. H. and Radin Umar R.S. (2001)
ii. Suitable probability distributions are fitted to the ‘Preliminary Study of Motorcycle Lanes Capacity
speed data of MTW on MC lane, MV lane and in Malaysia’, Proceedings Engineering Research,
BAU scenario. It is observed that the speed of Universiti Putra Malaysia, (January).
MTWs on BAU scenario and the MV lane follows viii. Hussain, H., Radin Umar, R. S. and Ahmad Farhan, M.
log-gamma distribution. The speeds of MTWs on S. (2011) ‘Establishing speed-flow-density relationships
MC lane follows normal distribution. for exclusive motorcycle lanes’, Transportation
iii. The effect of segregation on the operating speeds Planning and Technology, 34(3), pp. 245–257.
of MTW is studied. The operating speed of MTW ix. Indian Highway Capacity Manual (2017), Central
reduces from 51 km/h under non-segregated Road Research Institute, New Delhi, India.
conditions to 42.5 km/h on the mixed vehicle x. Law, T. H. and Radin Sohadi, R. U. (2005)
(MV) lane after segregation. This may be due to ‘Determination of comfortable safe width in an
reduced width of the section (as a 3.5-meter wide exclusive motorcycle lane’, Journal of the Eastern Asia
hard shoulder is excluded) Society for Transportation Studies, 6, pp. 3372–3385.
iv. The operating speed on 3.5 meters wide xi. Leksmono, Gede, Reza, Ari Sarif and Imam (2011)
motorcycle (MC) lane is about 36 km/h. The PCU ‘The Performance of Motorcycle Lanes in Jakarta and
values are also affected due to the change in speed Sragen’, Proceedings of the Eastern Asia Society for
Transportation Studies, 8(1997).
variation.
xii. Mama, S. and Taneerananon, P. (2016) ‘Effective
v. The median values of PCUs increase in the case Motorcycle Lane Configuration Thailand: A Case
of vehicles having greater projected rectangular Study of Southern Thailand’, Engineering Journal,
areas than standard cars whereas for vehicles 20(3), pp. 113–121.
having smaller areas than standard cars, the xiii. Ministry of Road Transport & Highways (2016) ‘Road
PCU values are reduced after segregation of the Accidents in India 2016’.
carriageway for MTW.
xiv. Ministry of Road Transport & Highways India (2017)
vi. Statistical validation was carried out using F-test Road Transport Year Book : 2013-14 and 2014-15.
and t-test to investigate any significant difference India.
in PCU values estimated in different scenarios. xv. Radin Umar, R. S., Mackay, M. G. and Hills, B. L.
From the results, it was observed that the PCU (1995) ‘Preliminary Analysis Of Exclusive Motorcycle
values for trucks and MTW differ significantly Lanes Along The Federal Highway F02, Shah Alam,
before and after segregation of the carriageway. Malaysia’, IATSS Research, 19(2), pp. 93–98.

