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Matti Kuusi, Keith Bosley, Michael Branch - Finnish Folk Poetry. Epic - An Anthology in Finnish and English - Finnish Literature Society (1977) PDF
Matti Kuusi, Keith Bosley, Michael Branch - Finnish Folk Poetry. Epic - An Anthology in Finnish and English - Finnish Literature Society (1977) PDF
M a tti Kuusi
Keith Bosley • M ichael Branch
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28 SANAT I 44 RUTSA I
The Spell I ....................... 183 The Incest I ................................ 252
29 SANAT II 45 RUTSA II
The Spell I I ....................... 186 The Incest I I ................................ 254
30 TUONELANMATKA 46 KYLVÄJÄ I
The Visit to Tuonela........... 191 The Sower I ................................ 256
31 AURINKO JA KUU I 47 KYLVÄJÄ II
Sun and Moon I ............... 195 The Sower II ............................ 259
32 AURINKO JA KUU II 48 KARHU
Sun and Moon II ............... 197 The Bear .................................... 262
33 AURINKO JA KUU III 49 TAMMI I
Sun and Moon I I I ............... 200 T heO akI.................................... 263
34 LEMMINKÄINEN I 50 TAMMI II
Lemminkäinen I ................... 205 TheO akll ................................ 266
35 LEMMINKÄINEN II 51 ISO HÄRKÄ
Lemminkäinen II ............... 212 The Great Ox ............................ 268
36 LEMMINKÄINEN III 52 ISO SIKA
Lemminkäinen I I I ............... 221 The Great Pig ............................ 269
37 KAUKAMOINEN I 53 HIRVI I
Kaukamoinen I ................... 224 The Elk I .................................... 271
38 KAUKAMOINEN II 54 HIRVI II
Kaukamoinen I I ................... 232 The Elk II ................................ 273
39 VALA I 55 HIRVI JA KÄÄRME
The Bond I ...................... 238 Elk and Snake ............................ 276
40 VALA II 56 ONGINTA
The Bond I I ...................... 240 The Fishing ................................ 277
41 ORPO I 57 LÄHTÖ I
The Orphan I ................... 243 Leavetaking I ................................ 279
42 ORPO II 58 LÄHTÖ II
The Orphan II ................... 246 Leavetaking II ............................ 281
43 ORPO III 59 LUOJAN VIRSI I
The Orphan I I I ................... 249 The Messiah I ............................ 283
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60 LUOJAN VIRSI II 76 MATALEENA II
The Messiah I I ............................ 292 M agdalenll................................ 339
61 LUOJAN VIRSI III 77 ORJA JA ISÄNTÄ I
The Messiah III ......................... 296 Serf and Master I ......................... 341
62 LUOJAN VIRSI IV 78 ORJA JA ISÄNTÄ II
The Messiah IV ......................... 301 Serf and Master II ....................... 344
63 PYHÄ TAPANI 79 ORJA JA ISÄNTÄ III
St Stephen.................................... 309 Serf and Master III ..................... 346
64 PYHÄ KATRIINA I 80 HIIHTÄVÄ SURMA I
St Catherine I ............................ 312 Death on the Prowl I ..................... 351
65 PYHÄ KATRIINA II 81 HIIHTÄVÄ SURMA II
St Catherine II ............................ 313 Death on the Prowl II ................. 352
66 PYHÄ HENRIK I 82 LESKI I
St Henry I .................................... 315 The Widow I ............................ 354
67 PYHÄ HENRIK II 83 LESKI II
St Henry II ................................ 321 The Widow II ............................. 355
68 PUU 84 ELINAN SURMA
The Tree .................................... 325 The Death of Elina ..................... 357
69 METSÄ 85 USKOLLINEN MORSIAN I
The Forest.................................... 326 The Faithful Bride I ..................... 365
70 LÖYTÖLAPSI I 86 USKOLLINEN MORSIAN II
The Foundling I ......................... 327 The Faithful Bride II ................. 367
71 LÖYTÖLAPSI II 87 MORSIAMEN KUOLEMA I
The Foundling II ......................... 328 Death of the Bride I ..................... 369
72 NEITOJA LOHIKÄÄRME I 88 MORSIAMEN KUOLEMA II
The Maid and the Dragon I .... 331 Death of the Bride I I ..................... 370
73 NEITOJA LOHIKÄÄRME II 89 PAPIN TAPPAJA
The Maid and the Dragon II . . . . 332 The Priest-Killer ......................... 373
74 NEITOJA LOHIKÄÄRME III 90 TUNKEILIJAN TAPPAJA
The Maid and the Dragon III . . . . 334 The Intruder-Killer ..................... 376
75 MATALEENA I 91 MIEHENSÄ TAPPAJA
Magdalen I ................................ 336 The Husband-Killer ..................... 378
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92 HYLÄTTY I 108 MENETYS III
The Forsaken Maid I ................. 380 The Loss III ............................ 419
93 HYLÄTTY II 109 MENETYS IV
The Forsaken Maid I I ................. 382 The Loss IV ............................ 421
94 HYLÄTTY III 110 TANSSI
The Forsaken Maid III ............. 384 The Dance ................................ 422
95 VAIMONSA TAPPAJA I 111 MEREN KOSIJAT I
The Wife-Killer I ..................... 386 The Suitors from the Sea I ......... 425
96 VAIMONSA TAPPAJA II 112 MEREN KOSIJAT II
The Wife-Killer I I ..................... 388 The Suitors from the Sea I I ......... 427
97 TYTÄRTENSÄ TAPPAJA I 113 KAUKAISET KOSIJAT
The Daughter-Killer I ................. 391 The Suitors from A far................430
98 TYTÄRTENSÄ TAPPAJA II 114 LIKAINEN NEITO
The Daughter-Killer II ............. 394 The Foul Maid ........................ 432
99 TYTÄR 115 VARAS KOSIJANA
The Daughter ............................. 397 The Thief as Suitor ................... 434
100 POIKA 116 KELVOTON
The Son .................................... 399 The Useless Bridegroom ............. 437
101 ÄITI 117 KURKI I
The Mother................................ 402 The Crane 1................................ 439
102 KUOLEVA NEITO I 118 KURKI II
The Dying Maid I ..................... 405 The Crane II ............................ 440
103 KUOLEVA NEITO II 119 AAMUVIRKKU
The Dying Maid I I ..................... 407 The Early Riser ...........................441
104 HIRTTÄYTYNYT NEITO I 120 MIEHELLE MENIJÄ
The Hanged Maid I ................. 410 Finding a Husband ..................... 444
105 HIRTTÄYTYNYT NEITO II 121 OLJAMISSA KÄYNTI
The Hanged Maid II ................. 414 The Unwelcome Visitor ............. 447
106 MENETYS I 122 ONNETON NUORIKKO I
The Loss I ................................ 416 The Unhappy Bride I ............. 450
107 MENETYS II 123 ONNETON NUORIKKO II
The Loss I I ................................ 418 The Unhappy Bride II ............. 453
124 VEDENKANTAJA I 140 KUOLINSANOMAT I
The Water-Carrier I ................. 455 News of Death I ........................ 494
125 VEDENKANTAJA II 141 KUOLINSANOMAT II
The Water-Carrier II ................. 461 News of Death II ..................... 497
126 NEITO JA VENE I 142 SOTURI
The Maid and the Boat I ......... 465 The Warrior ............................ 499
127 NEITO JA VENE II 143 KAARLE-HERTTUA
The Maid and the Boat II ......... 467 Duke Charles ............................ 502
128 NEITO JA VENE III 144 JAAKKO PONTUS
The Maid and the Boat I I I ......... 471 Jacob Pontus ............................ 506
129 POIKA JA PILVI I 145 IIVANA
Boy and Cloud I ........................ 474 Ivan........................................... 508
130 POIKA JA PILVI II 146 KAARLO XII
Boy and Cloud I I ......................... 476 Charles X I I ................................ 510
131 NEITO JA PILVI 147 REKRYYTTI
Maid and Cloud ........................ 477 The Conscript ............................ 512
132 KADONNUT SUKA 148 LOPPUSANAT
The Lost Brush ........................ 479 Epilogue .................................... 517
133 KADONNUT HANHI I COMMENTARY ......................... 519
The Lost Goose I ........................ 481 NAME INDEX ............................ 578
134 KADONNUT HANHI II MOTIF IN D E X ............................ 590
The Lost Goose II ..................... 483
KALEVALA AND KANTELETAR
135 KADONNUT VELI I CONCORDANCE ................. 595
The Lost Brother I ..................... 485
SOURCE INDEX ......................... 596
136 KADONNUT VELI II
COLLECTION LOCALITY
The Lost Brother I I ..................... 487
IN D E X .................................... 598
137 SOTAANLÄHTÖ I
COLLECTOR IN D E X ................. 600
The Warrior's Departure I 489
BIBLIOGRAPHY ......................... 603
138 SOTAANLÄHTÖ II
The Warrior's Departure II . . . . 490 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .......... 607
139 SOTAANLÄHTÖ III
The Warrior's Departure III . . . . 492
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TO THE READER
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Lönnrot’s Kalevala and Kanteletar could not form the basis for the proper
investigation of folk poetry. This realization, towards the end of the
19th century, led to the collection of authentic materials, an under
taking that has continued for more than 100 years. A part of the
material cast in the traditional Kalevala metre has already appeared
in print; the 33 volumes of Suomen Kansan Vanhat Runot (‘The ancient
poems of the Finnish people’, 1908-1948) contain a large body of the
material collected in Finland, Karelia and Ingria. But this monument
al work is not easily available and, in any case, is designed to meet
the needs of the scholar rather than of the general reader. Even for
many Finns, the language of the poems - the dialects of Finland, Kare
lia and Ingria - present an often insurmountable barrier. V. Yevseyev’s
Karel'skie epicheskie pesni (‘The epic songs of Karelia’, 1950), Karjalan
Kansan Runot (‘The poems of the Karelian people’, 1976) and other
anthologies in Karelian and Russian provide specimens of poetry in
the same metre, recorded more recently in Soviet Karelia, but these,
too, require a knowledge of either Russian or the Karelian dialects.
For the folklorist unversed in these languages the problem is all the
greater. He is likely to be aware that the Kalevala and Kanteletar are
not authentic folk poetry, but apart from fragments translated in schol
arly publications he has no opportunity to study original materials.
While his own methods of research may well derive from those evolved
by the great Finnish folklorists, he can come no closer to the poetry
that produced these methods than translations of the Kalevala and the
far fewer translations of poems from the Kanteletar e.g. Hermann Paul,
Kanteletar, die Volkslyrik der Finnen (1882), Jean-Luc Moreau, La Kan-
télétar (1972) and Erich Kunze, Kanteletar. Alte Volkslieder und Balladen
aus Finnland (1976).
The present work, then, is intended to meet several needs. For the
general reader, both in Finland and elsewhere, it is a response to a
growing interest in authentic oral tradition; it will also enable the
reader to appreciate the Kalevala for what it really is - an outstanding
literary compilation. For the scholar and student of folk poetry who do
not read Finnish, the present work aims to provide a representative
selection of the distinctive themes and motifs of oral tradition in Finland,
Karelia and Ingria. Lying between Scandinavia and Russia, both of
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which posses an epic tradition that can be studied in translation, the
poetry of the Baltic-Finnish area deserves more attention, if only to
throw light on the dissemination of themes and motifs in the north and
to illustrate the extent to which eastern and western tradition are re
lated, and not related. But Finnish folk poetry has an interest far be
yond this area in respect of typological studies, a further important
consideration in the preparation of the present work.
‘Finnish’ and ‘Epic’ require definition. The traditional term ‘Finnish’
can be misleading. A more precise geographical description of the
source of the poems in the present book would be ‘Finnish-Karelian’.
‘Finnish’ in the sense that it is used here is a cultural-historical term
first employed in the late 18th century by the Finnish scholar H. G.
Porthan to denote that body of indigenous poetry which did not con
form to the metrical and rhyme patterns of poetry that derived from
classical models, i.e. the poetry in what has become known as ‘Kale
vala metre’. Porthan adopted this usage at a time before the distinctive
differences between the Finnish and Karelian dialects were properly
understood. The term was taken up outside Finland and continues to
denote in many parts of the world poetry in the Kalevala metre, irre
spective of dialect.
The problem of terminology is compounded by several other factors.
The geographical area in which the largest number of Karelian speak
ers live is the Kalinin (formerly Tver) district, to the north of Moscow,
an area in which Kalevala poetry is rare. The Karelian dialects are
also spoken in the northern and eastern parts of the Baltic-Finnish
region and form the base from which most of the Ingrian dialects
evolved. On the other hand, many of the poems in the Karelian
dialects were transmitted from Finland proper. Hence while ‘Finnish-
Karelian’ would be a more accurate geographical term, it would raise
as many problems as it would solve: neither ‘Finnish’ nor ‘Finnish-
Karelian’ can properly denote all the geographical, linguistic and
historical factors involved in the study of the oral tradition of Finland,
Karelia and Ingria.For these reasons the editors thought it wisest to
retain the traditional term. There is the risk that any other would
only magnify the difficulties that already face the reader in attempting
to follow the dissemination and disintegration of Kalevala epic.
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The usual sense of the term ‘epic’ - narrative poetry portraying
events larger than life in a serious manner - is extended in the present
work to include poetry which applies the characteristics of epic, such
as hyperbole, enumeration, stock epithet, to humbler themes. One of
the remarkable features of Finnish folk poetry is that it survived until
comparatively recently despite successive waves of foreign influence:
it is the aim of the present work to show how it adapted to them and,
in some areas, slowly disintegrated. In a relatively advanced state of
disintegration, the themes and motifs of the epic tradition survived as
a vehicle for lyrical sentiments - the poetry described in this book as
lyrical epic.
The study of folk poetry is customarily concerned with two tasks:
to ascertain the possible origin and dissemination of themes and motifs,
and to appreciate a poem as a work of art. The editors of the present
work have also had to consider a third factor - the role of folk poetry
in shaping the Finns’ sense of national identity, the ensuing confusion
of authentic folk poetry with compilations such as the Kalevala and
the Kanteletar, and the cult that grew up around them.
It was these three considerations that determined the content and
shape of the present work. All the poems were taken from Suomen
Kansan Vanhat Runot in order to allow the interested reader to examine
them in the context of related poems not included in this book (a
source index is provided to facilitate further study of this kind). In
most cases the poems have been reproduced in the form in which they
were originally recorded; in some cases, however, the orthography has
been standardized according to contemporary usage. Where a col
lector made an obvious error in noting down a poem, this has been
corrected in the light of comparative material. Apparent errors by a
singer, however, have not been adjusted, for such features often played
an important role in the shaping of new forms of a poem and as such
are a valuable illustrative feature. Where they make the narrative
difficult to understand, an explanation will be found in the Line Com
mentary.
The influences that shaped and conditioned Finnish folk poetry are
discussed in the Introduction, which also attempts to disentangle folk
poetry scholarship from Kalevala Romanticism and to show how one
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gave rise to the other. More detailed information for the appreciation
of the poems is given in the Commentary, the contents of which fall
into two categories: extrinsic and intrinsic. The former discusses the
background and dissemination of a poem, while the latter concen
trates on the interpretation of the text in question. Where it will help
the reader to follow the narrative, an analysis is provided of a poem’s
underlying idea and structure. The Line Commentary clarifies points,
mainly of linguistic and ethnographical detail, that might otherwise
be obscure or confusing. In writing the Introduction and Commen
tary, the editors have sought to provide no more than the amount of
information necessary to appreciate each individual poem.
As far as possible, the plates have been selected from photographs
taken when folk poems were still being sung as part of local tradition.
Each of the series of plates is devoted to an area where folk poetry
survived and illustrates the environment, the living conditions, the
kind of tasks from which poets drew their imagery, and how the poems
were performed. The editors readily admit that one of their aims in
selecting the illustrations was to emphasize the contrast between the
epic scale and the reality of everyday life.
The information provided by the map, which shows each district
from which the poems in the Anthology were recorded, is correlated
by an alphabetical index of place-names with a cross-reference to the
relevant poems. The traditional forms of village names (usually Fin
nish) have been retained in those cases where they are already com
monly used in the literature of folk poetry research. Where place-names
have conventional English equivalents, these have been used in pre
ference to more literal translations, e.g. Archangel Karelia instead of
‘Viena Karelia’. Otherwise, the editors have as far as possible used
the present-day local names; where transliteration has been necessary,
the system recommended by the editors of the Slavonic and East European
Review (London) has been followed, as also in the rendering of Russian
words and book titles.
Terminology presented various problems. With the general reader
in mind, the editors have tried to avoid terms that will be familiar
only to the specialist. Where this was not possible, every effort has
been made to incorporate specialist terminology in such a way as to
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be self-explanatory. However, three words require elaboration at the
very outset: ‘variant’, ‘redaction’ and ‘poem’. In discussing the poss
ible origin, development and dissemination of poems, ‘variant’ de
notes a single specimen of a poem as noted down by a collector. A set
of ‘variants’ may represent either a ‘redaction’ or a ‘poem’, both of
which in this usage are theoretical concepts. ‘Poem’ is a collective term
denoting all the ‘variants’ and ‘redactions’ that derive from a single
idea or set of ideas expressed in poetical form, e.g. The Creation; ‘re
daction’ refers to a particular form or development of that idea repre
sented by ‘variants’ which are relatively close to each other.
It would be impossible to name all those who have helped us with
this book. It is difficult even to define precisely the roles of each of
the three who were most closely involved. Broadly speaking, Matti
Kuusi selected the poems, drafted the Introduction, and compiled the
Motif Index and Concordance. Keith Bosley translated the poems.
Michael Branch translated the Introduction, drafted the Commentary,
and guided the work through each stage of production. Each of us,
however, has been closely associated with the others’ work. We all
owe an immense debt of gratitude to Miss Senni Timonen, research
assistant to the Kalevala Poetry Project (Finnish Academy). She gave
us the benefit of her wide knowledge of Kalevala poetry, helped with
the drafting of the Introduction, the Commentary and the Indexes,
and was a constant source of advice and pertinent suggestions.
We should like to express our thanks to Professor Lauri Honko,
Director of the Nordic Institute of Folklore, University of Turku, for
his encouragement and advice on the requirements of scholars and
students in the Nordic countries. Professor Robert Austerlitz of Colum
bia University, New York, commented on the first drafts of the trans
lations of the poems. We are indebted to Professor Peter Foote of
University College London for his advice on Scandinavian influences
and orthography, and to Dr W. F. Ryan of the Warburg Institute in
the University of London for similar assistance with Russian matters.
M r Timo Leisiö of the Music Information Centre, Helsinki, allowed
us to consult and use his study of Finnish folk music while still in
manuscript. Professor Pertti V irtaranta of the University of Helsinki
provided constant encouragement and support and, together with Mr
15
Tuomo Tuomi and Miss Raija Länsimäki of the Lexical Foundation
(Sanakirjasäätiö), Helsinki, gave expert guidance on the standardiza
tion of orthography. Professor Veli-Mikko Korhonen of the University
of Helsinki made many helpful suggestions for the improvement of
the paragraphs on the Finno-Ugrian background. Emeritus Professor
Ruben Nirvi, Helsinki, advised us on numerous matters concerned
with Ingria and the Ingrian dialects. Miss Corine Plough, London,
read the whole manuscript and made many suggestions for its improve
ment and Miss Laura Kaatia, London, drew our attention to points
that required interpretation and which might otherwise have escaped
us. The editors were also glad of the opportunity to consult manu
script translations by Mrs Eija Kennerly of most of the poems in the
present work. We extend our warmest thanks to all these people and
also to the staff of the Finnish Literature Society in Helsinki, partic
ularly to Mr Urpo Vento, its patient secretary.
Sole responsibility for errors and misunderstandings is, of course,
ours.
M a t t i K u usi K e it h B o sl e y M ic h a e l B r a n c h
Helsinki and London, January 1977
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T R A N S L A T O R ’S PREFACE
Both language and poetry, which is language for its own sake, are
universal: that is why translation is possible. Poetry presents the
problems of translation at their most acute, and the only hope a poet
has of being alive in another language is through being translated by
another poet into the latter’s native language. This is even more im
portant than a knowledge of the source language: a poet can make
himself into some kind of scholar - or, failing that, can work with a
scholar - but a scholar cannot make himself into any kind of poet if
he is not one already. The poetry in the present work was translated
by a poet with experience of translating from several languages, in
cluding Finnish; the drafts were criticized by scholars, then returned to
the translator for a final version. The aim was to write English poems
which would also give as accurate an account as possible of the Finnish
originals.
Accuracy in this field is a largely relative business: not only are a
high proportion of the native woodnotes so wild that they have never
been caught by a dictionary or reached the ears of many Finns, the
very structure of the material is outside the experience of most anglo
phone readers. This is folk poetry in epic mode, and whatever the
translator does cannot but sound odd at times. 19th-century scholars,
both in Finland and elsewhere, made much of a comparison with
Homeric poetry: if we allow for the more primitive nature of the
Finnish material, in its being both more magical and more homespun,
such a comparison will at least prepare the reader for the conventions
of lengthy story-telling in verse and will therefore throw light
on some of the problems facing the translator into English.
The western world’s discovery of Kalevala metre led to its imi
tation in languages ill suited to it both by translators and by poets
such as Longfellow, who in the Song of Hiawatha confined himself to
its basic trochaic tetrameter; but such is the metre’s flexibility in
Finnish that it can even turn itself inside out and yet preserve its
identity, as in se seppä joka jumala (8:9) where every trochee appears
to have become an iambus. Hence the use of a regular trochaic
17
tetrameter in English translation not only imposes crippling limita
tions, it in fact misrepresents the original. O f course, the translator
is under no obligation to imitate the metre of his original: indeed,
any attempt to do so usually ends in a double failure — failure to
translate well, and failure to produce a living poem in the target
language. The translator of poetry, then, can either make a plain
proce version or draw upon the resources of his own ear to find a
corresponding metre in his own language. After much listening and
many false starts, the present translator arrived at a syllable-based
metre reminiscent of the medieval Welsh cywydd\ I was reassured
when my metre imposed syntactic patterns similar to those of K a
levala metre. The other main feature of Kalevala poetry - allitera
tion - was more problematic. Finnish has fewer consonants than
its Indo-European neighbours, which means that the same consonants
come round more often: there is so little room for manoeuvre in the
Finnish line that any attempt at matching alliteration in English
would have taken me too far from the original.
The translation of material into a language which has nothing
comparable can be done either by a drastic naturalisation process
(Homer into ballad metre) or by ‘stretching’ the target language to
say something new - thus, one hopes, widening its expressive range;
in adopting the latter method, as I have done, one must beware of
lapsing into broken language. The tension is perhaps most noticeable,
in the present case, in the stock phrases used for introducing direct
speech. One such phrase is itse tuon sanoiksi virkki which, as dictionaries
point out, means little more than ‘he/she said’. Word for word (that
is, in broken English) it reads ‘himself/herself this/that into-words
uttered’, which I have rendered ‘he himself put this in words’. Simi
larly a reply will be prefaced with vasten vastaeli, which, as its form
suggests, is tautological: the vast- root corresponds roughly to English
counter-; the first word is adverbial, the second is a verb. Again, ‘he
replied’ gives the sense, but the form demands something closer to the
King James Bible (1611) - ‘he answering said’ or even ‘he answering
replied’. Sometimes, instead of vasten (or vassen), one finds varsin or
vaiten: varsin, meaning ‘indeed’, presents no problem, but the meaning
of vaiten is uncertain; I have fallen back on ‘indeed’.
18
One of the initial problems in translating nouns was the Finnish
use of diminutives, and in translating verbs the interchange of tenses
and the elaborate use of stem modifiers. Concerning diminutives, I
found myself being as inconsistent as my originals, slipping in the
occasional ‘little’ or ‘dear’ as a sweetener. There is a similar incon
sistency, both in the originals and in the translations, of verb forms:
in narratives I found it preferable to use past tenses more regularly
than the originals, because tense is not so sharply defined in a language
which will often indicate time when by a noun inflexion or an adverb;
the Finnish verb goes to greater pains to indicate manner and time
how long, a feature I coped with as best I could.
Before discussing individual words, I had better say a little about
proper names. Where these are Finnish personal and place names,
they have been preserved except where their meaning is essential to
the context. For example, in the Finnish, the same name can occur,
depending on the use of diminutives, in several different forms: while
the translation cannot achieve the effect of this variation, it reproduces
the Finnish forms to show, at least, that something is happening in
the source language. Personal names have been translated only when
they refer to saints; and the few cow-names, though native Finnish,
have been translated to avoid their being mistaken for personal names.
Not surprisingly, the speech of a society living in a landscape of
forests and lakes which are frozen solid half the year or more is rich
in areas where English is not: for example, petäjä, mänty and honka can
all be translated ‘pine’, and grass withered because it has lain under
frozen snow is simply kulo. Different ways of life are reflected: Väinä
möinen is a tietäjä, literally ‘knower’, a man skilled in magic - in
English he can only be a ‘wise man’ or a ‘sage’ (I preferred the for
mer); Ilmarinen is a takoja, literally ‘forger’ - English has to be con
tent with ‘craftsman’ (there being another word for ‘smith’). More
subtly, the dictionary translates the verb veistää ‘to whittle’, but since
this is an everyday chore it is better rendered merely ‘to make’ or
‘to shape’. Such matters are translator’s commonplaces, ofxourse; but
certain words either resist negotiation or demand special terms. The
noun sampo has been left untranslated for reasons the commentary
will make clear; likewise kantele, a kind of zither. The most troublesome
19
word which demanded translation was the adjective kirjo', this is re
lated to kirjava, meaning multicoloured. Many things are kirjo, from
a decorated sleigh {kirjo korja) to the mysterious cover {kirjokansi) of
the equally mysterious sampo: because the word stands somewhere be
tween the glittering artifice of the Greek daidalos and the numinous
radiance of the Welsh gwyn - where no English word is to be found
- I have had to settle for a stenographic ‘bright’ (cf. Latin clarus),
reserving this word for that. The adjective ainoa, applied to a person,
means ‘only’ in the sense of unique and therefore precious - for ex
ample, ‘my ainoa brother*, when there is clearly more than one: since
Finnish has so many ways of expressing endearment, I have followed
the dictionary here in the hope that the context will supply the over
tones. The noun-adjective kesti refers to rich and unscrupulous for
eigners, usually Hanseatic merchants, the nearest English equivalent
of which seems to be ‘H un’ or ‘Hunnish*. The noun morsian describes
the state of a woman from the moment of betrothal until some time
after the wedding ceremony: ‘betrothed’ sounds archaic, ‘fiancee’ be
longs to modern urban society - neither has the same semantic field
as the Finnish; ‘bride’ has had to serve. Similarly sulho and its dimi
nutive sulhanen, which have been rendered ‘bridegroom’ or ‘suitor’. Tulla
and mennä, the ordinary verbs ‘to come’ and ‘to go’, followed by an
allative {mennä miehelle, literally ‘to go to a man/husband*), often mean
‘to marry’: these have been rendered as literally as the context would
permit. The noun linna has had to be translated both ‘castle’ and
‘town’, according to context and dialect: this is a fortified burh as
against a trading-post, kaupunki, a word that reached Finnish through
Germanic (cf. German kaufen) and is the modern word for town. The
noun päivä usually means ‘sun’, which is how I have translated it (in
modern Finnish it generally means ‘day’); when it is found together
with aurinko, the modern word for sun, I have rendered the latter ‘day
light’. Finally in what can only be a random list, the noun selkä raises
special problems: its basic meaning is ‘back’ (of a body), and by ex
tension a sheet of open water; but what to do with selällä seitsemännellä
‘on the seventh selkä’) when Väinämöinen is fishing? Here I have trans
lated it ‘water’ and hoped for the best.
K e it h B osley
20
IN T R O D U C T IO N
21
long this group remained together, but it was long enough for a
language of some sophistication to evolve and for the group to come into
close contact with peoples who spoke Indo-European dialects. No his
torical records and only little reliable archeological evidence survive
to tell us anything about the life this group led. Linguistic evidence,
however, suggests that it was a Stone Age hunting and food-gathering
culture and as such partly or even totally nomadic. In time the unity
of this people was broken and after separation the original language
began to develop in different ways to produce the family of languages
nowadays known as Finno-Ugrian, which embraces Hungarian at one
extreme and Finnish at the other.
Finno-Ugrian Background
22
Philologists believe the process of development from Proto-Finno-
Ugrian to Proto-Finnic lasted some two to three thousand years; while
ethnographers and archeologists suggest different time-scales, all are
in general agreement about the relative chronology of this process of
evolution towards Proto-Finnic. Each stage in this process was followed
by internal development within the separate language groups, often
accompanied by further migration. The stock from which the Finno-
Permians separated, the Proto-Finno-Ugrian group, was itself to divide
when one group began to move away towards the south. In the course
of four thousand years the language spoken by these peoples was car
ried over a broad arc stretching from the vicinity of the Urals, touching
the northern Caucasus region until it emerged towards the end of the
first millennium AD in the area which the Romans called Pannonia.
From the various dialects of this language there evolved the language
known today as Hungarian. The descendants of the peoples left be
hind, the Ob-Ugrians, spread in relatively recent times to occupy deso
late areas of North-West Siberia where they are known as the Ostyaks
(Chanti) and Voguls (Mansi). On the Finno-Permian side, some of
those left behind after the separation of the Finno-Volga group appear
to have stayed in the same region (the Votyaks or Udmurt), while
others gradually moved further north through the forest belt, even
reaching the taiga zone (the Zyryans or Komi). The eastern descend
ants of the Finno-Volga group are known today as the Mordvins and
the Cheremis (or Mari).
The subsequent evolution of the Proto-Finnic group was more com
plicated. Very soon after the disintegration of the Finno-Volga peoples,
one group broke away and migrated into the Fenno-Scandinavian area
by a route that probably took them north of Lakes Onega and Ladoga
and some of them into Finland. Their linguistic descendants, the
Lapps, numbering about 32,000, are scattered over a vast belt that
extends from the Kola Peninsula in Russia to the west coast of Norway.
It is not difficult to correlate the present homes of the Lapps with the
interpretation put by many scholars on the Fenni described by Tacitus.
In relatively recent times Lapps were still found in areas far to the
south of their present homes; curiously, the word Häme, the name of
a province in southern Finland (see Map), is cognate with the Lapps’
23
national name Sabme and clearly points to an area of location much
further south in ancient times (cf. also Lapland in Name Index). Some
scholars would argue that Lapp is not so closely related to Proto-Finnic,
but that both Languages derive from Finno-Volga.
Once the Proto-Finns had settled south of the Gulf of Finland, they
appear to have lived as a stable and fairly compact group for several
centuries. Gradually, however, as expansion took place separate dia
lects began to form; philologists identify at least seven. At the western
extreme a dialect took shape that is known nowadays as Livonian and
is spoken by some 500 people on the Kurland Peninsula. To the east
of Livonian a dialect evolved that was to become Estonian and is now
spoken by some 1,007,000 people. Groups of people who spoke dialects
close to Estonian were to migrate across the Gulf of Finland to South-
West Finland. The speakers of the dialect east of Estonian appeared
to have remained in the same area and their language, Vote, is
still spoken by some 60 people.
Several groups migrated at various different times into what is
nowadays Finland proper. Two groups crossed the Gulf of Finland
and settled in the coastal regions and hinterland. The ancestors of the
Häme Finns were the first of these two groups followed later by the
South-West Finns. The ancestors of the Karelians and Savo Firnis
migrated into Finland overland, along the Karelian Isthmus and
northwards between Lakes Ladoga and Onega. Within the area of
present-day Finland the four main dialect groups - South-West Fin
nish, Häme, Savo, Karelian - combined partly by natural development
and partly through the conscious efforts of scholars and writers in the
19th and 20th centuries to form Modern Standard Finnish, one of
the two official languages (the other being Swedish) of the Republic
of Finland (population approximately 4,638,000). It is uncertain
whether the most easterly group of the Baltic-Finns, the Vepsians,
numbering approximately 16,000, have lived since ancient times in
their present homes between and to the south of Lakes Ladoga and
Onega or whether they are descended more recently from a group
closely related to Old Karelians in the Ladoga region.
The main features of this pattern of distribution were probably
established by 1000 AD. Since then, however, several migratory move
24
ments have occurred within the so-called Baltic-Finnish area and have
a particular relevance to the transmission of cultural influences. The
Ingrian Finns are thought by some scholars to have reached their
homes to the north, east and south-west of present-day Leningrad as
the result of three waves of migration. The earliest, probably in the
Middle Ages, brought Karelians into the area, followed later by settlers
from Savo and the northern part of the Karelian Isthmus, and who
are known today as the Izhors, Savakko and Äyrämöinen Finns
respectively. In the 16th and 17th centuries there was considerable
migration westwards from Savo; some of the migrants crossed the Gulf
of Bothnia and found new homes in the Swedish province of Värmland.
It is necessary to reject the romantic and still prevalent belief that
the Baltic-Finns are descended from the peoples who spoke the Proto-
Finno-Ugrian language and that generation after generation of the
same stock gradually carried the language westwards. To understand
what probably happened, it is necessary to think in terms of a con
tinuing process by which speakers of one language form a new group
with speakers of another language, with borrowing and merging of
language and culture. In the case of the Finno-Ugrian languages there
is much evidence of a process of gradual merging and acculturation
as a result of which a group of more advanced culture adopted the
language of another group, while the latter assimilated the other’s
more developed way of life.
It is impossible to determine how often this process occurred during
the 3,000 years that separate Proto-Finno-Ugrian and Proto-Finnic.
In the evolution of the Baltic-Finns, however, it probably happened
twice and in ways that are of particular significance in understanding
their culture, especially their folk poetry. The first of these contacts
with a people of more advanced culture was with groups of the most
eastern branch of the Ancient Balts, an Indo-European group which
in the millennium before the Christian era extended deep into Russia.
A Balt tribe, or tribes, adopted Proto-Finnic as their language, effecting
certain phonological, morphological and syntactical changes as un
familiar sounds and constructions were assimilated. As this new form
of Proto-Finnic evolved, the native speakers began to adapt, as far
as they could, their own speech and where this was not possible, yet
25
further changes occurred. O ut of this long process of change and
assimilation a new language gradually emerged. Linguistic assimila
tion was almost certainly paralleled by cultural assimilation - but in
the opposite direction; in the process of merging, the more advanced
culture of the Balts dominated, and evidence of this can be seen in
the Balt loanwords for social, administrative and agricultural innova
tions.
This process occurred again, probably about 200 BC, when the
speakers of Proto-Finnic came into contact with an East Germanic
tribe, or tribes. Again the language underwent a series of changes,
again there was an influx of new concepts, particularly in connection
with social organisation, agriculture and warfare. Comparison of com
mon features in the language structure, the vocabulary and folk poetry
of the Baltic-Finns shows that they were still a relatively compact group
at the time of this second period of merging and acculturation.
It is against this background that the significance of Tacitus* observa
tion about the Fenni must be considered. If it tells us anything, it is
that these people were on the very periphery of Tacitus’ world and
that communication with them was probably of the most tenuous
kind; they were barbarians. Paradoxically, it was these very factors
that made possible the survival of cultural traits, in particular ancient
beliefs and folk poetry, which in most parts of Europe were sooner
or later lost as a literate culture based on derivatives of the Graeco-
Roman tradition took root. The geographical isolation of the Baltic-
Finnish peoples was reinforced by linguistic isolation as Europe
emerged from the Dark Ages and cultural ideas became tied increas
ingly to particular languages.
Until as late as the 19th century, Finland was a backwoods where,
if it happened at all, it took decades, even centuries, for new ideas,
inventions and social change to penetrate from the outside world.
Every ounce of energy went into the struggle to support a bare and
primitive existence, as the old Finnish proverb says: ‘He who whips
the ox’s buttocks has no time to study books’. Far away from the main
sea routes, with trading centres only at river estuaries, the small hunt
ing and fishing settlements of North-East Europe lived at subsistence
level. The conditions of life were in no way comparable to those of
26
settlements on the southern and western shores of the Baltic. In the
rare cases where wealth did accumulate, the leaders of the local popula
tion - merchants and officials - ceased to regard Finnish as their
mother tongue. Indeed, the local language became an object of con
tempt and the fiercest resistance to its elevation to a national language
in the 19th century came from inside Finland. Tacitus’ laconic account
typifies attitudes held by most of those few Finns who did acquire
education in the West European tradition and through the medium
of Latin and Swedish. The belief prevailed that they belonged to a
nation without a history and without links to other peoples, and there
was widespread private and sometimes publicly expressed distrust of
the possibility, even the wisdom, of developing such an isolated, bar
barian language. Paradoxically it was probably this resistance towards
the development of Finnish that contributed to the survival of Finnish
folk poetry.
27
years after the appearance of Juslenius’ dictionary, Finland’s leading
scholars formed the Aurora Society to promote interest in matters
Finnish. Their enthusiasm emerges clearly from a poem, published in
1771 in the first issue of their periodical {Åbo Tidningar), which
began: ‘You people of Scythian stock and oldest born of the North’.
Curiously, Finnish folk poetry survived despite the efforts of those
men - primarily the clergy - who in the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries
did respond to Bishop Agricola’s pleas to develop and use Finnish.
For more than two hundred years after Agricola many members of
the Church did their best to stamp out the folk poetry sung by their
parishioners and found powerful support from the fellows of Finland’s
only university, the Academy in Turku (founded in 1640); folk poetry
was associated with pagan practices and it was, therefore, the duty
of Christians to persuade the people to abandon it. Bishop Agricola
himself was one of those who warned in his Finnish Psalter (1551) of
the evils of worshipping the ancient deities and heroes, eleven of whom
he mentioned by name. The hostility of the clergy emerges clearly
from the preface to Jacobus Finno’s hymn book of 1582: ‘Because
there were no sacred songs for the people to learn, they began to
practise pagan rites and to sing shameful, lewd and foolish songs . . .
[they] sing them to pass the time at their festivals and on journeys, they
hold contests with them, they defile and debauch the young with wick
ed thoughts and shameful speech, they tempt and encourage them to
live a lewd and filthy life and to practise wicked ways. And because
the devil, the source of all wickedness, also inspired his poets and
singers, into whose minds he entered and in whose mouths he shaped
the right words, they were able to compose songs easily and quickly
which could be learned by others and remembered more quickly than
divine and Christian songs could be learned and remembered.’
28
Reliques of Ancient English Poetry (1765) and Johann Herder’s Stimmen
der Völker in Liedern (1st ed. 1778) found a response in Finland when
in 1766 a young academic, Henrik Gabriel Porthan (1739-1804),
roundly condemned those of his contemporaries who did not share
his admiration for Finnish folk poetry. Porthan, who was to become
the most distinguished Finnish scholar and teacher of his day, person
ally inspired several of his contemporaries and his students to under
take a serious study of folk poetry. He himself wrote about prosody
and in 1789 his close friend, Christfrid Ganander (1741-1790), pub
lished Mythologia Fennica, an encyclopaedia of phenomena associated
with folk beliefs and poetry.
Interest in folk poetry grew stronger in the early years of the 19th
century, especially after the annexation of Finland by Russia in 1808-
1809 and the granting of the status of an autonomous Grand Duchy.
By this time, a sense of national consciousness had taken root among
students and scholars at the university in Turku and there was a
growing desire to discover more about the country’s ancient history
as a step towards defining the ‘national identity’. The study of the re
lated languages and folk poetry made up the principal means by which
young men attempted to reconstruct their country’s past. By the 1820s
young scholars were already undertaking long journeys beyond the
eastern frontiers of Finland into Russia to gather the information they
needed.
One of those whose attention focused primarily on folk poetry was
a doctor of medicine, Elias Lönnrot (1802-1884). After publishing
several short studies and collections of folk poetry, he brought out in
1835 the work which finally established the importance of Finnish
folk poetry (and with which it has generally been associated ever
since) Kalevala, or old poems of Karelia from the ancient times of the Finnish
people. The first edition contained 32 epic poems (12,078 lines) and
was followed by the enlarged and definitive edition of 50 poems (22,795
lines) in 1849. In 1840 Lönnrot published as a companion volume
the Kanteletar, a collection of 652 lyrical poems and ballads.
Lönnrot had collected the greater part of the material for these
works while practising medicine in the Kajaani district of Eastern
Finland. In this capacity he had to travel long distances and frequently
29
crossed the frontier into Archangel Karelia where he met singers of
folk poetry and noted down their poems. Lönnrot undertook eleven
such expeditions and, travelling much of the time on foot, he covered
some 13,000 miles and collected 65,000 lines of Kalevala-type poetry.
It was from the heroic epic he had found in Archangel Karelia and
from sources that had been collected earlier that he constructed the
1835 Kalevala. The idea of putting the material together to form a
long, coherent epic sprang from the practice of the singers he had
met and from contemporary literary thinking. He was familiar with
F. A. Wolf’s theory of the origin of the Iliad and Odyssey which seemed
to him to be sustained by the tendency he had observed among singers
in Archangel Karelia to combine several epic poems into long, them
atically linked sequences.
Lönnrot’s contemporaries believed that he had discovered a long-
lost epic in the backwoods of Karelia and that he had done little
more than put it on paper. In fact, Lönnrot had introduced consider
able changes into the poems he had used in order to bring them into
a narrative sequence and to achieve thematic coherence. He had
removed many Christian and other relatively recent features and had
changed the names of persons and places. The adventures attributed
to Lemminkäinen, for example, combine in one character the feats
of several heroes. According to one calculation, one-third of the total
number of lines in the 1835 Kalevala was modified or revised by
Lönnrot; more than 600 lines appear to have been composed by Lönn
rot himself, for no corresponding variants have ever been discovered.
While in terms of its basic components the Kalevala has its origin in
folk poetry, its overall shape and structure are the work of Elias
Lönnrot.
30
remained the language of culture, administration and commerce. While
the question of russification was considered, no serious moves were
made towards this until the end of the 19th century. On the con
trary, the Russian authorities did not discourage anything that served
to weaken traditional ties with Sweden and the decades following
the publication of the Kalevala saw a protracted struggle between
those Finns who wished to promote Finnish as a national langu
age and those who wished to retain Swedish. The leadership of the
former was assumed by J. V. Snellman (1806-1881), a student of
Hegel, who gave the necessary impetus to the campaign to achieve
equal language rights for the majority of the inhabitants of Finland.
In this struggle they pointed to the Kalevala as proof that Finnish
could be developed into a language of civilisation and culture, and the
epic became the cornerstone of the ensuing Finnish cultural move
ment. Schoolchildren had to spend four years studying it; many people
could recite from it by heart. It was set to music and became a pop
ular subject for the visual arts. Ice-breakers, restaurants, even com
mercial firms took their names from the Kalevala or places and char
acters mentioned in it. Writers, artists, scholars, students, and philo
sophers went off to Karelia to follow in Lönnrot’s footsteps and to see
for themselves the primitive scenery and the people they imagined
the Kalevala to depict. Many of Finland’s greatest talents - including
the writers Aleksis Kivi, Eino Leino, the composer Jean Sibelius, the
painter Akseli Gallen-Kallela, and the sculptor Wäinö Aaltonen -
drew inspiration from the Kalevala and the cult that grew up around it.
For many decades the Kalevala was seen as a primary source of
information about the ancient Finns’ history, mythology, way of life,
and their understanding of the world around them. Like the tales of
Homer and the Scandinavian Edda, the Kalevala continues to be the
subject of scholarly and quasi-scholarly works that attempt to analyse
its historical significance. Numerous theories have been advanced to
explain who Väinämöinen really was and where Pohjola was situated.
Although Julius Krohn showed convincingly, as early as 1885, that
‘the printed Kalevala, skilfully compiled though it is, cannot serve as
the basis of scholarly research’, amateurs have not been deterred from
using it as the starting-point for fantastic flights of imagination into
31
Finnish antiquity. While in Finland serious folklorists and historians
abandoned this approach long ago, scholars outside Finland, espe
cially if they do not read Finnish, may still look to Lönnrot’s epic as a
source of information about ancient Finnish poetry. The results
are as reliable as if Liszt were used as a primary source for research
into Hungarian folk music.