Journal of the Indian Roads Congress, July-September 2019 31

 PAPER NO. 699
CONSTRUCTION OF BRIDGES OVER RIVER BARAK AT BADRIGHAT (BARENGA)
& SADARGHAT ON SILCHAR-KUMBHAGRAM ROAD IN SILCHAR, ASSAM
Alok Bhowmick1 Sanjay Kr. Jain2
1. INTRODUCTION
This paper is an attempt to bring to light the facts and
efforts that lead to the successful completion of the design
and construction of 2 Nos of Bridges over the river Barak
at Sadarghat and Badrighat in Cachar district in Southern
Assam. Both these Bridges are in close proximity to each
other over the Barak River. However at Sadarghat the
existing bridge completed in the early sixties had started
showing distress within 20 years of its commissioning
the gap slab in the main mid span deflected alarmingly
Similarly Bridge at Badarpur also over River Barak had
developed serious distress and the deflection at the mid-
span was beyond the permissible limit within less than
20 years of commissioning and had to be rehabilitated
twice.
The Govt. of Assam invited tenders for design and
construction of rest bridges where the clear linear water
way and other technical parameters were only mentioned.
The scheme was to have been prepared as per the design
data in the tender by the tenderer on E.P.C mode.
It was by sheer chance that D2S Infrastructures Pvt. Ltd.
was awarded the work of both the Bridges which as later
events will prove was the sole reason for the successful
completion of both these bridges inspite of unforeseen
hurdles, abnormal delays in the handing over of the site,
non-handing over of the full site.
After the award of the work during the preliminary site
visit as per the observation of the I.I.T Guwahati, the Proof
Consultants along with all the design consultant at site, the
1st level Proof Consultants and the Design Consultants as
well as the Constructing agency D2S Infrastructures Pvt.
Ltd., the General arrangement drawings were finalised
1.
Managing Director, B&S Engineering Consultants Pvt. Ltd. Sector 18, Noida (U.P.)
2.
CEO, B&S Engineering Consultants Pvt. Ltd. Sector 18, Noida (U.P.)
3.
Chairman, D2S Infrastructures Pvt. Ltd. Chittaranjan Park, New Delhi
32 Journal of the Indian Roads Congress, July-September 2019
D D Sharma3
which had many firsts as will be highlighted subsequently
in this paper.
i.  he main span was kept almost the same for both
T
the bridges for an un obstructed flow of the river in
conformity with the tender specifications and the
flow of the river was unrestricted.
ii. T
 he active earth pressure behind the abutments was
restricted to about 6 m height of Earth. This condition
was imposed which necessitated the additional
construction of one more simply supported span of
40M with an addition of one extra pier in Badrighat
Bridge as additional work.
iii. T
 he foundation, substructure and superstructure were
integral in the main span necessitating very strong
quality control measures like No Lap Zone upto
3 m above Pier Pile Caps and 3 m below the Pier
Head in the pier. The twin piers were kept slender
for aesthetics and to behave elastically under Seismic
loads (Zone V).
iv. V
 ery huge Pile caps requiring about 576 cum of
concrete were cast in one operation (Photo 05
to 08). These Pile Cap construction and details of
Reinforcements were checked by 3rd Party teams
who were invited to inspect these pile caps alongwith
the Design Consultants, 1st level Proof Consultants
and Final Proof Consultants I.I.T. Guwahati
alongwith the P.W.D departmental engineers and
third party commitment engineers and officials from
Bhutan ensuring strict quality control and strongest
possible supervision including proper placement of
reinforcement stirrups and the link bars at site. The
assumption in the design stage was strictly adhered
to during the execution also.
 PAPER NO. 699
During the construction of these bridges one more
bridge of the Silchar N.H. Bypass over Barak
river very near these bridges at Silchar under
construction during the same period was washed
out at the foundation stage itself necessitating Five
Fold increase in the cost estimates and the bridge is
not yet complete whereas both these bridges have
been completed successfully within their estimated/
contract amount without any escalation. Our stress
on the G.A.D and complete Harmony between the
Departmental officials, the design team and the
executing agency had culminated in the completion
and use of both the bridges.
It is brought out here that difference between H.F.L.
and L.W.L. in Barak River is about 15 m and this
creates huge water forces/scour. The design team
has created a beautifully enchanting bridge inspite of
the innumerable difficulties faced by us during their
construction. The bridge which was OUTFLANKED
and washed away had multiple spans of 40 m
throughout its length. Some of the difficulties faced
are as follow:-
a. Works had to be started in bits and parts wherever
site was available in Sadarghat and to whatever
intent it was available.
b. Sudden increase of Forest Royalty by 100% after the
acceptance of the contract and imposition of Labour
cess, GST after the acceptance of the contract made
increase the Project cost.
c. Abnormal delay in almost all payment of executed
works by more than one year. Even as on the date
of writing this paper the final payment of Rs. 10.50
crores (approx.) is not paid though the bridge
(Sadarghat) was opened to traffic on 2nd March 2019
and the defect liability period of one year will almost
be over.
d. Very short working period when the water would
be near about L.W.L was available only (from mid-
November till mid-March) for foundation work.
e. Non availability of adequate and acceptable quality
of coarse and fine aggregates.
f. Presence of Boulders Steel wire ropes Wooden
sleepers left behind by the previous bridge contractor
at Sadarghat created obstruction during piling etc. of
the main pier foundations.
Aggregate quality had to be augmented particularly
for M50 Grade concrete for the Superstructure. These
details are available alongwith necessary registers with
contractor.
It is for record that the districts of Cachar, North Cachar
Hills, Manipur, Mizoram Nagaland, Tripura do not
have river crushed Fine and Coarse aggregates of the
Journal of the Indian Roads Congress, July-September 2019
requisite quality confirming to IS Specifications. During
the construction of the Sadarghat Bridge the Railway
authorities visited our site to enquire about the aggregates,
their source as they were importing coarse aggregates
from PAKUR in Jharkhand at huge costs for projects in
Mizoram, Manipur etc. We feel the strength M50 grade
concrete with local aggregates was a singular achievement
of our site personnel at the bridge. All cube results
conform the parameters specified in I.R.C, MORTH and
IS specification.
2. Salient features:
The features and challenges faced in the planning, design
and execution of two long span variable depth balanced
cantilever bridges over river Barak in & around the
town of Silchar, which is the headquarter of the Cachar
district in Assam is high-highted. The span arrangement
of river portion for both bridges comprises of a 3 span
module having of 65 m+122.7 m+65 m lengths. The span
arrangement in case of Sadarghat Bridge is dictated by
the proximity of its location with the distressed existing
bridge adjacent to the proposed bridge. Total length of
bridge is 295 m in case of Bad righat Bridge and 381.625 m
for bridge at Sadarghat. Both the bridges had a provision
double lane carriageway 7.5 m with 1.5 m wide footpath
on either side of the carriageway. The overall width of
deck is 12 m. In the approaches of Sadarghat bridge,
two/three span modules wereprovided integral with all
intermediate piers. The superstructure of the main river
span of variable depth PSC box girder is constructed by
cast-in-situ balanced cantilever method of construction.
The RCC solid slab superstructure of land spans is
cast-in-situ as a single continuous operation over
ground supported staging system for entire length of a
module. For such spans, foundation comprised of two
piles, provided in a single row. The bridges fall under
National Waterway 16 of Barak river, requiring very
high vertical and horizontal clearances to be provided
for in the main span. Twin piers with their supports on
pile foundation, falling in the main stream, are designed
to bear the design forces of barge impact. In order to
reduce the length of approaches and improve aesthetics,
the bridge sare constructed on a single summit curve.
The bridge at Badrighat connects Barenga to Kashipur/
Badripar. The bridge at Sadarghat connects the city with
the Airport and the business hub of Silchar. The complex
plan geometryof the approaches on Silchar city side for
Sadarghat bridge is dictated by the site constraints. All
foundations are provided with 1400 mm dia bored cast-
in-situ piles. Spill through abutments on either end of the
bridge are also supported on pile foundation.
33
 PAPER NO. 699
3. Background and History
Both these bridges are across river Barak which
is a 900 km long river flowing through the states
of Manipur, Nagaland, Mizoram and Assam and discharges
the water into the  Bay of Bengal  via Bangladesh. Of the
900 km length of this river, 524 km is in India, 31 km on
Indo – Bangladesh border and the rest is in Bangladesh.
The navigable portion of Barak River in India is the 121km
stretch between Lakhipur and Bhanga and has been declared
as  National Waterway 16 (NW-16)  in the year 2016.The
bridges are located in & around the city of Silchar which
is the headquarters of Cachar district in the state of Assam.
Being politically stable in the otherwise disturbed Northeast
part of India,  it is also known as the “Island of Peace”.
During the British rule, ships were docked at the bank of
the river Barak. Gradually, a market developed at the bank
and became a major place of economic activity. The first
polo club in the world was formed at Silchar. The city is
surrounded by Tea gardens also and now it has become
attrackting hub as it is the gateway to Manipur, Mizoram
Nagaland and the North Cachar Hills. The location of the
two bridges in google image is shown in (Photo 1). The
unique features of these bridges are their aesthetic appeal,
blending with the surroundings and salient technical
aspects. In order to reduce the length & height of approaches
and to improve aesthetics and to be in harmony with the
surroundings, the bridges were provided with a single
vertical summit curve. The Horizontal alignment for main
spans of the bridges is kept straight. This paper highlights
the salient design and constructional features of both these
bridges. The Badrighat bridge is constructed under CM’s
Special Package for Barak Valley under Silchar Rural
Road Division (SRRD), Assam. Sadarghat Bridge has
been constructed under the fund allocation NLCPR under
Doner Ministry Govt. of India. Basic planning and concept
was developed by Silchar Rural Road Division, Silchar
and put to tender on ‘Design and Built’ basis. The span
arrangement of the main river is governed by the vertical
and horizontal clearances required for navigation purpose.
The presence of the existing bridge ruled out the possibility
of any other span arrangement. The approach span lengths
are primarily governed by horizontal geometry. The bridge
scheme has been finalised considering the hydraulic data,
cross section of the river, strata of the bank & river bed
which were fixed by SRRD from the consideration of
ease of execution. Once General Arrangement Drawings
(GADs) were approved by the Inland Waterway Authority
of India, the bridges were put for tender purpose. Sadarghat
Bridge estimates were approved by Ministry of DONER
Govt. of India. Subsurface investigation was done at every
pier location upto a depth of 70 m.The order to execute
34 Journal of the Indian Roads Congress, July-September 2019
the work was given to M/s D2S Infrastructures Pvt. Ltd.
New Delhi on 12 Feb.2014. M/s Skyline Developers, New
Delhi was engaged by the contracting agency for detailed
Design Services for the main bridge and approaches.
As per the contractual stipulations, Prof. Anjan Datta
of IIT Guwahati was appointed as Proof Consultant.
M/s B&S Engineering Consultants Pvt. Ltd. Noida was
appointed as Second Level Proof Check Consultant. The
construction works were executed under the guidance
and supervision of SRRD. The bridges were completed,
handed over to the client and Bridge at Sadarghat was
inaugurated by Chief Minister of Assam on 2nd March. 2019.
Photo 2 & 3 shows the existing bridge at Sadarghat, taken
before construction of the new bridge. The bridge at
Badrighat was completed on 31-10-2018 and handed over.
Superstructure for main bridge was constructed by
balanced cantilever method. Consideration is given to
the poor past performance records of the conventionally
provided balanced cantilever bridges with suspended span
or articulation/hinge near the mid span. These bridges in
many parts of India and overseas are found to deflect in the
middle with time, making the structure unserviceable. The
problem was diagnosed as under estimation of the creep of
concrete. In light of the above experiences, it was therefore
decided to provide a monolithic connection at the centre
of the span where the two cantilever arms are connected
together monolithically. In order to reduce the maintenance
cost and improve the structural performance under seismic
event, intermediate piers are connected integrally (without
bearings) with the superstructure, and bearings were
provided at either end of the main span. Two plate type
solid columns are provided at intermediate piers.
3.1 Bridge at Sadarghat: The said bridge replaces/
augments the adjacent bridge which is under distress for more
than 25 years. The existing bridge is the only link between
the city of Silchar with Silchar Airport besides Guwahati,
Aizwal, Haflong etc.  It also provides link to NH 53 and NH
54, with access to Mizoram, Meghalaya and Imphal and has
a very high strategic importance. With the development of
the town of Silchar and increase of the population of Silchar
it has become very congested and has habitation on each
bank of the river. The link between habitants on two sides of
the river is through this bridge only.
The old bridge was built by Gammon India Limited in the
year 1967. The bridge has a short suspended span supported
over long cantilevers. Due to sagging of cantilevers (which
has a become a regular feature of such bridges constructed
during that period), it was rehabilitated in the year 1990
and thereafter provided by a timber crossing at the two
side. At present, its profile is made serviceable by putting
 PAPER NO. 699
a deck of wooden planks over cradle of steel structure. (having a clear gap of around 15 m) on upstream side so
The difficulty in selecting the site for the new bridge was that traffic from existing bridge can be easily diverted to
aggravated due to heavy development encroachment on the new bridge. The complex plan geometry of approach
the both the banks of the river on upstream as well as on Silchar city side is governed by site constraints and
downstream of the existing bridge. Finally, it was decided availability of land. Basic parameters of the bridge are as
to construct the new bridge adjacent to the existing bridge follows:
Table-1
Span Arrangement (2x18.0m) + (14.225m+18.0m+14.225m) + (65.0m +122.725m+65.0m) + (14.225m
+14.225m + 18.0m).
Linear Waterway 271.74m
Substrata Alluvium (having layers of clay, silt and sand)
Type Of Foundation 1400mm dia Bored cast-in-situ Piles
Highest Flood Level 99.950m
Lowest Water Level 88.000m
Formation Level At The Crown 111.525m
Vertical Clearance At Crown 8.0m above HFL.
Maximum Scour Level 75.090m (for piers), 84.160m (for Abutments) - As decided by client i.e. SRRD, Assam

3.2 Bridge at Badrighat:The bridge is spanning the Barak green field alignment. Once connecting roads are built and
river. Its aerial distance from Sadarghat bridge is around the bridge is put to service, it will reduce the travel distance
4.5 km. This bridge is on upstream side of Sadarghat. It between Silchar and Guwahati or Haflong by more than
connects Barenga to Kashipur/ Badripar. This bridge is on a 15 km. Basic parameters of the bridge are as follows:
Table-2
Span Arrangement 42.4m + (65.0m+122.725m+65.0m)
The span of 42.40M was constructed as the Proof Consultants (IIT Guwahati)
insisted on active earth pressure less than 6-7M back the Silchar Side Abutment.
The Barenga Side Abutment was on high land.
Substrata Alluvium (having layers of clay, silt and sand)
Type of foundation 1400mm dia Bored cast-in-situ Piles
Highest Flood level 100.800m
Lowest water level 85.880m
Formation level at the crown 112.375m
Vertical Clearance at crown 8.0m above HFL.
Maximum scour level 75.390m (for piers), 84.671m (for Abutments)
- As decided by client i.e. SRRD, Assam
4. details of Sadarghat & Badrighat the deck is 12 m. Due to land constraint on approaches,
Bridges footpath is terminated after main bridge and staircases are
provided for pedestrian in Sadarghat Bridge. The main
4.1 Sadarghat Bridge
bridge has a span arrangement of 65.0 m+122.725 m
The main spans and approach spans have a 7.5 m wide +65.0 m with expansion joints at a spacing of 252 m.
two lane carriageway having one lane each for to and This improves the riding quality over the bridge. The
fro movement of vehicular traffic. The bridges also have superstructure is integrally connected to intermediate
1.5 m wide footpath on either side of the carriageway for piers. Two/three span modules having spans of 18 and
pedestrian movement. As a safety measure, the footpath 14.225 m have been provided in approaches. Fig. 1
is separated from carriageway by a rigid concrete New shows span arrangement of the main bridge including
Jersey type crash barrier. RCC hand railing has been approach spans. Photo 3 & 4 shows completed bridge
provided on two outer side of the footpath. Total width of at Sadarghat.

Journal of the Indian Roads Congress, July-September 2019 35

 PAPER NO. 699

Fig. 1 General Arrangement of Sadarghat Bridge

For main bridge, the superstructure has a single cell PSC
box girder cast by balanced cantilever technique. The depth
at pier support is 7.5 m whereas the depth at mid span is
3.5 m. Specialised form travellers were used for casting
of 3 to 3.75 m longsegments. The length of the segment is
governed by the capacity of the form traveller. Approach
spans for bridge at Sadarghat are provided as two/three
span continuous RCC deck slab integrally connected with
intermediate piers and resting on bearings near expansion
joints.
For all spans, the superstructure is integrally connected
with intermediate piers (without any bearings) but
supported on a pair of pot cum PTFE bearings to transfer
vertical loads, near expansion joints at the two ends.
For transfer of seismic horizontal loads (in transverse
direction) separate metallic guided bearings have been
provided on each end. It was ensured (by increasing the
distance between bearings, if required) that no uplift force
in generated on pot-PTFE bearings. Fig. 2 shows bearing
arrangement.

Fig. 2 Bearing Layout Plan for Sadarghat Bridge

36 Journal of the Indian Roads Congress, July-September 2019

 PAPER NO. 699
For main span, the substructure at intermediate piers
consist of two plate type, capsule shaped (rectangular
with semi-circular ends) RCC piers, integrally connected
with the superstructure, resulting in elimination of pier
cap. On expansion joint piers, cantilever type RCC pier
cap was provided to accommodate various bearings. Twin
leaf piers are connected to the pile cap Photo 9. Approach
span piers are single leaf, rectangular shaped. 2.1m thick
RCC pile cap supported on 1400 mm bored cast-in-situ
piles. The effective depth of the piles is considered below
maximum scour level. Total length of the pile varies from
35 m to 38 m. Spill through abutments on either end of the
bridge have also been supported on pile foundations.
Each intermediate pier of main bridge is provided with
18 nos. of piles. All approach span piers and abutments
for bridge at Sadarghat are provided with two piles. All
piles have same dia and similar length. The vertical load
carrying capacity of such piles is more than 500MT and
lateral capacity is around 50t.
4.2 Badrighat Bridge
For bridge at Badrighat, the main span arrangement and
other details are similar to Sadarghat Bridge. A simply
supported PSC box girder (cast on staging supported from
ground) was provided towards Barenga side as approach
span. Spill through abutments are provided with 8 piles.
Fig.3 shows the span arrangement of Badrighat Bridge.
Fig. 4 shows the bearing layout. Fig. 5 shows the dimensional
details of superstructure & Fig.6 shows the typical
prestressing layout of the superstructure for main span of
both the bridges. Photo 10 shows lap zone in progress.

Fig. 3 General Arrangement of Badrighat Bridge

Fig. 4 Bearing Layout Plan for Badrighat Bridge

Journal of the Indian Roads Congress, July-September 2019 37

 PAPER NO. 699

Fig. 5 Dimensional Details of Superstructure

Fig. 6 Typical Cable Layout & Prestressing Details

38 Journal of the Indian Roads Congress, July-September 2019

 PAPER NO. 699
5. Design Challenges
The design of the bridge posed several design challenges
which were successfully met with collectively by the
team of Designer and Second Proof Checker and the
Proof Checker IIT(Guwahati). Some of the unique design
challenges are as under:
5.1 Seismic Analysis: The bridge is located in the
severest earthquake zone (Zone V). The peak ground
acceleration is to be considered as 0.36 for all design
purposes. Considering the significance of the bridge,
an importance factor of 1.5 has been considered in the
calculations of seismic forces. The seismic provisions of
IRC:6 has been made more stringent in the recent past and
that prompted the design team to look for out of the box
solutions. Multimodal vibration analysis was performed
to find out the base shear for the modes causing more
than 90% mass participation. The analysis was done
in MIDAS-CIVIL (a specialised,4D software, specially
developed for this type of problems) by modelling the
entire structure (including end piers) at respective CG.
The SIDL and part of the live load applied at their
respective CG. No live load is considered in traffic
direction. On the basis of base shear obtained, equivalent
seismic coefficients were calculated in longitudinal
and transverse directions. Flexibility of the pile was
considered by modelling the piles supported by soil
springs into the model. Two different models were made.
In the first model which was meant for pile foundation
design, soil springs were not provided upto scour level.
In the second model, soil springs were applied till bed
level. The substructure and superstructure were checked
by both the models.
5.2 Design of Pile Foundation: The biggest challenge
was foundation of the intermediate piers of river span. The
old bridge at Sadarghat is supported on well foundation.
Due to frequent and prolonged flood in the Barak river,
the working season within the river boundary is not more
than 4-5 months. Construction of well foundation passing
through clayey strata has its own difficulties. Experience
from the past and the known history of difficulties in
sinking such deep wells, it was decided not to adopt,
conventionally suitable and otherwise economical, well
foundation. It was decided to go for bored cast-in-situ
pile foundation. But design of a pile, where scouring is
as deep as 26m, is a challenge by itself. Slenderness of
piles with scoured condition increases the second order
effects significantly in pile foundation. It was therefore
decided to go for large diameter (1.4m dia) pile which was
bored by hydraulically operated rig machines. The ‘scour
Journal of the Indian Roads Congress, July-September 2019
stage’ model reduced the seismic forces but increased the
bending moments in the pile. In the ‘non scour stage’
model, overall seismic forces increase but, at the same time
bending moments reduced in the piles (due to absence of
free standing pile). The effect of slenderness is considered
only in scoured condition. Ductile detailing of piles and
bundling of bars was done as per the codal provisions. To
accommodate 18 nos. of 1.4 m dia piles, a large pile cap
of size 21.7 m x 12.65 m was required. One such pile cap
involves 575 cum concrete. The pile cap is reinforced with
three layers of 32 mm dia bars.
5.3 Design of Superstructure: The design of main
span superstructure for such a system is mainly driven
by construction sequence and method. The statically
system of the structure keep changing as construction
progresses. Considering the effect of indeterminacy of
the structure, if was decided to use specialised software.
MIDAS-CIVIL is one such software. The software takes
into account various complications of the design such as
time dependent effects/properties of concrete, all types
of geometric variations, stage by stage construction
(age linked variables), effect of indeterminacy etc. The
behaviour at any stage of the construction sequence has
been analysed duly taking into account the effect of creep
redistribution. The broad sequence of construction is as
follows:
• Stage 1 – Cast intermediate pier and pier head
segment by fixing a staging system resting on pile
cap/pier. After concrete gained sufficient strength,
stress first pair of cables. This is to be done on both
piers.
• Stage 2 – Erect Cantilever Construction Equipment
(CCE) on both ends of the pier head segment and
cast segments and stress a pair of cables and so
on…
• Stage 3 – Fixed bearing at end support and
cast balanced portion superstructure on ground
supported staging on both end spans
• Stage 4 – Remove one CCE and cast stitch segment
(with the help of one CCE) at centre of the middle
span
• Stage 5 – Stress all remaining cables and remove
staging and CCE.
• Stage 6 – Cast crash barrier, fixed hand railing and
lay wearing coat over completed deck
Fig. 7 shows the typical sequence of construction followed
for the Superstructure in these two projects.
39
 PAPER NO. 699