Despite the warnings of scholars and even the suggestion that gen
uine folk poetry might be of far greater interest and aesthetic quality,
the prevailing attitude remained for many years one of unqualified
admiration. Typical of the unquestioning attitudes were statements
such as ‘For me the Kalevala poems have been so sacred that listening
to them is like resting one’s weary head against some ancient, immov
able support’ (Gallen-Kallela, 1899) and ‘The most remarkable poetic
achievements of the North should not be sought in the works of Bell
man, Stagnelius or Runeberg. No, they are to be found in the Kale
vala and the Kanteletar. These are the miraculous creations of the intelli
gence of the heart’ (from the unpublished papers of the Swedish
poet Vilhelm Ekelund, 1880-1949). But such attitudes on the part
of intelligent and educated people need to be seen in the light of
the political situation.
The years 1890-1917, which saw increasing intervention by the
Tsarist authorities in Finnish affairs, leading at times to the suspension
of traditional rights and privileges, was a time of powerful growth of
interest in the Kalevala and in Karelia: the oppressed people sought
hope for the future from a glorious past. When faced with the reality
of independence in 1918, however, economic, social and military
matters took precedence and interest in the Kalevala began to fade.
More recently, thanks to a growing disenchantment with modern
urban life, interest in the Kalevala, in Karelian romanticism, and in
folklore has begun to revive.
32
realised that the Kalevala was not wholly representative of genuine
folk epic. D.E.D. Europaeus (1820-1884), one of the young men who
helped to assemble and arrange the material for the 1849 edition of
the Kalevala, expressed his regret in 1855 that it was ‘crammed too
full of all kinds of variants and unimportant details,’ and, he con
tinued, ‘it contains many features that have been made up by the
compiler himself. . . In their original form the poems are unified,
lively, and full of imagination.’ Europaeus complained that the orig
inal poems had been spoiled by Lönnrot’s attempts to reshape them,
to fill gaps with lines taken from other poems, and by the compiler’s
elaboration of some themes at the expense of others; Europaeus was
especially critical of the tendency to diminish the part played by the
supernatural.
While scholars such as Europaeus appreciated the relationship be
tween the Kalevala and genuine folk poetry, the sheer size of Lönnrot’s
epic overshadowed their reservations. To what could they point to
justify their criticisms apart from their own personal experience as
collectors? There was very little that could be set against the Kalevala
as evidence of how the poems were performed by contemporary singers
and even less from earlier times. Neither rune-stones nor ancient manu
scripts survived to show how Finnish folk poems were performed in
pre-Christian times. The earliest surviving documentary source, a 13th
century Karelian lightning spell recorded on a piece of birchbark, was
discovered in 1957 in the vicinity of Novgorod. Bishop Agricola’s
Prayer Book (1544) contains the earliest version of a Finnish proverb,
a weather prophecy, and a chant that lists the gestation periods of
various animals, while the earliest example of a poem is a spell against
the plague, a couplet in the accounts book of the Korsholm Crown
Estate, noted down in 1564.
About 1615, the exiled Swedish poet Johannes Messenius (1579—
1636) copied from the papers of Sigfrid Aronus Forsius (ca 1550-1624)
a Latin version of the legend of Bishop Henry and Lalli that was
known in the Köyliö district of South-West Finland; a corresponding
Finnish verse legend was recorded by not later than 1682 (cf. Poems
66, 67). The first Finnish grammar, Eskil Petraeus’ Linguae fennicae
brevis institutio (1649) includes eight popular Finnish riddles as illus
33
trative material. The earliest examples of Kalevala-type lyric poems
are found in a collection compiled in the 1660s by Henrik Florinus
(1633-1705) and published in 1702; two poems used in bear rites were
published by Petrus Bång (1633-1696) in 1679. Daniel Juslenius
(1676-1752) was the first to publish a version of a Finnish ballad,
Death of the Bride (Poem 87), in his fanciful account of the history of
Turku (1700). The earliest manuscript of the historical poem Duke
Charles (Poem 143) dates from 1699.
The first example of old Kalevala epic to catch the attention of
Finnish scholars appears to have been variants of the poems about
Väinämöinen’s voyage and the playing of the kantele (cf. Poems 23-27).
Versions of these poems had begun to find their way into poetry and
dissertations in the 18th century. But many of these had been for
gotten, or were not readily available, and in any case their fragmentary
information was eclipsed by Lönnrot’s epic.
34
beat - agriculture and, like their forefathers, eked out a meagre live
lihood as pedlars of small wares, travelling long distances on foot in
Finland undeterred by officials who tried with little success to stop
this illegal trade. It was an area into which the Lutheran Church
had not penetrated. The Christianity of these Karelians was that of
the Russian Orthodox Church, which tolerated folk poetry and did
not frown so severely on surviving pagan practices. A second area
which was similarly isolated from Western influences and whose in
habitants also belonged to the Russian Church, was Olonets and La
doga Karelia, the region around the northern shores of Lake Ladoga
extending north into Olonets and north-west to the Finnish-Russian
frontier (see Map). It was mainly in these areas, Archangel Karelia
in the north and Ladoga and Olonets Karelia further south, that the
heroic epic was still being sung by men, and occasionally by women,
in the 19th century. It is interesting to note that the areas where the
Novgorod bylina tradition survived most strongly, among the Russian
settlers on the shores of Lake Onega and the White Sea, were not far
away.
A third area in which Kalevala-type poetry continued to flourish
into the 19th century was the Karelian Isthmus and Ingria. While the
tradition of male singing died out along the south-east shore of the
Gulf of Finland, the singing tradition survived among the womenfolk
of three areas in particular: Narvusi, Soikkola, and Hevaa, each of
which is isolated at the tip of a cape. These women did not retain
the practice of singing relatively long narrative epic sequences, but
used fragments of epic in an allusive style to express personal senti
ments (concerning their lyrical epic patchwork technique see pp. 71-72).
It was linguistic rather than geographical isolation that sheltered the
Ingrian Finns and those on the Karelian Isthmus from the penetration
of new ideas. The oldest group, the Izhors, clung to their old ways
in a virtually unchanged form, although nominally they belonged to
the Russian Orthodox Church. O f particular interest are the large
numbers of Lutheran Finns who migrated from areas in Eastern Fin
land to Ingria with the expansion of Sweden in the 17th century. They
brought with them their poems, customs and other traditions which,
because of the religious difference, generally survived in their old form
35
largely untouched by the traditions of their linguistically related Rus
sian Orthodox neighbours and escaped the excesses of the movement
that stamped out most folk poetry in mainland Finland.
Lönnrot was not the first person to realize that a wealth of folk
poetry survived across the frontier in Russia. This fact had been well
publicized by an Ostrobothnian doctor of medicine, Zachris Topelius
(1781-1831). Paralysed by a stroke and unable to move beyond the
confines of his home in Uusikaarlepyy on the coast of the Gulf of
Bothnia, he used to invite the Karelian pedlars to sing their poems to
him and published a selection of them in five slim volumes: Suomen
Kansan Wanhoja Runoja ynnä myös Nykyisempiä Lauluja (‘Old poems and
more modern songs of the Finns’, 1822-1831). In the preface to the
last volume Topelius described where collectors should look for poems:
‘The only area where the old customs and the old tales of the menfolk
survive untouched by outside influences and are sung as part of the
daily round is beyond the frontiers of Finland, in a few parishes of
the Province of Archangel - especially in the parish of Vuokkiniemi.
There the Väinämöinen songs can still be heard, there the kantele and
the sampo [!] still echo and it is from there that I have with great care
obtained my best songs.’
It was this that led Lönnrot and others to Archangel Karelia and
gave birth to the 1835 Kalevala. In the following years Lönnrot and
his disciples, including Europaeus, explored the two other regions
described above, the fruits of which are embodied in the second edition
of the epic. It was to all three regions that Europaeus, and before
long others, urged that collectors should return and undertake a more
thorough and exhaustive collection of folk poetry materials. It is un
certain whether Europaeus’ motives were those of the modern folk
lorist, who treats every piece of material as worthy of attention and
study, or whether he thought that by assembling and publishing oral
literature in a different way from that adopted by Lönnrot, the na
tional cause (of which Europaeus was a prominent exponent) would
be better served. Whatever his motives, his ideas gradually found sup
port. Towards the end of the 19th century the collection of folk poetry
assumed the proportions of a national movement and literally thou
sands of scholars have since taken part in it. Perhaps the most impor-
36
tant were the great collectors at the turn of the century, whose work
provided the foundations and demonstrated the techniques of subse
quent collection - men such as J . Länkelä (1833-1916), V. Porkka
(1854—1889) and V. Alava (1870-1935), who saved the poetry of In-
gria from extinction, and A. A. Borenius-Lähteenkorva (1846-1931),
the first scholar to prove that many of the poems in Archangel Kare
lia had been transmitted from areas further south or west.
The work of collection begun in the late 19th century has continued,
though not always on the same scale, to the present day. There
have been periods when it assumed the proportions of a national duty.
The measures taken by the Tsarist authorities at the end of the 19th
century to reduce Finland’s constitutional privileges and to russify
administrative and cultural institutions evoked a powerful creative
response from scholars, artists, writers and musicians. Assisted by
hundreds of volunteer collectors, scholars assembled a huge mass of
material which was deposited in the archives of the Finnish Literature
Society in Helsinki.
The result of this work is one of the largest collections of oral tra
dition in the world. The archives of the Literature Society contain
some two and a half million items: of these 86,800 are songs and
poems in Kalevala metre; the remainder is made up of rhymed folk
songs (129,400), incantations (52,400), spells, beliefs and omens
(336.900) , games (187,400), nonsense verses, chants, laments (9,300),
fairy tales (96,300), religious legends (1,600), supernatural tales
and memorates (103,200), historical and local tales (77,800),
aetiological stories and myths (7,700), imitations of natural sounds
(8.900) , proverbs (766,500), riddles (117,300), folk tunes (23,200), and
ethnographical descriptions (54,000). This collection is complemented
by the 1,425,000 proverb variants in the archive of the Department
of Finnish Language at the University of Helsinki, by the wealth of
ethnographical materials in the National Museum in Helsinki, and by
various other smaller archives. O f particular importance is the collec-
37
tion of Kalevala-metre poetry and other items of Karelian tradition
assembled by scholars at the Language, Literature and History Re
search Institute at Petrozavodsk in the Soviet Union.
It is the relatively small proportion of materials in Kalevala
metre that have in the past received the closest attention and of which
part, some 1,270,000 lines, has been published in the 33 volumes of
Suomen Kansan Vanhat Runot. Kalevala-metre poetry embraces five main
genres: epic; lyric - with the overlapping lyrical epic (see p. 71);
incantations; festival poetry (poetry sung as the accompaniment to
wedding, bear and annual ceremonies, also including the oral accom
paniment to games and dances); cradle songs, nonsense and occa
sional poetry, and metrical proverbs and riddles. Although epic in
this form makes up only a small part of the whole, it is aesthetically
the most outstanding item and from the point of view of Finnish cult
ural history the most significant. Within this genre the most impressive
creations are the pagan mythical heroic poems; it is these that formed
the substance of Lönnrot’s Kalevala and with which the present An
thology opens. Not only are they the poems that have won the greatest
acclaim and admiration, but they have also stimulated both the most
far-reaching academic debates and the most ambitious flights of ima
gination.
To the layman, folk poetry research may well appear to be the grave
yard of a succession of new, bold theories and counter-theories. Never
theless, decades of serious study, the endless postulation, testing, rejec
tion or modification of theories, have led to an understanding of folk
tradition far in advance of that which existed in the late 19th century
when scholars began to doubt the authenticity of the Kalevala both
as a source of history and of folk poetry. Many once-controversial
problems have been solved and no longer excite interest, and new and
more accurate ways of studying folk poetry have been developed.
The main task of the scholar is to explain the significance of each
facet of the material before him. He tries to identify the probable shape
38
and content of the archetype, its idea and function, and then to ascer
tain its historical development. Once this analysis has been completed,
it is necessary to show which themes, motifs and stylistic traits in the
poem as a whole are primary - indicating the estimated degree of
certainty - and how different redactions and variants evolved. The
scholar must also attempt to relate what he discovers to other texts
on the basis of those characteristics of theme, stylistic features and
overal lform which link it to, or distinguish it from, other poems,
stylistic periods or traditions. It is possible to identify in Kalevala
poetry certain chains of transformations which form part of a long
and consistent line of development and exist side by side with timeless
or ephemeral features. The former enable the scholar to ascertain a
poem’s position within a regular succession of stylistic periods.
One or two age criteria alone are not enough to date a poem.
Every available factor must be considered, however contradictory and
confusing each may appear to be. These factors include the geograph
ical distribution of a poem, the degree of disintegration, names of peo
ple and places, imagery, themes, the amount of person and milieu
description, the general structural balance, datable stylistic features,
and the probable function and context of the poem. Consideration
must also be given to the other poems with which the subject of the in
vestigation has been combined or from which it has borrowed phrases
or passages, and motifs. The final result is rarely simple because a poem
can regularly display the characteristics of two or several historical
periods. The interpretation of folk poems is also complicated by the
fact that the materials with which scholars work are often in obscure
dialects, the poems have not always been noted down accurately, and
frequently they contain words, phrases and names which even the
singers did not understand.
A theoretical approach that permitted considerable advances to be
made in the analysis of folk poetry was the historical-geographical
method - also known as the ‘Finnish method’ - conceived by Julius
Krohn (1835-1888) and further developed by his son Kaarle Krohn
(1863-1933) and Antti Aarne (1867-1925). The method, which has
been described as ‘Darwinism adapted to folklore* (e.g. by Hautala),
was based on a theory of diffusion and sought by analysis of the con
39
tent and distribution of as many variants as possible to separate prim
ary from secondary features and to reconstruct the ‘original form’
of a poem, and then to determine the chronology of its development and
the routes of its transmission and diffusion.
While this approach continues to help explain the course of diffusion
at a given stage in a poem’s development, today not even the most
optimistic scholar believes he can arrive at the ‘original form’ of a
poem. By the careful study of his sources and the literature of the
subject, and by seeking points of comparison around the world he
attempts to identify the original thematic content of a poem and its
subsequent stages of development. Against this background a clearer
picture is now emerging of the history and development of many poems.
40
primary variants and redactions of a poem have been assembled and
the secondary elements excluded by source criticism analysis, the
scholar is able to classify the variants according to type. Without losing
sight of the overall shape of the poem, the various themes and motifs
are examined to establish the relationship between the variants: which
components may derive from the early form of the poem and which
are the result of separate, later development, how different redactions
have evolved in the upheavals of cultural change and migration, which
redaction each variant belongs to, and what process of interweaving,
layering and re-creation has produced the surviving poem.
When the scholar attempts to distinguish between early and secon
dary features, he examines primarily the frequency with which a
particular feature occurs in variants; other indications of originality
include the wide distribution of a particular feature, its close associa
tion with other traits already known to be ancient or found in an area
where ancient poetry traditionally survived, or even if the informant
was by repute a singer of old songs. The absence of many obviously
borrowed features can also indicate the antiquity of a poem; similarly
the antiquity of the underlying idea, language and style, and the
degree to which a feature has itself stimulated new developments are
further criteria of originality.
Without such analysis it is impossible to decide which parts of the
surviving item represent the original features of a poem or to throw
light on its main theme, function, structure, and the specific character
of its motifs and stylistic traits. With this approach the scholar can
deduce with some degree of accuracy the relative age of a poem.
Another efficacious means of dating is analysis of the degree of dis
integration. Poems do not change evenly or steadily; the rate of change
is determined by the nature of the subject. The content and shape
of a poem composed to amuse change more easily than those of a
myth or ritual poem, a loosely constructed expression of feeling more
quickly than a poem cast in a tight symmetrical mould. The longer
a poem develops, the further its most distantly related forms are from
each other. The occurrence of a large number of obviously related
lines in an Estonian and a Finnish poem does not always mean that
the poems go back to a common ancient origin; on the contrary, such
41
a similarity is generally an indication of relatively recent borrowing.
If, however, certain images, motifs, or features are only vaguely dis
cernible in corresponding Estonian and Karelian poems, the possi
bility of a common origin is far more likely, however great the overall
difference between the surviving forms.
42
on the grounds that certain of these poems are not known in Ingria.
Such an approach is no longer accepted. While certain themes can
be tied to particular periods - though even this must be done with
considerable reservations - scholars no longer think of a distinct, dat
able, common ‘Estonian-Finnish’ poetry period.
The current view is that migration in both directions continued
until very recent times and it is possible to show, for example, how
comparatively recent movements carried poems from South Finland
to Kuusalu in Estonia and the Narvusi Peninsula in Ingria, from South-
East Finland to the Savakko and Äyrämöinen Finnish settlements of
Ingria, and even from North Finland to North-West Archangel Kare
lia, and vice versa. Yet even though this migration continued and
flourished on a large scale, it is nevertheless impossible to say with
any degree of accuracy when and how and which poems (or fragments)
were transmitted. It is not known which poems the North Kainuu
ancestors of the Perttunens, the Malinens, the Kettunens, the Karja-
lainens - the most famous Archangel Karelian singing families -
brought with them from the west and which they learned locally, or
from Karelian fur-traders from further east. Since the singing of Kale
vala poetry had almost died out in West Finland by the late 18th century
and since the refrain poetry that survived among the serfs of Estonia
and Ingria was exposed to considerable change, there is little basis on
which comparative research can attempt to discover which of the
Finnish-Estonian poems originate from Estonia and which from West
Finland, or which took shape in the ancient cultural centres of Ladoga
Karelia and Ingria.
Even the fact that collectors have recorded a poem only in Archan
gel Karelia and not in the western or southern poetry areas is not in
itself evidence of its place of origin, since it could easily have been
forgotten or overlooked by collectors in other areas. The Bond (Poems
39, 40), for example, was remembered in the 19th century by only
two families, one in Archangel and the other in Olonets Karelia; in
both cases it was remembered by people who lived in a backwoods
milieu supporting themselves by hunting, fishing, rudimentary agri
culture and peddling. Yet it is obvious that the poem, with its numer
ous nautical associations, must have taken shape in a very different
43
milieu. If a poem cannot be shown to have a Scandinavian, Russian
or Balt origin, and if its theme, or other internal evidence, does not
indicate place of origin, then the scholar can generally do no more
than conclude that it could have originated anywhere in the Baltic-
Finnish area.
While such conclusions make it necessary to abandon theories that
formerly provided convenient and superficially convincing explana
tions for the origin and diffusion of Kalevala poems, they do on the
other hand help to elucidate one of the most striking features of this
poetry - its remarkable homogeneity over a vast area (conceptually
all the larger when the arduousness of travel is taken into account).
The reader of the present Anthology will be struck by the frequency
with which stock phrases and passages recur in every part of the Fin
nish area. In the light of current thinking about the complexity and
scale of migration in the Baltic-Finnish area, it becomes easier to
understand how such poetic unity was possible.
From what has already been said, it can be seen that any attem pt to
place a date on an individual poem has little meaning in itself. It
could even be argued that in one sense the ‘age’ of a poem is no more
than the number of years that have passed since it was last sung. It
is, however, possible to ascertain the approximate period at which the
various component parts of a poem took shape, approximately how
and when they were brought together, and what changes have taken
place since that time. Such an assessment is based on criteria of style
and theme. Four main stylistic periods of Kalevala poetry can be
identified. While dates are suggested for the periods when a given style
was dominant, it must be recognized that once a style had been
adopted the continued use of earlier styles was not necessarily excluded
nor, conversely, was the reinterpretation of a poem in a later style.
Furthermore, this chronology is primarily relative and does not apply
consistently in every region.
The oldest period style, Early Kalevala (varhaiskalevalainen), seems
to have been in use during the late Proto-Finnic era up to the time
when the ancestors of the Finns were establishing new homes on the
northern shores of the Gulf of Finland. The predominant cultural
influences of the age were Ancient Balt (cf. p. 25). Traces of poetry
in this style are found throughout Estonia, Finland and Karelia. It
was the period when ancient myth poems and aetiological epic were
first composed in Kalevala metre. Other kinds of poetry that appear
to have taken shape at this time include laments, lyric poetry, wedding
poetry, and curses.
The second period style, Middle Kalevala (sydänkalevalainen), appears
to have developed steadily and flourished during the first millennium
of the Christian era. Characteristic Middle Kalevala stylistic features
are the increasing use of dialogue and a more flexible syntactic struc
ture. Germanic cultural influences predominate. It is this style that
characterizes many central themes found throughout Finland and
Karelia: Väinämöinen occurs as the main hero, there is an abundance
of epic concerned with adventure and the sea, and a noticeable re
alism in the depiction of people and milieu. Some of the finest products
of the Kalevala tradition, such as the account of the construction and
playing of the kantele (Poems 23-24), appear to date from this period;
the Middle Kalevala style continued to influence the structure of
poems right through to the early Middle Ages.
With the conversion to Christianity - which happened in West Fin
land by 1200 AD, but in Karelia considerably later - a new period
style emerged: Medieval Kalevala (keskiajan-kalevalainen). Christianity
became the dominant cultural influence and pagan epic was adapted
to serve the purposes of Christian teaching. Legends, ballads and re
frain songs were cast in Kalevala metre and told of love and death, con
soled the poor with the assurance of reward in heaven, and castigated
sexual impropriety. It was the time of infiltration of Slav themes into
Ingria and Karelia, first from White Russian and later from Russian
tradition.
The end of the Medieval Kalevala period saw a renewed handling
of this poetic form which reached its peak in the Late Kalevala (myö-
häiskalevalainen) period. The traditional metre finally began to lose its
vigour and poets employed it with less skill; the influence of rhymed
45
poetry, spreading mainly from the West, becomes apparent. Thematic
ally, this period saw the emergence of poems about war and the ab
sence of a loved one. It was also the period when the old epic poems
began to be sung in new ways: in Karelia singers started to combine
them in long sequences, in Savo they were incorporated into incan
tations, while in Ingria and on the Karelian Isthmus the ancient epic,
or fragments of it, was used by women to express lyrical sentiments.
The Late Kalevala period coincided with the end of the Roman Cath
olic era and the introduction of the Reformation. Gradually folk poetry
in Kalevala metre became local in content and lost its epic scale. In
the 19th century in particular, it was adopted as the poetic medium
both for artistic and popular broadside verse.
O f all the ancient prosodic forms known in Fenno-Scandinavia, the
Kalevala poetic tradition proved to be the most resilient and flexible.
Each generation of poets recast the old songs and composed new ones.
Some reshaped their spells, curses, legends, and ballads partly with
traditional themes and materials and partly with the themes and ma
terials that were new in their day, while others preferred to compose
in the style and tradition of the old heroic poetry. Hence the Finnish
poems that survived long enough to be recorded represent an accu
mulation of influences, themes and styles over a period of more than
two thousand years.
The poems in the present Anthology have been selected to illustrate
the thematic and stylistic development outlined above; as far as pos
sible - though not always - the order of presentation represents the
strata of cultural phenomena which either prevailed in the Finnish
area when the poems took shape or which penetrated the geographical
and linguistic isolation of the Baltic-Finns. The themes are generally
expressed as belonging to one of the following types of poetry, listed
in order of antiquity
46
2. Magic and shaman poetry, in which the characters achieve their
ends by magic, and which tell of a shaman’s journey to the otherworld
in search of a particular object or item of knowledge.
3. Adventure poetry, often about journeys in search of wives or plunder,
and about escape to a place across the sea.
4. Fantasy poems, in which a wondrous animal, mermaid or small
child is threatened.
5. Christian legends.
6. Ballads, narrative poetry and lyrical epic.
7. Historical war poetry.
M yth Poetry
Features that have points of comparison with myths from distant parts
of the world and are otherwise unknown or very rare elsewhere in
Europe can be found in this category. Poems in the Baltic-Finnish
area that describe how the world originated from an egg (Poems 2-5)
represent an aetiological tradition that is known from the Eastern
Mediterranean to the Pacific. The shaping of the primeval seabed, the
work of Väinämöinen as he drifts in the sea (Poems 12-15), and to
which he refers in the singing competition with Joukahainen (10:31;
11:9), shares common features with the Asian Indian myth of a boar
that roots up the seabed. Indian mythology also has tales that are
similar in content to the myth of the freeing of the sun and the moon
from the belly of a fish (Poem 5). The description in Fire (Poem 9)
of how animals carry the spark is a myth known in many parts of the
world and has been compared to myths recorded in the Bay of Ben
gal region and among the Indians of North-West America. The myth
of The Oak (Poems 49, 50) is found over roughly the same area as
myths describing the creation of the world from an egg. Myths about
the origin of the bear (Poem 48) are known throughout the Arctic
region. Yet another myth known in many parts of the world is that
47
of the birth of the primeval human couple from a tree stump or sap
ling rooted in the primeval sea or river; in Finnish folk poetry this
survives as obscure fragments in two Ingrian poems (11:16-24; 41:
1-8). Other mythical themes include those of the construction of the
primeval boat, the kantele and the seine-net (Poems 9, 22-29), and
of the release of the sun and the moon from captivity (Poems 31-33).
Most of the themes mentioned above are found in poems that prob
ably took shape during the late Proto-Finnic period. A link between
this and the later period may possibly be provided by the characters
of Väinämöinen and Ilmarinen. The role played by these two heroes
varies from period to period (see Name Index). The extent to which
Väinämöinen has entered Finnish mythology is illustrated by the fact
that when a Finn looks at the night sky he still sees ‘Väinämöinen’s
Scythe’ (Orion) and his ‘Birchbark Shoes’ (Pleiades). The smith Ilma
rinen is associated in Kalevala epic with the construction of the sky,
the sampo and the kantele; he is the striker of the primeval spark, the
builder of the first forge - a clearly defined culture hero and smith,
a northern Hephaistos. While Ilmarinen is the dominant hero in Kare
lian folk poetry and Väinämöinen in poetry from Savo and West
Finland, their dual role in Fire (Poem 9) is not necessarily a secondary
feature: there are examples in the ancient mythology of other peoples
of two culture heroes who either compete or work together. Some
scholars have suggested that Väinämöinen may not originally have
occurred in the oldest myth poems, but emerged later during the Middle
Kalevala period and, as the most important hero in Kalevala epic,
was only then associated with themes that go back to the earliest
stratum of poetry.
4fl
ic, and later from Old Norse and Swedish, is high. Examples of bor
rowings from Old Germanic include Finnish runo ‘poem’, which orig
inally meant ‘singer of poetry’; other examples illustrate the impact
of the Ancient Germans on the evolution of technical concepts and of
society in general, e.g. ‘plough’, ‘sword’, ‘spear’, ‘gold’, ‘iron’, ‘cop
per’, ‘tin’, ‘trade’, ‘power’, ‘to govern’, ‘to judge’ and ‘king’ all came
from this source.
Once these new influences had been assimilated and the ancestors
of the Finns had begun to settle the coastal areas of mainland Finland,
the Middle Kalevala period began. Deities assumed the role of cul
tural heroes and the old mythical poems were revised and reshaped;
characters and emotions became more human and acquired a dram
atic quality. The poem about the playing of the kantele (Poems 22-24)
is the most striking example of this development. While it continues
to draw on simple, primitive myth poems, it grows into an exultant
ode to man’s artistic powers. The influence of the Ancient Germans
and their descendants is also noticeable in fundamental changes in
attitudes towards life, and these are reflected in Kalevala epic. The
world became a battlefield, the hero had to have an opponent - either
a rival or an enemy. Men competed and fought, as in The Singing Match
(Poems 10, 11), took prisoners and plundered, as in The Sampo (Poems
12-15), and competed for their brides, as in some versions of The
Courtship (e.g. Poems 17, 18). In each case the means by which the
heroes achieve their ends are magical.
Allied to these are poems about heroes who also use magic, not in
warfare or against mortal enemies, but to complete a task. The Wound
(Poem 6) and The Spell (Poems 28, 29) are typically shamanistic, while
The Visit to Tuonela (Poem 30) - despite its Christian frame - is a vivid
description of what was believed to happen when a shaman’s soul
travelled to the otherworld in search of knowledge. Features of these
poems have parallels with shamanistic beliefs in many parts of the
world. The lack of shamanistic and adventure poems, with which the
former are often intertwined, in the poetry of the Estonians and their
eastern neighbours the Votes, has given rise to the theory that the
poems took shape in Finland and Karelia during the Middle Iron Age
(400-800) or even during the Viking period (800-1100).
49
Adventure Poetry
A possible link between shamanistic poetry and the later Viking period
is Lemminkäinen (Poems 34-36). In some variants the hero is obviously
a shaman, while in others he has become confused with the boisterous
Viking Kaukamoinen (Poems 37, 38). Contact with the Varangians
as they travelled eastwards into Russia led to the Karelians’ under
taking similar expeditions, and it is these that are thought to have
inspired poems such as Kaukamoinen and The Bond (Poems 39, 40). The
latter has had to be reconstructed from fragments discovered in two
Karelian forest villages; the same themes can also be discerned in an
Ingrian description of a voyage (Poem 26). The lively, impetuous
dialogue of the main characters in Poem 39 and the attitude of Teuri,
another Viking, towards his newly married wife in Poem 40 both em
phasize the same basic theme: travel and adventures at sea were more
attractive than a wife and home.
Reminiscent of the hylini of the Novgorod area, the main themes of
these adventure poems are feasting, fighting and the island of Saari
inhabited by hundreds of women and their jealous menfolk. An out
standing product of the same period is The Courtship I (Poem 16):
while its structure was borrowed from Väinämöinen epic poems, the
portrayal of milieu and character is completely lacking in mythical
features and is as exuberant and as real in its ethnographic and psy
chological detail as The Voyage (Poems 26, 27). The tasks that have
to be performed by the suitor, and which are generally incorporated
in other variants of The Courtship (e.g. Poems 17, 18), comprise le
gendary motifs; another variant of the theme of the suitors’ tasks is
The Gift, a Karelian version of the Ivan Godinovich bylina (Poems
19, 20).
A characteristic thematic feature of the Viking period was the con
centration on people and personal relationships. Where supernatural
beings and events are found in these poems, they are secondary fea
tures. In the poems from the earliest strata of Finnish poetry, the male
characters are stiff and impersonal, while the women are hardly more
important than a horse or some other possession. In The Courtships on
the other hand, the inquisitive, quarrelsome washer-girl, who barters
50
information for trinkets, is vividly portrayed; and the dialogue be
tween Ahti and Kyllikki in The Bond is remarkably true to life.
Features that epitomize the jaunty, masculine poetry of the Viking
age are Kaukamoinen’s harsh reply when his mother asks whether
he has been abused by women, and his erotic adventures among the
maids of the Island (Poems 37, 38); similarly the wedding-night epi
sode in The Bond (Poem 40) and the reply of Teuri’s father when
asked if his son will go to war: ‘Teuri has no time for war:/he has
married a young wife/ has taken his own mistress./ The nipple’s still
unfingered/ the buttocks unwhipped/ the loins untickled’ (40: 32-37)
(yet despite this Teuri does go to war). In this period of Finnish poetry,
erotic love was regarded as a proper subject for song and was treated
boisterously and without embarrassment. There is no suggestion of
the dark, fateful powers, or the elevated red-black sexual themes that
characterize the later Christian ballads and legend poems. The psy
chologically convincing character depiction in the poems from the
Viking period is paralleled by the ethnographic realism. Numerous
realistic minutiae of daily Viking-age life can be found not only in
the teasingly light dialogue of The Courtship variants (Poems 16-18),
but also in Kaukamoinen’s nagging mother (Poems 37, 38), and in
the bitter exchanges between Ahti and Kyllikki (Poems 39, 40).
The frequent use of dialogue is the stylistic feature that most clearly
distinguishes the poetry of the Viking age from earlier epic. A charac
teristic of the dialogue structure is the stating of each question or
request three times. The first two times a straight refusal or a lie is
given in reply; the questioners only receive a satisfactory answer the
third time they ask. This stylistic device, which is a particularly im
portant dating criterion, is used twice in variants of The Courtship (18:
8-48, 92-125) and of Kaukamoinen (37: 8-80, 159-191), and once in
The Bond (39: 17-47). The passage describing Joukahainen’s attempts
to ransom himself from Väinämöinen first with gold, then with a
stallion, and finally with his sister (Poem 10) is also an addition from
the Viking period to an older poem that was found only in Karelia.
The same dialogue structure can be seen in The Visit to Tuonela when
Väinämöinen asks the daughters of Tuoni to ferry him to the other-
world (Poem 30).
51
The Arrival o f Christianity
52
Assimilation
53
ally lost and they survived only as parts of incantations or as poems
sung specifically for entertainment. St Stephen (Poem 63) and the Sääks
mäki Whitsuntide series (Poems 75, 76, 85, 86, 92-94) appear to be
examples of poems performed as part of Catholic festivals and which
preserved their ritual framework relatively intact. The latter were poss
ibly once part of spring fertility rites and as such would have parall
els in many parts of Europe (comparable, for example, to the Eng
lish custom of ‘beating the bounds’); the emphasis in these poems on
the hazards of promiscuity is a transformation which reveals the at
tempts of local priests to reinterpret annual fertility rituals which they
could not wholly eliminate. Examples of other poems which retained
a ritual function are few. One such is the Ingrian Sower (Poems 46, 47),
which maidens sang in an enclosed area on 29th June as a prayer to
Ukko for favourable weather and good crops. There is also evidence
that The Sampo (Poems 12-15) was performed in some areas at the time
of spring and autumn sowing and may have had a similar function.
Poems from the medieval Catholic period (ca 1100-1540) have sur
vived in far greater numbers than from the pagan era. Christian legend
poems reveal the impact of influences not only from Sweden and Rus
sia, but also from further afield, as young men travelled south to study
at the universities of Western Europe. The dominant themes during
the early Middle Ages were miraculous events, in which divine inter
vention temporarily suspended or reversed the laws of nature (e.g.
Poems 64, 65): a berry causes conception, heavenly bodies perform
particular acts or speak (Poems 59-62), the Creator calms a storm
and banishes the leviathan (Poems 26, 27), a roasted cock and the
bones of an ox testify to the birth of Christ, shoots grow from a knife-
handle (Poem 63), Christian rites cause a withered forest to grow
again (Poem 69). At this period secular and non-secular poems were
kept firmly apart.
The Messiah (Poems 59-62), dealing with the birth, life and resur
rection of Jesus, survived among Russian Orthodox Karelians and
54
Ingrians and certain parts of these variants can be compared to Byelo-
russian-Ukrainian tradition. St Stephen (Poem 63) is the only poem
in this category to survive in West Finland, where it was used as the
accompaniment to a mumming ceremony performed on 26th Decem
ber. The oldest parts of The Messiah and St Henry (Poems 66, 67), and
the description of the Creator’s voyage (Poem 27) have all the noble,
inspirational gestures of an austerely sketched imaginary world: ‘It is
for me to depart / as of old for the hired man / or for the serf, the
hireling’, sighs the Virgin Mary to her young maid (59:209-211).
In contrast, the Jesus who in The Death of Elina (Poem 84) is an ‘old man’
(1. 203), a ‘herdsman among willows’ in Magdalen (75: 27) and ‘like
any other stranger / stranger, traveller’ in The Messiah (62: 225-226)
belongs to a much later period. Golden vessels in Magdalen (Poems
75, 76) and in The Widow (Poems 82, 83) no longer shine with the
joy of heavenly victory; they have become symbols of sinful ostenta
tion and mark the dissemination of a very different kind of Christianity.
Two features distinguish medieval Catholic Finnish legends from re
lated themes elsewhere in Europe: the Kalevala poetic form and,
above all, the predominating influence of the Mendicant Friars. While
the doctrines of asceticism and celibacy as such found little support in
Finland and Scandinavia, the belief in the glory of poverty and the
wickedness of wealth was extremely popular. The Dominicans, one of
the most important of the Mendicant Orders, established a monastery
in Turku in 1249 and in Viipuri in 1392 and from these centres spread
through Finland.
Documents from the 14th century show that occasionally in Fin
land, and elsewhere in Scandinavia, the mendicant Dominicans and
local established clergy came into conflict. The latter complained that
the Dominicans collected alms that were rightfully theirs and they
tried to prevent the Mendicant Friars from setting up temporary altars,
often in the open, by a roadside or on a bridge, where they held im
promptu services and heard confessions. The extent of the Dominicans’
influence was such that their liturgy was adopted in Finland and it
is their vigorous, self-denying ethic that per meates medieval Finnish
religious folk poetry. A vivid illustration of the conflict between the
friars and the local clergy is the episode of the bridge and the church
55
in The Messiah (62:195-217): Jesus refuses to show his respect to the
church but bows instead to the bridge, a reference to their impromptu
services.
The mendicant ethic is apparent in several other poems. Serf and
Master (Poems 77-79) and The Widow (Poems 82, 83) both describe
the arrogant conduct and consequent humiliation of the wealthy. The
former, one of the most radical poetic products of this ethic, is absolute
and wholly without mercy in its condemnation of earthly possessions.
The legend of Mary Magdalen (Poems 75, 76), the Dominicans’ pa
tron saint, was adapted in two different ways in the Baltic-Finnish
area. The Ingrian text preserves a more traditional interpretation
(Poem 76), while the West Finnish version (Poem 75) reflects the
Dominicans’ teaching; the social and even linguistic (i.e. Swedish vis-
a-vis Finnish) contrast between the rich woman and Jesus, disguised
as a poor herdsman, emerges very forcefully. Similar features, sugges
ting disapproval of social inequality, are found in the final episode
of Sun and Moon (Poems 32, 33) and in the master-servant relationship
in St Stephen (Poem 63). Leavetaking (Poems 57, 58), The Great Pig
(Poem 52), The Orphan (Poems 41-43) and The Incest (Poems 44, 45)
are further illustrations of the same basic theme: the weak, the poor
and the humble overcome the powerful, the rich and the proud'.
Ballads
The ballad - in the Finnish area the secular counterpart of the verse
legends - reached Scandinavia by not later than the 13th century.
The Provencal balada, the Italian bailata, was a dance-song; in the
Faroes, ballads still function as the accompaniment to line and ring
dances. Traditionally, the lead singer, or pair of singers, sang two- or
four-line stanzas, which were then repeated by all the other dancers
in the line or ring. The ballad reached the Finnish area mainly from
the west, although there is also evidence of its entering from the east,
at a time when Kalevala epic was still flourishing, even in West Fin
land. It was only later, in the 16th century (in certain areas possibly
in the late 15th century) that poets started to cast their ballads in
56
other poetic styles. Motifs and descriptions of milieu leave no doubt
that the small number of ballads in Kalevala metre took shape in the
medieval Catholic period. The melody, metre, rhyme, repetition for
mulas, and probably also the strophic structure of the Scandinavian
ballads changed or were lost as the poems were recast in the style of
Kalevala poetry with its alliteration and parallelism.
The most marked difference between the ballad and the poetry of
earlier style periods is found in structure and in the treatment of
erotic themes. Although the poets of the Viking era sang about women
and love, their approach was characterized by masculinity, a robust
joy in life and psychological realism. In the Finnish ballad, love be
came a romantic, destructive, fateful power. The characters in the
ballad are rigid stereotypes, dialogue - and sometimes monologue -
plays a greater role and the dénouement is nearly always tragic: a
maid kills the stranger who attempts to seduce her (Poem 90); in
advertent incest is followed by suicide when the truth comes to light
(Poems 44, 45); the attempt by a priest sworn to celibacy to seduce
a maid ends in his death (Poem 89); sexual advances drive a girl to
suicide by hanging (Poem 124); a girl conjures a storm to destroy her
seducer, an unscrupulous Hanse merchant (Poems 92-94); a young
nobleman takes his own life after hearing that his wife has died (Poems
87, 88).
In theme and attitude the ballads in Kalevala metre are mostly
cautionary. The dramatic conflict is generally between a man and a
woman. Myth and fairy tale motifs play a noticeably minor part in
these uncompromisingly didactic, fateful, blood-red and death-black
poems. The most original, and artistically most satisfying, is the story
of Annikainen, the subject of one of the ballads sung as part of the
Sääksmäki Whitsuntide festival (Poems 92-94). The ‘stranger’, a young
merchant forbidden by the rules of the Hanse League to marry anyone
of a different nationality, spends the winter with Annikainen. When
he sails away the abandoned girl raises a storm to destroy him; this
ungodly conclusion was omitted from the version sung under the super
vision of the clergy at Ritvala, but it survived in the variants sung
in the eastern parts of the Finnish area. The women closest in character
to Annikainen are Kirsti, who murders the priest who tries to seduce
57
her (Poem 89) and Kaisu, who stabs her seducer to death (Poem 90).
The poets’ sympathy is clearly on the side of these wronged and deter
mined women. The long poem about Klaus Kurki, who kills his inno
cent wife Elina, his small son and his best servant by burning them
alive (Poem 84) is a unique creation which brings together the ballad
and the legend. Based on a local tale, it was originally a five-act
drama which employed the ballad technique, but ended in the style
of a medieval legend poem.
While violent death and seduction abound in Finnish ballads, the
evil deeds are performed with a surprising amount of modesty
and elegance, and with little reference to bloodshed. The Finnish
versions of the Magdalen legend (Poems 75, 76), and The Faithful
Bride (Poems 85, 86) illustrate this feature. This may perhaps be partly
attributed to the fact that the songs were performed by girls of tender
years, under the supervision of the local clergy. Nevertheless, in com
parison with the ballad (and the poetry tradition as a whole) of Scan
dinavia and Russia, there is a clear tendency in the Finnish area to
avoid gruesome detail. There is rarely any trace of the interest in
the techniques of killing that is apparent in Germanic poetry.
Exceptions to this tendency to avoid overt brutality are several
poems of Russian origin: The Gift (Poems 19, 20), The Wife-Killer
(Poems 95, 96), The Daughter-Killer (Poems 97, 98), The Lost Brother
(Poem 136), and News of Death (Poems 140, 141) are all products of
a different tradition and are characterized by their sentimental, re
tarded description of brutalities, dismembered bodies and weeping
relatives. The Wife-Killer and The Daughter-Killer are typical of the
East European poem that purports to warn against the consequences
of crime. It has been shown that all the main motifs of The Wife-
Killer were borrowed from an Ingrian translation of a Russian ballad:
‘You poisoned your own brother, / brother of your own flesh, / you
might also poison your husband’, declares the male character of the
original Russian folk song to the girl whom he has provoked to com
mit a crime (cf. 96:69-72). In the final episode of The Daughter-Killer,
the mother tries in vain to persuade her three drowned daughters to
return from the sea after the daughter-in-law, for whose sake they
were murdered, has proved incapable of performing the household
58
tasks. The pie which Iivana makes from the breasts of his murdered
young wife in The Gift (Poems 19, 20) and gives to his mother-in-law
to eat, is an outstanding example of this predilection for brutality.
Refrain Poems
59
betrothed or husband. The comparison is achieved by making each
of the four relatives respond, or be treated, either positively or nega
tively in respect of an identical, repeated situation - the relatives may
all show sympathy or antipathy, benefit or be spared a certain fate;
the concluding stage is the opposite response or fate of the love-partner.
In Death on the Prowl (Poems 80, 81) and The Unhappy Bride (Poems
122, 123) the formula is used to express hatred of the husband, whereas
in The Water-Carrier I I (Poem 125) and The Maid and the Boat III
(Poem 128) it expresses the girl’s love of her betrothed. In some poems
another relative can be substituted for the love-partner (e.g. The Water-
Carrier /, Poem 124). Possible derivatives of this formula that are also
used for frame repetition poems include the comparison of suitors in
The Suitors from the Sea (Poems 111, 112) and The Suitors from Afar
(Poem 113), and The Thief as Suitor (Poem 115).