Fig. 7 Sequence of Construction for the Superstructure

40 Journal of the Indian Roads Congress, July-September 2019

 PAPER NO. 699
M-50 grade of concrete is provided in the superstructure. 6. Constructional Features and
A combination of 19-T-15 and 12-T-15 cables was adopted difficulties
for best utilisation of cables. Before proceeding for casting
The abutments of the old bridge at Sadarghat were
of subsequent segment, at least one pair of cables was
provided with some kind of river protection with boulders
stressed to take care of the forces generated due to further
in wire crates. The gap between old and new bridge is
casting of segments. Corrugated HDPE sheathing and low
quite less. The piers of new bridge are in line with the
relaxation class 2 strands conforming to IS:14268 were
old bridge. During boring of piles for intermediate piers
incorporated. The stressing was restricted to 75% of the
of main bridge, steel wire/ rope etc. were encountered
Ultimate Tensile Strength. Cable profile was provided with
which posed difficulty in boring for the piles. More than
parabolic curve for vertical deviations and reverse circular
60-70 days were lost on this account. The working season
curve for plan deviations. Long cables were stressed from
and seasonal water level variation added to the problem.
both ends whereas short cables (upto 35m) were stressed
P.H.E water intake point is adjacent to the main piers
from one end only. To compensate for the deflections
which retarded the progress of the work. The work was
caused during cantilever stage, necessary pre-camber was
delayed due to non-removal of barge on P-6 and P-7 in the
provided during casting of each segment. After completion
approach which delayed the project.
of the cantilevers, two ends meet at the desired level. In
actual practice at site the ends matched within ± 2mm. Following machinery were deployed on the project site:
5.4 Design of Substructure: Stability of balanced Bridge at Sadarghat :
cantilever structure during construction is a big challenge. • Batching plant of 40 cum/hr capacity - 3 Nos.
It further increases in case the construction is to be done
over a major river with large depth of scour. Sometimes, • Portable concrete pumps - 3 Nos.
separate temporary foundations are required for such a • Generator – 125 KVA - 3 Nos.
support. This problem is overcome by adopting integrity
• Generator – 15 KVA - 1 Nos. For
at piers. Rigid piers in integral system aggravate the effects
general purpose
of redundancy. The challenge was overcome by providing
twin leaf piers in richer grade of concrete which does • Pile boring hydraulic rig (---------) - 1 No.
not increase the stiffness but, at the same time, provide
• CCE Gantry - 2 Pairs
the required strength. 1.25m thick capsule shaped twin
leaf shaft of intermediate pier is subjected to high axial • Compressor 300cfm capacity - 2 Nos.
force and corresponding longitudinal moments. The large • Excavator JCB - 3 Nos.
proportion of moment generated due to un-symmetry of
superstructure gets converted into couple of vertical loads • Mobile Crane P&H 35t capacity - 2 Nos.
giving rise to high axial force in twin leaf piers. 11.0m • Tower Crane 10 t capacity - 2 Nos.
tall pier is also susceptible to slenderness effects. M50
• Shuttering - 2500 Sqm
grade of concrete with 500 grade bars in two layers are
provided. • Staging cribs - 1500 RM
All the elements of substructure, superstructure and • Prestressing Jack and Pump - 2 Set
foundation were designed in accordance with limit state
• Transit Mixer - 2 Nos
philosophy of IRC:112. The geotechnical design of
foundation was done as per IRC:78. Bridge at Badrighat :
5.5 Bearing Design: Pot/PTFE, pin and metallic • Batching plant of 40 cum/hr capacity - 3 Nos.
guided bearings were supplied by the manufacturers. • Portable concrete pumps - 3 Nos.
The bearings were designed in accordance with
IRC:83 (Part III). • Generator – 125 KVA - 3 Nos.

5.6 Expansion Joint : Modular strip seal type
expansion joints having two seals each catering to +/-
80mm movement are provided for main span. Single
strip seal type expansion joint is provided over all other
piers/abutments. The expansion joints are supplied by
the manufacturers.
• Generator – 15 KVA - 1 Nos. For
general purpose
• Pile boring hydraulic rig (---------) - 1 No.
• CCE Gantry - 2 Pairs
• Compressor 300cfm capacity - 2 Nos.

Journal of the Indian Roads Congress, July-September 2019 41

 PAPER NO. 699
• Excavator JCB - 2 Nos.
• Mobile Crane P&H t capacity - 2 Nos.
• Tower Crane 10 t capacity - 2 Nos.
• Shuttering - 2500 Sqm
• Staging cribs - 1500 RM
• Prestressing Jack and Pump - 2 set
• Transit Mixer - 2 Nos
With the above machinery, the bridge was successfully
completed in spite of limited working season and
constraints of urban area.
Another salient feature of the bridge is use of M-50 grade
of concrete with following mix design:
• Cement - 400 kg
• Course Sand - 643 kg
• 10mm aggregate - 396 kg
• 20mm aggregate - 803 kg
• Admixture(FosrocAuramix 500) - 2.70 kg
• Water/cement ratio - 148.5 kg/0.33
Due to high level of quality control, desired results were
constantly achieved.
Casting of 575m3 concrete in a pile cap in single pour was
a difficult task. This could be done (without any failure or
construction joint) in a continuous concreting operation of
less than 22 hrs. Fixing of stirrups in the pile cap was also
a difficult task. Preparation of cage of reinforcement for a
pile cap took 10 days.
The twin leaf pier shaft of intermediate piers become
diaphragm. It continuous heavy reinforcements. A
high degree of supervision was exercised during the
concreting of the pier head. The pier head alongwith
webs of box girder was cast in three stages. In first
stage bottom raft with small height of diaphragms and
webs was cast. In second stage, remaining height of
webs and diaphragms was cast. Deck slab was cast
in the third stage. This eliminated possibility of any
honey combing in the most important element of the
superstructure.
7. Lesson Learnt
a. Construction of bridges over river Barak was a
challenge considering the river characteristic,
river flow velocity, restricted time available for
works at site …etc. The planning, conceptualising
and fixing the structural scheme of the bridge in
42 Journal of the Indian Roads Congress, July-September 2019
such projects require a good knowledge of the
local conditions.
b. At the conceptual stage of design, the structural
scheme should be evolved after taking into account
the availability of the man and machinery in the
particular area and after judging the capability and
capacity of the executing agency.
c. For all major activities, being done for the first time
in the project, dry/wet mock up should be done. This
makes the team mates aware of difficulties expected
during execution.
d. A preliminary design of every related element should
be carried out well before one proceed for detailed
design.
e. Regular interaction of design and construction team,
is essential for successful implementation of the
concept developed by the designers.
8. Quantities of the Major Items:
Sadarghat Bridge
• Concrete : 9207 m3
• HSD Reinforcement : 1999 mt
• High tensile Steel : 180 mt
• Cement : 165000 bags
Badrighat Bridge
• Concrete : 8534 m3
• HSD Reinforcement : 1395 mt
• High tensile Steel : 180 mt
• Cement : 80000 bags
9. Quality of the Design &
Construction
It is reiterated that the design and drawings submitted
by M/s Skyline Developers were first proof checked by
M/s B&S Engineering Consultants Pvt. Ltd. then by IIT
Guwahati and finally approved by SRRD. During the
execution of work, no change of any kind were required.
The work was executed strictly as per prevalent IRC/IS
codes of practice.
10. Acknowledgement
The authors express their sincere thanks to the efforts
and cooperation of all organisations concerned with
this project without their support, the successful
implementation of the scheme would not have been
possible.
 PAPER NO. 699

Photo 1 - Location Map

Photo 3 Elevation of the completed bridge at

Photo 2 Old Bridge at Sadarghat
Sadarghat

Photo 4 Complex Geometry of the approach on Silchar side

Journal of the Indian Roads Congress, July-September 2019 43

 PAPER NO. 699

a b

c d
Photo-5 a-d : Sadarghat P-7 Pile Cap Details
Start of Concreting : 8:00 AM 18-03-2016
Completion of Concreting : 4.00 AM 19-03-2016
Pile Cap Dimension : (21.7 x 12.65 x 2.1) M
Concrete Volume : 576 Cu.m (M-35)
Reinforcement in Pile Cap : 99.56 M.T. (including reinforcement for
Support and embedded shaft reinforcement)
Reinforcement Fixed above : 21.30 M.T. (for shaft)
Pile Cap
Total Cement Consumed : 4966 Bags
Total Reinforcement : 120.86 MT.

44 Journal of the Indian Roads Congress, July-September 2019

 PAPER NO. 699

a b

c d
Photo–6 a-d : Pile Cap casting in progress (P-6 Sadarghat Bridge)
Sadarghat P-6 Pile Cap Details
Start of Concreting : 8:00 AM 15-03-2017
Completion of Concreting : 6.00 AM 16-03-2016
Pile Cap Dimension : (21.7 x 12.65 x 2.1) M
Concrete Volume : 576 Cu.m (M-35)
Reinforcement in Pile Cap : 99.56 M.T. (including reinforcement for
Support and embedded shaft reinforcement)
Reinforcement Fixed above : 21.30 M.T. (for shaft)
Pile Cap
Total Cement Consumed : 4966 Bags
Total Reinforcement : 120.86 MT.

Journal of the Indian Roads Congress, July-September 2019 45

 PAPER NO. 699

a b

c d
Photo-7 a-d : Pile Cap casting in progress (P-3 Badrighat Bridge)
Badrighat P-3 Pile Cap Details
Start of Concreting : 8:00 AM 24-01-2016
Completion of Concreting : 2.00 AM 25-01-2016
Pile Cap Dimension : (21.7 x 12.65 x 2.1) M
Concrete Volume : 576 Cu.m (M-35)
Reinforcement in Pile Cap : 93.00 M.T. (including reinforcement for
Support and embedded shaft reinforcement)
Reinforcement Fixed above : 21.30 M.T. (for shaft)
Pile Cap
Total Cement Consumed : 4968 Bags
Total Reinforcement : 114.30 MT.

46 Journal of the Indian Roads Congress, July-September 2019

 PAPER NO. 699

a b

c d
Photo 8 a-d : Pile Cap casting in progress (P-2Badrighat Bridge)
Badrighat P-2 Pile Cap Details
Start of Concreting : 8:00 AM05-02-2016
Completion of Concreting : 8:30 PM 05-02-2016
Pile Cap Dimension : (21.7 x 12.65 x 2.1) M
Concrete Volume : 576 Cu.m (M-35)
Reinforcement in Pile Cap : 93.00 M.T. (including reinforcement for
Support and embedded shaft reinforcement)
Reinforcement Fixed above : 21.30 M.T. (for shaft)
Pile Cap
Total Cement Consumed : 4968 Bags
Total Reinforcement : 114.30 MT.

Journal of the Indian Roads Congress, July-September 2019 47

 PAPER NO. 699

Photo 9 - Pier Casting in Progress During High Flood Photo 10 – Lap Zone in Progress (P-3 Badrighat
Bridge)

a b
Photo 11 a-b : Bridge over River Barak at Sadarghat on Silchar-Kumbhagram road Silchar

48 Journal of the Indian Roads Congress, July-September 2019

 PAPER NO. 700

MEDIAN PLANTATION: SAFETY ISSUES ARISING FROM PREVAILING

PRACTICES ACROSS INDIA AND RECOMMENDED SCIENTIFIC APPROACH
FOR SAFETY ENHANCEMENT

Dhiraj Prakash Sethi1 Keshav Lunani2

ABSTRACT
India has one of the largest road networks in the world spanning over 55 lakh kilometres. Indian roads carry about 90%
of passenger traffic and about 65% of freight in the country. With improvements in road infrastructure, road accidents are
also on rise. In 2015, the Government of India (GoI) has taken resourceful steps to tackle this alarming situation and has
set targets to reduce the number of fatalities in road accidents to half by 2020. Apart from GoI’s introduction to stricter law
enforcement, governance policies, awareness raising activities and post-accident trauma care management; transportation/
highway/safety engineers also have an important role to play in improving the road environment by addressing technical
gaps and actual ground challenges faced by road users. This paper aims to address gap in one such technical issue that is
widely neglected – MEDIAN PLANTATION.
The basic objective of providing median plantation is to reduce glare from opposite traffic stream on divided carriageway.
However, across the country it is observed that, median plantation – the safety furniture, has itself become safety hazard
due to prevailing practices of improper design, installation and maintenance of median plantation. In depth review revealed
that apart from improper maintenance practices, discrepancies in interpretation of codal provisions and specification could
have also fuelled-in for irregularities in conceptualizing median plantation across Indian Highways. Such practices have
resulted in inadequate visibility (both lateral and longitudinal) along Indian highways and is one of the main causes of rear
end collisions and accidents involving pedestrian / animals across the country. This paper brings out common practices that
are widely accepted as standard over the years by practitioners for planning, designing, installation and maintenance of
median plantation on most of the divided carriageways across India. Further, this paper : 1) identifies gaps in interpreting
the concept of median plantation in Indian codal provisions and specifications as well as lack of implementation of suggested
guidelines for best practices of landscaping at design stage; 2) presents renowned international references on safer practices
for median plantation and 3) provides constructive recommendations and improvements for planning, designing, installation
and maintenance of plantation at various stages of road development; implementation of these will greatly help in saving
precious lives along Indian highways.

1. INTRODUCTION Territories (UTs) across India, claiming 147913 lives and

India has about 54.82 lakh km of road network, which is
the second largest road network in the world. Indian roads
carry about 90% of passenger traffic and about 65% of
freight in the country.
As per “Road Accidents in India-2017”, MoRTH
publication [1], in the calendar year 2017, a total of 464910
road accidents have been reported by the States and Union
injuries to 470975 persons. These figures translate, on
an average, 1274 accidents and 405 deaths every day or
53 accidents and 17 deaths every hour. The present road
accident scenario highlights that:
• 30.4% of total road accidents and 36.0% of total
deaths in the year 2017 have occurred on National
Highways (NHs) which constitute only about 2%

1. 
Principal Consultant–Traffic and Safety, V R Techniche Consultants Pvt Ltd., Noida, Email- dhiraj.sethi@vrtechniche.in
2.
Consultant–Traffic and Safety, V R Techniche Consultants Pvt Ltd., Noida