The middle of the 16th century saw the emergence of the Finnish
literary language and marked the beginning of the decline of the Kale
vala poetry tradition. It was not cause and effect: both were the re
sult of the Reformation. The decline in folk poetry must be seen in
the context of many changes wrought by or in association with the
introduction of Protestantism. The cultural vandalism of Gustav Vasa
(1497-1560) played an important part. The artistic treasures of the
churches were taken and melted down in the Stockholm mint, mon
asteries were turned into stables and granaries. The efforts of fanatical
Protestant clerics to destroy everything connected with the Church of
Rome had its immediate effect on ritual and on the wealth of cer
emonial poetry associated with it. In West Finland, poetry-singing sur
vived, in so far as it survived at all, usually in songs to accompany the
daily tasks, in local tradition such as The Death of Elina, or in popular
adaptations of ecclesiastical ceremony such as the Sääksmäki Whitsun
tide festival. By the late 16th century, the Finnish language had begun
to lose its position as the vernacular of the aristocracy and the leading
burghers of Turku and Viipuri even before Sweden’s Charles IX
(1550-1611) had eliminated the political opposition of the Flemings,
the Kurkis, the Tavasts, the Särkilahtis, and other noble Finnish fami
lies. The gifted boys who were educated in the schools set up by
the Lutheran Church consciously composed verses that conflicted with
the ancient tradition. Centuries were to pass before this new, educated
section of society was able to produce poetry that compared in quality
to, for example, The Forsaken Maid (Poems 92-94) or The Death of
Elina (Poem 84).
In Finland proper, the decades following the introduction of the Re
formation saw the linguistic and cultural alienation of many young men.
They adopted Swedish as their first language. Though their numbers
were small, their significance was immense: they represented the irre
placeable creative minority; gifted, critical and appreciative of aes
thetic values, they were the men who followed literature, art and
philosophy outside Finland. Instead of adapting foreign ideas to a
Finnish context, they began to implant them in their alien form.
The old poetic tradition survived in the more distant parts of the
Finnish area - survived, but no longer flourished, and scarcely de
veloped. Finland was entering an era of violent conflict and the most
striking of the later poems are chronicles of war, the ‘historical poems’.
In style and content they are close to Swedish popular poetry and
skämtvisa. The basic theme is repeated over and over again in the same
predictable stock phrases: the ‘good Duke Charles’ (Poem 143), the
‘noble Jacob de la Gardie’ (Poem 144), ‘Master Ivan’ (Poem 145),
‘famous King Peter’ (i.e. Peter the Great of Russia), or some other
leader equips a fleet and sails to Turku, Viipuri, Narva, or Riga.
When the customary insults have been exchanged, the conquering
forces begin to fire their guns, ‘noble swans begin to chant’, ‘closed
pipes to roar’, ‘open throats to bellow’. The enemy is terrified, the
boastful foe is humiliated, and the poet’s malicious delight has full
play. The last examples of spontaneous creation of folk poems in the
Kalevala epic style also concerned military themes and date from the
18th century. They are elegiac accounts of conscription into the Russian
army, sung to console the departing young men and their families
(Poem 147).
61
Kalevala M etre
62
and a long stressed syllable in a falling position, e.g.
kuin aijka to/sin tu/levi (cf. 1:40)
There are two main types of Kalevala line: a normal and a broken
trochaic tetrameter (murrelmasäe). In the normal tetrameter, word-
and foot-stress fall on the same syllable, with a caesura between the
second and third feet, e.g.
niin kuin / kahta // kantel/voista (1:12)
In a broken tetrameter at least one syllable with a main stress occurs
in a falling position and as a result the line does not usually have a
caesura, e.g.
kolmi/e Ao/van o/vie (1:14)
Word-order is also governed by certain rules. A noun, for example,
cannot be separated from its attribute either by the insertion of other
items or by an enjambment:
Laula/vat La/pinni / lapset (1:15)
could not be sung as
Lapset / laula/vat La/pinni
for this would be in conflict with the rules governing word-order, nor as
Lapset / Lapin/ni laujlavat
for a short syllable with main stress would occur in a rising position
and a long syllable in a falling position. Within the framework of these
various rules of stress and word-order singers tended to place short
words in the first half of the line and longer words in the latter half.
A line such as
suulta suurukselliselta (1:20)
is far more common than
petäjäisessä pesässä (1:17)
The Kalevala metre - the combination of normal and broken tro
chaic tetrameters - probably owes its origin to two once wholly separate
metres which came into contact more than 2,000 years ago. The nor
mal tetrameter with a caesura between the second and third feet was
probably borrowed from the Ancient Balts, while the broken tetra
meter is possibly the result of the fusion of the Balt metre with the metre
in which the poetry of the Proto-Finns was once cast, a prosodic form
which it has not been possible to reconstruct. The proportion of nor
mal to broken tetrameters in traditional Kalevala poetry is roughly
63
equal. The free variation of these two kinds of lines gives the metre
its tension and prevents it from becoming monotonous. It is also the
most characteristic difference between the Kalevala metre and other
trochaic tetrameters and explains why the latter are so unsuitable for
the translation of Finnish folk poetry (cf. pp. 17-18).
A curious feature of Kalevala metre is that short syllables with a
main stress, which are normally treated as metrically strong in tro
chees, occur in the falling part of the foot - thus creating stress patterns
that are very different from those of the spoken language. This feature
was probably the result of the tight syllabification of the metre - the
fact that only two syllables could occur in the second, third and fourth
feet. Were the metre based on the metrical opposition of a long stressed
and a short unstressed syllable, with the former always in a rising
position and the latter falling, it would be impossible, for example, to
incorporate a five-syllable word such as taitavammille (148:32), which
has a long first and a short final syllable, and a very common three-
syllable word such as virteni (148:33) would be able to occur only
with the first syllable beginning in the falling position of the first foot.
Hence the syllabic structure of the metre permits the ready use of the
whole range of the vocabulary of Finnish.
Many of the lines in the present Anthology appear not to conform
to these rules. Sometimes this is because a singer borrowed lines from
a poem in a different metre (e.g. 63:54-55), sometimes the singer
momentarily shifted into prose in the excitement of the narrative (e.g.
62:109). In most cases, however, the apparent conflict with the rules
given above is the outcome of linguistic change since the poem was
first sung. An example of this kind of change can be seen in the couplet:
Yhren tuiskasit tulleen
toisen vetkasit vetteen (75:41-42)
At one time, the last word of each line had an extra syllable, i.e. tule-
hen, vetehen (the loss of intervocalic -A- is a regular feature of Finnish)
and in this form both lines met the requirements of the traditional
metre. It is only in certain poems from the later periods of Kalevala
poetry that the operation of the old rules shows the influence of other
metrical forms. Poem 84, for example, begins with a line of dactyls
and trochees based on first syllable stress:
64
Elina neitty aittahan meni
In other variants this opening is expressed by a couplet in the tradi
tional metre, e.g.
Elinainen neitty nuari Elinainen the young maid
meni aittaham mäjelle went to the shed on the hill
Similarly, it is possible to discern in Ladoga Karelian poetry a con
flict with the traditional metre in the occurrence of a short stressed
syllable in a rising position, e.g.
Kydy on kui oma veikko (123:40)
Comparison with variants again suggests that earlier singers used
a traditional couplet in Kalevala metre in place of a single line, e.g.
Parempi kyty minulla Better my brother-in-law
kuin veikko omassa koissa than brother in my own home
Throughout the Finnish area Kalevala poetry is characterized by
alliteration, although it is more common in lyric than in epic; poets
and singers deliberately chose words with this in mind and often the
requirement of alliteration was more important than meaning (the
present editors have not commented on obscure or fantastic images
where they arise from this). Three degrees of alliteration occur in
Kalevala poetry. In contrast, for example, to ancient Scandinavian
poetry, it favours strong rather than weak alliteration - the repetition
of the same combination of consonant and vowel or of the same vowel.
However, weak alliteration - the repetition of the same consonant
only - also occurs. A further contrast with Scandinavian poetry is the
lack of any fixed rules demanding its use.
The frequent occurrence of strong alliteration in Kalevala poetry is
thought to have been influenced by the phonemic structure of Proto-
Finnic. As only eleven consonants occurred in word-initial positions
and could combine with eight vowels, the maximum number of vowel
and consonant-vowel combinations with which a word could begin
was 96, a much lower number than in Indo-European languages. The
alliterative pattern of the Kalevala line is free, but obviously allitera
tion favours adjacent words. There is also a tendency for alliteration
to occur in the functionally most important words, so that it is found
most often at the beginning of a line.
65
S tylistic Formulas
66
the part of the participants. This particular function survived most
clearly in Ingria where the poems continued to be sung as the accom
paniment to games and dances until comparatively recent times.
Another common repetitive feature of Finnish folk poetry is the use
of epithets and stock phrases to describe certain common actions. Väi
nämöinen is the tietäjä iänikuinen ‘the everlasting wise man’, Ilmarinen
the takoja iänikuinen ‘the everlasting craftsman’. Stereotyped phrases
are used to introduce whatever they say - sanan virkkoi, noin nimesi ‘he
uttered a word, spoke thus’, itse tuon sanoiksi virkkoi ‘he himself put this
in words’ - or to describe how they travel or sense danger - ajoa karet-
televi ‘drove rumbling away’, jo tunsi tuhon tulevan, / hätäpäivän päälle
saavan ‘felt his doom coming / his day of distress dawning’. In this
respect Kalevala-epic user stylistic conventions that are universal in
epic poetry.
The oldest strata of heroic epic are restrained in their use of figura
tive language and it is the body of poetry about the origin and playing
of the kantele which marks the first break with this tradition. These
poems are bold in their personification of nature and use of simile;
the description of how all the creatures of the forest, air and water
came to listen to Väinämöinen’s playing reveals a poet of stature and
by the standards of its time is highly unconventional. The Old Ger
manic kenning, the metaphoric periphrasis characteristic of the Scan
dinavian sagas whereby the sea is called, for example, ‘whale-road’,
a ship ‘foamy floater’, occurs only rarely in Kalevala epic; figurative
language of this kind was restricted to ritual poetry and incantations
(cf. Poem 48). The old Finnish poets produced some of their finest
poetry by singing plainly about everyday things; the ethnographical
and psychological realism which resulted from this approach imbued
their work with a freshness, and often a poignancy, that can still be
sensed today (e.g. Poems 16, 17, 81, 84).
In so far as Kalevala epic is characterized by any metaphorical de
vice, it is the mensural hyperbole, although even the numerous exam
ples of this are firmly rooted in local detail - the home or the surround
ing forests and lakes. The mensural was a favourite device for evoking
length of time, great wealth or distance, and depth of emotion. The
time Antero Vipunen has been in his grave is expressed by the size
67
of the trees that have grown from parts of his body (28:28-30; 29:20-
25). A mensural which occurs as a stock passage in numerous poems
describes the years a girl has spent in her parents* home with the image
of her skirts wearing away the threshold and her head-dress the door
lintel (e.g. 61:8-21; 75:6-15). The size of an ox is expressed by the
time it takes for a squirrel to run down its tail or a swallow to fly be
tween its horns (34:191-194; 51:3-10). Similar hyperbole expresses a
mother’s g rief- rivers swell from her tears, birches grow on their banks
and cuckoos sing in the birches (104:87-118).
70
atic structure of the main cycles of the Kalevala is largely a reflec
tion of this northern practice of joining poems into sequences, and
indeed Lönnrot referred to this particular style of singing as justifica
tion of the way in which he had compiled his epic.
The formation of separate poems into sequences with a relatively
clear narrative flow was not, however, the only way in which singers
and poet-singers drew on the stock of poetic material available at any
one time, nor was it the only way in which new variants and redactions
could evolve. When a poet-singer began a poem he would generally
have in mind a narrative theme (though this would not preclude the
spontaneous shift to another in the course of singing) and could select
the fabric to convey the theme by an allusion technique, e.g. by using
surrogate passages and stock phrases. Such a process could occur con
sciously or unconsciously. The use of such material is a very local art;
it presumes of the listeners a familiarity with the underlying narrative
and the stock of poems that provide the fabric. Where this form of
composition occurred consciously, it may in some areas have had its
own aesthetic function; the listeners’ enjoyment lay in the skill with
which the singer chose and juxtaposed his materials more than in the
underlying narrative.
A poem that took shape in this way, probably unconsciously, and
then became established as a new work is The Son (Poem 100), which
shares a common origin with The Elk (Poems 53, 54). The original
theme described how a man, whose epithet was lappalainen ‘the Lapp’,
slowly constructed (at various times of the year) a pair of skis, set off
on them, and after a very long journey and three unsuccessful at
tempts finally caught an animal. In The Son this has combined with
a poem about a mother who laments the sufferings of childbirth, to
produce a new theme about a son who hunts various animals in order
to repay his mother’s sufferings in giving birth to him. The poet-singer
expressed this theme with a series of stock phrases and surrogate pass
ages including fragments from The Elky The Kantele (Poems 23-25),
News of Death (Poem 140), and a hunter’s spell.
This patchwork method of composition was most marked in Ingria
where stock passages and phrases were used freely and very often to
express lyrical feeling. There it was an idea rather than an actual poem
71
which generally spread from one area to another. Local singers would
convey the idea with their own stock of poetic material, often draw
ing both framework and substance from quite other poems than those
which transmitted the idea to their area. It is this that makes it so
difficult to analyse the origin and structure of poems from Ingria,
for this patchwork construction did not exclude the possibility of a
poem, or parts of a poem, from becoming established in the repertory
of singers in another area and gradually being transmitted to other
parts of the Baltic-Finnish area.
Performance
The occasions when Kalevala epic was sung, and the singers and their
style of singing, were many and varied. Certain generalisations can be
made, although each must be carefully qualified. Men tended to sing
heroic epic, while women preferred refrain songs, legends, ballads and
lyrical epic. Nevertheless, in Karelia, at least in more recent times,
women also sang certain kinds of heroic epic. In Ladoga Karelia, for
example, it appears that more variants of poems such as Lemminkäinen
(Poems 34-36), The Voyage (Poems 26-27) and The Orphan (Poems
41-43) were recorded from men, whereas The Messiah (Poems 59-62)
was largely preserved by women. The tendency to prefer specific types
of poetry offers an explanation why the poems more typically sung by
women survived in most parts of the Finnish area, whereas those sung
by men were found principally in the northern part of that area. Wom
en, because they had fewer contacts with the world beyond their homes,
preserved the old traditions far longer than their menfolk. In the south
ern part of the Finnish area, the population density was greater; as serfs
the men had obligations that brought them more frequently into touch
with people who did not speak the Finnish dialects and thus eroded
the basis of their own culture. The greater degree of disintegration of
the poems sung by women could also be explained by their contact -
though not so close - with other cultures. Further north, men had to
travel long distances, but it was through wilderness; their contacts with
outsiders were generally with people who preserved, or at least had
72
known, the same tradition. Their womenfolk had correspondingly fewer
contacts with people of a different culture. The Plates from Karelia
(see Plates 1-27) and Ingria (see Plates 28-39) illustrate this contrast
in milieu.
As already mentioned, very few records survive about the person
ality of the earlier singers. Scant details about West Finnish healers
can be extracted from reports of witch-trials dating from the 17th
century. The men and women who preserved the tradition in the 19th
and 20th centuries were for the most part the ordinary people of K a
relia and Ingria - illiterate and Russian Orthodox by religion. In the
northern area, singing prowess clearly ran in families; the Perttunens,
the Malinens, the Sissonens, the Shemcikkas all produced several gen
erations of renowned singers. Further south, the survival of the tradi
tion depended far more on individual women, about whom, regret
tably, so little is known; the notes of 19th-century collectors sometimes
record a singer’s name, rarely anything more.
The singing tradition appears to have survived as an integral part
of daily life; it was a local tradition in which people sang to themselves
or their own groups. Professional singers or minstrels were not known
in the Finnish area until the end of the 19th century (see Plates 24—26),
when they began to travel around the country and to perform for
payment in responce to the romantic, nation-wide enthusiasm for
the Kalevala - it is even possible to speak of a ‘Kalevala cult’ and
‘Karelianism’ (see pp. 31-32) - that gripped the Finns at the turn of
the century. Both the motive and style of such performances, however,
were no longer wholly traditional.
In the form in which the genuine tradition survived, men and women
sang - either in groups or alone - as they worked in the fields, hunted,
fished, or attended to domestic duties (cf. Plates 7, 13, 18, 19, 28). In
the evening the men and women sang and listened to each other as
they performed household tasks, the women spinning (cf. Plate 5, 35)
or weaving, the men carving or mending their nets (cf. Plate 17).
Certain songs continued to be associated with particular festivals (see
pp. 53-54). The poems often served as entertainment when neighbour
ing groups met. It is known that in some parts of Karelia, for example,
singing contests were held, a custom that possibly goes back to the
73
Proto-Finnic period. They were especially popular in Estonia where
they formed part of wedding ritual, and they have also been recorded
in Latvia.
One of the finest descriptions of such an event was noted down in
1834 by Lönnrot in Archangel Karelia: ‘Frequently, when several
singers are present at a festival, a singing contest would be held, and
friends and acquaintances would lay bets on who would win. Arhippa
Perttunen [the singer of Poems 1:23—4-7, 12, 27, 28, 37, 59, 60] said
that the people of his village often persuaded him to take part in con
tests and he could not remember ever being beaten.’ It was the custom
for the first contestant to sing a poem, after which his opponent had
to reply with a similar poem of about the same length. They continued
in this way until one of them had exhausted his store of poems (cf.
Poems 10, 11). ‘If the singers performed badly,’ Lönnrot continued,
‘the audience would laugh at their struggles to have the last word.
Such a contest is like a squabble between two hens: the one who clucks
longer claims to have won.’ On the other hand, if two good singers
were competing, the contest could continue until one of them fell asleep.
The traditional form of male singing, which possibly dates from the
time when the poems still retained a ritual function, was the so-called
‘hand-in-hand position’ (see Plate 10). Records of this style of singing
are rare. The best known is that left by Porthan, who described in
the late 18th century how male singers always performed in pairs to
the accompaniment of the kantele. The task of the fore-singer - the
laulaja “singer’ or päämies ‘leader’ - went to the man who remembered
the poem better. He would begin solo, but would be joined by the
after-singer - the säestäjä ‘accompanist’ - when he reached the third
or fourth foot; the line was then repeated by the after-singer alone to
give the fore-singer time to shape the following line. The fore-singer
joined the after-singer at the third or fourth foot of the repeated line
and then went on to sing the next line solo. The singers sat side by
side, holding each other’s right hand and swaying backwards and for
wards in time to the rhythm; a wooden tankard was within reach of
the singers’ left hands. This style of singing, which has parallels else
where in the world, died out in the Finnish area during the 19th
century.
74
The way of singing that survived in the northern area was generally
that of one singer alone. Some scholars believe that the male pair style
of singing was also practised further south, although there is no firm
evidence of this. In the female tradition, except where a woman sang
alone to pass the time or to console herself, the role of after-singer was
generally performed by a group. The traditional way of singing the
Sääksmäki Whitsuntide songs was for the leading row of girls to sing a
line, which was then repeated by those behind (see Plate 40). This
custom survived until the 1880s and was probably typical of a medieval
West Finnish female tradition; it can be compared to a way of singing
practised in Ingria where girls sang as they walked hand in hand
through the village. There were also other forms of group-singing in
Ingria; it could accompany a ring dance - with one girl standing in
the middle of a circle - and sometimes girls divided into two groups
to sing, or they might sit on swings (see Plate 36).
The Kantele
75
This five-beat measure predominated in Finland and Karelia, it was
common in Ingria, but rare in Estonia. Its special character derives
from the long final notes which draw out the last foot of the line.
Even more common, and probably older, is the four-beat type of
melody:
76
swing between two notes; as he approached the point where he would
pause to gather his thoughts, he sang the remaining lines to the full
melody which he embellished with wonderful, sonorous phrases, which,
though I was fully aware of their beauty, I was unable to note down
precisely. Handled in this way, the essentially simple melody of the
epic poem acquired a vitality and richness that gave it an entirely
new quality.*
77
FE N N O -SCANDINAVIA
AND
NORTH-WEST RUSSIA
showing where the poems in the present
work were collected and other places
mentioned in the book. The inset map
shows the traditional provinces of Finland
and Karelia, the larger map the Baltic-
Finnish area. In the latter, the villages
which were especially rich sources of folk
poetry, and towns, are marked in small
letters; small capitals are used to show
administrative districts, the geographical
areas by which poems are generally
identified.
PRONUNCIATIO N
T hea single
orthography used in this book is phonetic. Each letter represents
sound. If it is written twice, it indicates, in the case of vowels,
that the sound is double the length of the single sound; where conso
nants are written twice, they are at syllable junctures and should be
pronounced twice. Native English-speakers should take special care not
to lengthen short consonants between two vowels, for this can some
times change the meaning of a word. In normal spoken Finnish, the
main stress always falls on the first syllable of a word, with decreasing
secondary stress on the third and fifth syllables (provided they are not
in the final syllable of the word); the requirements of the Kalevala
metre, however, can alter this stress pattern and the reader should
consult pp. 62-65 for further information.
80
1
ALKUSANAT
Prologue
* *
* *
81
I A lk u sa n a t
i P rologu e
48-52 M is h i Sissonen
Ilomantsi, North Karelia
D. E. D. Europaeus, 1845
82
2
LUOMINEN I
The Creation I
83
2 L uom inen I
T h e C reation I
P a r o i, S a k u 's w if e
Hevaa, Kaprio, Ingria
V. Porkka, 1883
84
3
LUOMINEN II
The Creation I I
Pääskyläine päivälintu
yölintu lepakkolintu Aswallow-bird, a sun-bird
a night bird, bat of a bird
lenteli kesosen päivän fluttered on a summer day
syksysempä yöm pimiän, a dark autumn night
6 etsi maata maatuksensa searching for land to lie on
lehtoa levätäksensä. a grove to rest in:
Ei saant maata linnum maata found no land for bird to lie
lehtoo ei linnu levätä. no grove for a bird to rest.
Lensipä suurelle mäelle Now, it flew to a great hill
10 korkialle kukkulalle: flew to a high peak:
näkipä laivasem merellä it saw a ship on the sea
punamastin purjehtivan, a red-mast sailing
lensipä laivan kannem peälle it flew on to the ship's deck
laivan keulalle kemahti, on the ship’s prow alighted
ie valoi vaskisen pesäisen it cast a nest of copper
muni kultaisem munaisen. laid an egg of gold.
85
Luom inen I I
3 T h e Creation I I
L o v iisa K a rva n en
Valkeasaari, Ingria
A. A. Borenius, 1877
86
4
LUOMINEN III
The Creation I I I
87
Luom inen I I I
4 T h e C reation I I I
I iv a n a S h em eik k a
Suistamo, Ladoga Karelia
O. A. Hainan, 1893
88
LUOMINEN IV
The Creation I V
90
5 Luom inen I V
T h e Creation I V
91
5 Luom inen I V
T h e C reation I V
Ohvo Hannonen
Vuokkiniemi, Archangel Karelia
A. A. Borenius, 1871
92
6
HAAVA
The Wound
93
6 H aava
T h e W ou n d
94
6 H aava
T h e W ou n d
S in g e r unknow n
Kemi, North Ostrobothnia
Z. Topelius, 1803 or 1804
95
7
TEHTÄVÄT
The Tasks
96
7 T e h tä v ä t
T he T asks
S in g er unknown
Korpiselka, Ladoga Karelia
D. E. D. Europäern, 1846
97
8
SEPPÄ
The Smith
M iih k a li P erttu n en
Latvajärvi, Vuokkiniemi, Archangel Karelia
A. A. Borenius, 1877
98
9
TULI
99
Tuli
9 F in
100
T u li
9 F ire
S in g er unknown
Akonlahti, Kontokki, Archangel Karelia
M. A. Castrén, 1839
101
10
KILPALAULANTA I
The Singing Match I
Ykstoinen
on nuori Joukavainen
vanha Väinämöinen First was young Joukavainen
then was old Väinämöinen
ajoi tiellä vastaksuten: driving together head on:
rahis puuttu rahkehesen traces were jammed with traces
s vemmel vempelen nenäh. collar-bow with collar-bow.
Siitä siinä seisottih. There and then they stopped.
Vesa kasvo vempelestä The collar-bow sprang a shoot
haavat aisoista yleni and the shafts sprouted aspens
pajupehko rahkehista. the traces a willow-clump.
102
10 T h e S in g in g M a tc h I
103
1 A Kilpalaulanta I
1 v The Singing Match I
104
1 A Kilpalaulanta I
1 V/ The Singing Match I
O n tre i M a lin e n
Vuonninen, Vuokkiniemi, Archangel Karelia
A. J . Sjögren, 1825
105
11
K I L P A L A U L A N T A II
The Singing Match I I
106
Kilpalaulanta I I
n T h e S in g in g M a tc h I I
107
Kilpalaulanta I I
n The Singing Match I I
108
Kilpalaulanta I I
n The Singing Match I I
Olgoi
Hevaa, Kaprio, Ingria
V. Porkka, 1883
109
12
SA M P O I
The Sampo I
Lappalainen kyyttösilmä
piti viikosta vihoa T hefor Laplander, the slit-eyed
ages harboured hatred
kaukausta ylenkatsetta for long bore ill-will
päälle vanhan Väinämöisen: against old Väinämöinen:
6 vuotti illoin, vuotti aamuin he waited evenings, mornings
tulovakse Väinämöistä for Väinämöinen to come
soavakse Umentolaista. for the man from Urnen to.
Siilon vanha Väinämöinen Then the old Väinämöinen
rekehensä reutosihen into his sledge flung himself
xo korjahan korentelihen, in his sleigh hoisted himself
orihilla olkisella with the straw-coloured stallion
hernevarrella hevolla with the pea-stalk-coloured horse
ajoa karetteloopi drove rumbling away
selvällä meren selällä upon the clear stretch of sea
15 ulapalla aukialla. the open water.
110
1 Q Sampo I
1 Z The Sampo 1
111
1 ^ Sampo I
X Zi The Sampo I
112
1 O Sampo I
1 « The Sampo l
113
1^ Sampo I
1£ The Sampo I
oro juoksi, matka joutu the stallion ran, the road sped
i« pimiähän Pohjolahan to dark Pohjola
summahan sarajahan to the gloomy arctic sea
miesten syöjähän kylähän to the man-eating village
urohon upottajahan. the village that drowns heroes.
166 Siit on jauho uusi sampo The new sampo was grinding
kirjokansi kiikutteli: the bright-covered was rocking:
jauho purnon puhtehessa it ground a binful at dusk'
jauho purnon syötäviä ground a binful for eating
jauho purnon myötäviä ground a binful for selling
170 kolmannen pieltäviä. a third for storing away.
114
I ^ Sampo I
A “ The Sampo I
115
Sampo I
U The Sampo I
116
1 Sampo I
1 Z* The Sampo I
117
1 Sampo 1
1 / The Sampo I
118
1 O Sampo I
1 jL The Sampo I
330 neki mestasi merehen pitched them right into the sea
saattaapi sarajahansa cast them in the arctic sea
yli oikien olansa straight over his right shoulder
kautti kainalon vasemman. under his left arm.
Itse noin sanoiksi virkko: He himself uttered these words:
336 “ Luotihin merehen luoto “A crag was formed in the sea
salasaari siunattihin a hidden isle spirited
itähän ikäti pitkä stretching eastward for ever
luotehelle loppumaton westward without end
Pohjolahan polveksehen on and on to Pohjola
340 johon purret puuttuoho upon which craft would be jammed
venehet takeltuoho!” and boats would be caught!”
Niin on puuttunt Pohjon pursi And so Pohjo’s craft was jammed
vene hankava halennut. the strong-rowlocked boat was split.
119
1 Sampo I
1 Zé The Sampo I
Arhippa Perttunen
Latvajärvi, Vuokkiniemi, Archangel Karelia
E. Lönnrot, 1834
120
13
S A M P O II
The Sampo I I
M a i j a T u rpoin en
Säfsen, Dalecarlia
C. A. Gottlund, 1817
121
14
S A M P O III
The Sampo I I I
122
H
S am po I I I
The Sam po I I I
123
M
Sam po I I I
T h e Sam po I I I
124
M
S am po I I I
T h e Sam po I I I
125
Sampo II I
H The Sampo I I I
126
Sampo II I
H The Sampo I I I
127
15
S A M P O IV
The Sampo I V
Heän tuon sanoiksi virkki: And she put this into words:
“Kunne läksit Väinämöine?” “Where are you off to, Väinö?”
128
1 ^ Sampo IV
1 O The Sampo IV
129
1 C Sampo IV
I O The Sampo IV
130
1 r Sampo IV
-I J The Sampo IV
131
1C Sampo IV
1 */ The Sampo IV
Iski tulda Ilman ukko Old Man of the Air struck fire
135 välähytti Väinämöine Väinämöine made a flash
kolmella kokon sulalla made with three eagle-feathers
viijellä vivuttšimella. with five tail feathers.
Tuoho palo hänen laiva. And there his ship was ablaze:
145 Siidä heäm mäni merehe. then he went into the sea.
132
1 C Sampo IV
1 J The Sampo IV
iso Se oli moamo kantajaine ’Twas his mother who bore him
heän tuon sanoiksi virkki: put this into words:
“Mit olet poika pahalla mielin “Why, my son, are you in bad spirits
kaiken kallella kypärin?” and your helmet all askew?”
iso Se oli moamo kantajaine ’Twas his mother who bore him
heän tuon sanoiksi virkki: put this into words:
“Poikuoni ainuoni “My only offspring!
elä ole pahalla mielin. Do not be in bad spirits:
Tuota mie itin ikäni for this I yearned all my life
133
1 C Sampo IV
1 J The Sampo IV
Miihkali Senkkanen
Kiimaisjärvi, Archangel Karelia
A. A. Borenius, 1872
134
16
KOSINTA I
The Courtship I
135
1 if Kosinta I
1 O The Courtship I
136
1 /T Kosinta I
1 U The Courtship I
137
1 /T Kosinta I
A v The Courtship I
V a ssiie i M a lin e n
Vuonninen, Vuokkiniemi, Archangel Karelia
A. A. Borenius, 1872
17
K O S I N T A II
The Courtship I I
139
n
K o sin ta I I
T h e C ou rtsh ip I I
140
1H K o sin ta I I
1 / T h e C ou rtsh ip I I
141
n
K o sin ta I I
T h e C ou rtsh ip I I
142
n
K o sin ta I I
T h e C ou rtsh ip I I
143
n
K o sin ta I I
T h e C ou rtsh ip I I
144
n
K o sin ta I I
T h e C ou rtsh ip I I
10 145
n
K o s in ta I I
T h e C ou rtsh ip I I
S im a n a Sissonen
Ilomantsi, North Karelia
D. E. D. Europaeus, 1845
146
18
K O S I N T A III
The Courtship III
147
1 Q Kosinta U l
i o The Courtship II I
148
1 Q Kosinta I I I
1 O The Courtship II I
K a ti
Soikkola, Ingria
V. Porkka, 1883
149
19
LA H JA I
The G ift I
150
1 Q Lahja I
l y The Gift I
151
19 Lahja I
The Gift I
152
1 Q Lahja I
l y The G ift I
Löi heän virkkuo vitsalla He struck the horse with the lash
helähytti helmispeällä.
io s clouted with the beaded tip.
“Virkku juokse, jouvu matka “ Courser, run, be quick, journey,
reki viere, tie lyhene.” sledge, glide onward, road, grow short.”
Reki koivuni kolasi The birchwood sledge bumped along
paukko patviset jalakset the curly-birch runners slammed
no vitsaset saverkkat vinku. the twig thongs whistled.
“Peäsemmä Kojon kotihe “We’ll reach Kojo’s house
Kojon meällä korkiella!” on the high hill of Kojo!”
Löi heän virkkuo vitsalla He struck the horse with the lash
helähytti helmispeällä. clouted with the beaded tip.
“Virkku juokse, jouvu matka “Courser, run, be quick, journey,
reki viere, tie lyhene.” sledge, glide onward, road, grow short.”
iso Reki koivuni kolasi The birchwood sledge bumped along
paukko patviset jalakset the curly-birch runners slammed
vitsaset saverkkat vinku. the twig thongs whistled.
“Peäsemmä Kojon kotihe “We’ll reach Kojo’s house
Kojon meällä korkiella!” on the high hill of Kojo!”
136 Neiti korjasta sanou, The maiden said from the sleigh
153
1 Q Lahja I
1 y The Gift I
154
1 Q Lahja I
l y The Gift I
“Empä vielä siihi sano.” “I will not tell yet for that.”
iso ”Sano sano paimen parka: “Tell me, tell me, poor herdsman:
annan vuuveksi lepuuta!” I will give you a year’s rest!”
H o to Lesonen
Vuokkiniemi, Archangel Karelia
K. Karjalainen, 1894
155
20
LAHJA II
The G ift I I
156
OA Lahja H
ZU The Gift I I
157
^)A Lahja I I
ZU The Gift I I
158
^ )A Lahja I I
Z U The Gift I I
“ Virka virka orja parka! “ Tell me, tell me what, poor serf!
Annan Kyytön kytkyeestä.” I ’ll give Whiteback from tether.”
106 “ En virka emäntä parka.” “ I will not tell, poor mistress.”
“ Virka virka orja parka! “ Tell me what, poor serf! I’ll give
Annan soimeelt sorian: a fine one from the manger:
virka virka orja parka!” tell me, tell me what, poor serf!”
“ En virka emäntä parka.” “ I will not tell, poor mistress.”
A n n i V a silo va
Vuole, Ingria
F. Pajula, 1894
159
21
K U L T A M O R S I AN I
The Golden Bride I
T uoallaonpäinseppäpahalla
Ilmollini
mielin
J r p w a s the smith Ilmollini
X his head down, in bad spirits
kaiken kallella kypärin helmet all askew
mäni seppojen pajahe, went to the forge o f the smiths
5 otti kultia vähäsen took a little gold
hopeita huopin täyven. a felt hatful o f silver.
160
^ 1 Kultamorsian l
LY The Golden Bride I
161
1 Kultamorsian I
The Golden Bride I
M iih k a li P erttunen
Latvajärvi, Vuokkiniemi, Archangel Karelia
A. A. Borenius, 1871
162
22
K U L T A M O R S I AN II
The Golden Bride I I
163
^^ Kultamorsian I I
Z Z The Golden Bride I I
164
) O Kultamorsian I I
«Z The Golden Bride II
seppo tuulena kotiin. the smith drove home like the wind
Seppo takoi traksutteli the smith hammered and clattered
70 oijuet liettä liekuttiit, the serfs were busy blowing
seppo kultia tuleen the smith flung gold in the fire
hopehia lietyeen silver into the furnace
sykysyisen uukon verran as much as an autumn ewe
talvisen karitsan verran: as much as a winter lamb:
76 tunkiusi hepo tulesta a horse squeezed out of the fire
kultakapia kuumehesta. a golden-hoof from the heat.
Muu kaikki pere ihastui, All the other kin were charmed:
itse Ismaro pelästyi. Ismaro himself was scared.
165
O O Kullamorsian I I
The Golden Bride I I
S in g e r unknow n
Soikkola, Ingria
J. Länkelä, 1858
166
23
KANTELE I
The Kantele I
Ittcoli ettivä
vanha Väinämöinen
hevoista
ld Väinämöinen himself
Owas out searching for his horse
päätä puitti katselova looking for the bridled one
suvikunnan suitet vyöllä at his belt the yearling’s reins
6 varsan valjahat olalla, shouldering the colt’s harness
löysi purren itkemästä when he found a boat weeping
venehen valittamasta. a vessel wailing:
“Mitäs itket puinen pursi “Why do you weep, wooden boat
venet hankava halajat? strong-rowlocked vessel, why yearn?
10 Itketkös sinä puisuttasi Do you weep for your wood’s sake
hankavuttasi haluvat?” for your rowlocks do you yearn?”
167
^ *3 Kantele I
LD The Kanüle I
60 Soitit nuoret, soitit vanhat The young played and the old played
soitit nainehet urohot and the married fellows played
soitit miehet naimattomat: and the unmarried men played:
ei ilo ilolle tunnu joy had not the feel of joy
soitto soitolle tajua. music was unmusical.
65 Ilo tuonne vietyöhön Let the joy be borne that way
kantele kannettakohon the kantele be carried
miehen tehnehen käsille to the hands of its maker
sormille sovittajansa. its tuner’s fingers.
Soittelepi Väinämöinen Väinämöinen made music
70 käsin pienin, hoikin sormin with small hands, slender fingers
peukalo ylös keveni: his thumb rose, lightly touching:
168
^ O Kantele I
L D The KanUle I
itkit nuoret, itkit vanhat the young wept and the old wept
itkit nainehet urohot and the married fellows wept
itkit miehet naimattomat, and the unmarried men wept
75 itensäki Väinämöisen even old Väinämöinen
vedet vyöryit silmistähän had water roll from his eyes
pyliämmät pyyn munia rounder than a grouse’s eggs
häriämmät härjän päitä. larger than an oxeye’s flowers.
Ei sitä metäsä liene There was none in the forest
so jalan neljän juoksevata running on four feet
kahden siiven siuhkavata whirring on two wings
joka ei tullut kuulemahan that did not come to listen
tehessä Isän iloa: to the Father making joy:
itteki metän emäntä even the forest’s mistress
85 rinnoin aidalle ajain. leaned her breasts upon the fence.
Ei sitä vedesä ollut There was none in the water
evän kuuden kulkevata moving with six fins
joka ei tullut kuulemahan: that did not come to listen:
itseki veden emäntä even the water’s mistress
9o vetihin vesikivelle drew herself up on a rock
vaivousi vattalolle. clambered up on her belly.
S in g er unknow n
Ostrobothnia
Copied from the manuscript of an
unknown collector by K. Ganander, ca 1760
24
KANTELE II
The Kantele I I
T ekiVironKauko kanteloista
seppä vinkeloista, Kauko shaped a kantele
Estonia’s smith a curved thing
eikä puusta eikä luusta: neither of wood nor of bone
sapsosta sinisen hirven but of a blue elk’s shoulder
5 poropeuran polviluista. a reindeer’s knee-bones.
170
K a n te le I I
4 T h e K a n ü le I I
O n tre i Vanninen
Sortavala, Ladoga Karelia
K. Killinen, 1882
171
25
KANTELE III
The Kantele III
172
O C K a n te le in
Z J The Kantele I I I
Kuin soitti sokea poika And when the blind boy played it
poika raukka ramputteli when the poor boy had a strum
tuo vast sitt ilolle paisto. only then it shone with joy.
Mitä lie ollut ukkoo tuvassa What old men were in the house
60 ne oil näskämäisillänsä, were leaning forward
kanteloista kuunteliit listening to the kantele
illoo ihhailit. admiring the joy.
Mitä lie olt ämmii tuvassa What old crones were in the house
niil oil käsi poskipäässä, had hands on cheekbones
65 kanteloista kuunteliit. listening to the kantele.
Mitä lie olt tyttöö tuvas What girls there were in the house
ne oil kaik vesissä silmin, all had water in their eyes
kanteloista kuunteliit. listening to the kantele.
Mitä lie olt poikii tuvassa What boys there were in the house
60 ne oilt maassa vatsallansa, lay with bellies on the floor
kanteloista kuunteliit listening to the kantele
illoo ihhailit admiring the joy
soittoo pojan sokean. the blind boy’s music.
Sus juoks suuren korven A wolf ran through the great woods
66 karhu kankaan lakia a bear over the wide heath
kanteloista kuulemaan - ran to hear the kantele
susi särki suuren päänsä and the wolf broke its great head
karhu kankeat nissaan. and the bear its rigid neck.
S in g er unknown
Vuole, Ingria
F. A. Saxbäck, 1859
26
M ERIM ATK A I
The Voyage I
174
Merimatka I
Z D The Voyage I
175
^ /T Merimatka I
ZO The Voyage I
176
Merimatka I
ZO The Voyage I
12 177
^ S' Merimatka I
Z U The Voyage I
S in g e r u n know n
Soikkola, Ingiia
J . Länkelä, 1858
178
27
M E R I M A T K A II
The Voyage I I
179
^ * 7 Merimatka I I
£ / The Voyage I I
180
Merimatka I I
L I The Voyage I I
181
Merimatka I I
L / The Voyage I I
Siitä sinne tie mänövi From there to there the road goes
rata uusi urkenevi. a new path leads off.
A rh ip p a P erttu n en
Latvajärvi, Vuokkiniemi, Archangel Karelia
J . F. Cajan, 1836
28
SANAT I
The Spell I
183
Sanat /
ZO The spell I
184
Sanat I
LO The Spell I
A rh ip p a P erttu n en
Latvajärvi, Vuokkiniemi, Archange J Karelia
E. Lönnrot, 1834
185
29
S A N A T II
The Spell I I
186
Sanat I I
£ y T h e S p e ll I I
187
Sanat I I
LV The spell II
S im a n a H ö ttö n en
Repola, Olonets Karelia
A. A. Borenius, 1872
190
30
TUONELANMATKA
The Visit to Tuonela
191
O A Tuonelanmatka
jy j The Visit to Tuonela
Siitä toas huhuta huijahutti: Then again he called out, shouted out:
so “Tuo venehtä Tuonen tyttö “Bring a boat, girl of Titoni
lapsi kalman karpassuo!” child of the grave, a vessel!”
192
OA Tuonelanmatka
Jv The Visit to Tuonela
193
O A Tuonelanmatka
J v The Visit to Tuonela
Jyrki Malinen
Vuonninen, Vuokkiniemi, Archangel Karelia
A. A. Borenius, 1871
194
31
AURINKOJA KUU I
Sun and Moon I
Sanan tuo virkko nuin nimesi: He uttered this word, spoke thus:
ao “Jos ma nyt lähen Pohjolaan “ I’ll go now to Pohjola
Pohjo poikain sekaan among the sons of Pohjo
Lapin lasten tanterille to the Lapp children’s paddocks
koska kuun kivestä peästin since from the stone I have freed
päivän peästin kalliosta.” the moon, from the rock the sun.”
195
O 1 Aurinko ja kuu I
O 1 Sun and Moon I
Singer unknown
Paltamo, Kainuu
Collector unknown, recorded before 1825
196
32
A U R I N K O J A K U U II
Sun and Moon I I
Sepoin tyttöi selvä tyttöi The smith’s girl, the skilful girl
tuo tarkka takojan neitoi careful maid of the craftsman
noisi päivän etsijäksi got up to search for the sun
16 ja kuun tähystäjäksi. and to look out for the moon
Pani sieran seslähää put a whetstone on her breast
otti harjan hartiallee took a brush on her shoulder
otti kannun kailahaa took a jug under her arm
nii otti unikerräisen. and took a bundle of dreams.
so Mäni verssan, mäni toisen She went a verst, another
mäni kolmatta vähhäisen: went a little of a third:
Iittovan kylä näkkyy Iittova village loomed up
Hiitoin koit i kuumattaat. Hiitoi’s houses gleamed.
Nii viskais unikerräisen, She tossed the bundle of dreams
25 nukutteli Hiioin miehet she lulled Hiitoi’s men to sleep
vaivutteli Hiioin naiset: she weighed Hiitoi’s women down:
ei kuulis koiran haukkuva no bark of a dog was heard
eikä heppoisen hirnuva nor the neighing of a horse
eikä lapsen itkövä. nor the weeping of a child.
197
Aurinko j a kuu I I
Sun and Moon I I
Viskais sieran seslästää She Hung the whetstone from her back
i saoi visatessaa: and said as she was Hinging:
40 “Kasvakaaha paksu paasi “Let a thick slab grow
jottei pääsis Iiton miehet which Iitto’s men cannot pass
ei yläitse eik alaitse neither over nor under
eik pääsis kukkaalikkaa!” cannot pass whichever way!”
Viskais harjan hartialta She flung the brush from her shoulder
50 nii saoi visatessaa: and said as she flung:
“Kasvakaaha paksu metsä “ Let a thick wood grow
syntykää kommiia korpi let splendid backwoods be born
jottei pääsis Iiton miehet which Iitto’s men cannot pass
ei yläitse eik alaitse neither over nor under
56 eik pääsis kukkaalikkaa!” cannot pass whichever way!”
Viskais kannun kailastaa She flung the jug from her arm
saoi visatessaa: and said as she flung:
“Syntykää suuri jokkiin “Let a great river be bom
suuri jokkiin, suuri mäkkiin a great river, a great hill
65 jottei pääsis Iiton miehet which Iitto’s men cannot pass
ei yläitse eik alaitse neither over nor under
eik tultais venehilläkää nor can come in boats either
eik laivoilla ajettais.” nor can sail in ships!”