Journal of the Indian Roads Congress, July-September 2019 49

 PAPER NO. 700
of total road network (about 115435 km in length)
whereas this carry about 40% of the total road traffic.
In this period, accidents on State Highways and
other roads constitute 25% and 44.6% respectively.
In the case of fatality, State Highways and other
roads accounted for 26% and 37.1% of total road
accident deaths, respectively.
• In the year 2017, about 42% of road accidents were
recorded in urban areas and 58% in rural areas. In
the case of fatalities in year 2017, about 35% of
the total persons killed in road accidents were in
urban areas and 65% were in rural areas. Higher
fatality share in rural areas is mainly due to higher
speeds on Highways – particularly National and
State Highways.
• In the year 2017, among all road-user categories,
the share of two-wheeler riders in total fatality was
highest (33%). Pedestrian road-users accounted for
13.8% of persons killed in road accidents during
the year 2017 (i.e., about 20457 persons)
• Nature of accident or collision type at aggregated
national level data shows that ‘head on collision’
accounted for 18.7% of total road accidents in the
year 2017. The other major types of collision are
‘hit from back’ (16.7%), ‘hit & run’ (14%) and ‘hit
pedestrian’ (13.4%).
• The data for the year 2017 has shown that 64.2%
of accidents occurred on straight roads, whereas
accidents on curves (11.6%), potholes (2.0%) and
steep grades (2.0%) together accounted for about
15.6% of the total road accidents. In absence of data
on percentage share of different road features in the
total road length of the country, the percentage share
of different road features in the total accidents does
not constitute sufficient information to designate
certain road feature as accident prone.
Fig. 1: Characteristics of Safe Road Environment
Ability to see ahead is of great importance for the safe
movement of vehicles and drivers must have adequate
time if they are to respond to sudden situations. The most
important consideration in all these is that, at all times, the
50 Journal of the Indian Roads Congress, July-September 2019
The above-mentioned facts indicate that hit to pedestrian/
animals and hit from back (rear end collisions) and also
accidents along straight as well as curved sections of roads
are the most important engineering issues to be analysed.
It is fair to assume that rear end collisions generally occur
when the leading vehicle applies sudden brakes (may be
due to some unexpected obstruction) and the following
vehicle, which is not maintaining sufficient gap, hits the
leading vehicle. When looked into specific reason for such
rear end collisions, in majority of cases, sudden obstruction
from sideways or along the carriageways was found to
be the main reason for application of sudden brakes by
the leading vehicle. Same is the case for accidents of
pedestrian/animal hits, especially for crossing movements
of pedestrian/animals across divided carriageways.
Sudden obstruction arising due to limited visibility of
road stretch ahead is one of the critical factors along high-
speed carriageways and visibility needs to be analysed
essentially at planning, designing and operational stage at
all locations along the highways.
A private agency has initiated capturing driver eye-level
map linked videography of highway sections while
conducting Safety Audit studies, which provides a backup
for studying driver’s view along the highways even
after completion of filed visit. From this, it is observed
that, prevailing practice of median plantation - is itself
obstructing visibility and acting as a major safety hazard
along divided carriageways. This issue of arising visibility
concerns due to prevailing practices for median plantation
and recommended scientific approach to address these
concerns are discussed in detail in this Paper.
2. IMPORTANCE OF VISIBILITY ALONG
HIGHWAYS
Safe Road Environment should possess the characteristics
shown in Fig. 1.
driver traveling at the design speed must have sufficient
Stopping Sight Distance (SSD), within the line of vision
to allow the driver travelling at Deign Speed to stop the
vehicle safely before colliding with a slow moving or
 PAPER NO. 700
stationary object on a road (even a stone/fallen object of
15 cm height).
Fig. 2: Pictorial Description of Stopping Sight Distance
For safety of road users, road design must ensure
availability of minimum SSD at all sections. For design
speed of 100 kmph, required stopping sight distance
is calculated to be 180 m (70 m lag distance and 110 m
braking distance). In the process of finalizing alignment,
engineers design roads for safe SSD keeping in mind the
surrounding topographical features including vertical
and horizontal profile. However, the final product after
installation of road furniture and nearby changing
developments results in reduced visibility at many
locations. This is mainly because of lack of importance to
visibility analysis capturing combined effect of highway
features, road furniture and nearby developments at design
and development stage.
Plantation/vegetation or other road furniture items
are installed with an objective of achieving safe road
environment. However, if not planned, designed and
maintained properly then, median plantation or other road
furniture itself can become one of the major safety hazards
for traffic along divided rural and urban highways.
3. SPECIFICATIONS FOR MEDIAN
PLANTATION IN INDIA
The main objective of median plantation is to prevent glare
from opposite traffic stream along the divided carriageway.
In addition to this, it also enhances aesthetics and reduces
the impacts of air and noise pollution, and dust along the
highways.
While the median is provided primarily to separate
opposing traffic streams but, road furniture like median
plantation, sign boards, barriers (at narrow median) should
not hinder with the visibility criteria both during day and
night. Their design, placement and maintenance should
be done with proper care satisfying the visibility criteria
and specifications. Relevant specifications for median
plantation and ambiguities in interpreting the same are
discussed below.
3.1 IRC Specifications for Median Plantation Layout
i. Clause 11.19.2 of IRC: SP:21-2009 “Guidelines on
Journal of the Indian Roads Congress, July-September 2019
Stopping Sight Distance = Lag Distance (i.e- Distance
travelled during Reaction Time) + Braking Distance
Landscaping and Tree Plantation” [2] contains the
following Specifications for Median Plantation–
“One or two rows of flowering shrubs are
recommended, in accordance with the varying width
of the median in different sections. In sections where
median width is less than 1.5 m, only grass turf is
recommended. One row of shrubs is recommended
on medians of up to 3 m width. Two rows of shrubs
should be planted on 4.5 to 5 m wide median,
at a spacing of 1.5 m from the Inner edge of the
median.”
ii. Clause 11.19.3 of IRC: SP:21-2009 [2] specifies
that “The plants should be at a spacing of 3 x 3 m
and size of the pits for planting should be 60 X 60 X
60 cm. Therefore, total number of plants per km will
be 333 in case where single row is provided, and
666 in case of two rows.”
iii.  lause 11.2.4 of IRC: SP-84-2014 “Manual of
C
Specifications and Standards for four laning of
highways through Public Private Partnership”
[3] specifies that - “In the sections of the Project
Highway where median width is more than 2.5 m,
shrubs shall be planted and maintained to cut-off
headlight glare from traffic in the opposite direction.
Flowering plants and shrubs are eminently suited
for the purpose. These shall be planted either
in continuous rows or in the form of baffles. The
height of shrubs shall be maintained at 1.5 m to cut-
off the effect of traffic lights coming from opposite
direction.” Similar clause is mentioned in recently
published IRC: SP:84-2019 [4].
It may be noted that, in India, predominantly 4 to 5 m
wide median is provided along most of the divided
carriageways. From Clause 11.19.2 of IRC:SP:21-2009
[2], layout of median plantation along 4.5 m wide median
illustrating location of two rows of plants to be installed
at 1.5 m distance from inner edge of the median is shown
in Fig. 3.
51
 PAPER NO. 700

Fig. 3: Interpretation of Clause 11.19.2 of IRC: SP:21-2009 for 4.5 m wide median

Referring to Clause 11.19.3 of IRC:SP:21-2009 [2], at spacing of 3x3 m, interpreted as lateral and longitudinal
layout of median plantation along 4.50 m wide median, spacing between adjacent plants to be 3 m each is shown
illustrating location of two rows of plants to be installed in Fig. 4.

Fig. 4: Interpretation of Clause 11.19.3 of IRC: SP:21-2009 for 4.5 m wide median
From the Fig. 4, it can be seen that, if median
plantation is to be carried out as per Clause 11.19.3 of
IRC:SP:21-2009 [2] for 4.5 m wide median consisting of
two rows of plants then, plant shall be planted at distance
of 0.6 m from inner edge of median. If this is implemented
then spread of shrub will reach up to face of the kerb or
even beyond, if not maintained properly.
From the above it can be clearly seen that, there is
contradiction in interpretation of specifications for
median plantation as per Clauses 11.19.2 and 11.19.3 of
IRC: SP:21-2009 [2].
Clause 11.2.4 of IRC: SP:84-2014 [3], mentions that
median plants shall be planted either in continuous rows
or in the form of baffles. Similar clause is retained in
recently published IRC:SP:84-2019 [4]. This clause
is not mandatorily recommending baffle or staggered
arrangement which will be best to arrest headlight passage
and the option of planting in continuous rows is also
available. In addition to above, IRC specifications do not
clearly provide maximum spread of well grown shrub
planted along medians. It may be noted that, two plants
planted in continuous rows need space for maintenance
activities i.e- for trimming, pruning, etc. which will result
into installation of plants close to kerb thereby violating
Clause 11.19.2 of IRC:SP:21-2009 [2].
From safety perspective, “Operational Instructions for
Trees in Median and Roadsides in the Urban Environment,
Government of South Australia” [5] recommends
minimum 0.6 m of Lateral Visibility Strip as - “A minimum
width of 0.6 m is required between vegetation and the

52 Journal of the Indian Roads Congress, July-September 2019

 PAPER NO. 700
kerb to enable a pedestrian or small child to observe
the traffic from the refuge of the verge or median and so
that the pedestrian can also be seen by other road users.
Pedestrians will also require unobstructed head room
around and near any verge or median vegetation for both
visibility and injury prevention. The volume of pedestrian
activity should be taken into consideration when selecting
plant species for verges or medians.”
From the safety point of view, Clause-11.19.2 of
IRC:SP:21-2009 [2], mentioned location of plant at
1.5 m spacing from inner edge of median which in turn
recommends need of continuous lateral visibility of
approximately 1.0 m along the median for high-speed
divided carriageways. From safety point of view, this
shall be considered as one of the essential requirements
for median plantation layout.
However, by looking at prevailing practice of layout
of median planation across the country along divided
carriageways, it can be seen that, there are considerable
variations in installing two rows of plants within 4.5 m
wide medians and at majority of locations it is acting as
safety hazard. This variation in practice could be due to
combination of the following:
• Different interpretations of above clauses
• Preference to one of the above clauses
• Misinterpreted common practice which has been
accepted as standard practice over the years by
practitioners
However, it may be noted that, Common Practice may
not be always Evidence Based and shall be reviewed
for identification of gaps, scope for enhancement and
continual improvement. This has been discussed in detail
in further sections of this paper.
3.2 IRC Specifications for Median Plantation along
Curved sections
Clause 11.26 of IRC: SP: 21-2009 [2] provides locations of
No Plantation Zone. In point number 3 of Clause 11.26.1,
it is mentioned that, “The Plantation may not be carried
out in following areas - At curve, dense and tall height tree
reduce visibility in plain terrain, a stopping sight distance
of 170 m corresponding to the design speed of 100 km
per hour should be ensured on all curved sections, on the
innermost lane of the curve.”
Clause 11.2.2 –“Set-back of trees on Curve” of
IRC:SP:84-2014 [3] mentions that, “Experience has been
that growth of thick vegetation close to the formation on
inside of horizontal curve leads to serious reduction of
sight distance and causes avoidable accidents with cattle/
children suddenly emerging from the side. Uncontrolled
Journal of the Indian Roads Congress, July-September 2019
trees/vegetation, may also affect visibility of traffic
control devices and road signs. Therefore, in plain
terrain a stopping sight distance of 180 m corresponding
to the design speed of 100 km per hour may be ensured
on all curved sections of the Project Highway along the
innermost lane. However, where there are site restrictions
their requirement may be reduced to 130 m corresponding
to the design speed of 80 km per hour as a special case.
The existing trees and vegetation on the sides have to be
suitably thinned/trimmed, or even removed if necessary
and a regular programme of pruning of the offending trees
shall be undertaken as part of the maintenance operations.
In all cases, location of trees shall be checked to ensure
that clear vision of all highway signs/signals is available
at all times to the motorists. Also, the foliage or trees shall
not come in the way of roadway lighting” Similar clause
is mentioned in IRC: SP:84-2019 [4].
Along divided carriageways, there are two innermost lanes
of the curve based on direction of traffic i.e. one for each
side of carriageway. However, concept of innermost lane
for restricting plantation on curved sections has been widely
misinterpreted across India while planning, designing and
maintenance of median plantation along curved sections.
This has been discussed in detail in further sections.
4. SAFETY CONCERNS IN PREVAILING
PRACTICES OF MEDIAN PLANTATION AND
SUGGESTED SCIENTIFIC APPROACH
As mentioned earlier, contradictions and issues in
interpretation of specifications of median plantation
might have resulted in non-standard prevailing practice.
Predominant notion that curve section are more prone to
curtailed visibility holds very much true but important
aspect of lateral visibility along straight section is widely
neglected across the country. This section therefore
presents, observed safety concerns on straight as well
as curved sections of divided carriageways due to non-
standard practices of median plantation and recommends
improved approach for the same.
4.1 Concerns and Recommendations for
improvement of Median Plantation practices
along straight sections
Prevailing practices of median plantation along major
national/state highways across India has been reviewed
and analysed. At majority of locations, it is observed that,
plants in median have been installed at 1 m (or lower)
distance from inner edge of median thereby spread of
the shrub occupying the entire median portion. Few
photographs presented in figure 5 depicts prevailing
practices of median plantation on Indian Highways:
53
 PAPER NO. 700

a b

c d
Fig. 5 a-d : Prevailing practice of median plantation on straight section of highways
In India, unregulated pedestrian crossings and animal crossing fast approaching traffic. This results in surprises and inadequate
is observed at random locations along the divided carriageways. reaction time to road users, leading to avoidable accidents. It is
Due to such prevailing practices of median plantation, plant therefore essential to provide adequate lateral visibility along
spreads till the edge of the kerb thereby restricting the view the median portion. Fig. 6 depicts the advantage of having
between pedestrians/animals (waiting to cross the road) and lateral clearance along the median.

a b
Fig. 6 a-b : Pictorial representation depicting advantages of providing lateral clearance along median
It can be seen that, installing median plants at 1.50 m works labours working in the median. This shall help in
from inner edge of the median kerb provides adequate providing advance warning to road users, thereby helping
lateral visibility from longer distance for fast moving in reducing rear end collisions and accidents involving
traffic as well as for pedestrian/animals while crossing pedestrian / animals.
and also provides safe working area for maintenance

54 Journal of the Indian Roads Congress, July-September 2019

 PAPER NO. 700
Clause 11.2.4 of IRC SP:84-2014 [3] mentions that adequate lateral visibility, plantation arrangement on 4 to
plantation can either be of continuous rows or in the form 5 m wide median along divided carriageway is proposed
of baffles. Combining the baffle arrangement and providing as shown in Fig. 7.

Fig. 7: Recommended interpretation of IRC provisions for median plantation arrangement on 4 to 5 m wide
median across divided carriageway
4.2 Concerns and Recommendations for improvement of of carriageways. Along divided carriageways, there are
Median Plantation practices along Curved sections two innermost lanes of the curve based on direction of
As mentioned earlier, as per specifications, plantation traffic i.e.- one for each side of carriageway. Illustration
along the curves should be planned to have minimum of innermost lane and required obstruction free zone for
stopping sight distance visibility along innermost lanes divided carriageways is represented in the Fig. 8:

Fig. 8: Required obstruction free zone on curved sections of divided carriageway

Journal of the Indian Roads Congress, July-September 2019 55

 PAPER NO. 700
It can be clearly seen that, fast lane is the inner most lane
of the curve for one side of the divided carriageway i.e. in
addition to avenue plantation or road side development,
median plantation is also an obstruction and affects
stopping sight distance visibility of fast-moving traffic
along fast lane of divided carriageways along each of the
horizontal curve. However, on curved sections across the
country, it is observed that predominantly implemented
layout of median plantation is similar to typical layout
along straight sections without any special attention.
Few photographs in Fig. 9 depicts obstructed view of
driver along the fast lane on curved section of divided
carriageway due to prevailing practices of median
plantation. Such situations of restricted visibility distance
are commonly seen along horizontal curved sections on
highways across the country.
It can be clearly noticed that due to above such prevailing
practice of median plantation on curved section on divided
carriageway both lateral and longitudinal visibility is
affected. Situation worsens at median openings on curved
locations where considerable pedestrian and vehicular
crossing movement exists. At few locations across India,
it is observed that, median plants have been trimmed
for about 50 to 75 m length from the nose of the median
openings on straight sections as well as on curves. But
this practice is followed at random and isn’t observed as a
standard practice. Removal of plantation at few locations on
curve could be a reactive approach i.e. post identification of
occurrence of any major accident near median openings on
curve. However, 50 to 75 m plantation free length at median
openings do not satisfy criteria of minimum stopping sight
distance visibility even for 80 kmph speed.

a b

c d
Fig. 9 a-d: Prevailing practices of median plantation on curved section of highways
Based on prevailing practice on 4/6/8-lane divided Distance along Rural Highways” [6] in Section-7, provides
carriageways across the country, it can be concluded that, specifications for Sight Distance on Horizontal Curves.
median plantation which is blocking visibility especially Setback Distance to give the desired sight distance on the
on curved sections is not perceived as safety hazard. inside of horizontal curves can be calculated as given in
4.3 IRC:66-1976 “Recommended practice for Sight Fig. 10:

56 Journal of the Indian Roads Congress, July-September 2019

 PAPER NO. 700

Fig. 10: Setback distance specifications as per Section 7 of IRC: 66-1976

Table 1 provides the required obstruction free zone beyond with design speed of 100 kmph and kerb shyness of 0.5 m.
inner edge of median kerb for different curve radii derived Typical median plantation treatment for such cases has been
from IRC:66-1976 [6] for 4-lane divided carriageways recommended to achieve required obstruction free zones.

Table 1:No Obstruction zones and recommended median plantation treatment for different curve radii
Curve Setback No Obstruction Recommended typical treatment for median plantation or 4.5 m wide
Radius, R Distance, m zone beyond kerb, median
in m from road in m
centerline
400 11.9 7.9  No Median Plantation. Provision of street lights for antiglare purpose.
500 9.9 5.9  Suitable antiglare with 50% visibility or Speed restriction measures to
600 8.5 4.5 reduce requirement of Stopping Sight Distance.
700 7.5 3.5 Single row of median plants with dense
800 6.8 2.8 spacing on farther side of median. It
can be narrow-dense hedges (0.75 m
900 6.3 2.3 width) to restrict headlight passage.
1000 5.8 1.8

1200 5.1 1.1

1500 4.5 0.5
Typical median plantation with 2 rows as per figure 7.
1800 4.0 0.0
2000 3.8 0.0

It may be noted that, in practice, simple horizontal curve
is rarely provided and at majority of places highway
alignment is combination of horizontal and vertical curves
with transition and compound curve segments. Therefore,
above recommendations of median plantation treatment
may not be readily suitable for practical situations and
shall be referred as indicative. In general, visibility along
fast lanes of divided carriageways at curved locations can
be improved as follows:
•  t locations of horizontal curve radius between 700
A problems from opposing vehicles, suitable antiglare
to 1200 m - Removing one row of median plantation
on the inner side of median and densification of one
row of plants on farther side.
• I n case of horizontal curves with radius 700 m or
below - Removing entire median plantation (in case
of restricted vision) and provision of street lights for
arresting headlight glare in night time.
• I t may be noted that, Florida Department of
Transportation in its Median Handbook of 2014
[7] mention concept of 50% and 25% visibility at
constrained median locations. In case of glaring
treatment can be provided to achieve 50% visibility
levels as per FDOT Median Handbook.