198
O O Aurinko ja kuu I I
j Z Sun and Moon I I
N a te lia
Soikkola, Ingria
V. Porkka, 1883
199
33
A U R I N K O J A K U U III
Sun and Moon I I I
Kuka päivöin etsijäks Who would search for the sun, would
kuun tarkoin tähystäjäks? look carefully for the moon?
Jumalaisen ainoi poikoi The one Son of God
Kiesuksen käppiiä käsky the prompt servant of Jesus
10 tuo oli päivöin etsijäin he would search for the sun, would
kuun tarkan tähystäjäin. look carefully for the moon:
Pani kannuun ollooja in a jug he put some beer
toiseen kannuun mettooja in another jug some mead
kolmanteen vihhaisen viinan. in a third angry liquor.
20 0
O O Aurinko ja kuu I I I
J J Sun and Moon I I I
201
O O Aurinko ja kuu I I I
J J Sun and Moon I I I
202
O *5 Aurinko ja kuu I I I
O J Sun and Moon I I I
203
O O Aurinko ja kuu I I I
Sun and Moon I I I
P a r o i, S a k u 's w ife
Hevaa, Kaprio, Ingria
V. Porkka, 1883
2 04
34
LEMMINKÄINEN I
Lemminkäinen I
205
Lemminkäinen I
J i Lemminkäinen I
20 6
'J A Lemminkäinen I
J t Lemminkäinen I
2 07
'j / l Lemminkäinen /
J 1 * Lemminkäinen I
208
O A Lemminkäinen I
J T " Lemminkäinen I
“Ei ole siinä miesten surma “There is no death for men there
eigä kuoloma urosten nor doom for heroes -
iso Lemmingäizen liijatengi! Lemmingäine above all!
Ne mie suullani suloan I shall melt them with my mouth
sanoillani salboailen.” stop them with my words.”
14 209
^ / | Lemminkäinen I
J r Lemminkäinen I
210
L em m inkäinen I
34 L em m in k ä in en I
N o s to , H u o ta r i's w if e
Kiimaisjärvi, Archangel Karelia
A. A. Borenius, 1872
211
35
L E M M I N K Ä I N E N II
Lemminkäinen I I
PitiSinivermo
Väinölä pitoa
juominkia: N ow, Väinölä held a feast
and Sinivermo revels:
kutsu pipit, kutsu papit masters, pastors were bidden
kutsu rujot, kutsu rammat the crippled, the lame were asked
5 rujot venosin souti the crippled were rowed in boats
rammat ratsahin ajeli the lame driven on horseback
kutsu kaiken ristikansan all Christian people were asked
vaan ei kutsunt Lemminkäistä. but Lemminkäinen was not.
Lemminkäin on pillopoika Lemminkäin, he the blackguard
10 piti ainoan sisonsa enjoyed his only sister
turmeli emonsa lapsen. and ruined his mother’s child.
212
O C Lemminkäinen I I
J J Lemminkäinen I I
213
O C Lemminkäinen I I
J J Lemminkäinen I I
2 14
O C Lemminkäinen I I
Lemminkäinen I I
215
*5C Lemminkäinen I I
J J Lemminkäinen I I
2 16
O C Lemminkäinen I I
Lemminkäinen I I
zoo Läksi suka verta vuotamah. The brush started oozing blood.
Virkki emo Lemminkäisen: Lemminkäinen’s mother said:
“Jop on hukka Lemminkäistä “Now Lemminkäinen is lost
piilo poikoa pahoa things look black for the bad boy
kuin suka verta vuotanee.” when the brush is oozing blood.”
217
O C Lemminkäinen I I
J J Lemminkäinen I I
218
O r Lemminkäinen I I
J Lemminkäinen I I
219
O r Lemminkäinen I I
J * / Lemminkäinen I I
S im a n a Sissonen
Ilomantsi, North Karelia
D. E. D. Europaeus, 1845
220
36
L E M M I N K Ä I N E N III
Lemminkäinen I I I
6 “Kuhun sie määti, pieni poika? “Where do you go, little boy?
Ota mintaa kaasakseks Take me as your companion
präskäksi kypärän päälle as a buckle on your cap
sormukseksi sormellesi!” as a ring on your finger!”
221
T /T Lemminkäinen I I I
J v/ Lemminkäinen I I I
Miekka tupesta läkäsi: The sword spoke out from its sheath:
“ Kalervikko velvyveni “ Kalervikko my brother
«o Kalervikko kantajani Kalervikko my bearer
älä istu kynnykset: do not sit on the threshold:
kylän on kielet kynnyksessä!” in it are the village tongues!”
Miekka jällee tupesta läkäsi: The sword again spoke out from its sheath:
“ Kalervikko velvyveni “ Kalervikko my brother
Kalervikko kantajani Kalervikko my bearer
älä istu hummaree: do not sit in the mortar:
50 hovin on huolet hummarees!*’ in it are the manor’s cares!”
Miekka tupesta läkäsi: The sword spoke out from its sheath:
“ Katso tuohoo tuopin sissee “ Look there inside the flagon
60 katso kahen kannen alle!” look underneath the two lids!”
222
O Lemminkäinen I I I
« 5 0 Lemminkäinen I I I
V arpu L u u k k a
Narvusi, Ingria
V. Alava, 1892
223
37
KAUKAMOINEN I
Kaukamoinen I
224
0*7 Kaukamoinen I
J / Kaukamoinen I
menneheltä pään mäkäsen I’ll strike the head off one gone
30 senki seipähän nenähän.” and set it upon the pole.”
225
O ^7 Kaukamoinen l
3 / Kaukamoinen I
226
O H Kaukamoinen I
J / Kaukamoinen I
227
37 Kaukamoinen I
Kaukamoinen I
Laski pään päältä olkan He took the head off the shoulder
niinkun naatin nakrihista like the top off a turnip
evän kaikesta kalasta. or a fin off a whole fish.
228
'S H Kaukamoinen I
J / Kaukamoinen I
229
“5 * 7 Kaukamoinen I
J / Kaukamoinen I
230
3 7 Kaukamoinen I
J / Kaukamoinen I
Sini itki Saaren immet Then the Island’s young girls wept
sini Saaren morsiamet the brides of the Island wept
seo kun ei puijepuu näkynyt till the mast was out of sight
rautahankki haimentaa. and the iron rowlock dim.
Itse noin sanoiksi virkko: They put this in words:
“ En mie ite purjepuita “ I do not weep for the masts
rautahankkia halaja, yearn for the iron rowlocks
266 iten puijepuun alasta but for him below the mast
rautahankin hai tietä.” guarding the iron rowlock.”
275 Siitä sinne tie meneepi. From there to there the road goes.
A rh ip p a P erttunen
Latvajärvi, Vuokkiniemi, Archangel Karelia
E. Lönnrot, 1834
231
38
K A U K A M O I N E N II
Kaukamoinen I I
232
O O Kaukamoinen I I
J O Kaukamoinen I I
233
O Q Kaukamoinen I I
«JO Kaukamoinen I I
234
O O Kaukamoinen I I
Kaukamoinen I I
235
O Q Kaukamoinen I I
O O Kaukamoinen I I
236
O Q Kaukamoinen I I
J O Kaukamoinen I I
S in g er unknow n
Moloskovitsa - Tyrö, Ingria
A. Törneroos, T. Tallqvist, 1859
237
39
VALA I
The Bond I
238
O Q Vala I
O y The Bond I
“On meillä oloista koissa “We have some beer in the house
so leppäsessä nassakassa in a barrel of alder
tapin tammisen takana.” behind an oak bung.”
S im a n a K y ö ttin e n
239
40
VALA II
The Bond I I
2 40
40 Vala I I
The Bond I I
Ei ole keiho suuren suuri His was not a great big spear
eik ole keiho pienem pieni: nor a little tiny spear:
45 keiho keskikertahini. it was a middle-sized spear.
Lykkelöypä keihuonsa He put in his spear
muijen keihojen sekahe. with the other spears.
16 241
Vala I I
40 The Bond I I
Lari Bogdanov
Uhtua, Archangel Karelia
A. A. Borenius, 1872
242
41
ORPO I
The Orphan I
Miesvääntäjä
köyhä vähäväkkiin
vähärammoin Aapoor, feeble man
plodder, a weak workman
kynsi kymmenen vakkooa scratched ten furrows round
yhen kannon ympärille, and round one tree-stump
5 kylvi kymmene jyvvää and he sowed ten seeds
kymmenen vaon vällii. between ten furrows.
Halkeis kanto kaheksi The stump split in two
syntyi kaksi poikalasta: and two boys were born:
yksi Unnoissa ylleeni one of them rose in Untoi
10 toin kasvoi Kaarasassa. and one grew in Kaarasa.
Mikä Unnoissa ylleeni He who rose up in Untoi
se ylleeni Untamoiksi, rose up to be Untamoi
mikä kasvoi Kaarasassa he who grew in Kaarasa
se kasvoi Kalervikoiksi. grew to be Kalervikkoi.
243
AI Orpo I
» 1 The Orphan I
Leikkoi suuret, leikkoi pienet It cut the great, cut the small
leikkoi lapset kätkyesse cut down children in cradles
hullukkaist huntuloihe the unknowing in their shawls
40 vakahaist vaattehesse. and the infants in their clothes.
2 44
A I Orpo I
• 1 The OrphanX
OuU
Soikkola, Ingria
V. Porkka, 1883
94.S
42
ORPO II
The Orphan I I
SekuinkalkkiensinKalevan poika
emästä synty
aleva’s unhappy son
Kwhen first of his mother bom
viiellä vesikivellä on five water-rocks
heti kohta kolmiöissä soon as he was three nights old
5 katkasi kapalovyönsä. he broke up his swaddling-bands.
Nähtiin hyvä tulevan He was seen to promise well
keksittihin kelpoavan: found to be a fine fellow:
myytihinpä vierahalle he was sold to a stranger
Karjalahan kaupittihin was traded to Karelia
10 sepolle Köyrötyiselle. to the smith Köyrötyinen.
Pantihin lasta katsomahan: He was put to mind a child:
katsoi lasta, kaivoi silmät cared for it, dug out its eyes
syötti lasta, söi itekki fed the child, himself ate too
lapsen tauilla tapatti he killed the child with disease
16 kätkyen tulella poltti. he burned the cradle with fire.
246
4• 9^ 0rpo 11
The Orphan I I
247
A l
T -Z ,
0rP°n
T h e O rp h a n I I
S in g er unknow n
Kemi, North Ostrobothnia
Copied from the manuscript of an unknown
collector by K. Ganander, ca 1760
248
43
ORPO III
The Orphan I I I
so Tappo suuret, tappo pienet. It killed the great, killed the small.
249
A O O rpo I I I
HO T h e O rp h a n I I I
250
A 'J O rp o III
i J The Orphan I I I
L evo M a n n in en
Repola, Olonets Karelia
A. A. Borenius, 1872
251
44
RUTSA I
The Incest I
T uolapsiolilieto
tuima Tuiretuinen
Lemminkäinen
t was stern Tuiretuinen
wanton child Lemminkäinen
se on torulle tulevi came to the market
maarahoja maksamahan to pay his land-tax
5 viemähän vetoperiä to take in his dues
yhen neitsyen kisoille. to play with a maid.
Koksahti neito korjahan The maid went bump in the sleigh
tapahteli taljoillehe: descended upon his furs:
“Tuoni sinun korjollesi “Death be to this sleigh of yours
10 tauti sinun taljallesi!” a pox on your fur!”
252
ÅA Rutsa 1
t i The Incest I
O n d rei Sotik a in en
Suistamo, Ladoga Karelia
D. E. D. Europaeus, 1845
253
45
R U T S A II
The Incest I I
2 54
Rutsa I I
iJ The Incest I I
Singer unknown
Hevaa, Kaprio, Ingria
V. Porkka, 1883
255
46
KYLVÄJÄ I
The Sower I
256
A f. Kylväjä I
H O The Sower I
17 257
AC Kylväjä I
“ U The Sower I
Singer unknown
Kaavi (?), North Karelia
C. A. Gottlund, ca 1835
258
Al
KYLVÄJÄ II
The Sower I I
Sill ei kasva meijen kagrat For this our oats do not grow
rukkiihet ei ylleene and our rye is not rising
ei kasva kassessakaa not growing in the clearing
10 eikä noise notossakaa nor springing in the hollow
Sämpsän mättähälläkää nor yet on Sämpsä’s hummock
Pellervoin mäelläkää: nor yet on Pellervoi’s hill:
Sämpsä sängyssä makkais Sämpsä was lying in bed
selällää seitsenristi the seven-crossed on his back
is kylellää kymmennyblä, the ten-buttoned on his side
sääret sängystä näkkyyt his legs could be seen in bed
rikoista rivat punnaiset. on slats his red braids.
2 59
AH K y lv å jå ll
i / The Sower I I
260
AH K y lv ä jä n
* / The Sower I I
K a ti
Soikkola, Ingria
V. Porkka, 1883
261
48
KARHU
The Bear
O lli T im onen
Kitee,jN orth Karelia
O. A. F. Lonnbohm, 1894
262
49
TAMMI I
The Oak I
263
Tammi I
*y The Oak I
26 4
AQ Tammi I
*T7 The Oak I
S in g e r un kn ow n
Soikkola, Ingria
J. Länkelä, 1858
265
50
TAMMI II
The Oak I I
2 66
C A Tammi I I
J U The Oak I I
L a r i B ogdanov
Uhtua, Archangel Karelia
A. A. Borenius, 1872
267
51
ISO HÄRKÄ
The Great Ox
S in g er unknow n
Ostrobothnia
K. Ganander(?), before 1789
268
52
IS O S I K A
The Great Pig
26 9
C Iso sik a
T h e G rea t P ig
S in g er unknow n
Sakkola, Karelian Isthmus
A. Ahlqvist, 1854
270
53
HIRVI I
The Elk I
271
C Q Hirvi I
J J The Elk I
272
54
HIRVI II
The E lk I I
18 273
54 Hirvi II
The Elk I I
274
54 Hirvi II
The Elk I I
S im a n a K ielevä in en
Jyskyjärvi, Archangel Karelia
A. A. Borenius, 1872
275
55
H IR V I JA KÄÄRM E
Elk and Snake
J
uoksi hervi Hiien maasta
potki puolen kankahalta Ankicked
elk ran from Hiisi’s land
a cowberry on the heath
puri varvan juossessaha it gnawed a twig as it ran
joi järven janusissahan. drank a lake when it thirsted.
5 Juoksi hään uutehen tuppahan It ran into a new house
koreaan kornitsahan: into a splendid chamber:
näki kyyn ollova joovan it saw a snake drinking beer
maon verryttä vettävän. a worm taking refreshment.
Iski kyitä kylkiluihen It struck the snake on the ribs
10 ala maksoin mattoja: the worm under the liver:
kyy itki kylkiähän the snake wept over its ribs
mato raukka maksojahan. the poor worm for its liver.
O u te
Hevaa, Kaprio, Ingria
A. A. Borenius, 1877
276
56
O N G IN TA
The Fishing
277
r /^ O n g in ta
0 \J T h e F ish in g
O n lrri M a lin e n
Vuonninen, Vuokkiniemi, Archangel Karelia
E. Lönnrot, 1833
278
57
LÄHTÖ I
Leavetaking I
279
C H L ä h tö I
J / L e a v e ta k in g /
S in g e r unknow n
Vuokkiniemi, Archangel Karelia
M. A. Castren, 1839
280
58
L Ä H T Ö II
Leavetaking I I
281
ro L ä h tö I I
JÖ L ea o eta k in g I I
Pappi risti lapsen ripsautti And the priest sprinkled the child
täst on lapsen kapsautd then he dubbed the child
«o Metsolan kuninkaaksi King of Metsola
Rahansaaren vartiaksi. Guardian of Rahansaari.
O n tre i M a lin e n
Vuonninen, Vuokkiniemi, Archangel Karelia
E. Lönnrot, 1833
282
59
LUOJAN V IR SI I
The Messiah I
Siitä tyyty, siitä täyty She was fulfilled, she was filled
30 siitä paksuksi panihen by it, grew thickset from it
283
C Q Luojan virsi I
The Messiah I
284
r Q Luojan virsi I
O y T ht Messiah /
285
C Q Luojan virsi I
J J The Messiah I
286
Luojan virsi I
O y The Messiah I
287
C Q Luojan virsi I
O S The Messiah I
288
C Q Luojan virsi I
J 7 The Messiah I
2 89
r n Luojan virsi I
j y The Messiah I
285 Niin päivä Jumalan luoma The sun, the creature of God
sanan virkko noin nimesi: uttered a word, speaking thus:
“ Poikas on minunki luonut “Your boy created me too
päivän ajan paistamahan to shine during the day-time
yön ajan lepäämähän. to rest during the night-time.
290 Tuoli on pieni poikuosi There is your little offspring
2 90
C Q Luojan virsi I
J 7 The Messiah I
A r h i p p a P e r ttu n e n
Latvajärvi, Vuokkinicmi, Archangel Karelia
E. Lönnrot, 1834
291
60
L U O J A N V I R S I II
The Messiah I I
292
Luojan virsi I I
O The Messiah I I
293
/lf\ Luojan virsi I I
U U The Messiah I I
2 94
/T A Luojan virsi I I
0 1 / The Messiah I I
A r h i p p a P e r ttu n e n
295
61
LU O JA N V I R S I III
The Messiah I I I
296
C. 1 Luojan virsi I I I
o i The Messiah I I I
Tuosta tyyty, tuosta täyty She was fulfilled, she was filled
tuosta paksuksi pageni by it, swelled thickset from it
40 lihavoiksi liittelihi. put on flesh from it. She took
Vei on marjat toatollaha: the berries to her father:
“ Syö marjoa toatto raukka!” “Eat a berry, poor father!”
“ Missä olit, huora, tämän äijän?” “Where were you, whore, all this time?”
“ Olin marjan poimennassa.” “I was picking a berry.”
“ Miss olit, huora, tämän äijän? “Where were you, whore, all this time?
Olit sulhasen etšossa You were seeking a bridegroom
sugapäiden, vaskivöijen brush-headed and silk-belted
66 soman kaplukan katšannossa looking for a handsome heel
punapaglan pujellussa.” toiling after a red lace.”
“ Miss olit, huoran, tämän aigoa? “Where were you, whore, all this time?
«o Olit sulhasen etšossa You were seeking a bridegroom
sugapäiden, sulkkuvöijen brush-headed and silk-belted
soman kaplukan katsannossa looking for a handsome heel
punapaglan pujellussa.” toiling after a red lace.”
297
Č.I Luojan virsi II I
O 1 The Messiah I I I
“Vie virta, kohota koski!” “Take me, stream, lift me, rapids!’
“Eipä siima virta vie “No, the stream will not take you
eigä koski kohota nor will the rapids lift you:
90 kuin on poiga polvillase you’ll have a boy on your knees
herra Kristus helmoillase.” the Lord Christ upon your lap.”
Sai hän pojan porstuhe She had the boy in the porch
lapsen lastujen segaha: the child among the shavings:
peittelööpi poijastaha she covered her boy
95 suojeloopi poijastaha she guarded her boy
sorajoven soimen alla. beneath the straight-hair’s manger.
298
/ 1 Luojan virsi I I I
0 1 The Messiah I I I
105 “Jo nyt on syndyt synnyn koite “This is the dawn of God’s birth
jo nyt paistaa Jumalan päivä the sun of God is shining
Herran kesrä hellittää.” and the wheel of the Lord glows.”
29 9
/T 1 Luojan virsi I I I
O I The Messiah I I I
im “Mitä tavot seppä raukka?” “What are you forging, poor smith?”
“Tavon vankilan varoja.” “ I am forging prison-clamps.”
“Mit olla paksuus vangin kaula?” “How thick is the captive’s neck?”
“Panettele kaulallase! “ Put them on your neck:
Kuin on paksu oma kaula as thick as your own neck is
146 niin on paksu Luojan kaula!” so thick the Creator’s neck!”
O k k i G ordeinen
Repola, Olonets Karelia
U. Karttunen, 1897
300
62
L U O J A N V I R S I IV
The Messiah I V
Tuosta tyytyi, tuosta täytyi She was fulfilled, she was filled
tuosta paksuks paneeli by it, grew thickset from it
so lihavaks liitteliis. put on flesh from it.
Mäni matkoja vähäisen She went on a little way
teki tietä pikkaraisen went a short distance
mäni Pohjolan kylään. went to Pohjola village:
Pohjoin akka oli ikkunas. the crone was at the window.
3 01
C /} Luojan virsi IV
UZ The Messiah I V
302
^ Luojan virsi I V
'Z The Messiah IV
303
Luojan virsi IV
U Z The Messiah I V
Ta i siit mäni Pohjolan kylään. Well, and then she went to Pohjola village.
no Mitä laulan, kuta laulan? What shall I sing, what the song?
laulan Luojan kuolennaist I’ll sing the Creator’s death
kaonnaist vallan kaiken. the loss of the Almighty.
Kuhunpas Luojoi kuoletettu Where was the Creator killed
kaoteltu valtoi kaikki? the Almighty lost?
130 Paistoi, paistoi Luojoin päivöi The Creator’s sun shone, shone
kuumoitteli kuu Jumalan: and God’s moon glimmered
sulatti tinaiset naagloit and melted the nails of tin
vaskinaagloit hellitteli loosened the nails of copper
puunaagloit ulos puotti, let the nails of wood drop out
136 päästi Luojoin kuolomast freed the Creator from death
kattoomast vallan kaiken. and the Almighty from loss.
3 04
'*% Luojan virsi I V
The Messiah I V
305
C /) Luojan virsi I V
U Z The Messiah I V
306
Luojan virsi I V
The Messiah IV
307
Luojan virsi I V
UZ The Messiah I V
308
63
PYHÄ T A P A N I
St Stephen
309
C. O Pyhä Tapani
U J St Stephen
Oli jo liha syäty, luu kaluttu The flesh eaten, the bone gnawed
«o käsi kenkinä piretty: the hide as shoes was worn down:
rupeis sonni mylvimää the bull began to bellow
luillansa luhisemmaa to crush with its bones
jäsenöilläs järskimäähä. to shake with its limbs.
310
C /\ Pyhä Tapani
O J St Stephen
(Ulosmennessä laulettiin lopuksi:) (On going out this was sung finally:)
J . H ep o la
Koski, South-West Finland
J . Liipola, 1892
311
64
PYHÄ K A T R II N A I
S t Catherine I
Kaiapahalla
kangasta kutovi
pajupurolla K itty was weaving
by a little willow-brook
tihiällä tuomikolla: by a dense birdcherry-wood:
sukkulainen käessä käänty the shuttle turned in her hand
5 kun on portimo pinossa like a weasel in a stack
rahakarva rauniossa a precious-fur in a cairn
hongan oksalla orava. on a pine-branch a squirrel.
Ruotus kunnotar kuningas Herod the dishonest king
tuli Katrinan tulille. came to Catherine’s fireside
10 Sano kohta saatuahan: said as soon as he arrived:
“Tuleppas Kaio minulle “Come, Kitty, to me
eli minun pojalleni!” or else to my son!”
S in g er unknow n
Kuhmo, Kainuu
M. A. Castrén, 1839
65
PYHÄ K A T R I I N A II
St Catherine I I
313
ZT r P y h ä K a tr iin a I I
v J S t C ath erin e I I
P a a v o H u k k a n en
Kiuruvesi, Savo
I. Arwidsson, 1819
314
66
PYHÄ H E N R I K I
St Henry I
T^r aksi oli pyhää miestä r a iwo holy men there once were
J ^ ^ ja kaksi kansan ruhtinast J . two princes of the people
ristveljestä jalosta ritarist: Christian brothers, noble knights:
yksi kasvoi Ruotsin maalla one grew up on Swedish soil
5 toinen maalla vierahalla. the other on foreign soil.
Pian kasvoit pinnelliset Soon the swaddled ones grew up
yksiin vöilliset ylenit: together in napkins rose:
lapsi maalta vierahalta the child from the foreign land
se oli herra Heinärikki was the Lord Henry
io vaan joka Ruotsisa yleni while he who rose in Sweden
se oli Eerikki ritari was Eric the Knight
Ruotsin kuulluisa kuningas. the famous king of Sweden.
315
C C Pyhä Henrik I
O O St Henry I
316
C C Pyhä Henrik I
O O St Henry I
317
C C Pyhä Henrik I
O O St Henry I
318
C C Pyhä Henrik I
O O St Henry I
sitte kuin kevät oli ihana when the springtime was lovely
jää oli järvestä sulanut the ice on the lake melted
niin sitte kesäsydännä then, in the heart of summer
pienen jäänpalaisen päällä on a little block of ice
145 tuuli alloisa ajeli the wind wafted on the waves
sonnia pyhän urohon the holy hero’s finger
kultasormuksen kerällä with its ring of gold
ihmisillen nähtäväksi for mankind to see
tunnusmerkiksi jaloksi and a noble sign
iso jota ei suonut suuri Luoja that the great Creator would
eikä sallinut Jumala not vouchsafe, nor God permit
veden alle vaipumahan to sink beneath the water
eikä hukkahan tulemahan nor come to nothing
pyhän miehen peukalota the holy man’s thumb
155 sormia isoin isännän nor the great master’s finger
kultasormuksen kerällä. with its ring of gold.
319
c. C Pyhä Henrik I
O O St Henry I
Varjele sieltä meitä vakaine Jumala Keep us from that, steadfast God
196 estä totinen Luoja: bar the way, true Creator:
saata salihin taivaisa see us into heaven’s hall
ilohon ijankaikkisehen, into everlasting joy
päästä häjystä mailmast. free us from the wicked world.
S in g e r unknow n
Vaasa, South Ostrobothnia
A. Heikkilä, 1731
320
1. At the periphery of Europe (cf. pp. 34-35). Travel was arduous and
wherever possible by water. Boats had to be manhandled between
watercourses. Innovations travelled slowly in such conditions and thus
Karelia I the old oral tradition survived. - Kiimaisjärvi, Archangel Karelia, 1894.
2. Stony land and primitive methods of agriculture did not provide
sufficient food for the local population which had to eke out a living
by hunting and fishing, and peddling on the Finnish side of the frontier.
The menfolk were often away for months at a time leaving the
farmwork and other manual tasks to the women. At the time the
photograph was taken, the village consisted of some fifty families
and was one of the major sources of epic folk poetry. - Vuonninen,
Vuokkiniemi, Archangel Karelia, 1894.
3. In areas close to routes of communication new ideas penetrated
and altered the traditional way of life. This farm was situated
close to one of the roads that the pedlars followed to and from
Finland and its relative prosperity shows the influence of new
agricultural methods. —Vuokkiniemi, Archangel Karelia, 1894.
4. The images and
metaphors of folk
poetry were
drawn from the
daily round of
household duties.
Similarly, each
activity could be
accompanied by
song. The cradle,
which is fitted
with a foot-strap
to allow the mother
to rock her child
as she worked with
her hands, is a rich
source of hyperbole
(cf. Poem 41). -
Shungu, Olonets
Karelia, ca 1900.
5. Spinning, an
essential part of
women’s duties,
was frequently
accompanied by
song. Both the act
of spinning and the
distaff and spindle
have provided folk
poetry with a
wealth of motifs
and metaphors
(cf. Poems 6, 148)
- Uhtua, Archan
gel Karelia. 1894.
6. Hunters setting a trap for a
bear or elk. - Vuokkiniemi, Arch
angel Karelia, 1894.
7. Traditional methods of
washing. - Kiimaisjärvi, Arch
angel Karelia, 1894.
F a c in g p a g e .
8. As a strict Old Believer, the
famous blind singer Miihkali
Perttunen (the singer of Poems
1:1-14, 8, 21) ate apart from
the other members of the house
hold and always with his own
plate, bowl and implements. -
Latvajärvi, Vuokkiniemi,
Archangel Karelia, 1894.
9. Ristiniemi (‘Cross Cape’), a
lakeside shrine where travellers
came ashore to pray for a safe
continuation of their journey. -
Vuokkiniemi, Archangel Karelia,
1894.
10. The oldest surviving photo
graph of the traditional hand-in-
hand way of singing folk poetry
(cf. 1:5-14, p. 74). - Vuonninen,
Vuokkiniemi, Archangel Karelia,
1872.
yRA ^ ’m ’ M
mm ■\ r \ j - fB B g m fö - y
i Wå R jg H /
m
T*
&
v
\^ - J L J ^ K ! ! ^ ^ im
'**
11. A p r a z d n i k , an occasion when local Russian Orthodox
families met to celebrate one of the numerous annual
festivals, in this photograph Whitsuntide ( T r o i t s a ). The
festival was also a time when unmarried boys and girls were
brought together and provided an opportunity to dance and
play traditional games. Family gatherings of this kind date
from the pre-Christian period; they were taken over by the
Church and became associated with the Christian calendar
(cf. pp. 52-54). They were occasions when the old poems were
performed either as entertainment or as the accompaniment
to dance or games. By the end of the 19th century, this
kind of dance accompaniment had been largely replaced by
accordion music. - Kontokki, Archangel Karelia, 1894.
21 321
C H Pyhä Henrik I I
O / St Henry I I
322
s n Pyhä Henrik I I
0 / St Henry I I
323
CH Pyhä Henrik I I
\J / St Henry I I
S in g e r unknow n
West Finland
Collector unknown, ca 1671
324
68
PUU
The Tree
li kaks karjalaista
O virolaist oi viisi, kuusi, T woor sixKarelians,
Estonians
five
S in g er unknow n
Vcnjoki, Ingria
H. A. Reinholm, 1847
325
69
METSÄ
The Forest
S in g er unknow n
Sakkola, Karelian Isthmus
K. Slöör, 1854
326
70
LÖYTÖLAPSI I
The Foundling I
Tuosta tyyty, tuosta täyty She was fulfilled, she was filled
tuosta voipu vuotehesen by it, put to bed by it
tuosta paksuksi pamahti: and blown out thickset from it:
io sai tuo lapsen lastuloille she had a child on shavings
pojan porsahan pehuille. a boy on pig’s straw.
S in g e r unknow n
Hietamäki - Liissilä, Ingria
D. £. D. Europaeus, 1848
71
L Ö Y T Ö L A P S I II
The Foundling I I
328
n 1 Löytölapsi I I
/ 1 The Foundling I I
329
H 1 Löytölapsi I I
/ 1 The Foundling I I
Lait siis tuolle Jesus kielen Jesus then gave him a tongue
Jesus kielen, Maarja mielen Jesus tongue and Mary mind
70 kolmiöiselle pojalle: gave to the three-night-old boy:
“Hannuksen halia hattu “Hannus’ grey hat shall
miu vettee verhaksei, cover me in the water
Marketan punahamonen Marketta’s red skirt
miu tullee turvaksein.” shall shelter me in the fire.”
S a a ra a n d L iis a
Sakkola, Karelian Isthmus
H. A. Reinholm, 1848
330
72
NEITOJA LOHIKÄÄRME I
The M aid and the Dragon I
S in g e r u n k n o w n
Eräjärvi, Häme
N. Järvinen, 1853
331
73
NEITOJA LOHIKÄÄRME II
The M aid and tke Dragon II
332
/7 '3 Neito ja lohikäärme I I
/ J The M aid and the Dragon I I
S in g er unknow n
Karelian Isthmus
E. Lönnrot, 1837
M .1
74
NEITOJA LOHIKÄÄRME III
The M aid and the Dragon I I I
334
n A Neito j a lohikäärme H I
/ t The M aid and the Dragon I I I
Singer unknown
Hevaa, Kaprio, Ingria
V. Alava, 1891
75
MATALEENA I
M agdahn I
336
'y r Mataleena I
/ J Magdalen I
22 337
'"7 C Mataleena I
I J Magdalen I
E r iik a H a u d a n m ä k i
Sääksmäki, Häme
A. A. Borenius, 1879
338
76
M A T A L E E N A II
Magdalen I I
339
*7dZ Mataleena H
/Q M a g d a len ll
Tuosta tyltyi, tuosta täytyi She was fulfilled, she was filled
40 tuosta tiintyi tiineheksi by it, swelled with child by it
tuosta paksuksi panniis grew thickset from it
lihavaksi liitteliis. put on flesh from it.
O lg o i
Hevaa, Kaprio, Ingria
V. Porkka, 1883
340
77
ORJA JA ISÄNTÄ I
S erf and Master I
Orjasurtenrukkaistu,päivän alla
surten astu Apoor serf under the sun
grieving sat and grieving stepped
surten ruualle rupesi, grieving started on his food
leikkasi manatun leivän cut his cursed bread
s manatusta kannikasta, from a cursed crust
söi orja manatun maion the serf ate his cursed milk
manatusta maljasesta from a cursed bowl
manatusta koasta from a cursed hut
manatusta kattilasta from a cursed pot
10 söi manatun, joi manatun, ate cursed and drank cursed
makasi unen manatun lay in cursed sleep
manatulla vuotehella. on a cursed bed.
“Oven suussa orren alla.” “At the door, beneath the beam.”
341
7 7 Orja ja isäntä I
I / Serf and Master I
342
7 7 ®Ti a j a käittä I
/ / S erf and Master I
S in g e r u n kn ow n
Korpiselkä, Ladoga Karelia
R. Polén, 1847
343
78
ORJA JA ISÄNTÄ II
S erf and M aster I I
3 44
HO Orja ja isäntä I I
/ O Serf and Master I I
kyll oot saanna vettä juuva you had water for drinking
oijanaki ollessasi.” when you were a serf.”
Sitte kuol iso isäntä: And then the great master died:
30 vietiin sielu portin peälle. his soul was borne to the gates.
Kysy Kiesus Pietarilta: Jesus asked Peter:
“Kenen sielu portin peällä?” “Whose is the soul at the gates?”
S in g e r u n kn ow n
Central Finland
E. Rudbeck, A. Rothman, 1850
345
79
ORJA JA ISÄNTÄ III
S erf and M aster I I I
346
7 0 O r ja j a is ä n tä I I I
/ S S e r f a n d M a s te r I I I
Otettiin siit orjoin seelu Then the serf’s soul was taken
suin lumest, päin veest face from snow, head from water
35 koprin ilmast kovast his fists from the bitter air
takaraivoin tanterest. up off his back from the ground.
Pantiin seelu rattahille The soul was put in the car
rattahille kultaisille in the gold carriage
veeriille hopeaisille, with the silver wheels:
4o vietiin seelu taivoiseen the soul was borne to heaven
Jumalan oven takkannek to behind God’s door, beneath
Luojoin ikkunan aloillen. the Lord Creator’s window.
Otettiin tuost orjoin seelu Thence the serf’s soul was taken
60 seelu vietiin seelujen sekaan the soul led among the souls
ruume ruumelappeaan. body beside the bodies.
Tuotiin hopeastooli A chair of silver was brought
orjuellen istuimeks. for the serf to sit upon.
347
7 0 Orja ja isäntä I I I
/ ^ Serf and Master I I I
348
7 0 ^ ri a i a ü&itä m
I y S e r f a n d M a s te r I I I
349
H Q Orja ja isäntä I I I
/ y S erf and Master I I I
T a r o i , P ä n t t y ' s d a u g h te r
350
80
HIIHTÄVÄ SURMA I
Death on the Prowl I
Maura Marttinen
Vuokkiniemi, Archangel Karelia
I. M arttinen, 1911
3 51
81
H I I H T Ä V Ä S U R M A II
Death on the Prowl I I
352
Q 1 H iih tä v ä su rm a I I
0 1 D e a th on the P r o w l I I
K a is a L iis a L a p p a la in en
Kiihtelysvaara, North Karelia
A. Rytkönen, 1895
23 353
82
LESKI I
The Widow I
J o h a n Sa vo la in en
Hankasalmi, Central Finland
I. Oksanen, 1892
354
83
L E S K I II
The Widow I I
T alotalotässennen,
on ennen ollut
linna muinen Aahouse was here once
house once, a castle of old
jossa nyt on kumia korpi. where now is booming forest.
Kolme on korvessa lähettä Three the springs in the forest
5 kolme lohta lähtehessä: three the salmon in the spring:
yks on lohi neion nuoren one salmon is a young maid’s
toinen nuoren morsiammen another is a young bride’s
kolmas on lesen punaisen. a third is a red widow’s.
355
Q O L e sk i I I
OJ T h e W id o w I I
T a n a K o rp u n a
Vuole, Ingria
F. Pajula, 1894
356
84
ELINAN SURMA
The Death o f Elina
357
84 surma
The Death o f Elina
25 M : “ P ie n e t o n m in u lla p iija t M : “ S m a l l la s s e s I h a v e
t y t t ä r e t k e s k e n k a s v a n e i t a .” a n d d a u g h te r s h a lf - g r o w n .”
M : “ E i v o i v ä h ä E lin a M : “ L it t le E lin a c a n n o t
30 k a ts o o s u u rta k a r ja ta r h a a lo o k a fte r a b ig s to c k y a r d
K l : “ K y 11 o n m u l l a K i r s t i p i i k a K l: “ S e e , I h a v e t h e la s s K i r s t i
jo k a p itä ä p e re n su u re n to c a r e fo r th e b ig fa m ily
p a n e e ty ö h ö n p a lk o llis ta to se t th e h ir e lin g to w o r k
35 k a tto o s u u r e n k a r ja t a r h a n .” lo o k a fte r th e b ig s t o c k y a r d .”
E: “ K y 11 o n s u l i a K i r s t i p i i k a E: “ Y e s , y o u h a v e th e la s s K i r s t i
j o k a m u n tu le s s a p o lt a t t a a w h o w ill b u m m e in th e fire
p a h o in p ä iv in k u o le tta a .” a n d b a s e ly k ill m e .”
M u t t a k u k a s m u u t k u i n h i k k a r; B u t w h o e ls e b u t t h e p o o r g i r l
k ä v e li K la v u k s e n k a r ta n o lla w a lk e d a t K la v u s ’ s m a n o r
k ä si K la v u k s e n k ä d e s. h a n d in h a n d w i t h h i m . T h e la s s
K i r s t i p i ik a k la s is a k ä tte li K ir s ti p e e re d th ro u g h th e w in d o w
v ä r k is te li v ä s t ä r illä : p e e p e d in a t th e p a n e s :
45 K : “ O h o ! m is tä s s e k in tu lis K : “ O h ! th a t so m e b o d y m ig h t c o m e
jo k a tu o n v ä lin p a h e n n a is !” to s p o il t h a t u n io n !”
M e n i o itis K la v u k s e n ty k ö : S h e w e n t a t o n c e to K la v u s :
K : “ O m u n K la v u s k u lta is e n i K : “ O m y K la v u s , m y d a r lin g
O lo v i fr o u v a n k a n s a y h t ä p it ä ä .” O l o v i is w i t h m y l a d y . ”
so K l : “ O m u n K ir s t i p iik a is e n i K l: “ O m y K i r s t i , m y la s s ie
jo s a s tu o tte le t to d e k s i i f y o u c a n sh o w to b e tru e
s in u n s it v e r a s a k ä y t ä n .” th e n k e e p y o u in c lo t h .”
55 K : “ O m u n K la v u s k u lta is e n i K : “ O m y K la v u s , m y d a r lin g
o le k a u v a s m e n e v ä n ä n s ä b e as o n e g o in g fa r o ff
P o h ja n m a a lle k ä r e jä h ä n , to P o h ja n m a a a s s ize s
358
0 A E lin a n su rm a
0 1 T h e D e a th o f E lin a
359
O A Elinan surma
O “ The Death o f Elina
110 Kirsti tähän mutkan muisti: And Kirsti thought of this trick:
tompa hän ensin iski. she tapped that one first.
360
QA Elinan surma
O ' The Death o f Elina
130 Meni sitt Ammasten ladolle She went then to Ammas barn
Pikku niittusten perällä: round behind Little Meadows:
K: “O mun Klavus kultaiseni K: “O my Klavus, my darling
jopan tuottelin todeksi I have just shown to be true
mitän saattelin sanoksi: what I have put into words:
136 Olovi frouvan kansa makas.’* Olovi lay with my lady.”
361
Elinan surma
The Death o f Elina
M: “Aij aij, Laukosta saukin suitsee M: “Ah, from Laukko smoke rises
savu Klavuksen kartanosta.” smoke from Klavus’s manor.”
362
Q A Elinan surma
O i The Death o f Elina
206 Kl: “Kyll on syytä itkemistä Kl: “There is good cause for weeping
vaivasa valittamista: and trouble for bewailing:
poltin, poltin puolisoni I have burnt, have burnt my spouse
sytytin hyvän sylini, set fire to my good armful
kuoli stallinen hevoisia a stableful of horses
210 navetollinen eläimiä a shedful of beasts has died
kaikki kuolit korsi suuhun all died with straw in their mouths
kaatuvat kaurajen nojalle.” perished at their oats.”
215 Kl: “Kusast ompi Elina frouva?” Kl: “Where is Lady Elina?”
Kl: “Kusast ompi Klavus Kurki?” Kl: “And where is Klavus Kurki?”
Kl: “Kusast ompi Kirsti huora?” Kl: “And where is the whore Kirsti?”
363
O A Elinan surma
O « The Death o f Elina
S in g er unknow n
Vesilahti(?), Häme
Collector unknown, recorded before 1800
Sfii
85
U SK O L L IN E N MORSIAN I
The Faithful Bride I
365
Q C Uskollinen morsian I
OJ The Faithful Bride I
S in g e r unknow n
Sääksmäki, Häme
E. Lönnrot, 1831
366
86
U S K O L L I N E N M O R S I A N II
The Faithful Bride I I
Rahamies Maanitahan
raho neion kätkyehen T hebought
rich man Maanitahan
a maid in the cradle
suuhun sormuksen sovitti: into her mouth slipped a ring:
kapaloiss on kauppa tehty in swaddling clothes the deal was
5 sana saunan lautosilla. done, the word on bath-house planks.
Tul sulhon sotahan läkki. The bridegroom must go to war:
Neito etsi emosen päätä the maid groomed her mother’s head
illan suussa suntakina one Sunday evening
oven suussa ikkunalla. by the door at the window.
367
Q ZT Uskollinen morsian I I
O O The Faithful Bride I I
S in g e r u n know n
Tyrö, Ingria
D. E. D. Europaeus, 1848
368
13. Until the 19th century, and in certain remote areas well into
the 20th, land was prepared for cultivation by the burn-beat method.
After burning the felled trees and undergrowth, the farmer sowed in
the ashes and obtained a few meagre harvests before he had to move
Karelia II on to a new area (cf. Plate 28). - Kotkatjärvi, Olonets Karelia, 1942.
14. This area, largely lakes, swamps and dense forest, was rich in
game and for centuries almost untouched by man. The sparse
population was concentrated in small village communities separated
from each other by vast distances over which communication was
arduous and often fraught with risks. - North Olonets Karelia, 1941.
15. The influence of Russian architecture is evident both in the
design of this upland farm building, which also accommodated
livestock, and in its crude ornamentation (in particular, the non
functional balcony, a typical feature of Karelian buildings) echoing
what the builders had seen or heard of in more palatial dwellings. -
Suojärvi, Ladoga Karelia, 1939.
16. A mother picking the
lice from her child’s head,
a rest-day activity regarded
as a mark of affection
(cf. Poem 120). - Ruka-
jarvi, Olonets Karelia, 1917.
km#
1
A\
J
□
Anterus Pyhäjoelta,
Pyhäjoen poika pyhä Anterus from Holy River
Holy River’s holy son
tuli koulusta kotia he came home from school
id est, Andreas ex Pyhäjoki/ Bothnia orientalis that is, Andrew from Pyhäjoki, a parish in
paraecia, venerit ex Schola domum; & interro Ostrobothnia, came home from school; and
gate a matres: being asked by his mother
“Mitäs poikan kotia tulit? “Why, my son, have you come home?
Onko koulu kohdallansa Is the school where it should be
Turku uusi toimesansa?” is the new Turku busy?”
cur domum venerit: num immota sit Schola, & why he had come home: surely the school had not
Aboa nova vigeat? respondet ille: se venisse ad been moved, and the new Turku was thriving?
ducendam uxorem, eamqve ex Kokemäki Svet: He answered that he had come to get a wife, and
Cumå: negabat primum mater, verita ne repul- onefrom Kokemäki, Swedish Cumå. At first
sam pateretur, sicut alii qvidam ex Svecia his mother said no, fearing that he would be
nobiles, & Bothnienses divites: instante autem refused, as certain others, nobles from Sweden
illo, sibi cum illa familiaritatem esse; tandem and rich Ostrobothnians, had been: to this he
concessit, qvamobrem adomatus bene eqvis, ser promptly replied that he was on intimate terms
vis, & armis; inter ea 7 clypeis, ex qvibus with the girl. The motherfinallyyielded; where
fore, well fitted out with horses, servants and
weapons, among them seven shields, of which
proci clypeus auro resplendescebat, reliqvi omnes the bridegroom's shield glittered gold, all the
argentofulgebant: sie profeetus acceptus advenit, others flashed silver, thus he set out and was
sed sponsalitiis peractis, fatis ipsa cessit, rncero- received on his arrival. But after the wedding
rem pro dote summum, Andrea redeunti domum, ceremony had been performed, she happened to
relinqvens. perish, leaving the deepest grieffor a dowry to
Andrew as he returned home.
Singer unknown
South-West Finland
D. Juslenius(?), before 1700
24
88
M O R S I A M E N K U O L E M A II
Death o f the' Bride I I
370
QQ M o rsia m e n ku olem a I I
OO D e a th o f the B rid e I I
371
QQ M o rsia m e n ku olem a I I
OO D e a th o f the B r id e I I
S in g e r unknow n
Hevaa, Kaprio, Ingria
A. Törncroos, T. Tallqvist, 1859
372
89
PAPIN TAPPAJA
The Priest-Killer
373
Q Q Papin tappaja
O y The Priest-Killer
sekä messun miekka vyöllä. said Mass with his sword-belt on.
Kuin pääsi saarnastansa When he’d finished preaching he
siitä vaati vaimoksensa demanded me for his wife
huoraksensa houkutteli* enticed me to be his whore.
35 tuli Kirsti kiitettävä Kirsti came, the praiseworthy
läpi maien mainittava well spoken of through the lands
veti veitsen, riisui rauan drew a knife, bared an iron
kuletti tupesta tuiman, bore the grim one from its sheath
syöksi miestä syönalahan plunged it under the man’s heart
«o Iässä lämmintä lihoa. into the warm flesh.
Itse läksin itkien kotihin I myself went weeping home
kallotellen kartan ohon.” wailing to the farm.”
374
Q Q Papin tappaja
O y The Priest-Killer
Tästä koertoelee Kirsti alusta, kuinka Thereupon Kirsti toldfrom the beginning what
hänelle tapahtunut, ja äitin sanat, joka had happened to her, and her mother's words
hänen tänne lähettänyt, josta linnan pojat who had sent her there, whereupon the town
sanovat seuraavat sanat: boys said thefollowing words:
so “Koska olet niin tehnynnä “Because you have done so, have
olkoon olut viina juoakseis beer and liquor for your drink
lesti leipä syyäkseisi bread from fine flour for your food
ummiskenkä käyäkseisi.” a closed shoe for your walking.”
A n n a L eskin en
Suistamo, Ladoga Karelia
S. Sirelius, 1847
375
90
TUNKEILIJAN TAPPAJA
The Intruder-Killer
376
Q /~ V Tunkeilijan tappaja
S V The Intruder-Killer
K a ti
Soikkola, Ingria
V. Porkka, 1883
377
91
MIEHENSÄ TAPPAJA
The Husband-Killer
378
Q 1 Miehensä tappaja
y i The Husband-Killer
S in g er unknow n
Narvusi, Ingria
J. Länkelä, 1858
379
92
HYLÄTTY I
The Forsaken M aid I
S in g e r unknow n
Sääksmäki, Häme
E. Lönnrot, 1831
381
93
H Y L Ä T T Y II
The Forsaken M aid I I
S in g er unknow n
Suistamo(P), Ladoga Karelia
R. Polén, 1847
383
94
H Y LÄ TTY III
The Forsaken• M aid I I I
384
Q A H y lä tty n i
S H The Forsaken M aid I I I
O lg o i
Hevaa, Kaprio, Ingria
V. Porkka, 1883
25 385
95
V A I M O N S A T A P P A JA I
The Wife->Killer I
386
Q C Vaimonsa tappaja I
yO The Wife-Killer I
S in g e r unknow n
Tuupovaara, North Karelia
E. Lönnrot, 1838
387
V A I M O N S A T A P P A J A II
The W ife-Killer I I
389
%
V aim onsa ta p p a ja I I
T h e W if e - K ille r I I
M a r i J ä m p sä lä in e n
Serepetta, Ingria
V. Porkka, 1883
390
97
T Y T Ä R T E N S Ä TA P P A JA I
The Daughter-Killer I
391
Q ^7 Tytärtensä tappaja I
y / The Daughter-Killer I
392
07 T y tä rte n sä ta p p a ja I
y 1 T h e D a u g h te r-K ille r I
Anni
Narvusi, Ingria
V. Porkka, 1883
98
T Y T Ä R T E N S Ä T A P P A J A II
The Daughter»-Killer I I
25 Emo kuuli nuo sanaset. Now, the mother heard these words.
Emo kolme tyttöjääse The mother with her three girls
män hää meren rantaselle: went to the seashore:
yhen hurstil hukutti one she drowned there in a sheet
toisen vaipal vajotti one she sank there in a gown
no kolmannen paino paijan kans. one she weighed down with a shirt.
394
Q Q Tytärtensä tappaja I I
yO The Daughter-Killer I I
395
Q Q Tytärtensä tappaja I I
^ O The Daughter-Killer I I
M a r ia Ä ijä
Miikkulainen, Ingria
V. Alava, 1894
396
99
TYTÄR
The Daughter
397
QQ T y tä r
•7 y T h e D a u g h te r
S in g e r unknow n
Soikkola, Ingria
J . Länkelä, 1858
100
POIKA
The Son
399
100 Th?Son
400
100 7 7 a Son
S in g e r unknow n
Tyro, Ingria
D. E. D. Europaeus, 1853
26 401
101
ÄITI
The Mother
402
101 The Mother
Evät noise nuoret noiat The young wizards would not rise
30 vanhat arpojat asetu the old augurs would not stand
akan vanhan vaalijaksi. to care for the old woman.
Annoin niitä, annoin näitä I gave them this, gave them that
annoin ainoont aivinaant I gave my only linen
annoin viljaant viimeiseent I gave my last corn
35 annoin kultaa piolla I gave gold by the fistful
hopiiaa kahmalolla: silver cupped in my two hands:
noisi yksi noijan poika one son of a wizard rose
vanha arbuli asettui an old augur stood
akan vanhan vaalijaksi. to care for the old woman.
403
il vnii Äiti
T h e M o th e r
U lja a n a
Soikkola, Ingria
V. Porkka, 1883
404
102
KUOLEVA NEITO I
The Dying M a id I
405
1 Kuoleva neito I
1 w Z The Dying M aid I
H e lo i
Kaprio, Ingria
V. Porkka, 1883
4 06
103
K U O L E V A N E I T O II
The Dying M aid I I
io Eipä saane neito maata But the maid could not lie down
piika pitkään levätä nor the lass rest long
ison ruoskan roiskeelta for her father’s whip swishing
kapinalta karjan kynnen: the trampling of cattle-hoofs:
iso nousee varahin her father got up early
is oritta apettamaan. to feed the stallion.
25 Eipä saane neito maata: But the maid could not lie down:
tuohon saapi Saksan laivat the German ships arrived there
tulee Tukhulmin purret the Stockholm craft came
tervarinnat teutoavat. and the tar-bowed milled about.
407
1 Kuoleva neito I I
1 v J The Dying M aid I I
Eipä saane neito maata: But the maid could not lie down:
emo nousee varahin her mother got up early
40 hulikoita huutomaan to rinse out the tubs
kirnuja kolistamaan. to rattle the churns.
Eipä saane neito maata But the maid could not lie down
sikon värttinän helyiltä: for sister’s distaff jingling:
sikko nousee varahin. her sister got up early.
408
1 A O Kuoleva neito I I
Iv J The Dying M aid I I
M a te li K u io a la ta r
Ilomantsi, North Karelia
E. Lönnrot, 1838
409
104
H IR T TÄ Y TY NY T N E IT O I
The Hanged M aid I
410
1 (\A Hirttäytynyt neito I
I UT- The Hanged M aid I
411
1 f\A Hirttäytynyt neito /
I L t T The Hanged M aid I
412
1 (\A Hirttäytynyt neito I
l t r + The Hanged M aid I
S in g e r unknow n
Uhtua, Archangel Karelia
E. Lönnrot, 1834
413
105
H I R T T Ä Y T Y N Y T N E I T O II
The Hanged M aid I I
Neito etsi emolta päätä The maid groomed her mother’s head
20 oven suussa orren alla by the door, beneath the beam
kahen ikkuna välillä, between two windows
pisti päätä ikkunasta stuck her head through the window
suuta suuresta lovesta: and her face through the big gap:
“Oi emyt, vana emoni “O mother, my old mother
25 vana mamma vaalijani, old mamma, my nurse
Untomaan sota tulloo.” Untomaa’s war is coming.”
414
1A r H ir ttä y ty n y t neito I I
1 U J T h e H anged M e id I I
K a t i K ä h ä rä
Narvusi, Ingria
J . Ruotsalainen, 1900
415
106
MENETYS I
The Loss I
416
1 A /T Menetys I
lU O The Loss I
H elen a
Kupanitsa, Ingria
J . Ruotsalainen, 1901
27 417
107
MENETYS II
The Loss I I
“La meidän punikki poikkii “Just wait till our brown cow calves
saadaan Saksan sormuksii we’ll get German rings
Saksan sarapirää and some German bands
sata syltä sarvet pitkät and horns a hundred spans long
20 tuhat syltä turpa pitkä.” its muzzle a thousand spans.”
S in g er unknow n
Skuoritsa, Ingria
K. Stråhlman, 1856
4 18
108
MENETYS III
The Loss I I I
419
1 H ö Menetys I I I
11/0 The Loss I I I
S in g er unknow n
Tyro, Ingria
V. Porkka, 1883
420
109
MENETYS IV
The Loss I V
Isä kysyi: “Mitäs itket poikaseni Father asked: “Why do you weep, my lad
valkopiäkköni valitat?” why, my fair-haired one, lament?”
M a r ia K irp p u
Liissilä, Ingria
J . Lorvi, 1914
421
no
TANSSI
The Dunce
422
il l iV n/ Tanssi
The Dance
42 3
1 1 A Tanssi
1 l v The Dance
Singer unknown
Jyskyjärvi, Archangel Karelia
E. Lönnrot, 1835
424
Il l
MEREN KOSIJAT I
The Suitors from the Sea I
425
m
M e re n k o s ija t I
T h e S u ito rs f r o m the S ea I
Ju ssi
Heinola, Häme
J . Toppola, 1890
426
112
MEREN KOSIJAT II
The Suitors from the Sea I I
427
I 1 ^ Meren kosijat I I
1 The Suitors from the Sea I I
428
1 1 ^ Meren kosijat I I
1 1Z> The Stators from the Sea I I
O k k i Gordeinen
Repola, Olonets Karelia
U. Karttunen, 1897
4 29
M3
KAUKAISET KOSIJAT
The Suitors from Afar
Katiijätkukka linnukkaine
istu, kavvan kasvo Kati, a flower, little bird
for ages sat, for long grew
kavvan kasveli kotonna for long she grew up at home
enemmän emoisen luona. longer at her mother’s side:
5 Ei pant emyt pahaksi mother did not take it ill
isyt ei ovvoksi otellut father did not think it odd
Katrin kavvan kasvettua. that Katri was long growing.
430
1 1 O Kaukaiset kosijat
-1 1 » } The Suitors from A f ai
Neitine omille maille She chose those from her own lands
40 oman puolen poikasille. chose the lads of her own part.
Paremp on omilla mailla Better be in your own lands
roppeesta vettä juuvva drinking water from birch-bark
ku on mailla vierailla than be in strange lands
juuvva tuopista olutta. drinking beer from a flagon.
U lja a n a
Narvusi, Ingria
V. Porkka, 1883
431
114
LIKAINEN NEITO
The FouCl M aid
432
m
L ik a in e n neito
T h e F oul M a id
N i i l o P öyhönen
Juva, Savo
V. Tarkiainen, 1898
28 433
115
VARAS KOSIJANA
The T h ief as Suitor
4 34
1 1 r Varas kosijana
1 U The T hief as Suitor
435
1 1 C V aras k o sija n a
1 1 J T h e T h i e f a s S u ito r
L u k e ri M e lik o o a
Vuole, Ingria
F. Pajula, 1894
436
116
KELVOTON
The Useless Bridegroom
437
1 1 K elvo to n
l i v T h e U seless B rid eg ro o m
S in g e r unknow n
Sakkola, Karelian Isthmus
H. A. Reinholm, 1848
438
117
KURKI I
The Crane I
Ristiina Kohonen
Lemi, Savo
T. Kohvakka, 1933
439
118
K U R K I II
The Crane I I
Sofia Siivonen
Pyhämaa, South-West Finland
I. Seppänen, 1928
440
119
AAMUVIRKKU
The Early Riser
441
1 1 Q Aamuvirkku
A i v The Early Riser
442
1 1 O Aamuvirkku
1 1 y The Early Riser
vasta päivä päätä nosti the sun raised its head only
70 kuu kohotti kulmiaan. now, the moon lifted its brows.
S in g er unknow n
Moloskovitsa - Tyrö, Ingria
A. Törneroos, T. Tallqvist, 1859
443
120
M IEHELLE MENIJÄ
Finding a'Husband
10 Kust nuo papit saatanoo From where would the priests be got
lukuherrat tuotanoo? the scholars be brought?
Saatii papit Paatitsasta Priests were got from Paatitsa
lukuherrat Luutitsasta. the scholars from Luutitsa.
Kui tuo nimi pantanoo? What should she be called?
ib Pannaa nimi Palaga: Gall her Palaga:
Palaga nimi paha - Palaga is a bad name -
ei tuota suku suvvaa. the kin would not stand for it.
Pannaa nimi Paraska: Call her Paraska:
Paraska pahatapaine - Paraska is ill-behaved -
so ei tuota emo suvvaa. mother would not stand for it.
Pannaa Naasta - lienöö nauru. Naasta? - she might be nasty.
Pannaa Hoora - lienöö huora. Hoora? - she might be a whore.
Hekko kirjasta helähti Hekko tinkled from the book
lehen kannesta lemahti. flitted from the page.
26 Kazvoi tyttö, Hekko tyttö The girl grew, the girl Hekko
Hekko helmien pitäjä Hekko the wearer of beads
mamma markkoin kantaja: the carrier of mother’s coins:
kazvoi jo kaheksa vuotta she grew for eight years
yleni yheksä vuotta she rose for nine years
30 päälle vuove kymmene. for more than ten years.
Miehelle menijä
Finding a Husband
445
1 O fj Miehelle menijä
1 Finding a Husband
E lin a S ä k k i
Narvusi, Ingria
J . Ruotsalainen, 1900
4 46
121
OLJAMISSA KÄYNTI
The Unwelcome Visitor
447
101 O lja m issa k ä y n ti
1 ** 1 T h e U nw elco m e V isito r
S in g er unknow n
Sakkola, Karelian Isthmus
K. Slöör, 1854
29 4 49
122
ONNETON NUORIKKO I
The Unhappy Bride I
450
1 0 0 Onneton nuorikko I
1 eL A , The Unhappy Bride I
451
m
O nneton n u orikko I
T h e U n h a p p y B rid e I
S in g e r unknow n
Sakkola, Karelian Isthmus
A. Ahlqvist, 1854
452
123
O N N E T O N N U O R I K K O II
The Unhappy Bride I I
453
Onneton nuorikko I I
1 The Unhappy Bride I I
N ik it Joro
Suistamo, Ladoga Karelia
I. Härkönen, 1900
454
124
VEDENKANTAJA I
The Water-Carrier I
455
10/1 Vedenkantaja I
1 Z J-X The Water-Carrier I
456
1 A Vedenkantaja I
1 The Water-Carrier /
Kolm oi yötä katsomatta. Three nights she was not looked for.
Emo aittahe mänöve. Her mother went to the shed.
eo Katselove, keäntelöve: She looked, she turned her over:
jo on Anni ollun, männyn Anni had been, gone
tinarinta ripsahtane the tin-breasted snapped
riputautu rinnan kautti. was hanged by the breast.
4 57
1 'J / l Vedenkantaja I
A The Water-Carrier I
458
1 ''S A Vedenkantaja I
1 £ rt The Water-Carrier /
4 59
1 A Vedenkantaja /
1 ATT The Water-Carrier I
H o to Lesonen
Vuokkinicmi, Archangel Karelia
A. Berner, 1872
460
125
V E D E N K A N T A J A II
The Water-Carrier I I
461
1 V eden kan taja I I
1. jL D T h e W a te r-C a rrie r I I
462
I O C Vedenkantaja I I
1 The Water-Carrier I I
4 63
1 ^ C Vedenkantaja I I
1 The Water-Carrier I I
S in g e r u n k n o w n
Toksova, Ingria
K. Slöör, 1854
464
30. The home of a farmer or
merchant. - Liissilä, 1911.
“Et mahu, et mahu tytär rukka: “No room, no room, poor daughter:
itle mie issun peräzellä I myself sit in the stern
jalgazet miula sebäzellä.” I have my feet in the prow.”
“Et mahu, et mahu tytär rukka: “No room, no room, poor daughter:
is itše mie issun peräzellä I myself sit in the stern
jalgazet ne lebäzellä.” my feet, they are in the prow.”
“Et mahu, et mahu sizar rukka: “No room, no room, poor sister:
itse issun mie peräzellä I myself sit in the stern
jalgazet ne lebäzellä.” my feet, they are in the prow.”
so 465
1 TZT N eito ja vene I
1 The M aid and the Boat I
istuu venozešša rodnoi tšikkone. and in the boat my own sister sat.
“Ota tšikkone milma venozeh!” “Take me, sister, in your boat!”
30 “Et mahu, et mahu sizar rukka: “UJo room, no room, poor sister:
itše mie issun peräzeSsä I myself sit in the stern
jalgazet ne miula SebäzeSSä.” I have my feet in the prow.”
S in g e r u n k n o w n
Nyebelitsa, Novgorod District
V. Petrelius, 1892
46 6
127
NEITOJA VENE II
The M aid and the Boat I I
“ Mitä sai isä miulla?” “What did father get for me?”
“Issäis sai kivisen kirkon “Your father got a stone church
moamois sai Mahikki-lehmän your mother the cow Damsel
20 vellois sai sotioroisen your brother a war-stallion
sissois sai sinervä uutin.” your sister got a blue ewe.”
467
\ r) FJ Neito ja vene I I
■1** / The M aid and the Boat I I
468
1 0 7 Neito ja vene I I
± I The M aid and the Boat I I
469
1 0 * 7 Neito ja vene I I
~ * T iu M aid and the Boat I I
Soh vi
Vuole, Ingria
V. Alava, 1894
470
128
NEITOJA VENE III
The M aid and the Boat I I I
471
1 O ö Neito ja vene I I I
A The M aid and the Boat I I I
472
1 O Q Neito ja vene I I I
1 Z O The M aid and the Boat I I I
S in g e r u n kn ow n
Ylöjärvi, Häme
B. Paldani, 1852
473
129
POIKA JA PILVI I
Boy and Cloud I
474
1 OQ P ° ik a j o p i l v i I
1 Z y B o y a n d C lo u d I
S in g er unknow n
Uhtua, Archangel Karelia
E. Lönnrot, 1834
475
130
P O I K A J A P I L V I II
Boy and Cloud I I
J e r la 's O ute
Metsäpirtti, Karelian Isthmus
A. Koskivaara, 1913
476
131
N E I T O J A PILVI
M aid and Cloud
Kelle etso, kulle etso? Who will seek her, who will search?
26 Ved ei kelle kui emoille: Well, no one but her mother:
emoin etso ensimäin mother sought her first
siis perästä perreehen etso. after her the family sought.
477
1 OI Neito ja pilvi
U I M aid and Cloud
Tatiana
Soikkola, Ingria
V. Porkka, 1883
478
132
KADONNUT SUKA
The Lost Brush
47 9
Kadonnut suka
m The Lost Brush
S in g e r unknow n
Narvusi, Ingria
D. E. D. Europaeus, 1853
480
133
KADONNUT HANHI I
The Lost Goose I
frisked, I frolicked
H ypyttelen, hymmertelen
lekuttelen, lellertelen I
I skipped, I scampered
tinatipukaisilla on hoppers of tin
vaskivarpahuisilla on toes of copper
5 kultaista kujoista myöten down a lane of gold
hopiaista tietä myöten. a road of silver.
Tulipa ojani vastah Now, I met a ditch:
ojasell on mättähäini by the ditch was a hummock
mättähäisellä kotani, by the hummock was a hut.
io Kolkkasin kovan ovie I knocked upon the hut door
rämähytin räyssäspuuta: rattled the eaves-wood:
impi itkien tulou. a girl came weeping.
“Mitäs itet impi raukka?” “Why are you weeping, poor girl?”
31 481
1 O O Kadonnut hanhi I
1 D The Lost Goose I
K a tti N ykänen
Akonlahti, Kontokki, Archangel Karelia
A. R. Niemi, 1904
4 82
134
KADONNUT HANHI II
The Lost Goose I I
483
1 Kadonnut hanhi I I
1 3 r The Lost Goose I I
S in g er unknow n
Narvusi, Ingria
J. Lukkarinen, 1909
484
135
KADONNUT VELI I
The Lost Brother I
485
1 I f Kadonnut veli I
1 J J The Lost Brother I
S in g er unknow n
Suistamo, Ladoga Karelia
R. Polén, 1847
486
136
KADONNUT VELI II
The Lost Brother I I
487
K a d o n n u t v eli I I
5 T h e L o s t B ro th er I I
S in g er unknow n
Tyro, Ingria
D. E. D. Europaeus, 1853
488
137
SOTAANLÄHTÖ I
The Warrior*s Departure I
“En minä sinua itke: “No, I will not weep for you:
poika toinen tehtäneen another boy will be got
16 vielä markkoo parempi one mark better still
taleria taitavampi.” and one daler more skilful.”
S in g er unknow n
Juva, Savo
C. A. Gottlund, before 1871
489
138
SOTAANLÄHTÖ II
The Warrior's Departure I I
490
1 O O Sotaanlähtö I I
1 J O The Warrior's Departure I I
M a t t i S u telain en
Metsäpirtti, Karelian Isthmus
A. A. Borenius, 1887
491
139
SOTAANLÄHTÖ III
The Warrior's Departure I I I
492
1 O Q Sotaanlähtö I I I
1 J 7 The Warrior's Departure I I I
M is h i Sissonen
Ilomantsi, North Karelia
D. E. D. Europaeus, 1845
49 3
140
K UO LINSANO M AT I
N ew s o f Death I
494
1 AA K u olin sa n o m a t I
1 H -U N e w s o f D e a th I
49 5
K u o lin sa n o m a t I
3 N e w s o f D e a th I
“Jos on kuollut, niin kuolkohon! “If she’s dead, then let her die!
65 Saan mie siskon mokoman - I’ll get a sister like her -
saan rungan lahosta puista a body of rotten wood
jalat raian haarukoista legs of forked sallows
pääranin pataranista a skull of a worn-out pot
vatsan vaivasen säkistä belly of a beggar’s bag
70 silmät liinan siemenistä and eyes of flax-seeds
korvat koivun lehtosista.” and ears of birch-leaves.”
S in g er unknow n
Suistamo, Ladoga Karelia
R. Polén, 1847
496
40. A revival of the once traditional local Whitsuntide festival in
Ritvala (cf. p. 34). The origin and history of the festival in *
Western Finland are still a matter of debate (cf. Poems 75, 76, 85,
Finland 86, 92-94). Ritvala, Sääksmäki, Häme, ca 1930.
41. The crossroads at the centre of the village of
Ritvala. As part of the traditional Whitsuntide festival
the girls of the village walked in procession along the
four roads, thus making-the sign of the cross, before
taking part in an open-air religious ceremony
(cf. p. 34). - Ritvala, Sääksmäki, Häme, 1913.
O v e r le a f .
45. The Naantali region was one of the areas in which the
Western Church first became established in Finland (cf. p. 52).
The area grew rich through agriculture, fishing and trade,
and was only later surpassed by Turku. - Naantali, South-West
Finland, 1891.
32 497
1 /1 1 K u o lin sa n o m a t I I
l i i N e w s o f D e a th I I
K a t i , K i r i l ä ’s w if e
Soikkola, Ingria
V. Porkka, 1883
49 8
142
SOTURI
The Warrior
ensi lintu alta linnan bird flew from below the castle
L sulka valkia vaelsi: A a white-feathered one wandered:
se toi sotasanomet it brought news of war
sotaviestin vieretteli tidings of war it trundled
5 sotakelloin kieli laulo. with bells of war its tongue sang.
äo Lensi lintu alta linnan A bird flew from below the castle
sulka valkia vaelsi: a white-feathered one wandered:
tuo toi sotasanomet it brought news of war
sotaviestin vieretteli tidings of war it trundled
sotakelloin kieli laulo. with bells of war its tongue sang.
499
1 A ^ Soturi
lH Z The Warrior
500
1 AO SThe
oturiWarrior
1
A n n i P o rissa
Narvusi, Ingria
V. Porkka, 1883
501
143
K A A R LE-H ERTTU A
Duke Charles
502
IA O Kaarle-herttua
I H O Duke Charles
503
1 A 'J Kaarle-herttua
1 i J Duke Charles
504
1 A O Kaarle-herttua
1 T O Duke Charles
Singer unknown
Turku, South-West Finland
Collector unknown, early 18th century
505
144
JAAKKO PONTUS
Jacob Pontus
506
1 ^ /| J a a k k o P o n tu s
1 i i J a c o b P o n tu s
S in g e r unknow n
Liperi (?), North Karelia
E. Lönnrot, 1839 (?)
507
145
IIV A N A
Ivan
508
145 J£T
Sieltä on varsin vastajeltih: Back indeed came the answer:
“Ei ole linnassa lihoa “There’s no meat in the castle
eikä voita Volmarissa. butter in Volmar:
as Vaipu valkija hevoni a white horse dropped down
se on jeäny järven peähä and is left at the lake-end
Iivanalla iltasekse for Ivan’s supper
venäläisellä verokse.” the Russian’s tribute.”
P o a v ila Sirkeinen
Uhtua, Archangel Karelia
K. Karjalainen, 1894
509
146
KAARLO X II
Charles X I I
510
1 A £L K a a r lo X I I
IH -O C h arles X I I
T ro h k im a m en S o a va
Akonlahti, Kontokki, Archangel Karelia
E. Lönnrot, 1832
511
147
REKRYYTTI
The Conscript
512
I A l Rekryytti
I t / The Conscript
33 513
1 A l M w*
1 i / The Conscript
51 4
1A l Rekryytti
1 i / The Conscript
Siis tuotii hattu päälaelle They brought a hat for his head
tuotii sinisineli they brought a blue overcoat
tuotii musta munteri brought a black tunic
no tuotii paita päällä polven they brought a shirt on their knee
tuotii kaatiat kainalossa they brought pants under their arm
tuotii sukkia sylellä they brought an armful of socks
varvasrättiä vakalla and a boxful of toe-rags
tuotii saappaat vaskikannat they brought boots with copper heels
us vaskikannat, kultavarret. copper heels, gold legs:
Heitettä poika parka the poor boy was tossed about
silmät pestä, pää kerittä his eyes were washed, his head shorn
soviteltii soltatiksi fitted to be a soldier
maniteltii matrossiksi. worked on to be a sailor.
iso Tuotii tulinen pyssy They brought him a fiery gun
saatii verine miekka: they fetched him a bloody sword
pyssy annettii akaksi gave the gun to be his wife
miekka mieliksi hyviksi. the sword to be his pleasure.
515
1 A l ÄeArxr«!
± t l The Conscript
Stefitt
Narvusi, Ingria
V. Porkka, 1883
5 16
148
LOPPUSANAT
Epilogue
517
1 AO L o p p u sa n a t
1 iO E p ilo g u e
29 —42 S in g e r unknow n
Kemi, North Ostrobothnia
Z. Topelius, 1803 or 1804
518
COMMENTARY
T herelated
materials in the Commentary are arranged in three sections. Each poem, or group of
poems, is accompanied by a General Commentary that provides information about
the poem’s possible origin and diffusion, and examines its relation to folk tradition outside the
Baltic-Finnish area; in cases where syncretism or the singing technique has obscured the
narrative, it discusses the underlying idea and, if necessary, attempts to reconstruct the arche
typal form of the poem. Each separate poem or variant is also provided with an Explanatory
Commentary, the nature of which is determined by the contents of the poem in question.
The general policy in compiling the Explanatory Commentaries was to provide sufficient
information to allow the reader to see how the poem relates to and differs from the archetypal
form, to appreciate how the poet-singer handled his material (especially in sequences
and patchwork poems where the narrative is frequently conveyed by stock and surrogate
phrases), and to draw attention to points of particular folkloristic or aesthetic interest. Each
Explanatory Commentary is preceded by a reference to the motifs in the poem, indicated
by the Stith Thomson code number (cf. Motif Index, pp. 590-594), and followed by a Line
Commentary. The purpose of the latter is to provide information about the significance of
imagery and metaphors, especially when they are tied to archaic or unfamiliar tradition,
and other details necessary for a full appreciation of the poem. For the non-Finnish reader,
the meaning of certain Finnish expressions has been elaborated where adequate translation
has not been possible. For Finnish readers, etymological and lexical information has been
provided in the case of words which are obscure for historical or dialectal reasons and which
cannot be found in Nykysuomen sanakirja; attention is drawn in particular to Karelian and
Ingrian words which have a surface form similar to that of their Finnish cognates but a
different meaning. The Commentary does not provide information on proper names; for
this the reader should consult the Name Index (pp. 578-589).
The following abbreviations are used in the Commentary and Name Index:
521
PROLOGUE 1, EPILOGUE 148 wandered from farm to farm, entertaining their hosts
with song. In return they received money and pro
visions to keep them during term-time. The poem is
A recurring and ancient feature in the singing addressed to the hosts and thanks them for their
of Kalevala epic poetry, especially in Kare hospitality.
lia, was the use of various stock passages to 23—47 Incorporated in this passage, which was used
introduce and conclude the performance of a with incantations, are images associated with Arctic
animism and shamanism. The first stanza describes
poem or sequence of poems. There was no how the singer, or shaman, acquires his powers from
sharp distinction between prologue and epi natural objects in his immediate environment. The
logue materials and it was for the singer to ‘hummock’, 'bright rock* and 'thick boulder’ in the
decide for which of these functions a particu second stanza are characteristic of nature animism
which invests strikingly-shaped natural objects with
lar variant was used. In the poems the singers spiritual properties. It was to these a shaman’s soul
reflect on the act of singing and on the source was thought to travel in search of magic powers; m
and power of their songs: sometimes they ask more advanced cultures this act evolved into the
for beer to moisten their throats and on concept of the journey to the otherworld; 26 luote <
OSc. cf. b l6 t 'the means by which a divinity was
occasions defend themselves against possible approached’, hence ‘spell’; 37 a ita n p a r v i ‘shed loft’:
criticism of their performance. a metaphor for ‘skull’, hence 'memory’ (this metaphor
The predominant stylistic characteristic of is more fully developed in 148: 35—42) 4 4 Concer
these stock passages is the use of metaphor. ning sa m p o see p. 525-528; 4 6 -4 7 The significance
of these lines is uncertain: they appear to mean that
A parallel can be drawn here with, for ex the singer knows so many spells about the sam po and
ample, the kenning of Old Norse literature: Lemminkäinen that even Lemminkäinen would die
while the modern reader may find the images and rot away before the singer had sung all his
obscure and difficult to grasp, they are firmly poems. This fragment is more commonly associated
with the ancient shaman Vipunen (cf. Poems 28,
rooted in the cultural and social milieu from 29); 4 8 -5 2 A recurring male metaphor, the signi
which they were drawn and were readily ficance of which would have been immediately ob
understood by those listening to the perform vious to the listeners. In the northern winter, the
ance. Journey metaphors were characteristic hunter or traveller who faced the hardest task was
the one who opened up a new track after the fall
of male singers, while women used those of fresh snow. He had to tread the soft snow into a
associated with spinning, weaving and other firm track which others could then use. He marked
domestic functions. Laying down and marking the route by bending branches of trees, an act often
a track and spinning and winding thread into referred to in variants of this passage.
a ball are typical metaphors for the perform
ance and memorizing of a poem. Some schol THE CREATION 2, 3, 4, 5
ars see a similarity in the function and style
of these passages with corresponding devices Poems about a bird that flies over the open
employed by several ancient poets, including sea in search of a nesting-place, where it lays
Homer, Virgil, Propertius and Horace, and one or more eggs, have been collected from
later by Dante, who frequently began and Karelia, Ingria and Estonia. Some event
ended their poems with a journey metaphor causes the egg or eggs to break or to roll
such as the raising and lowering of sails. into the sea. From the pieces of the egg evolve
the main components of the cosmos - the sun
1 and moon, the sky and earth, and the stars.
F871
The myth of the creation of the world from
an egg is widely known over an area that
1—14 The singing procedure favoured by men in Kare extends from the eastern Mediterranean to
lia (cf. pp. 74—75; see Plate 10); 9 k e m p p i < Sw. cf.
k ä m p e ‘hero; warrior’ (the adjectival usage 'splendid, India, Japan, Polynesia and Peru. The ver
proud’ was a secondary development that only occur sion collected in the Baltic-Finnish area in
red in Finnish). corporates the ‘diver’ myth - the bird that
1 5 -22 This fragment of a poem, of which many var plunges into the sea - which is common
iants have been collected from Archangel Karelia
and Central Ingria, is thought to have evolved from among Arctic poeples. The bird, which is
a medieval custom whereby groups of schoolboys often referred to as ‘bird of the air’, is a
522
scaup duck or goose in the Karelian variants attribute the shaping of the world to Väinämöinen.
and a swallow in those from Ingria; variants In the redaction which this variant represents, the
C rea tio n myth is introduced by a fragment of a poem
in which the bird is an eagle have been col (11. 1-19) which reflects the traditional hostility be
lected from both regions and are thought to tween the Lapps and the Finns; the underlying theme
represent an older version of the myth. - the murder of a hero by a blind man - has parallels
Typical of all the Baltic-Finnish variants is in many parts of the world, e.g. the Scandinavian
myth about Baldr, a friendly and benevolent god,
the formation of the sun and moon from who according to some versions was accidentally
parts of an egg. However, this is preceded in killed by an arrow of mistletoe shot by his blind
the Karelian variants by the formation of the brother.
earth and sky, also from an egg. The identical 2 v iik k o ‘week’: a term commonly used in some dia
lects to mean ‘a long, unspecified period of time’;
structure of the cosmogonic ending, not only 8 ru oja ‘cripple’ is a strong pejorative; 10 sokian
in the Karelian and Ingrian variants but also (accusative): a mistake by the singer, the nominative
in those from Estonia, points to the antiquity so k ia is the expected form; 38 la m p i < Sw. cf. OSw.
of the poem. (pi.) lim b e r ‘limbs’.
The original theme survives most clearly
in the Ingrian variants (Poems 2, 3). Poem 5
2, which was sung by Russian Orthodox A13.2 A641 A713.1 A811 A814.9 A1012.3 B264.2
Ingrians, depicts the bird laying its eggs on D1121 D1273 N825.2
a hummock and their being blown into the This typical Archangel Karelian series (see pp. 69-71)
sea by a great wind sent by the pagan god, brings together four themes. The first (11. 1-64) is
Ukko. Poem 3, which was sung by Lutheran drawn from T h e W o u n d (cf. Poem 6) and describes
Ingrians, retains the same theme but intro how the injured Väinämöinen searches for a shaman
who knows a spell to staunch the flow of blood. The
duces more recent motifs. The Christian second theme (11. 65-78) is a variant of the poem
divinity replaces Ukko and the poem ends about the shooting of Väinämöinen, which in the
(11. 25-41) with a surrogate passage, which Karelian redaction (Poem 4) has been associated
is itself largely compiled from stock phrases. with T h e C rea tio n . The remainder of the poem in
corporates two myths. In the third theme (11. 79-87)
Väinämöinen is described as the shaper of the sea
2 bed (a role that probably belongs to the earliest
stratum of Väinämöinen motifs), while the fourth
A13.2 A142 A641 D853 *F859 N855 theme (11. 88-127) uses the Bird myth to describe
26 tu u tsa < Ru. cf. tucha ‘cloud’; 3 1 -4 3 A reference the creation of the cosmos. This part of the poem
to the works of creation performed by the smith also incorporates the motif of the struggle between
Ilmarinen which are described in greater detail in a giant pike and a giant eagle (11. 103-115); this
Poems 8, 12, 14, 15. myth, in which the warring animals possibly sym
bolize the familiars of two shamans, has close parallels
with the Indian Sun-theft myth which describes how
3 the sun was stolen and released from the stomach of
a fish (cf. p. 525). In certain areas the series of themes
A13.2 A641 A814.9 F735 from 1. 65 to the end was frequently associated with
32 n a p p isa k sa t lit. ‘button-Germans' (concerning the the s a m p o - p o e m s .
second component see German [y] /Saksa in Name 80 a p a ja ‘hole’: lit. ‘part of a lake where good catches
Index): i.e. pedlars who purveyed cloth and small of fish were customarily made’; 95 k u lo ‘dry grass’:
metal wares that were in great demand outside the lit. ‘dry, withered grass of the previous year’.
few Finnish towns (cf. p. 35); 35—41 this stereotype
description has been compared to that used in
medieval Scandinavian ballads to describe the speed
and splendour of a journey (another version of this
THE WOUND 6
description is found in 120:76-86). A1012.3 D1121 D1273 D1503.1 F841 H335 H1021-
1022 N825.2
4 This poem usually occurs as the epic component of
incantations to stop bleeding. The emphasis on the
A13.2 A641 A814.9 F735 amount of blood as such was not the poet’s principal
The Suistamo variant provides a link between the interest; his main concern was to describe the prim
earliest stratum of C rea tio n myths and those which eval wound and thus to acquire the knowledge
5 23
needed to effect a cure. In this variant T h e W o u n d reference to the same act is also found in
is represented by 11.31-73 and is introduced (11. 6-30) The Singing Match (cf. 10:32-38).
by a surrogate passage from T h e T a s k s (Poem 7).
Features of T h e W o u n d suggest that the poem may
be based on an old myth which describes an iron
world-mountain on the summit of which stood the
7
North Star; the heavens were thought to revolve A142 A1447 F663 H335 LI 13.6 S62 *T75.4.1
around the star.
In this variant the motifs of the boat, wound and The intention of the singer of this variant was to
flood have parallels with Deluge myths recorded in present a version of T h e C o u rtsh ip (cf. Poems 16, 17,
many other parts of the world, e.g. the Biblical 18). He drew his materials from four sources. The
fragment of the lost myth-poem is found in 11. 18-23,
account of the great flood and Noah's Ark. O f par
ticular importance, when considering the form of the while the character of the smith in the opening
myth in the Baltic-Finnish tradition, are the visionary episode (11. 1-15) has been elaborated in lines in
fluenced by stock phrases associated with Ilmari
writings of St Methodius of Patara (d. 311), which
nen and T h e G olden B r id e (Poems 21, 22). The theme
were widely known in the Eastern Church: Method
ius’ account of the construction of the Ark stated and structure of the wooing episode (11. 16-34)
reflect the T a s k s S e t F o r A S u ito r poem, while the
specifically that it was built on a mountain. The
view that the poem springs from popular adapta conclusion is a surrogate passage borrowed from
T h e W if e - K ille r (Poems 95, 96). The motif of the
tions of the Biblical story finds support in the ref
forging of the sky as a task set for the suitor is rare,
erence in some variants to Väinämöinen as ‘holy
and has found its way into this poem because of
hero’ and in an incantation in which the Virgin
its direct association in the mind of the singer with
M ary staunches the flow of blood from Jesus’ knee.
Ilmarinen.
The Boat-building motif can also be associated with
that of the primeval boat in T h e V oyage (Poems 26, 14—15 i.e. the place near the door where uninvited
or unimportant visitors had to remain, a stock pas
27) and T h e S p e ll (Poems 28, 29). In certain variants
sage borrowed from poems about Lemminkäinen
of the S am po poems, in which Ilmarinen is told to
(cf. 34:155-158).
construct the sam p o from the fragments of a distaff
(cf. 12:102), the singers have substituted ‘boat’ as
the object of the impossible task. 8
1 -5 The names in this mythical fragment are com
mon in incantation poetry; 56 p a a rn a < Sw. cf. A142 A527.1 A1447 F663
b a m ‘child’, p a n k k o < Sw. cf. b a n k ‘bench’; 6 9 -7 3
A stock hyperbole to demonstrate the skill of healers;
70 j a l o (MFi. ‘bold’) commonly means ‘great, large’
in dialects. FIRE 9
A142 A1414 »A1415.2.2. Å1457.3
This poem, together with numerous variants which
THE TASKS 7, THE SMITH 8 preserve the myth of the origin of fire, survived in
the Baltic-Finnish area as an incantation for treating
The Tasks and The Smith are the best ex bums. Its original function, however, is thought to
amples of a number of variants which pre have been part of a seasonal fire-lighting ritual - an
important and often difficult task until relatively
serve fragments of an otherwise lost myth- recent times (cf. 11. 81-88). The ritual was probably
poem about how the smith Ilmarinen forged performed, for example, in connection with burn-
the sky. The fragment represented by Poem beat cultivation (i.e. the felling and burning of trees
8 identifies the smith as Ilmarinen and es and undergrowth and the growing of crops in the
ashes (see Plate 13), lighting the first fire in a
tablishes his role as either a culture-hero or new home or lighting a ritual bonfire at the summer
deity. Poem 7, in which the smith is not or winter solstice.
mentioned by name (although the context Folklore about animals that carry a spark occurs
leaves no doubt of his identity), dwells more as far afield as New Guinea and North-West Amer
on the nature and performance of the smith’s ica. Older variants of the Finnish poem reveal
features that have numerous parallels throughout the
craft and points to a culture-hero rather than Arctic region. Some describe, for example, how the
a deity. Other references to Ilmarinen's forg spark was struck from three eagle feathers by ‘the
ing of the sky are found, for example, in bird of the air’ (cf. 15:134-143), a motif similar to
certain variants of the Sampo poems, in which, the Arctic myth about the bird that strikes thunder.
The variant represented by Poem 9 acquired its
because he is known to have shaped the sky, present form during the early Christian era (cf. pp.
he is asked to make the sampo; an obscure 53-54). The opening lines (11. 1-4) illustrate the
524
clash between old and new beliefs: the spark is struck of an exchange of magic power. Similar
by Väinämöinen and Ilmarinen, but in a series of themes are known, for example, in Mordvin
‘heavens’, reflecting the concept of heaven that was
common among some early Christian sects (cf. the and Vogul foklore. The final episode of each
doctrine of the early Church). In some variants variant (10:86-103; 11:118—134) incorporates
the ancient heroes are replaced by the Virgin Mary a much later feature, the ‘returning-home-
and Jesus. Other examples in the variants of the weeping’ formula (cf. Poems 106, 107, 108,
clash between old and new beliefs are fragments of
prayers addressed variously to a female pagan spirit 109; pp. 59-60).
and the Virgin Mary.