Journal of the Indian Roads Congress, July-September 2019 57

 PAPER NO. 700

Fig. 11: Concept of 50% Visibility at median locations along the highways as per FDOT Median Handbook

c
Fig. 12 a-c: Illustration of Obstruction free zones identified based on visibility analysis

58 Journal of the Indian Roads Congress, July-September 2019

 PAPER NO. 700
In addition to radius of horizontal curve; length
of horizontal curve, length of transition curve and
vertical profile at the section also play important role
in identification of obstruction free zone for achieving
SSD visibility and shall be identified based on Visibility
Analysis.
Obstruction-free zones using visibility analysis has been
worked out for few on-ground situations. In Fig. 12,
highlighted section indicates the required obstruction
free zone for satisfying SSD requirement. This clearly
indicates that, median plantation is acting as obstruction
for sight lines.
It may be noted that, Publication-14M DESIGN MANUAL,
PART-3, PLANS PRESENTATION, March-2015 Edition
of Pennsylvania Department of Transportation[8] specifies
requirement of plantation and landscaping to be submitted
as a part of Detailed Design Plans of any new highway
design work. Similarly, DMRB [9] and various other
International codes [10] [11] have detailed specifications
of no-plantation/visibility free locations along various
locations such as junction, ramps of interchanges, etc.
In India, as per Clause 1.7 of IRC: SP:21-2009 [2],
“Highway design and landscaping should be regarded
as complementary and tackled as a single planning task.
The detailed project reports prepared for the road projects
must include landscaping and tree planting as an integral
part of the design. The landscape features must be studied
during the design process and specific drawing, designs,
and specifications must be prepared. There should be no
compromise on the cost.”
Above IRC specification clause, clearly highlights
importance of integration of highway design principles
and landscaping provisions. Therefore, it is recommended
not only to prepare landscaping drawings but also to
essentially carryout visibility analysis during design stage
for entire highway section, especially for each of the
curve locations, median opening/junction locations along
divided carriageways to identify Obstruction-Free Zones.
5. CONCLUSIONS AND SUMMARY
RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Conclusions:
This paper presented prevailing practices for median
plantation observed across India and highlights safety
concerns due to such non-standard practices. Based on road
safety engineering principles, related field observations
and study of Indian and International specifications,
following can be concluded:
i. As per Road Accident Data 2017, across India,
Journal of the Indian Roads Congress, July-September 2019
‘hit from back’, ‘hit & run’ and ‘hit pedestrian’
constitutes about (16.7%, 14% and 13.4% of
accidents respectively. Rear end accidents, hit to
pedestrians/animals (while crossing movements)
would occur mainly due to late reaction by drivers/
inadequate gap following by successive vehicles
and can be attributed to road feature in terms of
insufficient visibility.
ii.  lantation/vegetation or other road furniture items
P
are installed with an objective of improving road
safety. However, based on prevailing practices
observed on 4/6/8-lane divided carriageways
across the country, it can be concluded that, median
plantation which is obstructing visibility not only
on curved sections but also on straight highway
sections is not perceived as safety hazard.
• Lateral Visibility Strip at all locations along median
is essential safety element that provides adequate
space and visibility to pedestrians/animal waiting to
cross the highway as well as for labour working in
the median and for high speed approaching traffic.
• As per specifications, median plantation should
be restricted/trimmed/removed to have minimum
stopping sight distance visibility along innermost
lanes of both carriageways. It may be noted that,
along the divided carriageways, there are two
innermost lanes of the curve. Fast lane is inner
most lane of the curve for one side of the divided
carriageway i.e. in addition to avenue plantation or
road side development, median plantation is also an
obstruction and can reduce stopping sight distance
visibility for fast-moving traffic along fast lane of
divided carriageways.
iii. Sudden obstruction arising due to limited visibility
of road stretch ahead is one of the critical factors
along the high-speed divided carriageways and
visibility needs to be analysed essentially at
planning, designing and operational stages at all
locations along the highways.
5.2 Summary Recommendations:
This study suggests following action points to decision
making authorities, engineers, operators, plantation
contractors and safety auditors across the country.
i. I t may be noted that, from the safety point of view,
Clause-11.19.2 of IRC: SP:21-2009 [2], which
mentions location of plant at 1.5 m spacing from
inner edge of median which intern recommends
need of continuous lateral visibility of at
59
 PAPER NO. 700
approximately 1.05 m along the median of divided
carriageways. This shall be considered as one of
the essential requirements for median plantation
layout and from safety aspects at least 0.75 m of
Lateral Visibility Strip from the edge of the kerbed
median up to the edge of median shrub spread shall
be strictly provided/maintained along the divided
carriageways. Specifications should have provision
of this mandatory requirement of Minimum Lateral
Visibility Strip along median.
ii. IRC Specifications clearly highlights importance
of integration of highway design principles and
landscaping provisions. There is already mandatory
provision for preparation and submission of
Landscaping Drawings of highway at Design Stage.
However, there is need for strict implementation of
above provisions at highway design stage to achieve
safe and reliable highway.
iii. Efforts should be made in India, to include visibility
analysis as one of the essential requirements along
the existing as well as proposed highways by
overlapping nearby development as well as various
road furniture locations on the as-built/detailed plan-
profile drawings respectively. No obstruction zones
shall be clearly marked on landscaping drawing/plans
and shall be referred/implemented strictly during
Development, Operations and Maintenance stages.
iv. Visibility analysis shall be carried out to identify
locations of limited visibility and adequate
improvement measures to be implemented on
priority along the existing operational highways.
v. Median Plantation/Avenue Plantation should be
strictly designed, provided and maintained based
on visibility analysis rather than adhering to the
typical spacing and layout throughout the highway.
Section wise number of median plants for divided
carriageway shall be estimated, installed and
maintained based on visibility analysis rather than
standard number of plants with typical spacing as
per standards and specifications.
vi. This paper does not comment upon selection of
species for median plantation. However, from
safety perspective, there is a need to review current
species selected for median plantation used across
the country and prioritization of species satisfying
following criteria:
60 Journal of the Indian Roads Congress, July-September 2019
• Species which do not attract cattles which becomes
probable cause of accidents
• Species do not outgrow horizontally thereby
impacting visibility
6 Acknowledgements:
Authors wish to acknowledge support of Mr. Vankadothu
Saidulu and Mr. Poojari Sai Suman, Managing
Consultants - Highway Design and other colleagues at V
R TECHNICHE for their thoughtful insights and feedback
on the topic.
References
i. Road Accidents in India - 2017, New Delhi: Ministry
of Road Transport & Highways, Transport Research
Wing, 2018.
ii. IRC:SP:21-2009. "Guidelines on Landscaping and
Tree Plantation", New Delhi: Indian Roads Congress,
2009.
iii. IRC:SP:84-2014. "Manual of Specifications &
Standards for Four Laning of Highways through
Public Private Partnership", New Delhi: Indian Roads
Congress, 2014.
iv. IRC:SP:84-2019. "Manual of Specifications and
Standards for Four Laning of Highways", New Delhi:
Indian Roads Congress, 2019.
v. Trees in Median and Roadsides in the Urban
Environment, South Australia: Department of Planning,
Transport and Infrastructure, 2017.
vi. IRC:66-1976. “Recommended Practice for Sight
Distance along Rural Highways", New Delhi: Indian
Roads Congress, 1976.
vii. Median Handbook, Florida: Florida Department of
Transportation, 2014.
viii. Publication 14M, Design Manual, Part-3 Plans
Presentation, Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania Department
of Transportation, 2015.
ix. HA 56/92. New Roads Plantation, Vegetation and
Soils, Northern Ireland: Design Manual for Roads and
Bridges, 1992.
x. Roadside Planting Guidebook, Pennsylvania:
Commonwealth of Pennsylvania Department of
Transportation, 2003.
xi. Highway Planting Design, Plans, Plant List and
Specifications Sheet, California: California Department
of Transportation, 2008.
Notes
Notes
R.N.I. Registrations No. 17549/57 ISSN: 0258-05500
Volume : 80-3 Total Pages : 64 July- September 2019

CONTENTS
Paper No. 696
� Towards Sustainable Asphalt Binders: Evaluation of Bio-Asphalt Binders and
Mixes with Biochar 5-15
by Abhinay Kumar, Rajan Choudhary, Sanjay K. Nirmal, I K Pandey & Rupam Kataki

Paper No. 697

� Consistency Evaluation of Horizontal Curves on Two-Lane Rural Highways 16-24
by Anitha Jacob & Anjaneyulu M.V.L.R

Paper No. 698

� Experimental Study for Estimation of Capacity of Exclusive Motor Cycle
Journal of the
Indian Roads Congress
Lane in India 25-31
by Nischal Gupta & Ravi Sekhar Chalumuri

Paper No. 699

� Construction of Bridges Over River Barak at Badrighat (Barenga) & Sadarghat
on Silchar-Kumbhagram Road in Silchar, Assam 32-48
by Alok Bhowmick, Sanjay Kr. Jain & D D Sharma

Paper No. 700

� Median Plantation: Safety Issues Arising from Prevailing Practices Across
India and Recommended Scientific Approach for Safety Enhancement 49-60
by Dhiraj Prakash Sethi & Keshav Lunani

https://www.irc.nic.in