One of the poem’s older motifs is the carrying of 10
the spark in the belly of a fish. This may have been
influenced by European versions of the Indian Sun- D523 »D791.2.3 D1275 *R90
theft myth (cf. p. 523). The description of the prim
eval fishing net is another ancient feature found 7—9 vesa ‘shoot’: a corruption of veri ‘blood’ (cf. 11:
in the Baltic-Finnish area only in poems about the 13-15 where the older form, a battle metaphor,
origin of fire. Certain variants describe how stone survives). The singer(s) of Poem 10 appear to have
tools were used to spin and weave the net from the been influenced by a similar metaphor in T h e S p e ll
inner bark of juniper or from heather, while the (cf. 28:28-30); 25 siverret: i.e. MFi. Syvärit, syöverit;
fishing technique described in the poem is known 27 tunti: i.e. nominal derivative of Kar. tuntie ‘to
throughout Asia and much of Europe. Some scholars know; feel’; 43 nisulihat ‘waist’: lit. ‘part of the body
see a connection between the fishing motif and the immediately below the ribs’; 103 la n k o (MFi. ‘brother-
Scandinavian myth of how Loki, who has been in-law’) commonly means ‘male relative’ in OFi.
compared to Prometheus, attempts to escape his and some dialects.
pursuers by changing into a salmon and is caught
in a seine-net. 11
21 siik a ‘whitefish’: a member of the sa lm o n id a e
family, sometimes called 'laveret’; 48 A h in a ita ‘Ahti’s A1251 B184.1.4 D523 »D791.2.3 D1275 N542.1 *R90
fence’: a kenning, i.e. the shore. 20-21 vesi ‘water’ in 1. 21 is a corruption caused by
the association with ‘sea’ in 1. 20 and phonetic clash
with the earlier form, i.e. Ingr. v e za (cf. Fi. vesa)
‘shoot, sapling’ (the parallel to ‘stump* in 1. 20).
THE SINGING MATCH 10, 11 The two lines are a fragment of a myth about how
man originated from a tree-stump that splits in two
The poem of the duel between Väinämöinen (the fragment occurs in a clearer form and context in
and Joukahainen is one of the outstanding 41:7-8); 47 raunio ‘cairn’: lit. ‘pile of stones cleared
products of Finnish epic poetry. It describes from an area of land to facilitate ploughing’; 99-103
i.e. she eats food that makes her plump and is there
the encounter of the two principal characters fore by contemporary criteria beautiful.
either on the frozen sea or a narrow road
and their quarrel about who should give
way. Various theories have been advanced THE SAMPO 12-15
to explain the significance of the duel: the
participants have been seen as the gods of More than any other theme in Finnish folk
water and ice, as Viking heroes, and as rival poetry, the story of the sampo, how and why
shamans. The poet-singer’s main aim seems it was made, stolen and lost, has stimulated
to have been to depict the great power of debate among scholars and captured the
Väinämöinen and his singing, i.e. magic, and imagination of poets and artists. Indicative
various devices are employed to emphasize of the 150 years of conjecture about the
the difference in the participants’ personal sampo is the fact that it is frequently difficult
qualities, including a reference to Väinämöi- to separate scholarship from fantasy. Scholars
nen’s role in the creation of the world (cf. failed to explain the origin and purpose of
10:29-38). The interpretation of the poem as these poems because they worked from false
a duel between two rival shamans (who premisses and imposed an anachronistic logic
would also have been rival tribal leaders) on their material. They assumed that the
seems the most appropriate, for the poem poems had been created as a unified whole
contains several symbols associated with in which the sampo had a clearly defined
shamanism and the duel itself takes the form function. Hence, until recently, attempts to
525
understand these poems were based largely sampo*. Some scholars link to these three
on etymological and ethnographical conjec episodes the poems about rival suitors (cf.
ture about the sampo and the associated - in particular Poems 16, 17) and The Golden
often parallel - kirjokansi lit. ‘brightly-worked Bride (Poems 21, 22), although it is agreed
cover’. More recently, however, scholars have that they became associated with the Sampo
abandoned this approach and begun to study Epos only at a later date. Briefly summarised,
the inter-relationship of the sampo poems; the postulated epos told the following story:
they have reduced them to their component Väinämöinen is shot by an enemy and drifts
themes and sought to discover how these wounded for several years at sea where he
were combined and shaped into their sur performs various acts of creation. Finally, he
viving form. This new approach has shown is washed ashore at Pohjola, whose mistress
that questions about what the sampo was can undertakes to return him to his own people
never be satisfactorily answered and that on condition that he forges her a sampo. He
even if they could, an answer would probably promises that his fellow hero Ilmarinen will
make little contribution to the understanding do this and is allowed to return home. Ilma
of the poems. rinen agrees to forge the sampo, in return for
It seems clear that by not later than the which he is told that he will receive the
12th century several poems of separate origin daughter of the mistress of Pohjola. Thus the
and very different age had become establish sampo is made and provides the inhabitants
ed in a fixed sequence. It had three main of Pohjola with great and unending wealth.
redactions, each of which was tied to an Jealous of this, Väinämöinen and Ilmarinen
area of permanent settlement - Häme, Ostro- sail to Pohjola and steal the sampo. They are
bothnia, Karelia - and for a time each was pursued and a furious battle takes place at
sung in a rigid form before it began to frag sea, during which the mistress of Pohjola
ment and develop new series. An explana changes into a wyvern, the sampo is smashed
tion for the period of fixed presentation may and the pieces are lost in the sea. These and
lie in the ritual function of the poems for some fragments that are washed ashore bring
there is evidence to suggest that they were fertility to the land and sea. The motif that
performed as the accompaniment to fertility links the three poems forming the Sampo
practices. The earliest forms of the poem Epos to The Courtship (and The Golden Bride)
appear to refer to the fertility of the sea (cf. is that of the wooing of the daughter of the
Poem 13), and the implication that the sea mistress of Pohjola.
is more fertile than the land, a theme found The three main poems brought together
over a large area, is seen as evidence of the in the epos represent three distinct themes.
poem’s origin in a coastal fishing environ The first, that of creation, contains two sub
ment (the emphasis in Archangel Karelian themes. The works of creation at sea and
variants on the sampo’s importance in en their background are discussed in connec
suring the fertility of the land is thought to tion with The Creation (see pp. 522-523); the
be a secondary development by poet-singers second sub-theme, the shooting of Väinämöi
who lived in inland areas). The breaking of nen, has been compared to that of an ancient
the sampo into small pieces may be an early incantation for curing pains (in this earlier
secondary development based on the ana form it did not refer to a ‘slit-eyed Laplander’
logy of other fragmentation episodes (cf. The who ‘harboured hatred’ and these secondary
Creation). motifs indicate Germanic or possibly early
The sequence of poems that are postulated Scandinavian influence). The second main
to have been performed as the accompani theme, the account of how the sampo is forged,
ment to some kind of fertility rite is known is more difficult to analyze; the sequence of
as the Sampo Epos. It consisted of three main events and to some extent the structure sug
episodes: ‘The creation of the world*, ‘The gest that its inclusion in the epos may have
forging of the sampo’ and ‘The theft of the been determined mainly by the following
5 26
poem which presupposes the existence of an with mythical creatures appear to have been
object worth stealing. The singers themselves transferred, almost translated, to a Finnish
were uncertain about what the sampo was; milieu. The main theme of the Scandinavian
many depicted it as a device that produced legends is a journey to a distant land, e.g.
wealth, some ascribed the fertility of land and Gandviky Dumbshqf, Jötunheimar, Kirjdlabotnar,
sea to its fragments, while others understood Helsingjabotn (the -botn place-name component
it as some kind of mill. corresponds to Finnish pohja as in Pohjanmaa
The association with fertility has already ‘Ostrobothnia’ and Pohjola, the destination of
been mentioned and there may be a connec the heroes in the sampo poems), to steal a
tion here with early animistic beliefs that magic device or to release a maiden guarded
invested natural objects with tutelary spirits by a witch; the latter is either portrayed as
(cf. the reference to the sampo being rooted a bird or assisted by a monstrous bird. Bosa
to the earth in 12:252-253). In more devel saga illustrates the extent of the similarity
oped forms of animism practised in Arctic between the Scandinavian legends and the
regions special columns were set up and events that surround the theft of the sampo.
worshipped. The Lapps, for example, are To obtain a pardon for having murdered a
known to have erected symbolic ‘world pil prince, Bosi has to steal the egg of the giant
lars’. These were often provided with or gammr, conceived as an enormous bird. He
nately-worked metal tops representing the sails with a companion to a distant land and,
North Star and around which the heavens with the aid of a girl he has seduced, he
(i.e. kirjokansi) revolve. They were thought to and his followers discover where the egg is
ensure success in hunting, fishing and animal hidden, kill the monsters guarding the egg,
breeding and it was not uncommon for minia release an imprisoned princess, and return
ture symbols of the same kind to be made out home safely with their booty. Before long
of valuable metals. Hence it is possible that Bosi and his companion set out again, accom
the original function of the second theme of panied by a third man called Smidr (‘smith’).
the epos was a fertility incantation which Their task is to save a maid who is to be
was performed as part of the worship of a married against her will. As the wedding
valuable, symbolic object. ceremony is about to begin, they carry her
The concept of the sampo as a device that off to their boat where Bosi conceals her in
produces wealth, often a mill, may be the his miraculous harp. A furious battle takes
result of a confusion with and reinterpretation place in the boat during which Smidr strikes
of the Scandinavian myth of the grotti, a the most dangerous of the enemies with his
magic mill owned by King Frodi of Den magic sword. The enemy changes into a flying
mark which had the power to produce dragon, spits poison over the boat and swal
whatever its owner desired and was finally lows Smidr. The dragon is in turn attacked
destroyed by an enemy’s magic. Against this by a giant bird and Smidr’s foster-mother
interpretation, however, must be set the who joins the battle in the shape of an ani
relatively late date of the grotti poem and mal.
the fact that ‘mill’ is not the only inter Although the Scandinavian influence is
pretation of the sampo by Finnish singers: evident in the motifs of the third theme of
other objects of great value are also called the sampo epos, the basic structure appears
sampo. to be Finnish. Stylistic evidence shows that
The third theme, the theft, shows clear these borrowings date from a very early pe
evidence of Scandinavian influence and the riod when contacts between the peoples on
main motifs, although not the themes to which either side of the Gulf of Bothnia were still
they are tied, appear to have been borrowed infrequent. Moreover, the motifs that were
from medieval mythical-heroic fomaldarsögur. borrowed also recur in Finnish folk poetry
The parallels are striking. Their accounts of in contexts that have no connection with the
journeys to strange lands and encounters sampo epos. Hence there is no question of
527
the Finns’ having borrowed an ancient epic from wedding poems (cf. 66:55-59 and notes); 237
as such from Scandinavian sources. A corruption of j u u ta la in e n ] ‘Jewish’ (i.e. non-Chris
tian) as the parallel to ‘pagan’ in 1. 238; 326-341
Typologically this episode is related to die world
12 wide tale of T h e M a g ie F lig h t in which escape is
nought by throwing in the path of pursuers small
A142 B31 B184.1.4 D152.2 D672 D853 D1175 objects that grow into great obstacles, a theme that
D1364 D1419.3 D2142.1 F871 *N381.2 T52 is more clearly represented in Poem 32 (cf. pp. 537-
538); 330 Kar. m esta ta ‘to throw’; 345 leivo ‘skylark’:
This is the best known and longest example of the a corruption of lievo < lieve ‘mythical bird’.
S am po E p o s. Sung by one of the most remarkable
singers of folk poetry, Arhippa Perttunen, it is typical
of the series of poems that provide the framework 13
for the epos in Archangel Karelia, the area where A ll 15 B31 F871
the largest number of sa m p o poems survived. The
three main themes are all represented. The shooting This fragment is of historiographical and historical
of Väinämöinen and his works oi creation shift to interest. Not only it is one of the earliest examples
the second theme at 1. fiO. The account of the forg of poetry collection inspired by the early 19th century
ing of the sam po assumes that the listeners are fa Turku Romantic movement (which culminated in
miliar with T h e C o u rtsh ip (Poems 15, 16, 17); this the K a le v a la and K a n te le ta r ), it is also the earliest
secondary theme enters at 1. 124 when Väinämöinen recorded reference to the existence of a magic device
persuades Ilmarinen to forge the sa m p o in return called the sa m p o . The historical importance of the
for the daughter of the mistress of Pohjola; the fragment lies in the fact that it was collected not
question of the task being a ransom for Väinämöi in the Finnish area but among the Värmland Finns
nen is not mentioned. The second theme moves of Central Sweden, descendants of emigrants from
easily into the third at 11. 192-215 which are an Savo who left during times of hardship in the 16th
undated attempt by a poet-singer to provide a bridge and 17th centuries. Hence this fragment shows con
passage explaing why Väinämöinen and Ilmarinen clusively that the sa m p o poems were once known in
wish to steal the sa m p o . areas to the west of where they survived in the 19th
1 -3 6 Various reasons have been suggested to explain century. This has led many scholars to the view
why it was a 'Laplander’ who shot Väinämöinen. that the separate poems, and possibly the chain that
Some scholars see in this an allusion to the medieval forms the epos, first took shape in an area close to
expeditions of the Birkarls to rob and levy taxes on the west coast of Finland.
the Lapps and the resulting hostility. Others associate The variant represents the third theme of the
‘Laplander’ with the Lapps’ traditional reputation archetypal epos, although the reference at the end
as powerful workers of magic. Since the poem dates of the fragment to the powers of fertility conferred
from an early period, an alternative explanation by the sa m p o point to the postulated ritual function
would be that the choice of ‘Laplander’ as the enemy of the epos and the underlying theme of the second
reflects the hostility and suspicion common between main poem. The singer did not understand what
groups of different culture and language living in the sa m m a s was, or even what the poem was about,
relatively close proximity. Hence ‘Laplander’ may for the sa m p o is confused with the mythical bird into
be a pejorative comparable to ruotsalainen ‘Swede’ which, according to most variants, the mistress of
and venäläinen ‘Russian’ at later periods (cf. Lapland Pohjola changed. The fact that the details described
in Name Index); 100 passim k irjo k a n si 'brightly- by the singer and the three verses in her account
worked cover’: the most common parallel of sa m p o . are so close to the corresponding passages in Kare
The first component, k ir jo -, is cognate with MFi. lian variants emphasizes how deeply rooted and
k irja v a ‘(multi-)coloured’ and derives from a word widely known the sa m p o poems must have been.
denoting ‘ornamented’. Several theories have been
advanced to explain the second component; most 14
scholars relate it to MFi. k a n si ‘cover, lid’, although
B31 B872.1 D152.2 D672 D1121 D1175 D1208
it has been suggested that it may be cognate with
D1275 D1419.3 D2153.1 F871 *N381.2
k a n ta ‘base’. In folk poetry it came to be understood
as 'ornamented lid, cover’ and in this sense was This variant is the most reminiscent of the motifs
used synecdochically to mean 'sa m p o ', ‘sky’, and associated with the fo m a ld a rsö g u r. As in Poem 13,
'chest with a painted lid’; 101—105 Cognate forms the singers were uncertain of the identity of the
of this series of impossible tasks occur in several parts sa m p o . The booty stolen by the three heroes is var
of Europe, including Scotland, Denmark, Germany, iously described as ‘spoils’ (11. 10, 72, 74), ‘farm’
and Russia. In the Finnish area the formula is pri (1. 73), and ‘sturgeon’ (1. 29). The latter, Fi. sa m p i,
marily associated with tasks set for suitors. Its occur is a folk etymology of sa m p o . Where sa m p o occurs in
rence here is secondary, probably influenced by the the variant, it means ‘boat’.
association of the sa m p o poems with the T a s k s 66 dial, k u lk k u : i.e. k u rk k u ; 98 Kar. su v i ‘south’;
f o r S u ito rs theme; 180— 185 The description of the 100 Kar. luode ‘west’; 109 ta m m a ta < Sw. cf. sta m p a
ornamentation of the sledge is a surrogate passage ‘to stamp’.
528
15 poem, which in turn produced numerous
redactions. The theme of the task set for a
A142 A284 A811 B31 B576 D152.2 *D791.2.3 D853
Dl 175 D1275 F735 F871 H335 LI 13.6 R225 T52 suitor comes from an ancient fairy tale
{Märchen) about a girl, usually a supernatural
This variant is a typical example of the form of the
sam po epos sung in the area bounded by southern
being, who is promised to the man who can
Archangel Karelia and Lake Ladoga. The search for perform a series of specific tasks. The form
a bride, drawn from T h e C o u rtsh ip (cf. in particular and structure of the wooing theme developed
Poems 16, 17), has replaced the theft of the sa m p o differently according to area and period. In
as the central theme. The singer’s approach is one
of allusion, making frequent use of surrogate pas Ladoga Karelia, the girl is the daughter of
sages to refer to themes and motifs that he knows the demonic Hiisi (Poem 17); in Ingria, the
will be familiar to his listeners. The structure of his wooing takes place in the otherworld (Poem
poem consists of six episodes: 1 Väinämöinen wants 18), while in North Ostrobothnia, the girl
a bride and woos the daughter of the mistress of
Pohjola (11. 1-105). 2 He can have her on condition is depicted as an air-virgin (cf. Poem 6).
that he forges the sa m p o (11. 106-108). 3 He does A form of the tale in which the girl is not
this and receives his bride (11. 109-112), but 4 steals so obviously associated with a supernatural
the sam po and sails away (11. 113-120). 5 The mis background is found in The Gift (Poems 19,
tress of Pohjola pursues and defeats him, and, it
appears, recovers both daughter and sa m p o (11. 121— 20) .
156). 6 Väinämöinen seeks another bride and ob In all these variants the conditions set for
tains Joukahainen’s sister (11. 157-196). the suitor follow the impossible-task formula.
The surrogate passages employed by the singer The specific nature of the tasks varies, again
come from several well known poems and are linked
to sam po material in such a way that the underlying according to place and period; they have also
narrative is clear. Episode 1 draws on T h e C o u rtsh ip ; been influenced by other typologically similar
2 alludes to the bargain struck between the mistress motifs. The oldest stratum is possibly repre
of Pohjola and Väinämöinen for the latter’s release sented in Poem 7, in which Ilmarinen has
(cf. 12:98-105), while 3 uses lines about Ilmarinen
to indicate that the sa m p o was forged (cf. 12:158-170).
to perform cosmogonic acts. The tasks in
In episode 4 the poet has drawn on well known Poem 17 suggest a culture in which sha
accounts of the theft and the struggle over the sa m p o manism was practised, while those perform
(cf. 12:225-375; Poem 14). Episode 5 provides the ed by the smith in Poem 18 belong to a
best illustration of the singer’s use of stock phrases relatively recent period. A stage between
and surrogate passages: to depict Väinämöinen’s
defeat at sea, the loss of his bride and the sa m p o , shamanism and the era represented in Poem
followed by the shipwreck, the singer has woven 18 may underlie Poems 19 and 20; the tasks
together verses from variants about the O rig in o f associated with fiery objects and walking on
F ire (cf. 9:4—10) and from the passage describing
the drifting at sea in T h e C reation (cf. 5:72-102). In
sharp points suggest the influence of medieval
episode 6, the singer indicates to his listeners that Christian legends of hell, while fairy tales
Väinämöinen has found another bride by incorpo which reached the Finnish area through
rating a short version of T h e S in g in g M a tc h (Poems Russia provided such motifs as the knotting
10, 11). of an egg. The Golden Bride (Poems 21, 22)
91 kasa k k a 'servant, hired m an’ < Ru. cf. k a z a k
‘Cossack’; 99-100 i.e. of firewood; 131-134 An ob was often sung as the continuation of The
scure surrogate passage from a Finnish version of Courtship, either to describe how a wife was
the world-wide M a g ie F lig h t tale (cf. pp. 537-538); found for the rejected suitor, or for his rival,
134 Ilm a n ukko ‘Old Man of the Air’: cf. 9:1-2 and who in some way had lost his bride as they
Name Index.
were returning home together.
The second of the two main themes occurs
THE COURTSHIP 16-18 in those variants of the Sampo Epos in which
the daughter of the mistress of Pohjola is
The Courtship frequently combines two main promised to Ilmarinen in return for making
themes: tasks set for a suitor and the rivalry the sampo. In the form in which the theme
between two suitors. Although the first of is incorporated in The Courtship, Väinämöinen
these is far older, similarity of content led in also wants to marry the girl, but as he sets
some areas to their combination into a single off to woo her, he reveals his intention to
34 529
Ilmarinen’s sister, Anni. She tells her brother, of the ship’s huge red sail, hyperbole to denote
who races to Pohjola to claim his bride. De Väinämöinen’s great wealth; 130-131 These lines
and the corresponding passage in Poem 17 (11. 162—
spite Väinämöinen’s offer of great riches, she 167) show that both poet and audience associated
is given to his rival. The three variants of this episode with the S a m p o E p o s.
The Courtship illustrate the various stages in
the evolution of this poem. The separate
existence of the two themes can be seen in 17
Poems 16 and 18, while their assimilated A142 B264.2 B576 D152.2 F87 F989.15 H335
form is apparent in Poem 17. H335.0.1 HI 154 HI 188 LI 13.6
Stylistic evidence suggests that the rivalry An early stage in the assimilation of the two main
theme without reference to the requirement themes is evident in this variant; the ancient tale
and the later account of the rival suitors are partly
to perform certain tasks, the form represented in juxtaposition and partly interwoven, leading in
by Poem 16, took shape during the Viking places to apparent conflict in the narrative. This
period. Although many background motifs can be seen in the first two parts of the poem (11.
are mythical, certain details indicate a poetic 1-87, 88-145), where the listener is expected to
know that the girl has been pledged to Ilmarinen,
tradition very different from that of the and in the final episode (11. 146-251) where the poet-
earlier myth poems. The variants preserve an singer refers to an earlier betrothal ceremony be
ethnographically accurate picture of daily tween Ilmarinen and the girl (e.g. 11. 162-167) and
life in early medieval Finland: travel, meth there is no longer any suggestion of a rival suitor.
At the end of the poem the demon changes his
ods of hunting and fishing, the tasks allotted daughter, now married to Ilmarinen, into a gull,
to men and women, and even the problem possibly as a punishment for having helped her
of recalcitrant servants. Another feature typ suitor; in most variants from Ladoga Karelia (where
ical of the style of this later period is the psy this episode also functions as the O rig in o f the G u ll
myth), the wife irritates Ilmarinen with her spite
chological portrayal of the characters, espec as they return from the otherworld and it is Ilma
ially of the women: the femininity of Ilma rinen himself who punishes her.
rinen’s sister and the vanity that prompts 5 A wooden implement with a broad spade-like end
her to strike a bargain with her brother be for beating washing, often painted and decorated
fore she will reveal what she knows about with ornate carving, customarily a gift from a young
man to his betrothed; 11 ruoan ru o tsi ‘Swede to feed’:
Väinämöinen are traits that mark a different cf. 66:86 (from a variant of which this epithet has
approach to poetry, one that is separated by been borrowed); 15 i.e. mating dances performed by
several centuries from the tradition to which, certain fish; 3 6 -3 9 A hyperbole describing a Viking
for example, the mistress of Pohjola be long-ship; 165—166 i.e. icons, a reference to the Rus
sian Orthodox betrothal ceremony (a surrogate pas
longs. sage possibly borrowed from a variant of T h e B o n d ,
cf. 39:5-8); 165 Kar. ju m a la ‘god’ has the secondary
16 meaning ‘icon*; 224—231 These lines are an obscure
version of the ancient theme of the struggle between
A142 B576 LI 13.6 T52 the pike and the eagle (cf. 5:1030; pp. 523, 527);
This variant, an outstanding example of the psy 248-251 These verses arc to be read together with
chological and ethnographical realism of the poetry 61:77-79 for a more complete description of the
of the Viking period, preserves a version of the punishment inflicted on the girl; 251 lo re s ‘stone’:
rivalry between two suitors in a form close to that lit. ‘stone for weighing down fish nets’.
of the archetypal poem. The text does not describe
how Ilmarinen had already made the sa m p o in order
to obtain his bride because the singer expected his 18
listeners to be familiar with the relevant sa m p o poems A142 B184.1.4 D853 F87 H335 HI 131.1 LI 13.6
(in association with which this was sometimes sung).
N542.1
The final episode (11. 133-136) indicates that this poem
was linked in a chain to T h e G olden B rid e (cf. 21:1-6). The main motifs of the ancient fairy tale are evident
27 k u u lta a ‘to catch’: i.e. with a seine-net (k u lle ); and the girl is a supernatural being. While a smith
53 tin a rin ta ‘tin-breasted’: i.e. wearing a large, tin is the suitor and has to perform the impossible
brooch on the breast;7 7 -8 2 A surrogate passage from tasks, there is no suggestion of a rival.
a Karelian wedding poem, sung to the bridegroom 2 senihka < Ru. cf. zh en ik ‘betrothed; bridegroom*;
as he took the ritual purifying bath before setting 21 ra h a risti ‘money-cross’: ‘money-’ here is a quali
off to claim his bride; 103 i.e. red from the reflection fier to denote an object of value.
530
THE GIFT 19, 20 understand the horrific final scene (19:153—
181; 20:81-113), reminiscent of the legend of
The Gift, a poem that enjoyed great popu Atreus and Thyestes.
larity in Karelia and Ingria, is an adaptation
of the bylina about Ivan Godinovich. The 19
Finnish variants retain several features of the
Russian poem, including the name of the A142 D853 G61 H335 HI 154 N855 Q451.9 S62
principal character, his refusal of the hospi The Archangel Karelian variant reveals the extent
tality offered by the girl’s parents, the violent of the influence of T h e C o u rtsh ip on Finnish adapta
tions of the Russian bylina. Structurally, 11. 1-147
way in which he removes her from her home, are closer to the Finnish analogue than to the Rus
the tracks of the three animals seen on the sian original. Apart from the underlying theme, the
return journey, a duel, and the mutilation only obvious Russian features that remain are the
of the girl. The main differences lie in the names, and the motif of the animals which run across
way in which the motifs of the Russian poem the path of the sledge on the journey to Kojo’s home
(11. 94, 116, 138); these refer to an episode at the
are used and in the reasons for the atro beginning of the bylina which describes how com
city. panions of Godinovich set out, each to hunt a dif
In the Russian version Nastasia’s betrothed, ferent animal, leaving Nastasia and Godinovich
the Tartar Prince Koshcherishcho, fights a alone. Kojo’s reason for killing his wife is not stated in
duel with Godinovich. Helped by the girl this variant, although vengeance is the likely expla
the Tartar defeats his opponent and leaves nation. This is implicit in the final episode, while
him tied to a tree. Shortly afterwards, Kosh the references to carving ‘meat without a knife’ and
cherishcho dies in an accident; Nastasia re pouring 'blood without a ladle’ (11. 102-103, 124-
125, 146-147) suggest that revenge will be exacted
turns and releases Godinovich, who there on the wife by demanding that she in turn should
upon slices off those parts of her body that perform impossible tasks (this theme is developed in
‘have served the pagan’. In the Russian ver greater detail in Poem 20).
sion, Godinovich’s behaviour is approved by 1suitable
-9 The lament about the difficulty of finding a
husband incorporates a pun in 1. 3: apart
the poet. The Karelian or Ingrian poet, how from being a male name, J o u k o also means ‘swan’,
ever, who adapted the bylina to local tradi hence the references to ‘river-water’ and ‘buck-beans’
tion, did not understand the pathos of Godi in 11. 8-9; 2 6 -2 7 ,4 1 -4 3 , 65 The various impossible
tasks come from very different sources. The cosmo
novich’s sense of pride, the dominant feature gonic tasks probably go back to an early stratum of
of the original. He omitted all reference to myth poetry, the second task suggests the influence
the pagan Tartar and instead produced a of shamanism, while the third is reminiscent of medi
melodramatic story about a brutal mur eval concepts of the torments of hell; 87 p a tv in e n
‘curly-birch’ :i.e. having a curly grain; 88 saverkka <
der. Ru. cf. za v y o r tk a ‘something twisted, tied’; 154 Kar.
Finnish singers frequently associated and k o stin tsa < Ru. cf. g o stin e ts ‘gift from a visitor’.
sometimes confused The Gift with the The
Courtship (Poems 16, 17, 18); the latter is the 20
source of the impossible-task theme, which
does not occur in the bylina. The confusion B184.1.4
S62 *S177
G61 H335 H373 H1021 H1022 Q451.9
of the two poems may also explain the form
The variant illustrates the simplification that occur
of the revenge motif as it occurs in the Fin red in the Ingrian adaptation, which has been put
nish variants. The Ladoga Karelian variant together from numerous stock phrases. Nothing sur
of The Courtship (Poem 17), in which Ilma vives of the proud Russian boyar; Kojonen’s epithet
rinen punishes his vexatious wife, possibly is pejorative, he is portrayed as boorish and as one
who intrudes where he is not wanted (cf. 11. 34-41).
illuminates the way in which the motif took The tasks he is set are based on two separate motifs.
shape; in certain variants of The Gift the The first, to sit in ?. burning house, is from medieval
reason for the husband’s brutality is to avenge Christian tradition (cf. also ‘fire’ and ‘fiery’ in 11.
the hardships he had to suffer in accomplish 3-5), while the second that of making a rope from
ing the impossible tasks set by his father-in- chaff, is a motif of great antiquity that was known
4000 years ago in Babylon and also occurs in Ancient
law. Against this background, it is easier to Greek legends. The tasks set for the wife suggest
531
that the poet-singer was familiar with versions of the 22
widely known C lever P e a sa n t G ir l tale and the Russian
redaction of the E lfin K n ig h t ballad in which the girl A142 B102 F663 LI 13.6 T117.il
and boy ask each other to perform impossible tasks.
T h e G olden B r id e generally survived as a separate
12 m olotsa passim < Ru. cf. m o lodets ‘young man’;
3 4 -3 7 A stock phrase drawn from poems sung as the poem in Ingria, where long sequences occurred less
accompaniment to wedding ritual (cf. 84:7-10). often and where the S a m p o E p o s does not appear to
have been known. This variant retains a form rela
tively close to the archetypal poem.
1 -1 0 The opening lines are a secondary feature,
THE GOLDEN BRIDE 21, 22 probably dating from the Middle Ages, and refer
to the division and allocation of land practised in
The concept of a ‘golden bride’ is known in West Finland and Estonia. In medieval Estonia it
was customary for the village smith to set up his
many parts of Arctic Eurasia; peoples as far forge on the common land of the village (cf. 11.
apart as the Lapps, the Ostyaks and the 5-8); 3 p iu s ta ‘rod’: approx. 1.04 m ;4 v a a k sa 'span’
Voguls are known to have named certain approx. 20 cm; 21 va a rn a ‘peg’: i.e. from which to
cult objects or places ‘Golden Bride’ and hang things; v a lta ‘estate*: lit. ‘noble and his family,
and their land’; 25 m a rk k a ‘coin’: i.e. for ornamen
Russian accounts of the mission of St Stephen tation; 7 3 -7 4 passim i.e. that has lived one autumn
of Perm to the Zyryans in the 14th century or winter.
describe pagan worship of ‘idols, fire and
water, a golden woman, witches, and trees’.
Similar references to the worship of ‘golden THE KANTELE 23-25
woman’ idols are found in 16th and 17th
century travel accounts. Several theories have Variants of The Kantele have been recorded
been advanced to explain the origin and throughout the Baltic-Finnish area. North of
significance of the poem in the Baltic-Finnish the Gulf of Finland and Lake Ladoga the
area. The style and content of The Golden poems about the origin and playing of the
Bride are typical of the old stratum of aetio- kantele were generally linked to poems about
logical epic. A later poet-singer introduced the construction of the primeval boat and a
the courtship and impossible-tasks themes, voyage (cf. Poems 26, 27); together they
and the structure of the latter is evident in formed a miniature epos comparable to the
the smith’s three attempts to make himself Sampo cycle (Poems 12, 13, 14, 15). Ingrian
a wife. Another view is that The Golden Bride and Estonian variants, however, show clearly
was composed to deride a culture-hero and that these poems were originally sung sep
is comparable, typologically, to the Greek arately.
myths that ridicule the god of crafts, Hephaes Numerous secondary developments and
tus (who was assisted by ‘golden maids’ and additions make it difficult to identify the
made Pandora, the first woman) and the precise content, still less the archetypal form
Indian Tvashtria, the builder of the universe. of the Baltic-Finnish poems about the origin
A third theory sees the poem as the highly of the kantele and the primeval boat. It is
individual, plaintive elegy of an aging bach not possible even to establish with any cer
elor, composed about the time of Christ in tainty the identity of the hero who created
an area on the southern shore of the Gulf of them. Comparative evidence suggests, how
Finland. ever, that he was a smith. Typologically, the
poems appear to have been close to a type
of aetiological epic in which animals played
21 an important role: the kantele, and originally
A142 B102 F663 LI 13.6 T117.il the boat also, were constructed from the
In Archangel Karelia T h e G olden B rid e was usually bones of a bird, fish, or reindeer, and it was
sung in a series as the continuation of T h e C ourtship animals which tried in turn to play the kantele.
after the suitor - Väinämöinen or Ilmarinen - had The two poems about the origin of the
been rejected or had lost his wife. The warning in
11. 73-78 is secondary and was probably added during instrument and the boat were combined by
the Christian period. a poet-singer of outstanding skill and know-
532
ledge some time during the Middle Kalevala internal rhyme, he paid attention to the
period. He consciously brought together a aesthetic choice of words and images and to
series of unrelated mythical themes about the the effect of their juxtaposition. This sense
construction of these two objects from parts of conscious aesthetic appreciation is one of
of animals and linked them to the character the most striking features of the poem: the
of Väinämöinen. The animal motifs were poem contains evidence not only of an en
used figuratively: the materials from which joyment of language for its own sake, but
the boat was constructed came to denote also of the poet’s eulogy of such an aesthetic
speed; the materials of the kantele provided experience.
the poet with music metaphors and a kenning
(e.g. hyvin soitti hauen hammas ‘the pike’s tooth 23
played well’); the animals which once played A1461 D1419.3 D1443.1.3.2 N774.2
the instrument became the audience and were
This variant is an example of the miniature epos
used to illustrate the power of the music. form, although it lacks the description of how the
Some scholars argue that the poet intro boat was constructed with which most versions begin;
duced certain other themes known in many 11. 1-40 are drawn from poems about the primeval
parts of the world: he may have elaborated occurs boat and the voyage; the shift to the k a n tele poem
at 11. 41-45 (sometimes it is provided by Väi-
kantele origin myths with traits drawn from nämöinen’s ship running aground on a rock where
The Singing Bone, a tale recorded in many he finds the bones of a fish or by his raking the bones
parts of Europe, Africa and India about how up from the sea bed). A typical epic feature is the
a fisherman made a harp from the body of formula of three people, or three groups of people,
the first two of which fail to accomplish a task,
a drowned girl. Her skull provided the frame, which is then performed by a hero.
her nails the pegs and her hair the strings. 26 su k a p å ä ‘brush-headed*: the meaning is obscure
The kantele origin poem also incorporates and could describe ‘short-cropped hair*, ‘hair brushed
another widely known myth - a boat that smooth*, ‘some kind of head-dress’, or ‘brush orna
mentation on a helmet’; 29 i.e. an ornament worn
catches fast on an object in the open sea (the on the forehead (see Plate 35); 35 The simile is flatter
Jonah motif) - which the poet used to link ing: Väinämöinen is compared to an object of
the poem of the primeval boat to that of the great value; it is probable that 40:53-58 originally
belonged here; 63 ilo ‘joy* and so itto ‘playing of a
kantele. The description of the power that Väi- musical instrument* frequently mean ‘musical in
nämöinen’s playing had over mortals, immor strument* in Finnish folk poetry and as such are
tals and animals was possibly influenced by often the subject of word-play.
North European versions of the Orpheus le
gend, which enjoyed great popularity in early 24
medieval Europe. The Orpheus and Jonah
features in The Kantele have been compared A 142 A1461 D1441.1.3.2
with the Sadko bylina. One school of thought The Ladoga Karelian variant illustrates how the
argues that the bylina could have been in stylistically more developed northern sequences (cf.
Poem 23) influenced those further south. LI. 1-12
fluenced by the Finnish poem. It seems more represent an old form of the ka n tele poem in which
likely, however, that the Finnish and Russian there is no association with a voyage, while the de
poems both spring from versions of these scription of how the instrument was played and of
its effect (11. 13-59) is typical of the Archangel Ka
themes known in Scandinavia. relian variants. A further ancient feature in this
The unified whole which the poet created variant is the separate identity of the maker and
from these various myths and legends proved the player of the ka n tele. The identification of the
immensely popular and spread from settle maker as a smith is a typical southern feature and
ment to settlement, becoming in turn the in Ingria, for example, the smith is always Ilmarinen.
2 Viron sep p ä ‘Estonia’s smith’: this phrase is obscure.
source of new poems about the kantele, the According to one theory, V iro here is analogous with
primeval boat, and the voyage. The poet’s V iro in the compound V irokannas , a proper noun that
skilful handling of his material and his care is used as a parallel for ‘world’, hence Viron sep p ä
ful choice of vocabulary point to a conscious would mean ‘world-smith’, i.e. ‘shaper of the world’,
an epithet suggestive of Ilmarinen, who is sometimes
artistic approach. In addition to initial and known as k a ik en m a a ilm a n ta k o ja ‘forger of all the
533
world’. A second theory explains Viron as a corrup- of wood, is associated here with Christian festivals
ion of virren (genitive of v irsi ‘song’), hence ’song- (11. 3-4). A possible survival of an early stratum of
smith’; 25 toprouuem a local derivative from Ru. cf. the poem is seen in 11. 39-42, where animal bones
dobry den' ‘good day!’: 55 k en k iä < Sw. cf. sk ä n k a provide the materials from which the boat is built.
‘to present’. The factually accurate description of the selection
df the crew, departure and the voyage (11. 52-80)
25 contain features that were originally used to depict
Ahti’s voyage in T h e B o n d (Poems 39, 40), but which
A142 A1461 D853 D1441.1.3.2 N855 no longer survive in that poem; the account of the
The North Ingrian variant has developed in a mark storm may also be another common feature with
T h e B o n d . The passage about Pentti’s castle is usually
edly different way from Poems 23 and 24. While it
retains the main theme of the Ingrian variants - i.e. followed, as here (11. 126-131), by the pagan G reat
O x (Poem 51); this variant is also typical in that it
the making of the k a n tele by a smith - the singer has
compiled this variant from stock phrases and sur incorporates a fragment from the satirical G reat P ig
rogate passages. The opening (11. 1-21) is a fragment (Poem 52).
from an otherwise lost poem about the origin of a 5 2 -5 3 A riddle: i.e. a boat; 67 aivinainen ‘linen’: i.e.
horn instrument which the singer has loosely asso white; 110 P e n tti : possibly a corruption of the second
ciated with the ka n tele (cf. the apparent conflict that component of the name J a a k k o P o n tu s (cf. Jacob
occurs in several places, e.g. 11. 20-27). Pontus in Name Index). In variants of the poem
6 - 7 These lines are suggestive of the Finnish proverb: about the siege of Riga (Poem 144), Pontus’s name
P ä ä P y y tä jä lle , p y rstö p is tä jä lle , k e sk ip a lk k a k e ittä jä lle
was often confused with that of the officer command
‘The head for the catcher, the tail for the slaugh ing the garrison, a possible explanation for Pentti’s
terer, the middle part for the cook’. hostility in T h e V oyage; 141-145 These lines do not
belong to this poem and are a typical example of
stock Prologue/Epilogue materials (see p. 522).
THE VOYAGE 26, 27 27
The only feature that these two poems have B877.1.2 D950.2 D1121 D1419.3 F841 G5Ö0
in common is the theme of travel at sea with This version, generally known as T h e Voyage o f the
all its associations of danger. This has served Son o f G o d , incorporates two Christian themes within
as a nucleus for many different themes, the the framework of T h e V oyage: the accounts of God’s
struggles with Leviathan, drawn from The Psalms
earlier of which were linked to Väinämöi- and Job, and the story of how Jesus calmed the
nen’s construction of a boat and a kantele (cf. storm on the Sea of Galilee. This particular com
Poem 23) and formed a miniature epos com bination of Old and New Testament stories was
parable to the Sampo cycle (Poems 12, 13, 14, especially popular throughout Central Europe in the
Middle Ages and it was probably in this form that
15). In more recent redactions of The Voyage the theme of the poem reached the Finnish area.
other persons also appear in the role of the It has been suggested that the account of the struggle
hero, e.g. Untamo (Poem 26) or God (Poem with Leviathan is an adaptation of an ancient tra
27). The original poem about the building dition to which, for example, also belong the Baby
lonian myth of how Marduk slew Tiamat and the
of the boat evolved into a account of the accounts of the struggles between an eagle and a
search for wood suitable for its construction pike in the oldest strata of Finnish folk poetry (cf.
(a theme that is also widely known in Esto p. 523, 530). It should be noted that this Christian
nia) and was cast in the framework repetition version of the poem did not enjoy great popularity
in the Finnish area; the older form, in which Väi
form. Poems that survived in Ingria show nämöinen is the hero, is far more common.
that this theme was later adapted by Chris 1 passim The reference to Sampsa Pellervoinen,
tian poets to describe the search for wood traditionally a fertility figure (cf. Poems 46, 47; pp.
suitable for the construction of a church (cf. 544-546), may be the result of association and poss
ibly confusion with the Russian Orthodox St Sam
Poem 68). son; in most variants of this poem, it is God or the
singer-ego who searches for wood; 3 Concerning the
26 ritual significance of the oak see p. 547; 13—16 passim
i.e. the wood was rotten. It was commonly believed
B16.1.5.1 B871 D1121 F841 X1201 in the Middle Ages that ravens sought out dead or
This is a typical example of how Ingrian singers dying trees; 59 passim S a n tta A n n i ‘Saint Ann’: a
often linked T h e V oyage to J a c o b P o n tu s (Poem 144): corruption of A n tti, i.e. St Andrew, the brother of
the poems are joined here at 11. 110-140. The opening St Peter (cf. 1. 60 passim). 85 venom a corruption
(11. 1-51), describing the search for the right kind of veen (— veden) on.
534
THE SPELL 28, 29 relatively stiff. This is possibly explained by
the poem’s ritual function, a factor that
While The Visit to Tuonela (Poem 30) and frequently inhibits, or at least delays, change
The Spell contain many characteristic features and adaptation to new styles.
of the Christian period, they provide an in In variants of The Spell the shaman who
teresting illustration of how Finns in the pre- sets off in search o f‘knowledge’ is, depending
Christian era understood the role of the sha on area, either Väinämöinen, Ilmarinen, or
man. As such these poems also contain several Lemminkäinen. There is evidence to suggest
features which have close parallels in many that the shaman was originally Lemminkäi
parts of the world. ‘Knowledge’, i.e. magic nen and that Vipunen, an even more power
power, was obtained from the spirits of the ful shaman, was his deceased father. Lem
dead who, depending on region and period, minkäinen was first replaced at a relatively
were believed to inhabit natural phenomena early period by the other two heroes in those
or their own otherworld - in the Finnish variants which were sung in connection with
area Tuonela or Manala. To acquire his spells their exploits and then, by analogy, he was
the shaman first fell into a trance, which often also replaced in variants that were never
allowed his soul, often in the shape of an associated with Väinämöinen or Ilmarinen.
animal, to travel to the abode of a specific A medieval poet-singer added the motifs of
dead person, frequently a shaman of great sword-blades and needle-points (cf. 28:32-33)
repute, or to the otherworld. and other images from vision poetry. Well-
The first of these methods of acquiring versed in Christian legend, he renamed the
‘knowledge’ is illustrated in The Spell, which dead shaman Anterus (i.e. ‘Andrew’) and
describes Väinämöinen’s journey to the grave reshaped his character in the light of the
of a famous shaman, Antero Vipunen. The Jonah motif, interpieting literally metaphori
latter’s refusal to give Väinämöinen the cal references to the mouth and belly of the
‘knowledge’ he needs and the struggle that shaman as the source of spells: hence Väinä
follows refers to the great rivalry that often möinen is depicted as slipping into Vipunen’s
existed between shamans. mouth and being swallowed. The shift to the
The main ideas of The Spell and The Visit Jonah motif may also have been partly stim
to Tuonela date back to the Pre-Finnic period; ulated by linguistic confusion; the medieval
it is possible that they had been incorporated poet-singer possibly misunderstood, or delib
into poems describing the acquisition of spells erately misinterpreted, the word used in some
as early as the Stone Age and were sung in variants for Vipunen’s mouth: kita lit. ‘ani
connection with the ritual induction of a mal’s mouth’, and in some dialects also ‘gills'.
shaman. The purpose of the induction cere A singer in East Finland or Karelia could
mony was to show how spells had been ob easily have associated the word with Ru. kit
tained at the beginning of time and to in ‘whale’. The development from an old sham
struct the new shaman to maintain this tra an poem to an adventure poem incorporating
dition. In the form in which The Spell sur popular medieval themes could have been
vives, its structure has changed and has at prompted by the fact that as Christianity
tracted several secondary motifs. In style and gained strength the original purpose and idea
content the variants are often closer to the of the poem were becoming obscure, or even
Sampo Epos than to the earlier myth poems. meaningless, for many people.
The motifs of strife and travel, for example,
are typical of the Middle Kalevala period,
although the older stratum of the poem is 28
evident in the lack of other stylistic features D1121 D1275 D1810.13 F81.1.2 F152.1.6.1 F531.2.6
typical of that period: there is no trace in F841 HI 382.1
The Spell of the ebullient dialogue style of The Archangel Karelian variant illustrates the old
the later period and the language remains shaman myth of how a hero seeks the magic words
535
to complete the contsruction of a boat; as such this also means ‘area widened by a river; depths’; 98 Con
is an elaboration of the motif of the primeval boat cerning so itto ‘instrument’ see p. 533; 112 Concern
in Poems 26 and 27. The account of the visit to ing ilo ‘joy’ see p. 533; 141 naroda < Ru. cf. narod
Vipunen’s grave has been reinterpreted in terms of ‘people’; 149-150 In his excitement the singer has
medieval concepts of the journey to hell and the momentarily stopped singing and continued in prose,
narrative makes frequent use of stock phrases. It has at device often used to hasten the narrative.
been suggested that the detail of how Väinämöinen
tormented Vipunen was influenced by a Russian
tale about a boy who is swallowed by a whale, or
a giant pike, as he is carrying timber home. He kills THE VISIT TO TUONELA 30
the fish and escapes by chopping the wood and
lighting a fire in its belly. Versions of this tale are A672 D191 D1810.13 »E420.1 E481.2.2 F141.1
known as far afield as the East Baltic and Polynesia. F167.il.1
10-20 An augury metaphor; 2 6 Concerning v iik k o This poem develops the theme, referred to briefly
‘ages’ see p. 523; 30 veneh h a a p a ‘boat aspen’: the in Poem 29 (11. 7-13), of Väinämöinen’s visit to Tuo
oldest Finnish boats were hollowed from aspen logs, nela to acquire the necessary words of magic to
an especially hardwearing wood, and it is thought complete the building of his boat. As such, T h e
that one of the ancient Finnish tribes used such boats V isit to T u o n ela provides a vivid account of what
to cross to the northern shore of the Gulf of Finland; was believed to happen when a shaman fell into a
34—37 A surrogate passage borrowed from T h e M e s trance and his soul went to the otherworld. The poem
sia h . An example of the passage in its original con
has been associated with an event in certain variants
text can be seen in 59: 201-211; 4 9 -5 0 i.e. and cause of L em m in käin en and K a u k a m o in en (Poems 34, 35, 37,
Vipunen to disgorge him (a surrogate passage bor 38), which refer to the presence of a singer and his
rowed from T h e C rea tio n , cf. 4:38-39). sledge among the revellers; it breaks and has to be
repaired. The incident is an elaborate metaphor that
29 (cf. p. 522) describes a shaman's, or a bard’s act
of singing; hence the symbol of the sledge breaking
♦D791.2.3 D1121 D1275 D1419.3 D1441.1.3.2 and the need to repair it means that the singer has
D1810.13 F81.1.2 F93.1 F141.1 F531.2.6 F841 forgotten the words of his song and has to go to the
HI 382.1 otherworld to find them.
The archetypal form of the poem can be seen at the The description of Väinämöinen’s arrival at the
beginning of this variant (11. 1-33), where it has Tuonela river and his request to be rowed across,
been handed down from the pre-Christian era with reminiscent of the Styx and Charon, also reflects a
out the thematic changes introduced by the medieval widely held belief that the deceased arrives in the
poet-singer. On the other hand, the shamanistic otherworld in the state in which he died (cf. 11.
function of the ancient poem has become obscure 41-64). A distinctive shamanistic feature is the ac
and the variant has evolved into a poem about Väi count of how Väinämöinen changes into a lizard
nämöinen, intended to entertain rather than accom or worm and swims back across the river to the world
pany ritual. of the living. The lizard, worm or snake was one of
Several popular themes in which Väinämöinen is the more common forms a shaman's soul was thought
the central character have been brought together in to assume.
a loosely linked series. Beginning with the spell motif Although the main theme is ancient, the form in
taken from variants about the primeval boat (1. 1-17, which the poem has survived is characterized by
18-33), the singer has combined two poems to take numerous secondary features: it is an unusual com
Väinämöinen first to Tuonela (cf. Poem 30) and pilation of ancient beliefs, and stock phrases, frag
then to the grave of the famous shaman. The second ments of surrogate passages, and images from var
theme (1. 34—89) has been drawn from T h e V oyage, ious strata. The present form of the poem took
with the addition of various stock ideas to emphasize shape during the Middle Kalevala period, although
the power of the great hero; the theme of T h e several of the stylistic features are later additions; the
Voyage stops where the ship runs aground on the conversation with the daughters of Tuoni is modelled
shoulders of a great pike and shifts to T h e K a n te le on the Viking period dialogue in the opening of
(1. 90-120). The link (11. 121-129) to the final theme, Poems 16 and 17, while the structure of certain
T h e S in g in g M a tc h (11. 130-163), makes use of several subordinate clauses is typical of medieval poetry.
allusions. The 'water’s mistress’ in 1. 118 appears to Above all, the poem has attracted several- features
have been associated by the singer with the mistress that are characteristic of the early Christian period:
of Pohjola, and is therefore an enemy figure who Väinämöinen is on his way to church when the
has to be attacked. This task falls to Jougamoinen sledge breaks, and the description of the journey to
( ~ Joukahainen), traditionally Väinämöinen’s an the otherworld uses horror-images borrowed from
tagonist and very often the man who shoots him vision poetry. The warning at the end of the poem
(cf. 4:8-19). against the practice of shamanism (11. 94-101) sug
16 sau n a i.e. savuna 'as smoke’: a corruption of sa u k gests that this variant was used as propaganda by
kona ‘as a beaver’; 88 In Kar. dialects Ia m b i ‘pond’ the early missionaries (cf. pp. 53-54). The poet-
536
singer’s own attitude towards pagan practices is (5:116-127) is possibly a fragment that be
possibly indicative of how the early missionaries them longs to the same tradition and can be com
selves understood Christianity: his message is not
that there is no otherworld from which spells can pared to the episode in the Indian sun-theft
be acquired, but that it is wrong for Christians to myth describing how the primeval couple
go there before they die. found the sun and moon, took them home,
4 1 -4 2 passim i.e. killed by a weapon; 57 -5 8 passim and later placed them in the sky. It has been
i.e. burned to death; 9 1 -9 2 Some variants have
‘snake’, and refer to an iron net stretched across suggested that the more complete versions of
the river to prevent Väinämöinen’s escape (cf. 11. Sun and Moon were transmitted to the Fin
29-30). nish area by Slav peoples, for a corresponding
myth is known by the Ukrainians and rela
SUN AND MOON 31-33 tively complete variants of the poem have
been recorded only among Russian Orthodox
A myth known all over the world tells how Karelians and Ingrians.
the sun and moon are imprisoned and pre Within the Finnish area the incorporation
vented from performing their normal func of fragments of Sun and Moon into evocations
tions. They are released from captivity by a by early Christian missionaries indicates how
cunning animal culture-hero, e.g. a crow, deeply-rooted the poem was. It is uncertain,
hedgehog, or coyote. In Eurasian versions of however, whether the closing theme, express
the myth the liberator can also be a human ing ideas of social equality (cf. 32:76-91;
culture-hero, Prometheus being the most ob 33:146-152), was part of the version that
vious example. Though it has not been poss originally reached the Finnish area and was
ible to establish a genetic relationship to the elaborated during the Middle Ages by Do
Finnish form of the myth, a very similar minican mendicant monks, or whether it
version in known in Kalmuk mythology. An was added by them (cf. pp. 54-56).
outcast angel, Irlik-khan, leaves his home in
the depths of a mountain, and steals the sun 31
having foiled its female guards. Men, animals A142 A527.1 A672 A734 A737 A1447 *B91.8 D2142.1
and plants begin to perish in the darkness
This variant, which survived in an area from which
and cold until the leader of the guards, Okun- epic poetry had largely disappeared, is a fragment
tengri, disguises herself as a beggar and de of a longer, already forgotten poem and was probably
scends to Irlik-khan’s home. She puts the remembered more as a Väinämöinen poem than as
guards to sleep and after a bitter fight over a variant of Sun a n d M o o n . Although the variant is
defective and composed largely of stock phrases, it
comes him and releases the sun from a gaping contains several motifs associated with the Sun a n d
wound in his body. M o o n theme, e.g. the opening verses (11. 1-3) and
The myth originally had a ritual function. the reference to how Väinämöinen restored the sun
Throughout the Arctic regions strikingly and moon to the sky (11. 23-24). The release of the
sun and moon is not described as such, but is sym
similar myths exist to explain the disappear bolized by a stock Smith passage (11. 4-12; cf. Poem
ance of the sun during the winter months 8; 17:49-55), which the singer associates with the
and ceremonies evolved to ensure its return forging of the sa m p o , and the allusion to the journey
in the spring. Sun-worship is also known to to Pohjola to steal it (11. 21-24). The journey itself
has been partly conditioned by accounts of a sha
have played an important role in pre-Chris man’s journey to the otherworld similar to those that
tian cults in Fenno-Scandinavia, although it underlie T h e V isit to T u on ela (Poem 30).
is believed that the form of the ritual and
myths associated with it among the Lapps 32
and Karelians were borrowed from peoples
further east. Various versions of this particu A605.1 A714.2 A734 A739.8.1 D672 D1364
lar myth reached the Finnish area, some more A more complete version of the poem is found in
complete than others. The passage in The this variant, which probably dates from the early
Christian period. While it retains the structure of a
Creation of how the eagle’s eggs changed into shaman poem, especially the description of the jour
the sun and moon in the belly of the pike ney to the otherworld to recover the sun and moon,
537
the poet-singer has introduced Christian features by shaman’s journey to the home of a rival
making the smith-culture hero’s daughter perform (Väinämöinen and Lemminkäinen are tradi
her tasks in the service of God. A parallel has been
drawn between the smith’s daughter and Okun- tionally enemies), where a contest takes place
tengri of the Kalmuk myth in that both of them and the latter is either killed or banished to
foil the guards of the otherworld by putting them the otherworld. The motifs used to denote
to sleep. the preparations for the journey, the warn
A second motif, the world-wide M a g ic F lig h t tale,
has been introduced to describe the return of the ings, the dangers, and the way in which
smith’s daughter to the world of the living. The Lemminkäinen overcomes the obstacles are
subject of this tale is usually a young man who typical of shaman poetry (cf. Poems 28, 29,
escapes from the otherworld by outwitting his pur 30, 32, 33). It is possible that the substance,
suers with various magic devices. The tale ends with
the young man crossing the otherworld river and if not the detail, reflects the ancient custom
leaving his pursuers on the opposite bank; hence of contests between the shamans (i.e. cham
the river that the smith’s daughter creates in 11. pions) of neighbouring communities. The Sing
61-68 marks the boundary of the otherworld. ing Match is another example of this custom.
20 passim versta ‘verst’: 1069 metres; 39 i < Ru. cf.
i 'and; even’.
In some variants Lemminkäinen’s destination
is Luotola, which until the late Middle Ages
33 was one of the names of the South-West Fin
nish Archipelago; this has led to speculation
A605.1 A714.2 A734 A736 A739.8.1 D1562 F141.1 that the theme of Lemminkäinen was originally
*U62
a contest between the shaman-champions of
While retaining the underlying structure of Poem a coastal and a skerry fishing community. In
32, this variant has been cast in the form of a medi
eval legend poem. The theme of the magic flight more northern areas certain motifs, in parti
has been reversed, to describe the journey to hell, cular that of the snake-infested beer, attract
and modified; all that remains of the earlier poem ed two other poems to the main theme:
is the use of magic devices to overcome the obstacles Päivölän pidot (The Feast at Päivölä’), the
that are placed in the way of Jesus. accompaniment to brewing ritual, and Kau-
16 h en gesti < OSw. cf. h in g ist ‘stallion’; 17 kan k a ro <
OSw. cf. g dn gare ‘pacer’; 17—23 A hyperbole com kamoinen, a poem from the later Viking period
monly associated with horses, possibly a fragment about a man who has to flee after killing a
from an otherwise lost poem about a giant horse; rival. In this later version of Lemminkäinen,
4 0 -4 3 passim The splitting of an object by pouring the account of the singing contest between
beer or mead over it is a secondary feature that
evolved from the confusion of two images: the split the two shamans is described in greater de
ting of a rock, a Finnish version of the Biblical ac tail.
count of the rending of the rock of Golgotha (cf. The second main theme, Lemminkäinen’s
35:263 for a primary occurrence of this image), and death and his mother’s efforts to restore him
the image of snakes drinking beer within a rock (cf.
Poem 55: 7-8); 4 6 -5 0 A stock passage, probably to life, is a version of the earlier poem that
borrowed from wedding poetry, to emphasize the was probably recast in the Savo region during
size and importance of the road; 50 p a a sto < Ru. the period known as ‘barbarian Christianity’,
cf. p a s tv a ‘parishioners’; 103—104 A stock hiding-place i.e. when Christian ideas were permeating
phrase.
the Finnish area but before the Church had
obtained a firm foothold. The nature of Lem
LEMMINKÄINEN 34-36 minkäinen’s death and the events surround
ing it have been likened to the murder of
The Lemminkäinen poems form a composite Baldr. In some variants Lemminkäinen per
miniature epos, comparable to The Sampo, and forms acts of benevolence for all but one of
The Kantele and The Voyage, and syncretize those present; the man left out takes his re
shamanistic and early Christian beliefs. venge by killing Lemminkäinen with a sprig
Lemminkäinen is built around two main themes. of hemlock, the one means of attack against
The first is a poem that took shape some which Lemminkäinen had neglected to pro
where in the southern Finnish area, probably tect himself (cf. Achilles’ heel). Comparison
in the late pagan period - a description of a has been drawn to the sprig of mistletoe,
538
which according to some myths was the cause to owe their origin to the thematically similar
of Baldr’s death (cf. p. 523). It is is not Russian Vavilo bylina.
thought, however, that Lemminkäinen is a Fin
nish version of the Scandinavian myth, but 34
that they both derive from Dark Age or early
medieval myths based on the story of the A671.2 B437.3 B875.1 D615.1 D945 D1275 F142
F771.5.1 P677
death and resurrection ofChrist; in the Fenno-
The theme of the shaman’s journey to compete with
Scandinavian area such myths were also another shaman is found in the Archangel Karelian
possibly associated with fertility beliefs. Some variant in 11. 69-75, describing Lemminkäinen’s in
scholars go further and suggest that all these tention to attend the feast uninvited, followed by 11.
themes are related to the ancient Egyptian 76-152, which fell of the dangers that face him and
myth of Osiris. The influence of Christian show how he will overcome them; 11. 153-200, the
trial of magic power with the assumed victory of
beliefs, however, appears to have been weak Lemminkäinen, are also part of this theme. The
for attempts to resurrect Lemminkäinen fail context is typical of poems of the shaman period.
and he has to remain in the otherworld; the The obstacles that Lemminkäinen faces combine
motifs and images with which this episode is features which are known throughout the Arctic
region and reveal the efforts to adapt pagan con
depicted are mainly drawn from shaman cepts to a Christian framework; it is often difficult
epic, although later Christian influence is to distinguish between shamanistic and early Chris
evident. tian visions.
The form that the Lemminkäinen miniature from The opening scene (11. 1-59) is a surrogate passage
T h e O rig in o f B eer (of which a second var
epos later acquired owes much to a medieval iant is incorporated in Poem 38), an ancient poem
Christian poet-singer who syncretized the old associated with brewing ritual throughout the East
beliefs, in their primary and ‘barbarian Chris Baltic region. Knowledge of brewing was acquired by
tian’ shape, and the new beliefs introduced the Finns from the Ancient Balts and the ritual prob
ably comes from the same source. The importance of
by Christian missionaries. The poem is simi beer in ancient Finnish society is illustrated by the
lar to The Visit to Tuonela (Poem 30) in that ritual poems about its origin which formed the ac
it warns of the dangers of visiting the other- companiment to annual festivals comparable in sig
world, and to The Voyage (Poems 26, 27), nificance to the Greek Dionysos cult. Until relatively
recent times, the festival was celebrated in Ingria
The Fishing (Poem 56) and Leavetaking (Poems on a specific saint’s day, preceded by communal
57, 58) in its depiction of how a monster or brewing and accompanied by communal drinking
a pagan is banished or ridiculed. Other addi (cf. pp. 541-542, 545; see Plate 32).
tions by the medieval poet-singer include the The contest between the two heroes also reflects
the influence of the two different periods represented
introduction of the sexual taboo violation by the contents of the poem: 11. 153-200 are from
motif, the ‘all-but-one’ emphatic stylistic the older poem about the struggle between the rival
device, and certain specifically Christian shamans, while 11. 213-233, preceded by an insult
traits. (11. 201-212), describe a duel between boisterous
Vikings. The latter theme, borrowed from the later
The motifs with which these two themes K a u k a m o in en (cf. Poems 37, 38), has influenced the
are expressed come from many different former to the extent that the Viking chieftain, Ahti,
sources and it is often difficult to distinguish has assumed at 1. 153 the role of the shaman-hostess,
between direct influences and unrelated the Osmotar, who originally offended Lemminkäinen by
matic parallels. The latter invite comparison leaving him uninvited (Ahti first appears in the var
iant as one of the guests, cf. 1. 49; role-variation of
with the Osiris myth: Osiris married his sister, this kind is typical of folk epic).
was killed and mutilated; his wife-sister re 7 ,8 sa la p u id a : a corruption of salo puita-, 2 6 -2 7 The
covered the parts of his body, and he was tips of conifer branches were used as a substitute
granted immortality and made judge of the for hops until relatively recent times in parts of
Scandinavia; 4 3 -4 8 A Christian trait based on M at
otherworld. Direct influences came from medi thew 22:2-14 and Luke 14:16-24; 63 p ä re ‘splint’:
eval vision poetry and certain motifs, e.g. i.e. a long, narrow, slow-burning sliver of wood
the obstacles guarding the approach to the fixed at right angles to the wall, until the end of
the 19th century the most common source of arti
rival’s palace and the form of versions of the ficial light in Finnish and North Russian peasant
magic contest, are thought by some scholars homes; 72 p iir u t < Ru. cf. p ir ‘feast, banquet’; 8 6 -0 9
539
passim Images of this kind are common both in 36
Arctic shaman tradition and Christian vision poetry;
127—129 A surrogate passage borrowed from an in A671.2 B575.1 B875.1 D945 D1610.9.1. F167.11.1
cantation for protection against snakes; 138—146 stock F771.5.1 F833
terms used by shamans to describe how their rivals
protected themselves; 155—158 cf. 7:14-15 and note; This is one of the few examples of L em m in käin en
162—163, 164—165 The poet-singer has brought to recorded as far south as Ingria and preserves a version
gether two Finnish proverbs; 166—200 These animals of the earlier poem that does not incorporate the
are usually interpreted as the shaman’s familiars; secondary K a u k a m o in en features that characterize the
169—170 passim i.e. from the beams, for the house Karelian variants. The underlying theme of the ri
would have only a hole in the roof to let out the valry between two neighbours - here relatives - is
smoke; 191—198 The hyperbole is a surrogate passage reduced to basic essentials, and the series of ob
from T h e G rea t O x (cf. 51: 3-9); 209 to p p a ‘serpent’: stacles and traps set for the young man are images
lit.'snake that hibernates in a cowshed’; 216-217 typical of shamanistic poetry. Certain details in the
variant illustrate how originally fantasy themes were
A stock phrase borrowed from medieval vision poems
and describing the journey to hell; 2 2 3 -2 2 6 A fuller modified and given a realistic interpretation in the
version of this stock passage is found in 37:119— later Viking period, e.g. the episode in 34:201-205,
123. in which Lemminkäinen is offered worm-infested
beer, would appear in the light of Poem 36 to have
had a mythical origin (cf. 11. 64-651. The opening
35 lines (1-4), based on a surrogate passage borrowed
A671.2 B575.1 D1275 E186 E363.3 £761.1.7 F142 from T h e L o st G oose , cf. 133:10-11; 134:3-8), and
F167.11.1 F771.5 *F859 P231 Q560 R153.4 T415 linguistic evidence reveal considerable Estonian in
V229.1 fluence.
1 p o isik k a in e < Est. cf. p o isik e ‘small boy’; 6 m in ta a
Read together, Poems 34 and 35 are close to the < Est. cf. (partitive) m in d ‘me’; k a a sa < Est. cf.
archetypal form of the L em m in k ä in en E p o s . While k a a sa ‘wife’, ka a so ‘bridesmaid’; 7 p r ä s k ä < Ru. cf.
Poem 34 recounts the adventures of Lemminkäinen p r y a z h k a ‘buckle’; 10 vih m a < Est. cf. vihm ‘rain’;
up to the point where he defeats the rival shaman- 38 passim The ‘speaking sword’ is a popular source
chieftain, Poem 35 is mainly concerned with the of wise advice in Finnish fairy tales; 41 -4 2 Surrogate
theme of his death at the hands of a man he had lines from a lyric that warns against village gossips;
insulted. The variant is a typical example of an early 62 sissee < Est. cf. sisse ‘[to] inside’.
Christian poet-singer’s adaptation of a shaman’s jour
ney to the otherworld (cf. Poem 30).LI. 1-199 lend
themselves to interpretation as a duel between a
pagan and Christian priest and several features sug KAUKAMOINEN 37, 38
gest that the poet-singer’s own conviction of the
supremacy of the Christian doctrine was only rudi Kaukamoinen has been described as structurally
mentary (cf. Väinämöinen’s hesitation when threat the most coherent, textually the most skilful,
ened by the magic of Lemminkäinen’s mother, 11. and contextually the most masculine product
229-240). Seen as whole, however, it is the Christian
doctrine which proves the more powerful, and the of ancient Finnish poetry. It is an emotionally
concluding cautionary lines (11.275-306) a re a power uncomplicated tale of an early medieval, per
ful warning of the horrors of hell. sonable profligate, a powerful Viking who
81 passim The function of the brush as a life-token does not hesitate to run away when out
is not unusual. Shamans are often represented by
symbols which serve as an indicator of their fate, numbered by his enemies, a sexually attract
generally an animal or some object closely associated ive young man of Herculean prowess, who
with the shaman’s life (in some variants the token becomes involved with women almost by
is a comb); 142 tsuppu < ? Ru. cf. srub ‘flimsy wood accident - an adventurer, but not a seducer.
en structure; living-room’; 152—155 The singer mo
mentarily uses prose to emphasize the force of Väi The Viking world in which Kaukamoinen
nämöinen’s refusal; 228 taivosen sa ra n a t ‘sky’s hinges’: moves is not that of the Atlantic Coast or the
a metaphor for the pivot, often associated with the Gulf of Bothnia, but of the Varangians who
North Star, on which the Finns and the Lapps be travelled east along the southern coast of
lieved the heavens to revolve. It was feared that if
the pivot broke, the heavens would fall and the earth Finland into Russia and south to Byzantium.
would be destroyed by fire; 235—236 passim i.e. the Earlier attempts to identify events, characters
edge of the world below which the otherworld river and places in Kaukamoinen have thrown little
flows; 2 6 3 sininen k iv i ‘blue rock*: a nature image light on the poem’s historical background. In
commonly used to denote the otherworld; 29 3 -2 9 8
A popular concept in medieval vision poetry (cf. 30: so far as it has any historical significance, it
86-87). is as an illustration of attitudes during the
540
early East Viking period: Kaukamoinen is the K a u k a m o in en . The poem opens with a surrogate pass
product of a virile, adventure-hungry, often age from T h e O rig in o f B eer (11. 1-7) and the de
scription of the journey to Päivölä (11. 8-94) has been
ironical male fantasy. borrowed from L em m in k ä in en . The events associated
The main theme is uncomplicated: an in with Kaukamoinen’s arrival and the style of pre
sult at a Viking feast leads to a duel. One sentation are depicted by motifs drawn from several
of the warriors is killed and his opponent has sources. The entry into the rival’s home (11. 95-98)
is simple and realistic, while the following verses (11.
to flee across the sea to escape revenge. In 95-102), cast in terms that show the singer’s personal
the land where he finds refuge, all the women disapproval of the host, are a popular stock passage
folk fall in love with him, he performs feats taken from later poems based on Christian legends
of great sexual prowess and again has to take (cf. Poems 59, 63, 64, 65). The choice of Herod as
Kaukamoinen’s opponent is a result of confusion by
flight across the sea to escape the wrath of the singer. The provocation, leading to the duel,
the menfolk. The place where the Viking first has been influenced again by L em m in k ä in en to the
finds refuge is generally known as ‘the Island’. extent that the motif of the drunken, quarrelsome
Various theories about its location have been Viking has been lost, although the Viking background
is readily evident in the detailed description of the
advanced; Gotland, Saaremaa and Ahvenan duel - from the measuring of the blades and choice
maa are among the many Baltic islands of site to the fatal blow (11. 124-153). The death of
that have been suggested. An alternative ex the rival, Herod, and Kaukamoinen’s flight to his
planation is that ‘the Island’ is merely a nar home (11. 154-194) are reminiscent of byliny. Al
though the following episodes (11. 195-274) - escape
rative device to provide a place to which the to ‘the Island*, the amorous adventures, and the
hero could flee. It has also been suggested need to flee again - are all features commonly asso
that the poet could have been influenced by ciated with Viking poetry, items of detail drawn
Scandinavian poetry and that the flight to from byliny further support the hypothesis of an
origin in an East Finnish area where poets were
‘the Island’ is a typological parallel of the familiar with Russian heroic poetry.
legends of Viking heroes who fled from Nor 5 2 Leppänen ‘alder’: because of its red sap ‘alder* is
way to Iceland, or from Iceland to Green a synonym of ‘blood’; 112—115 i.e. Kaukamoinen’s
land, to escape revenge, the law or obtrusive generosity is greater than anyone else’s; 155—194
authority. The question Kaukamoinen’s mother asks are all
motifs that occur in byliny; 164 tsa rk o < Ru. cf.
Although the poem is a characteristic pro charka ‘cup, goblet’; 177 i.e. in racing; 191-194 i.e.
duct of the Viking period, several points of custom demands that Herod’s death be avenged;
contact with byliny suggest that it originated 198—199 Possibly an allusion to the practice known
in Karelia or Ingria rather than in West in many parts of Europe of maintaining well-stocked
communal hiding-places for shelter in time of war.
Finland. The description of the dangers that In Finland such hiding-places were either deep in
beset the journey to Päivölä in Poem 37 ('ll. the forest or on islands; 275 cf. 1:50-52; p. 522.
8-94), borrowed from Lemminkäinen, preserves
fragments of the Vaviio bylina which no 38
longer survive in the Russian source poem (cf. FI 12 P677 R310-317
11. 22-30, 81-85). Other motifs and stylistic The Ingrian variant is closer to the archetypal poem
features taken over from byliny include the than Poem 37. While it has a similar structure, its
description of how Kaukamoinen returns main features are more distinct and the narrative
home dejected, *his helmet askew’, and both flow is not obscured by so many secondary features.
The theme is introduced by a version of T h e O rig in
the structure and content of the dialogue be o f B eer (11. 1-29), that is relatively close to the original
tween mother and son. form of the poem; when read together with the cor
responding passage in Poem 34 (11. 1-38) the prin
cipal features and form of T h e O rig in o f B eet emerge
37 clearly (concerning the ritual function and significance
A671.2 B575.1 D1275 FI 12 F142 F777.5.1 P677 of the poem see p. 539).
The drinking festival leads to the quarrel between
S139.2.2.1
the two drunken, boisterous Vikings, ending in Ka-
The Archangel variant illustrates how L em m in käin en lervo’s death and Kaukamoinen’s flight. The narrative
and K au kam oin en were associated and often confused: employs some of the secondary motifs found in the
the first part of the framework of the new poem has corresponding passage in Poem 37. To heighten the
been drawn from L em m in k ä in en , the remainder from tension, the poet-singer has incorporated a surrogate
541
passage from a variant of the Estonian H u s b a n d -K ille r is no less complicated than Kyllikki’s; his
at 11. 78-122 (cf. 91:22-37); this dramatizes Kauka- behaviour is determined by different but
moinen’s plight and brings out the desperation of
the action to which he finally resorts. The conclusion equally powerful factors: the Viking’s long
of the variant has the same structure as Poem 37. ing for adventure and honour, elaborated
10 m e llakoida ‘rumble’: i.e. the noise caused by by the role of a second, also newly-wed Vik
fermentation; 19—25 These verses are a factual de ing, Teuri, whom the poet uses to emphasize
scription of brewing technique. The use of animal
slobber as a source of enzymes to start fermentation the strength of this emotion (cf. 40:30-
was common in many parts of the world and a 42).
reference to it is found in the Icelandic sagas. Until The Bond survives only in fragments. The
yeast came into common use, pig slobber was espe two main variants are represented here, one
cially favoured by the Finns. The reference to the
pair of 'pigs in heat’ who ‘tumbled below a moun from Olonets Karelia (Poem 39), the other
tain’ describes the mating dance when pigs produce from Archangel Karelia (Poem 40). Both
unusually large amounts of slobber; 48 A battle variants are defective, but it is possible to
image; 152 Concerning k a r ttu ‘bat’ see p. 530. reconstruct from them the main features of
the original poem (according to one estimate
THE BOND 39, 40 about 100 lines have been lost). The recon
structed narrative falls into eight parts. Ahti’s
The Bond belongs to the same East Viking and Kyllikki’s courtship is represented by
tradition as Kaukamoinen; in some fragments 39:1-4 and is followed by the vow of fidelity:
Kaukamoinen is Ahti’s companion and, con 40:1-8 describes the nature of the vow, while
versely, Ahti appears in Lemminkäinen and 39:5-9 illustrates its solemnity. The factors
Kaukamoinen. Stylistic factors, especially the that weaken each partner’s resolve are found
dialogue and repetition, are similar, but there in the Archangel Karelian variant: .40:9-12
are important differences in content. Kauka shows Ahti’s rough handling of Kyllikki and
moinen is expansive and boisterous, and de her disenchantment. Ahti’s longing for the
spite its emphasis on amorous adventures, it Viking way of life is symbolized by his boat's
is emotionally uncomplicated. The picture it lament (40:13-20). Kyllikki’s response to her
presents of the Viking is stereotype, and often husband’s behaviour is echoed in his sister’s
superficial and romanticized. While The Bond malicious report of what she has been doing
lacks the scope of Kaukamoinen, it has never in the village (39:10-13), which provides
theless more psychological depth: the char Ahti with the excuse to prepare for departure
acters are aware of their emotions, they try (39:14-16; 40:21-47). At this point the poet’s
to come to terms with them, and suffer in interest moves from male to female psycho
trying to do so. logy to show how Kyllikki tries to persuade
Ahti and Kyllikki share the same desire as her husband to stay at home, depicting viv
Kaukamoinen - a longing to do what appeals idly the abrupt change in her attitude when
to them as individuals - though in their case she realizes that Ahti cannot be dissuaded.
they do their best to suppress their own The longer passage, depicting Teuri’s readi
desires for the sake of their life together. After ness to leave his wife and the alacrity with
a long and difficult courtship (cf. 39:1-4) which he joins Ahti, is indicative of the fun
they marry and swear to give up their for damentally male approach to the theme. 40:
mer ways. Kyllikki breaks, or appears to 48-65 provides scant details ofAhti’s voyage
break, her vow, which gives Ahti the oppor and his being trapped by the early onset of
tunity to sail away in search of adventure. winter. The remainder of the poem has been
The psychological interest is heightened by lost; 39:48-53 and 40:66-72 are surrogate
Kyllikki’s attitude to her apparent misde passages from The Flk (Poems 53, 54).
meanour: she does not regard one lapse as Some indication of the possible end of the
sufficient to render the vow invalid, which poem is found in an Ingrian variant of The
contrasts with Ahti’s readiness to see himself Voyage, in which fragments of The Bond are
released from his own vow. Ahti’s personality embedded. In this variant, Ahti is the cap-
542
tain of the boat and is assisted by Kauko. THE ORPHAN 41-43
An old woman, whose son, Antero, they
want as navigator (cf. 26:52-62), warns them The Orphan is a medieval adaptation of themes
that a great north wind will overturn the and motifs from the Middle Kalevala period.
boat. This prophecy invites comparison with Stylistic features typical of the early Middle
Kyllikki’s dream in 39:18-23 warning Ahti Ages include the references to the shining of
of a catastrophe at sea. silver and gold, the ‘all-but-one’ emphatic
stylistic device, the herdsman who is provoked
39 into committing murder, the motifs of the
shackled wolves and bears, the fence motif,
D1812.5.1.2 M l 14 M205
and the morbid interest in brutality. The
5 -8 cf. 17:165-166 and note; 12-13 i.e. she was original poet used these features in a poem
taking part in the games of unmarried girls. Social
custom drew strict boundaries between what was
that also brings together several well-known
permissible for unmarried girls and for married themes.
women; the two states were marked by styles of dress, The dominant theme and the structure -
hair, adornment, and also by deportment. Hence a the feud between the two families and the
woman who did not behave according to accepted
norms would quickly attract attention and gossip; taking of revenge - have parallels in the for-
18-23 Prophetic dreams are not common in Finnish naldarsögur, while details of the acts of the ill-
folk poetry, although they often occur in Scandina treated youth recall the heroes of West Scan
vian folklore (a wife's prophetic dream is a motif dinavian ballads who tear up trees by their
that is also known in many other parts of the world).
This, together with certain contextual features, has
roots and brandish them at their enemies.
led some scholars to draw parallels with Old Ice The latter are often giants whose gory deaths
landic poetry, in particular with the themes of am are depicted in great detail and with obvious
bition, preference for adventure to the security of enthusiasm. The poet’s handling of his mate
home and family, and the need to demonstrate mas rial appears to have been strongly influenced
culinity; 46 m arkka ‘mark’: the word’s earlier mean
ing (dating from 875 AD), in which sense it spread by various other features popular in many
from Scandinavia to Central Europe, was as a gold parts of Europe. The motif of the stone baked
and silver weight measure (8 oz) and it is probably in a cake, for example, is known in various
this that is intended here; 48-51 ly ly ‘left ski’, siv a k k a , other connections. The most important factor
kolh u ‘right ski’: English lacks the vocabulary to
translate these words adequately. L y ly is a long, in giving the poem its present shape was the
narrow ski used for gliding; North Fi. siv a k k a and world-wide Strong John folk tale. Parallels
South and Central Fi. k a lh u is a short, broad ski with this tale include the child who displays
covered in hide, not unlike a modern snow-shoe, superhuman strength while still in the cradle
with which the skier propels himself.
and who later as a young man is unable to
do anything to the satisfaction of his master,
40 often a smith (cf. Poem 42). Other similarities
M l 14 M205 are the incidents with wild animals and un
4 i.e. a lifetime; 18 p u n a p a rra s ‘red side’: a corruption successful attempts to bring about the youth’s
of p u u n i p a rra s, a stylistic variation of p a r r a s p u u n i) death. Despite the importance of the in
'(m y ) gunwale’; 4 6 -4 7 i.e. the boat was ready to fluence of the Strong John tale, it is almost
depart: all the other warriors have boarded and certainly secondary and to some extent ob
stowed their spears in the upright position. An alter
native explanation is that this symbolizes the Viking scures the earlier revenge theme.
warriors’ sense of brotherhood. An important dating
criterion is found in an older Archangel Karelian
variant of this passage which describes Teuri’s spear 41
as one on which ‘a wolf blew on the shaft, a cat A1251 H1510 LI 11.4.4 P173.2 Z356
mewed on the nail’: zoomorphic motifs formed the
basis of most Nordic ornamentation in the Viking The Ingrian version of T h e O rph an retains some simi
period; 67 k e itti ‘steamed’: a corruption of k e tti ‘at larity with Scandinavian poetry, especially in its
tached a hide to the underside of the ski'; 68, 71: structure; it describes the cause of the feud between
cf. 39:48-51 and note; 71 lå p y ‘hole’: i.e. through two brothers, the ensuing massacre and the survival
which the strap was attached. of the child of superhuman strength. A few Ingrian
5 43
variants also describe how the child, on reaching which extends from Ingria to Archangel Ka
adulthood, avenges the death of his own family by relia. The reference in several Ingrian var
killing his uncle. The singer has emphasized the
child’s strength by borrowing the description of the iants to Turku as the city from which he is
attempted burning of St Catherine and substituting returning suggests that the poem originated
the child for the saint (cf. 64:21-30; 65:17-24). •in West Finland; certain linguistic and the
7 - 8 These lines are a relic of a myth about the matic features lend support to this hypothesis.
origin of man that is known in many parts of the
world (cf. p. 525); 2 2 - 2 4 A stock passage indicating The Finnish variants are based on a Swedish
that preparations were made quickly and at short ballad about the three sons and three daugh
notice; 39 h u llu kkain : lit. ‘child below the age of two’; ters of one Tor or Ture (the source of the
40 va g a h a in : lit. ‘small child not yet able to sit up’; Finnish name).The sons, who were abducted
58 h ih n at s u ih k u tit ‘strings of silk’: i.e. from which the
cradle hung (see Plate 4); 5 9-60 ‘lime’ and ‘maple’ while still young and brought up as brigands,
were highly-valued woods and indicate the impor return as grown men to their former home
tance of the child; 60 vip u ‘beam’: i.e. to which the and ravish and murder their sisters, unaware
cradle was attached (see Plate 4). of their identity. When they discover what
they have done, they prefer death to flight.
42 The Swedish ballad was itself an adaptation
B845 D945 D1222 F614 LI 11.4.4 P I73.2 of a theme which originated in France and
8— 9 Lines referring to the period when this part of was known in Italy, Switzerland, Germany,
Finland and Karelia was still under the same ruler. Scotland, the Faroe Islands and Iceland.
The context shows that the child was sold into a
wealthy family; 5 4-56 i.e. he is longing for the sun 44
to set so that he can return home, a surrogate pass
age borrowed from herdsmen’s lyric; 60-61 These N365.3 T415
were essential items of a herdsman’s equipment in A secondary feature in the Ladoga Karelian variant
the Finnish area; the horn was used to call the cattle is the closing description of Tuiretuinen’s flight to
and the rattle to frighten away dangerous animals escape punishment, a surrogate passage borrowed
(and possibly spirits). from variants of K a u k a m o iru n (cf. 38:78-86).
43 45
D412.2.1 D1222 H1510 LI 11.4.4. P173.2 Z356 N363.3 T415
The Ladoga Karelian variant is suggestive of both The Ingrian variant preserves a form closer to the
the Scandinavian family saga and the k å m p a v tia tra archetypal poem. It also differs from the Ladoga
dition. It is a rare combination, found only in Olo Karelian variant in language and in the choice of
nets Karelia (although the singer came from Ingria), images, both of which reveal much greater Russian
of the themes of childhood and the stone baked in influence.
a loaf, leading to the taking of revenge. It was 6 o b ra k k i < Ru. cf. o brok ‘quit-rent’; 13 k a ssa p ä ä
probably this redaction that gave Lönnrot the idea ‘plaited-head’: i.e. she was unmarried; 15 saara <
of bringing these themes together to produce the Ru. cf. s a n i ‘sleigh’; 44 -47 i.e. a paradise metaphor;
outstanding cycle of Kullervo poems. 51 The image may derive from the Russian Ortho
1 -1 3 It is likely that ‘Finland’ and ‘Karelia’ are dox practice of building a small wooden structure
to be understood in a specifically local sense, i.e. over the grave.
as ‘Lutheran’ and ‘Russian Orthodox* communities.
32 In other variants the son is described as still a
baby; 50 -6 2 i.e. he had almost emptied the sea;
8 3 -8 4 A Finnish proverb characterizing a person THE SOWER 46, 47
who is less pleasant than he appears to be.
The Sower, originally a framework repetition
poem, is a survival of what was once the ac
THE INCEST 44, 45 companiment to the performance of an
annual rite at which an offering of food and
Variants of a medieval ballad of how a man drink, preserved in a small container {vakka),
(Tuurikkainen is only one of several names) was made to a fertility deity or spirit. The
unwittingly seduces his sister while returning character of Säm(p)sä and the accompanying
from paying his taxes are known over an area ritual have been compared to the rites
544
associated with Dionysos, the Greek fertility Finnish area Sämpsä generally occurs in the
god, the Latvian tutelary spirit of grain, Ju- role of the planter of various kinds of tree,
mis, the Estonian Pekko, and Russian Ortho while in Ingria he is credited with the sowing
dox beliefs linked with St Samson. Relics of of grain. Also associated with him are con
the rite survived until relatively recently cepts of a ‘holy wedding’ and illicit love: he
among Russian Orthodox Ingrian Finns as is said to have had sexual intercourse with
a result of the pagan tradition being incor his stepmother - possibly personifying the
porated into a Christian festival celebrated earth - amongst the corn ricks, and then
on St Peter’s Day (29th June in the Ortho gone away to an unspecified place.
dox calendar); attendance in church and The purpose of the ritual was to find him
prayers for a good harvest were thus paral and bring him back to set the process of
leled by the ritual drinking of freshly brewed growth in motion again. The description of
beer in an enclosed wooded area (correspond how first the son of winter and then the son
ing to the old pagan sacred grove). of summer competed to wake Sämpsä has
Poem 47, the Ingrian variant (usually been compared to ancient spring customs in
known as the Ukko Song) is an example of which creatures representing winter and sum
the accompaniment to the Christian adapta mer fight and from which the latter emerges
tion of the old rite. It was preceded by an as victor (this invites comparison with the
evocation for rain: “Holy Ukko, merciful one, medieval Scandinavian spring ceremony in
give juice to your lands, softness to your which horsemen representing summer and
fields.” Further north, in Lutheran Finland, winter join in combat and the summer-
rituals of this kind were gradually stamped horsemen win).
out by churchmen. There is evidence to
show, however, that they were still alive as 46
late as the 16th century; in 1551 Finland’s
Bishop Mikael Agricola complained: ‘And A430 A1425 A2681 N365.3 T415
when the spring sowing is done, a toast is The form of this variant is such that it is not poss
drunk to Ukko. Ukko’s tankard is brought ible to know whether the collector obtained two
defective versions and attempted to combine them,
out and both girls and women drink. Then or whether the singer was uncertain of the poem
many shameful things are both seen and and sang two versions or simply confused the sequence
heard to be done.’ The origin of the fertility of the lines. To reconstruct the narrative, it is necess
practices which so angered Mikael Agricola ary to read the lines in the following order: 1-20,
25-31, 21-24, 32-63, 69-79, 64-68, 80-93. In this
probably lies in a monistic view of the world, sequence the shape of the refrain poem begins to
according to which every living thing - ani emerge. Gaps in the narrative remain, however, and
mate and inanimate - was thought to be part comprehension is obscured by the numerous stock
of a single entity (cf. 47:39-43 passim). Acti phrases and surrogate passages with which the singer
elaborates, rather than expounds, the narrative.
vity in one area, therefore, was believed to At the beginning of the poem Sämpsä is identified
stimulate similar activity in every other area; by a brief reference to his sexual impropriety, given
hence human fertility practices were thought as the reason for his disappearance; the actual dis
to set in motion the process of reproduction appearance is described in terms usually associated
with Väinämöinen’s adventures (cf. 14:6-8; 30:88—
in animals and plants and thus ensure the 90). The approach of spring is marked by Ahti, a
continuing supply of the resources on which land-owner, who is growing impatient because the
man’s existence depended. soil is barren. The lines used to emphasize his annoy
In Finnish folk poetry Sämpsä’s role is that ance (16-20) are a fragment of an otherwise lost
poem about a wealthy man.
of the sower. One of the first forage plants It is not difficult to follow the next stage in the
of the year in the Finnish area, the forest- narrative - Ahti’s realization that someone must go
rush (scirpus silvaticus), is named after him and persuade Sämpsä to make the land fertile. More
and it is possible that at one time this plant complicated, however, is the singer’s use of a ‘wolf’
for this purpose. Comparison with Poem 47 shows
was regarded as the personification of the that the first person to go was the ‘winter-boy’, who
fertility spirit. In the northern part of the brought bad weather with him and thus failed; he
35 545
was followed by the ‘summer-boy’. A characteristic of the animal was accompanied by complicated,
of Poem 46 is that winter has been personified as often dramatized ritual intended to protect the
su si ‘wolf’, an abbreviation of susikuu ‘wolf month’ (i.e. hunters and their families from the bear’s avenging
the wolf’s mating season which can be any time in spirit. Similar practices have been recorded among
winter). The extension of the personification to the peoples throughout the Arctic region and also among
summer (1. 49) appears to have been an error by the Indians of North America.
the collector who either heard or noted su v i ‘sum The Finnish version of the myth of the origin of
mer’ incorrectly as su si. the bear has much in common with myths of the
While Poem 46 no longer retains all the charac linguistically related Voguls and Ostyaks. These tell
teristics of a framework repetition poem, the original of a young bear whose father, the supreme deity,
structure can still be discerned in the description of lowers him to earth at the end of a gold and silver
the visit of the two wolves to Sämpsä. Several chain (cf. 11. 8-10). The antiquity of rituals asso
verses appear, however, to be missing after I. 41. ciated with the bear in the Finnish area is demon
The archetypal poem probably contained a descrip strated by archeological finds. Fifteen stone imple
tion of how the winter-wolf told Sämpsä that ‘Ahti ments ornamented with bear-heads and apparently
kept brooding’ followed by 11. 10-14 (cf. 56-60). L. 42 used in connection with ritual have been discovered
would then refer to Sämpsä’s and 1. 43 to Ahti’s abuse (there is evidence to show that the elk was also the
of the wolf. The repetition framework is again defec object of worship in the same area, cf. pp. 548-549).
tive at 11. 48 and 49. A repetition of 11. 25 —31, and The Finnish poems were sometimes sung at the
a near-repetition of 11. 21-24, probably occurred beginning of hunting expeditions and, very rarely,
here. at the ensuing celebrations; as such these are the
6 7 -6 8 Images commonly used to describe places only examples of myth poems which retained their
where seeds were stored; 7 7 -7 9 These lines appear original function until relatively modern times. More
to be a fragment of an otherwise lost poem, probably commonly, however, the poems were adapted for
stimulated by the association with fish in the previous other purposes. In the 19th and 20th centuries frag
line; 93 Concerning Kar. luode see p. 528. ments of T h e B e a r survived in incantations, as in
this poem, which is a typical example and was sung
47 when cattle were let out to graze in the forest after
the long winter under cover. The taboo felt by the
A430 N819.5 singer against mentioning the animal’s name and
The archetypal form of the poem survives more his use of endearments are psychological features
clearly in the Ingrian variant. The sequence of associated with the bear and other dangerous animals
events is also in the correct order and the seasons throughout the world (cf. 1. 2, 4, 17).
and their attributes are explicit. The idea of fertility, 13 so n ta reisi ‘dung-shank’: i.e. cow.
as something apart from growth, also emerges and
the reference to ‘maids’ as one of the objects of fer
tility points to the sexual activity that so outraged
the early churchmen.
THE OAK 49, 50
3 k a s k i ‘clearing’: i.e. where trees, shrubs and other
undergrowth are cut and burned, and a crop sown The myth of an oak that grew up to the sky
in the ashes. Burn-beat remained a common method and deprived the world of light, and of how
of cultivation in Karelia and East Finland until it was felled originates from the same cult
the present century (see Plate 13); 14—15, 17 s e it- ural tradition as the myth about the crea
se n risti ‘seven-crossed’, kym m en n yb lå ‘ten-buttoned’
and p u n n a iset r iv a l ‘red-braid’ possibly refer to the tion of the world from an egg. It is known
ornamentation of some kind of ritual object or idol from the Mediterranean to the Pacific. Schol
used in the fertility ritual. They have also been com ars are divided about its original significance.
pared to the markings which in certain ancient According to one theory it describes the origin
phallic rites symbolize the buckles by which Dio
nysos was fastened to the womb of his father Zeus; of the Milky Way, which in ancient times
3 7 -38 This passage is obscure; a possible explana was thought by many peoples to be the path
tion is that the singer made a mistake in anticipation along which the soul passed to the other-
of 11. 65-66 and should have sung P a h o in te il tu lle s- world. Comparison with similar themes out
s a is /v ie lä pah em m in o llessa is ‘It was ill that you c a m e l
still worse that you stayed’. side the Finnish area suggest that The Oak
derives from this kind of aetiological myth,
traces of which are thought to survive in the
THE BEAR 48 Archangel Karelian variant (cf. 50:35-51).
A 1836 D1273 The most likely origin of the secondary
The bear was the animal held in greatest respect redactions, of which the Finnish poem is one,
in ancient Finnish society. The killing and eating is a poem about beer froth (a motif that
546
has parallels in Mordvin tradition); this centre and ranked in importance with Tallinn; 4 1 -4 6
was probably connected with brewing and These lines refer to the reputation that the Baltic-
Finnish peoples had in Russia as skilful smiths;
formed part of ritual practices similar to those 44 u u litsa < Ru. cf. u litsa ‘street’; 65 The construc
which the Ancient Balts performed around tion of the bath-house from fragments of the oak
an oak at the centre of a sacred grove. The may also have a ritual significance. Among the
oak is variously said to have grown from one Baltic-Finnish peoples, the bath-house was a place
associated with supernatural forces and where women
of several possible sources; the blood of a delivered their children; bathing was also an essential
goose or a beer-drinking snake, the tears of preliminary ritual to many activities.
an orphan or an adder, the slobber of an
elk that had flowed into a stream (cf. p. 549), 50
or from the fragments of drinking vessels. A625 A2681.2 D950.2 E481.2.1 F95.5 F535 F610.2
Although the ritual function of the poem In the Archangel Karelian variant T h e G rea t O a k
appears to have been forgotten, traces of it survives as part of an incantation for curing various
can still be discerned in some of the surviving diseases (i.e. 11. 9-34). Both the opening episode
Baltic-Finnish redactions. In Estonia it be (11. 1-8) and the conclusion (11. 42-51) are typical
came a gay song sung by girls as they played of incantation poetry. Some singers concluded the
poem with prayers addressed either to the pagan
on swings and describes how the wood from Ukko or to the Virgin Mary. The opening is a sur
the oak would be used to make a betrothal rogate passage borrowed from an incantation to cure
gift; in Ingria it became a lusty drinking sudden internal illnesses, while at the end the per
song, with the wood being used for beer sonified cause of the illness (11. 42-44) is encouraged
to leave the sick person and go to the otherworld,
barrels and drinking vessels. In Karelia it where conditions are described as more congenial
was adapted as the prologue to incantations (cf. 11. 48-51). The same underlying idea, i.e. to
for curing sudden attacks of illness; the un make the passage of the personified cause of the
derlying idea was that pain was caused by illness to the otherworld as speedy as possible, is
also the reason for felling the oak, thus providing the
arrows made by a worker of magic from the spirit with easy passage to the otherworld.
wood of the oak, and that by describing the 1—12 Other variants describe how the oak grew on
cause of the illness their magic power could a sandy ridge at the point where three seas meet;
be destroyed. 9 An association with magic: the Lapps were famed
as workers of magic and in some variants the fire
is started by more obviously mythical characters, e.g.
49 Ukko or Tursas; 18—19 These lines retain the orig
A652 A2681.2 D950.2 inal, mythical reason for felling the oak; 20—21
i.e. life ceased. This couplet embodies two of the
Many features of an early form of the secondary main factors in a primitive economy - burn-beat
redaction survive in the Ingrian variant. It is a cultivation and fishing; 36 i.e. the river marking the
typical example of the poem’s function as a drinking boundary of the otherworld; 37, 4 2 The motif of
song: the tree originates from beer froth and its the bridge to the otherworld has parallels in Indian
wood is used for drinking vessels. The conclusion of mythology, but is otherwise almost unknown in Fin
the poem, in which an Estonian place-name occurs nish folk poetry.
hyperbolically, suggests that this redaction may have
been translated and adapted from an Estonian poem.
The first-person narrative style, however, a charac
teristic of Ingrian lyrical epic, was probably a result
THE GREAT OX 51
of adaptation.
2 k ä r ä jä t : ‘assizes’: i.e. a meeting of freemen to settle A672 B16.1.5.1 B871 F610.2 X1201
matters pertaining to the whole community; 8 Ingr. The subject of T h e G re a t O x has been variously in
punainen ‘brown’; 14— 22 The original idea that the terpreted as a constellation, a rainbow, and a north
oak had to be felled because it obscured the light ern version of the opponent of Mithras. It is more
has been lost from this variant (cf. 50:18-21); 15 As likely, however, that the poem was sung as the ritual
in many other parts of Europe, the rowan was accompaniment to the sacrifice of an ox, either at
regarded as a sacred tree; 39 The reference to Mos the time of the annual sowing or at harvest time.
cow, rather than to St Petersburg, probably reflects In some areas the poem was incorporated into in
a pre-Petrine period in the development of the poem; cantations for healing burns, the function of this
40 Kaprio is used here not in contrast but as a particular variant. In Ingria and Karelia the ritual
parallel to Moscow, i.e. a second large town, for in function was forgotten and T h e G rea t O x was linked
the Middle Ages it was a major fortified trading to other epic poems.
547
Structural and stylistic details suggest that several was thought to depend. The spirit of a large
features were borrowed from T h e G re a t O a k (Poems
49, 50). These include the emergence of a man from
and dangerous animal had to be treated with
the sea, who fells the oak, and the concluding list special respect for fear that it might seek
of products obtained from the wood of the tree. revenge. In some parts of the north, rituals
I t is thought that the idea of the destruction of a éven included attempts to convince the dead
huge object, such as the oak, was extended to in animal’s spirit that someone other than the
clude large animals e.g. the ox, and later other
domestic animals. The theme recurs in animal hus hunter had killed it. In more developed forms
bandry incantations, in poems sung to accompany of the bear and elk cult all the a n i m a l s of the
group work in autumn, and in children's poems. species were credited with a non-specific tutel
ary spirit which was worshipped instead of an
THE GREAT PIG 52 individual animal’s spirit; The Elk is an exam
ple of this development, the tutelary spirit in
A284 B871 Z1201 the Finnish versions being the demonic Hiisi.
Although some scholars have interpreted T h e G re a t The form of the poem known in the Fin
P i g as a ritual poem comparable to T h e G re a t O x , it nish area - the pursuit of Hiisi’s elk by a
seems more likely that it is a parody of the latter hunter on skis - probably derives from one
composed by Christian missionaries to ridicule pa of the North Eurasian versions of the Orion
gan practices. In some variants the ‘other gods’
(1.23), who are put to flight and made to look fool
myth, which are also known among the
ish, are called Ryönikkä (or Rauni), thought to be Ostyaks and Voguls. The Baltic-Finnish poem
the wife of Ukko, Virokannas, or Päivänen. The based on the myth is thought to have taken
propaganda content of the poem suggests that it shape between 1000 and 1300 AD on the
was composed at about the same time as the de west or south-west coast of Lake Ladoga.
scription of the banishment of Iku Turso in T h e
V oyage (27:91.0). The main theme describes how a Lapp makes
1 k o rtissa < Ru. cf. r g o s ti ‘as a guest'; 17-1 9 i.e. a pair of skis and tries three times to catch
the h a m m e r (?thunderbolt) customarily associated the elk. Two separate poems evolved from
with Thor. this nucleus. Traces of the triple-attempt
motif survive in the poem that spread south
THE ELK 53, 54 into Ingria, although it was obscured by
many secondary features and changes (cf.
The material and spiritual interdependence Poem 100). The Elk represents the form of
between man and animal is one of the most the poem in the northern area; the principal
important themes of primitive epic. In Fin character appears to have been a boastful
land, as elsewhere in the Arctic region, the hunter who caught the elk but lost it. He is
animals most relevant to this relationship sometimes described as a Lapp and much of
were the bear and the elk. Both were highly the narrative is set in areas said to be inhab
prized as a source of food and hides and all ited by Lapps (cf. Lapland in Name Index).
activity associated with them appears to have Some variants suggest that the elk escapes by
been conducted with elaborate ritual. Rock fleeing to a mythical place, possibly the arch
paintings and archeological evidence indicate of the sky.
the great age of this phenomenon and show
that such practices existed in the Finnish area 53
long before the ancestors of the Finns spread BI84.4 F849
north from south of the Gulf of Finland (cf.
The Ladoga Karelian variant preserves the principal
Poem 48; pp. 21-27). The respect shown features of T h e E lk . LI. 1-16 describe how the aids
for the spirit of the dead animal was an in were made, the chase and capture. L. 16 may have
tegral aspect of the primitive beliefs. Some been noted down incorrectly, or misunderstood by
living objects - and among some peoples even the singer: it implies that the hunter caught the elk.
The preparations for the ritual slaughter and eating
plants and features of the landscape - were of the animal (11. 17-25) bring out the motif of the
believed to possess spirits, on the reincarna boastful hunter, although this is more obvious in the
tion of which the continuation of a species Archangel Karelian variant (cf. 54: 76-80). The
548
account of the elk’s escape (11. 26-38) reflects the During the following centuries the bestiary was copi
beliefs associated with the slaughter ritual and a ed many times and its fantasies were embroidered
tutelary spirit. The relationship between the Finnish and given new interpretations. In an 11th century
version and the Orion myth is suggested by 11. 35-42 German version of the bestiary, for example, the
with the elk’s escape into the heavens denoted by stag swallows the snake, hurries to a spring and
‘suns’ and the parallel ‘moons’; these lines are the spits out the poison. At the same time, it sheds its
hunter’s admission of his inability to catch the elk fur and antlers and an oak grows from the place
as it moves in the heavens and his plea to it to return where they fall. In the following century, the German
to earth, i.e. the ‘woods’. The significance of 11. St Hildegard (1098-1179) retold the tale in more
43-44 is obscure; comparison with other variants colourful and imaginative terms and added that the
suggests that T a p io n ta a k k a 'Tapio’s load’ is a parallel stag, after shedding its fur, regained its strength by
of k irjo m a n i lit. ‘ornamented mountain’; the latter eating herbs and drinking spring water.
has been associated with ancient rock paintings of The popularity of the tale in the Middle Ages
elks made at places where they were trapped and sprang mainly from its allegorical association with
where incantations for success in hunting were recited. the principal tenets of Christian doctrine. The stag
While this does not clarify ‘load’, it helps to clarify symbolized man, the spring Jesus or God, and the
the last five lines of the poem; taken from a hunter’s snake the Devil. The swallowing of the snake re
incantation, they are a realistic description of the presented the Fall; the running to the stream and
method of trapping elks (and in Lapland reindeer) the spitting out of the poison symbolized baptism
by driving them into an area from which there is no and absolution; the loss of the stag’s antlers and fur
exit: escape might be blocked by a rock face (‘iron were the renouncing of the flesh, while the recovery
hill’), a wooden stockade (‘fiery birch tree’), or by of strength by eating herbs and drinking spring
the land falling away steeply into a river of lake. water symbolized the sacrament of the Eucharist.
The final episode of the allegory, the acquisition of
54 eternal life by taking a branch from a tree (i.e. the
Cross) that had grown from the discarded fur or
B184.4 F849 antlers, referred to the atonement for the sins of
The Archangel Karelian variant retains part of the mankind by the death and resurrection of Christ.
structure of Poem 53: the making of the skis, the Several of these features are found in Poem 55;
chase and capture, the elk’s escape and the hunter’s 11. 1-12 retell the main theme of the account in
P h ysio lo g u s , although the sequence of events has
failure to recapture the animal are all evident. The
flight of the elk to the heavens, however, is omitted. changed; the acts of recovering strength and drink
A distinctive stylistic feature is the ironical-satirical ing (11. 3-4) occur before the struggle with the snake
tone of this variant; the chase is a challenge to the (a more detailed and clearer rendering of the act of
boastful hunter. This and other satirical features, recovering strength and the acquisition of eternal life
including the naming of the hunter as ‘Lemmingöine’, is embedded in T h e F orsaken M a i d , cf. 92:28-40).
are all secondary. LI. 13-24, however, show that a poet-singer, though
32 te v a k s i : possibly a hyper-correction of tevana ‘elk’, apparently aware of the structure of the original
on the assumption that -n a marked the essive and tale, introduced a second theme for the poem shifts
that translative - k s i was better suited to the sense of to the legend of St Margaret of Antioch, who over
the line; 7 9 -8 0 i.e. on the elk’s pelt; 89 lä p i ‘hole’: came a dragon that had swallowed her (in parts of
a horizontal hole for the foot-strap bored crosswise Europe she was believed to be the protector of
through the ski at its midpoint. snakes, sometimes referred to as her ‘cattle’). An
explanation for the combining of the two themes
may lie in the fact that they both symbolize the
struggle between good and evil. The influence of
ELK AND SNAKE 55 the E lk a n d S n ake allegory possibly explains why St
M argaretes mother] draws the snake’s poison, i.e.
A2681 B 184.4 B531.2 redeems sin, and why symbolically splendid trees grow
E lk a n d S n ake is a northern adaptation of T h e S ta g , from where the milk (i.e. poison) had spilt.
one of the zoological fantasies included in the second- 1 -2 H iie n m aa ‘Hiisi’s land’; puolen (k a n g a s) ‘cowberry
or third-century P h ysio lo g u s. The earliest record of (on the heath)’: these two phrases may be corrup
the theme of the stag that swallows a snake is in tions of H iid e n m a a , i.e. the Estonian island H iiu m a a
the N a tu r a lis H isto ria of Pliny the Elder (23-79 AD). and P u o la ‘Poland’; 6 k o m its a < Ru. cf. g o m its a ‘up
He described how stags look for holes and crannies per room’; 17 passim Ingr. punainen ‘brown’.
in which snakes live, blow them out and swallow
them. The account was incorporated and elaborated
by the author of P h ysio lo g u s to explain the opening THE FISHING 56
verse of Psalm 42: ‘As the hart panteth after the B81.13.11.1
water brooks, so panteth my soul after thee, O God.’
The anonymous Alexandrian churchman compared The poem’s underlying idea, a mermaid and her
the stag with Christ and the snake with the Devil. relationship with a mortal, is known throughout
549
Europe. The Finnish version is reminiscent of the Certain other features also point to Scan
Scandinavian nature myth ballads, which frequently
described a brief erotic encounter between a mortal
dinavian influence. The reference to the
and an immortal. An earlier form of Poem 56 appears Maelstrom, the whirlpool through which men
to have been sung in the first person; the substitution and ships were sucked down to the other-
of Väinämöinen occurred when early Christian .world, reflects a myth which appears to have
singers were composing poems to ridicule the pagan survived long after the formal adoption of
heroes (cf. pp. 53-54). The influence of this teaching
is evident in the depiction of Väinämöinen as a Christianity in Scandinavia (e.g. Olaus Mag
senile, helpless character. nus’s map of the North, 1539, locates the
2 - 3 The durative function of the Finnish construc Maelstrom close to the Lofoten Islands).
tion, indicating a steady, unhurried repetition of the The pagan theme of Leavetaking has be
action over a long period cannot be adequately repro
duced in English; 53—54 This couplet does not appear come associated with a Christian legend. The
to be part of the original poem and was probably episode in which the child speaks and names
added by the singer of this particular variant. his father appears to be an adaptation of the
French legend of St Goar (cf. pp.556-557), who
LEAVETAKING 57, 58 was summoned to baptize a three-day-old
bastard. When no one will admit paternity,
Leavetaking, together with The Fishing (Poem the child himself names his father, Bishop
56), represents the final period of Väinämöi Rusticus. The latter throws himself at the
nen poems when the ancient hero was being mercy of the saint and is made to do penance
used by early churchmen to denigrate the old for seven years. The same theme occurs in
beliefs. The poem combines some pagan and The Foundling (Poems 70, 71).
Christian features which illuminate how the
early Christians often adapted pagan prac 57
tices to their own ends. In some variants the
S341.1 T585.2 T5961 Z252
poem ends with an account of how Väinä
möinen will one day return. Some scholars The theme and function of L e a v e ta k in g are d ear in
this Archangel Karelian variant; 11. 1-9 refer to the
believe this to be a Finnish version of the Scandinavian name-giving custom, 11. 10-22 repre
world-wide myth of the hero who leaves his sent the Christian legend, and in 11. 23-31 the
people, promising to come back at the end Christian poet combines the two themes to discredit
of time. the pagan heroes.
5 - 9 i.e. ‘Father’, ‘mother’, etc. of the family that
The main theme, name-giving, is a factual found the abandoned child; 15—20 This is the only
account of a practice common throughout recorded reference to Väinämöinen’s involvement in
pre-Christian Scandinavia: a child had to be an incestuous relationship. It is probably the poet's
given the name of a recently deceased relative own addition and appears to have been influenced
by one of Lemminkäinen’s epithets describing him
in order to establish a link with the deceased’s as the man who seduced his sister (cf. 35:9-11);
soul and thus ensure its freedom of move 31 This line reflects the popular belief that the Mael
ment in the otherworld. In some areas it was strom was caused by a giant whale sucking the sea
even believed that the soul could not pass into its throat (cf. 58:47-48 where the motif is
from the grave to the otherworld until a child clearer).
had taken its name (a belief also held else
where in the world). Conversely, if a child 58
received the wrong name, it could fall ill or C102 D1275 S341.1 T311 T585.2 T596 Z252
even die. Until a child had been baptized,
The poem begins with a surrogate passage from T h e
it could be put to death by exposure or drown F o u n d lin g (Poems 70, 71) containing fragments made
ing; illegitimate children, therefore, were up variously of time, wealth and chastity hyperbole
generally allowed to live only if someone ad which to not survive separately, but occur as stock
mitted parentage. A more detailed illustra introductory material in many poems (cf. Poems 61,
tion of the importance of choosing the right 71, 75).
13 p a ljo , p a l ’l'o ‘poor’, cf. Fi. p a lja s ‘bare’; 14 leena
name for a child can be seen in Finding a ( < le in ä , cf. Fi. lein a ‘weak’) < Ru. cf. Ien' ‘lazi
Husband (120:10-24). ness*.
550
THE MESSIAH 59^62 main features of the poem were transmitted
to the Finnish area by missionaries of the
The series of poems about the life of Jesus Eastern Church who, by the late 12th cen
formed a miniature epos that survived among tury, were active as far west as Turku; it is
Russian Orthodox Karelians and Ingrians. clear that legends 2,3, and 5 arrived by this
Although the epos attracted numerous second route. The recurrent sun-moon-star symbol
ary themes, the main body of the narrative ism also appears to have come from the same
was constructed around five widely known source where it is an even more important
poems:— phenomenon than in the west and is thought
1. The ‘Berry Legend’, which describes the to derive from an Iranian-Slav sun-cult.
miracle of the Virgin Mary’s impregnation While it seems likely, therefore, that the
by eating a berry, apple or nut; arrangement and style of The Messiah are
2. The legend of the ‘Search for a bath largely Russian Orthodox in origin, when
house’ for Mary’s confinement, which por the poems entered the Finnish area they were
trays the cruelty shown towards the unmar not translated but reinterpreted in the Kale
ried mother and the birth of the child in a vala epic style. The reinterpretation affected
stable; not only language and prosody but also the
3. The legend of the ‘Search for the Lost characters and their milieu, e.g. the birth of
Child’, based on the stories of how the young Jesus in a bath-house, the traditional place
Jesus went off and was found in discourse for confinements in the Baltic-Finnish area.
with the learned men in the temple. Two or A particularly interesting example of local
more of these three poems were usually sung adaptation is the Baltic-Finnish motif of the
in sequence, possibly as a popular presenta berry as the cause of impregnation. It is
tion of the Christmas Gospel. Singers fre thought that this explanation of Mary’s im
quently extended the basic story with a fur pregnation was the result of a misunderstand
ther two poems; ing by local poet-singers of church paintings
4. The ‘Resurrection legend’ about how depicting the flight into Egypt (i.e. the epi
the sun, the Creator’s most faithful servant, sode in which Mary asks for cherries and
put the guards around Jesus’ tomb to sleep obtains them as a result of divine interven
and melted the nails of his coffin to allow tion). In variants from the southern parts of
him to rise from the grave; the Finnish area, the fruit is an apple (cf.
5. The legend of the ‘Shackling of Hiisi’s 62:10-15), but further north, where apples
smith’, which describes how the Devil, who were not known, local tradition interpreted
was forging chains intended for the Creator’s it as a berry (Fi. marja). The homonymic
neck, was outwitted and chained for eternity clash of marja and Marja (^.Maaria) ‘Mary’
to a rock, i.e. to the mythical mountain at appears to explain why in Finnish tradition
the centre of the earth. the berry came to be seen as the source of
Although it is known that this form of the impregnation (pregnancy resulting from
presentation of the life of the Messiah did eating something has typological parallels in
not originate in the Finnish area, it has not many parts of the world), i.e. syntyi {Neitsyt)
been possible to identify its source with any Marjasta lit. ‘[he] was born from (the Virgin)
certainty or whether it entered the Finnish Mary’ was understood as ‘[he] was born
area as a whole or in parts. The closest from a berry.’ Another obvious example of
parallels are found among the White Russians adaptation to local tradition is the description
and Ukrainians, and in Rumanian Christmas of the winter landscape.
carols; similar themes have also been recorded
among Russian Orthodox believers in the 59
Estonian province of Setumaa. The survival B401 D1311.6 H I 385.2-3 T511.1.1-2 T581.4
of The Messiah only in established Orthodox W155.6 Z216
areas and other evidence suggest that the The Archangel Karelian variant preserves the basic
551
structure of T h e M e s s ia h , incorporating the legends Certain passages have a remarkable aesthetic quality
of impregnation (11. 1-28), the search for a place (e.g. 11. 26-30, 60-63), ideas are expressed in a highly
to deliver the child and the birth (11. 29-230), and individual style (e.g. 11. 85-89), and the poem as a
the search for the lost child (11. 231-294). whole reveals the personality of a singularly indi
The style of presentation suggests that the poet- vidual poet: the opening lines, in particular, suggest
singer was using the poem as a commentary on a a priest who has grown weary with the wayward
series of church paintings or panels depicting the ness of his parishioners.
life of Christ. It is uncertain how familiar he was The description of the deathand burial of Christ
with the details of his subject. The opening verses (11. 1-20) differs in certain details from other var
suggest a painting of a picture showing how Mary, iants of this poem. Christ’s murderers (11. 7-8) are
while fleeing into Egypt, asked for the fruit of a usually the guardians of his tomb (cf. 11. 45-48).
tree. The singer appears to have confused this with LI. 11-15 should be seen as an aside, describing the
the conception of Jesus and attempts to describe the ornamentation of the spears, and is possibly a relic
event in terms that his listeners will understand. of an otherwise lost fragment of T h e B o n d (cf. 40:
Nevertheless, some sense of uncertainty seems to 43-44).
have remained in the poet’s mind: cranberries grow The second episode (11. 21-57) is an interpreta
on low shrubs, not on trees, and 11. 17-18 show tion, unique in Finnish poetry, of the events be
him trying to reassure his listeners - and perhaps tween the burial and resurrection and is a further
himself - that it really was a berry even though it example of the poet’s individuality. He has com
was so high above the ground (11. 19-20) that Mary bined the roles of the sun - as the indicator of the
had to climb up a pole to reach it (11. 21-22). The passing of the days before the resurrection - and of
retarded, step-by-step description of how Mary the angel who puts the guards to sleep. In some
swallowed the berry (11. 23-28) and the phases of variants the sun makes Christ’s resurrection possible
her pregnancy, with the concluding joke (11. 39-40), by melting the stones that cover his tomb.
suggest a poet-singer who was consciously and skil The final episode (11. 66-139), Christ’s descent
fully developing dramatic tension and who was well into hell, is thought to be based on the apocryphal
versed in Kalevala poetry; the model for the de Acts of Pilate, which describe Christ’s struggle with
scription was T h e F lo w in g o f T e a rs , a poem known the Devil and how he finally chained his opponent
throughout Estonia, Ingria and Karelia. He uses by the neck. The underlying themes of .how the
a framework repetition structure to create a similar powers of good outwit the powers of evil, and how
tension in the description of the onset of M ary’s a superhuman being is chained to a rock for eternity
labour and of how her maid had to run back and (cf. the Prometheus legend) are known in many
forth in search of a place to deliver the baby, and parts of the world. The version in T h e M e ssia h has
later when Mary searches for her lost son. its closest parallels in Lithuanian tradition where the
6 4 -6 5 In Baltic-Finnish dwellings it was customary disguised Christ meets Lucifer and asks him why
for the menfolk to sit on one side of the main living he is forging chains. When Lucifer replies they are
area and the womenfolk on the other: the descrip for Christ, the latter asks Lucifer to demonstrate
tion of Herod’s wife at the centre of the floor implies how he will attach the chains and, when Lucifer
that she bullied and dominated the household; 78 demonstrates on himself, Christ locks them and thus
passim tu u len lau tat ‘scarlet women’: lit. ‘whores fit traps him for ever. The theme in T h e M e ssia h is
for burning’ (the long -«- results from the collector’s essentially the same and employs similar motifs.
misunderstanding of the singing technique); 2 0 5 It is 9 —10 e ik eho illa : a corruption of e i k eih o illa 'not with
uncertain whether the bath-whisk is a local adapta spears’; 6 6 -6 7 i.e. to hell; 73 ju u tta a t ‘Jews’: the
tion of a fig-leaf or whether it reflects pagan prac term used in this context derives from J u d a s .
tices in which protection was obtained from danger
ous spirits by sweeping with a whisk; 216—222 These 61
lines are an interesting example of how the singer
has taken a well-known medieval legend (i.e. how A677.1 A 1071.1 C102 D1311.6 E481.2.2 F93.1 F960
the animals in the stable where Jesus was born H I 385.2-3 T 311 T511.1.1-2 V10.1 V211.7 Z216
showed reverence) and adapted it to local tradition While all five legends can be identified in the Olo
(e.g. the steam that comes when water is thrown nets Karelian variant, they are no longer so clearly
on the bath-house stove is provided by the breath defined. The singer retains the main themes of T h e
of the horse); 230 A popular ‘horse’ metaphor in M e s s ia h , but often only alludes to them, using long
Finnish folk poetry. surrogate passages from other poems to denote the
underlying idea. The variant also lacks the tight
60 structure of the Archangel Karelian poems, in which
the flow of the narrative is uninterrupted and the
A677.1 A733.6 A1071.1.1 N818.1 V211.2.1.3 V211.7 shift from one theme to another is clear.
V211.8 The poem falls into seven main episodes. The first
The Archangel Karelian series of the resurrection (11. 1-37) describes impregnation. This passage itself
and descent into hell is regarded as one of the finest is in two parts. The singer begins with popular in
poems that survive from pre-Reformation Finland. troductory material (cf. 58:1-7; p. 550) to characterize
552
the daughter of a wealthy family who shows no by the birth in the stable (11. 18-52); the ill-treat
inclination to leave home. T h e M e ssia h as such be ment of M ary is implied by the choice of stock
gins at 1. 22. phrases and surrogate passages associated with Poh
The second episode (11. 38-40, 69-81) describes jola and its mistress. The third episode, describing
the realization of pregnancy. The singer has drawn St Stephen and his horse (11. 53-74), the miracle
surrogate passages from several sources. LI. 70-75 that marks the birth of Christ, is a surrogate passage;
are a chastity hyperbole generally found in intro the concluding lines of this episode, which should
ductory material (cf. 58:1-7; p. 550), while 11. 77-79 describe the miracle, have been substituted by lines
preserve an otherwise lost passage from T h e C o u rtsh ip from an incantation about the origin of diseases (11.
(cf. 17:248-249, pp. 529-530). LI. 41-68 and 82-86 69-72).
are a digression stimulated by the family’s refusal to The fourth episode (11. 75-109) describes Mary’s
believe that Mary is a virgin. This prompted the search for her lost son; the concluding line and the
singer to introduce surrogate passages from T h e line in prose suggest that the singer was beginning
W a te r-C a rrie r (Poems 124, 125), substituting ‘berry’ to confuse the search with the descent into hell, but
for ‘water’, and of which she sings a relatively com then corrected herself before shifting to the fifth
plete version (there is slight confusion at 11. 66-68). episode (11. 110—36); 11. 115-120, depicting the site
The third episode (11. 87-91) incorporates a medi of Christ’s crucifixion, may possibly have been in
eval legend, adapted to the Finnish milieu, of how fluenced by descriptions of pagan sacred groves. The
M ary attempts to take her life. This leads to the opening lines (11. 137-142) of the final episode
fourth episode (11. 92-96), the birth in the stable. illustrate the transposition of the resurrection into
The singer has interpolated as the fifth episode (11. a wholly Finnish context. The remaining verses (11.
97-107) a brief account of how Herod tries to dis 143-251) are the most complicated part of the va
cover whether Christ has been born - 11. 97-100 riant. They have the same framework as Poems 60
and 102-104 being spoken by Herod and 11. 101 and 61: the descent into hell and the struggle with
and 105-107 by his servants (cf. S t S teph en , 63:32-49, the Devil. Within this framework, however, are
in which Herod demands three miracles before he embedded two layers of Christian propaganda. The
will believe that Christ has been born). earlier is the Christian missionaries’ efforts to deni
The sixth episode (11. 108-122) combines legends grate pagan beliefs, while the later layer reflects the
of the search for Jesus and his death. The episode struggle between the mendicant monks and the es
concludes with an allusion to the persecution and tablished clergy (cf. pp. 54-56). The description of
crucifixion and shifts directly to the seventh episode, Christ riding a horse that falls, and of how he cures
the descent into hell (11. 123-145). The singer’s use its injury (11. 137-186) is from a medieval incanta
of surrogate passages is most marked in the final tion for curing sprains that was known throughout
episode. She has drawn 11. 123-134 from T h e V isit to Europe and was a Christian adaptation of an earlier
Tuonela (Poem 30) to describe the journey to the incantation dating from about the 10th century.
otherworld and in 11. 135-145 sings an abbreviated The poet uses the incident to show that Christ’s
account of the struggle between Christ and the Devil. powers were stronger than those of an ordinary (i.e.
Only 11. 140-145 are original to T h e M essiah-, 11. pagan) worker of magic: Christ found no ‘singer of
135-139 are a stock passage that could have been bor spells’ and had to perform his own magic. As he
rowed from any of the numerous poems about smiths. continues on his journey into hell, he comes to a
1 The construction is obscure; in Kar. dialects bridge, which marks the incorporation of a variant
vaim o often means not only ‘wife’ but also ‘woman’. of T h e B rid g e a n d the Church poem (11. 187-217).
Hence this line appears to mean that it was Kaija’s The poet-priest, clearly himself a mendicant, con
‘small woman’, i.e. daughter, who gave birth to the strues a folk explanation (11. 211-217) to explain
children; 13 u m biken ka ‘closed shoe’: i.e. a shoe with why Christ showed reverence to the bridge and
uppers attached and made by a skilled cobbler. In not to the church (i.e. because he found sanctuary
a society where people wore boots or only the most beneath a bridge when he was being hunted, but
rudimentary footwear (or went barefoot), a shoe of was taken prisoner in a temple.) The historical rea
this kind was an indication of wealth; 41 to a tto < sons, however, for the Dominicans’ attempts to ele
Ru. cf. ta ta ‘daddy’; 47 Concerning ‘brushed hair’ vate the bridge and denigrate the church were both
see p. 533; 48 k a p lu k k a < Ru. cf. k a b lu k ‘heel’; 49 secular and non-secular. On the one hand, bridges
p a g la < ?Ru. cf. p a k ly a ‘oakum’; 86 bunukka < Ru. were frequently built in the Middle Ages in Europe
cf. vnuk ‘grandchild’; 96 Concerning * so ra jo vi (a cor on the initiative of various religious orders to en
ruption of su orajouhi) ‘straight-hair’ see 59:230. courage the passage of pilgrims (cf. the medieval
French Fratres Pontifices, an order founded specific
62 ally for this purpose); thus there is an obvious asso
ciation of bridges with religious activity. On the
A677.1 A733.6 A1071.1 B130 B184.1.4 C623 other hand, bridges were, and have remained in
D1311.6 D 1503.1 E471.1.1.2 F960.1 H1385.2-3 some parts of the Finnish area, the places where
N818.1 T511. 1.1-2 T581.4 V138 V211.7 V211.8 members of the local community gather for formal
The Ingrian variant is in six episodes. The first (11. and informal activities. Hence bridges were the ob
1-17) is a simple account of impregnation, followed vious places for the mendicant monks to hold im
553
promptu open-air services and to hear confessions. only believe this if the dead cock on the table crows.
The concluding verses (11. 218-251) preserve a rela The bird comes to life, rises and crows ‘Christ is
tively complete version of how Christ tricks the bom ’. Herod summons his executioner and has
Devil into fixing the shackles around his own neck. Stephen stoned to death (the punishment for blas
7 - 8 v its a ‘lash’ and ruoska ‘whip’ are folk interpre phemy laid down in Mosaic Law). The legend
tations of improperly understood motifs in medieval , reached Finland through Sweden, where it was al
church paintings (cf. pp. 551, 561); 86 hos < Ru. cf. ready well-known in the 12th and 13th centuries.
k h o t ’ ‘if’; 109 ta < Ru. cf. d a ‘yes’; 140 Concerning In Scandinavia the stoning episode was omitted and
p ä r e ‘splint’ see p. 539; 156 p u u ‘tree’: a corruption church paintings indicate that by this time St Stephen
of p y y ‘hazel grouse’; 165-167 passim These lines had begun to be portrayed not as a scullion but as
depict one of many ways of performing spells and a groom; this probably resulted from the coincidence
soothsaying. The spells were chanted (i.e. ‘mutter’) in many parts of pre-Christian Europe of St Stephen’s
over salt (the vital importance of salt in a primitive day with the ritual watering of horses at the winter
economy has given rise to numerous superstitions, solstice to ensure their health and strength through
many of which still flourish) and at the same time the coming year. There are many parallels, especially
the worker of magic would perform (i.e. ‘bind’) in Germany, for the subsequent association of such
with ‘threads’ and ‘ribbons’ of different colours a rites with St Stephen.
soothsaying (i.e. ‘speak’) ritual; 250 va a tu < Ru. cf. In Finland the medieval St Stephen legend was
v adu ‘in hell’. adapted to a framework that, together with the
animal disguise, represents an older, pre-Christian
stratum of winter solstice rites. The Christian legend
is found in 11. 2-49. This is followed by a request
ST STEPHEN 63 for beer (11. 50-55) and a song of thanks (11. 56-71).
The boisterous carnival spirit that pervades the per
B130 C623 D1311.4.0.1 E32 E168.1 E471.1.1.2 formance of the poem is apparent in 11. 2, 25-26
F838.3 F960.1 H252 and the concluding couplet. Parallels for the three
is an example of a poem that dates from
S t S teph en Nativity miracles (11. 32-49) are found throughout
the medieval period before the new Christian teach Europe and the motif of the crowing cock is com
ing had either completely eliminated or assimilated monly used in this context. A distinctive Finnish
pagan beliefs and practices. Certain of these practices development, however, appears to be the bringing
became associated with St Stephen and survived in together of these various miracles into a composite
ceremonies which accompanied the singing of the Nativity series.
poem on St Stephen’s Day (26th December). In West 4 Concerning k o n k a ri see p. 538; 17—18 A stock
Finland, where the practices survived until the 20th Finnish hyperbole (cf. 51:3-4); 25—26 Lines inter
century, they were linked to mumming customs polated by the performers as a comment on their
observed on the days immediately after Christmas. own boisterous behaviour; 33 i.e. the cock that is
The song was performed to the accompaniment of trussed and roasted. In a more complete variant this
dance by a group of young men, who went from verse is foilwed by the lines: j o k a on p a is tin a v a d is /
house to house repeating the ceremony and receiving höyhenet tu lip a d a ssa ‘which is roasted on the plate /
beer as payment. The group would include one man feathers in the fiery pot’; 35 f a r t t i < Sw. cf. k v a rte r
dressed up as ‘St Stephen’, i.e. with a straw tether 'quarter of an hour’; 5 4 -5 5 Surrogate lines borrowed
wound around him, while some of his companions from a much later, unidentified song.
could be dressed as goats or bears and wore various
kinds of masks. The custom evolved from pagan
rites connected with the winter solstice, a time of
the year when evil spirits were thought to be par ST CATHERINE 64, 65
ticularly active. Throughout the world this has pro
duced ceremonies of great complexity designed either These variants illustrate how the saints’ le
to protect men against the power of spirits or to gends became confused both with each other
placate them and secure their support for the coming
year. The St Stephen ritual illustrates how such prac and with pre-Christian myths. According to
tices were adopted and assimilated as part of Chris the earliest sources, St Catherine of Alexan
tian ritual. Customs comparable to those known in dria was a virgin of noble birth and excep
Finland, particularly donning animal disguise, have tional learning, who was tortured on a wheel
been recorded in many parts of Europe and North
ern Asia. and then beheaded (307 AD) because she
The version of the legend on which Poem 63 is had protested at the persecution of the
based is known in many parts of Europe. It originated Christians by Emperor Maxentius. Legends
and took shape in England, and describes how about her martyrdom did not begin to
Herod’s scullion, Stephen, sees a vision of Bethlehem
in the sky above the stars. He tells his master that spread, however, until the 10th century; by
the Saviour has been bom, but Herod says he will the late 13th century they were widely known
554
in Sweden and St Catherine was especially however, have been borrowed with only small
revered by the Dominicans, the order that changes from T h e G olden B rid e (Poems 21, 22). The
reference to Väinämöinen in 1. 43 could either
was most active in medieval Finland. She is have been influenced by the earlier reference or have
the subject of numerous church paintings, in been borrowed from a variant in which Väinämöi
which one of her symbols is the wheel on nen appears as a smith.
which she was tortured (cf. the ‘Catherine- 2 p ir ta ‘reed’: a weaver’s tool for separating warp
threads.
wheel’ firework). In the Finnish area this
was understood as a spinning wheel, hence
in Finnish poetry she is generally associated ST HENRY 66, 67
with spinning or weaving. Accounts of her
martyrdom by burning are again the result St Henry, the legend of the martyrdom of
of confusion. It is not known what fate was Finland’s patron saint, is the best known
originally ascribed to her in Scandinavian poem of the Roman Catholic period in Fin
and Finnish tradition. In a corresponding land. Bishop Henry, according to tradition
Swedish poem St Catherine is carried up to an Englishman, accompanied the Swedish
heaven by white doves. The Finnish variants King, Eric Jedvardsson, on a crusade to Fin
suggest that she may have escaped martyr land (1154 or 1155) and remained there as
dom. head of the Church after Eric’s return to
The Finnish poet-singer has used stock Sweden. According to legend, Henry was
phrases and surrogate passages from poems murdered by a peasant, Lalli, on 20th Jan
about Ilmarinen, in particular The Golden uary 1156 while crossing the ice of Lake
Bride (Poems 21, 22), to describe the at Köyliö in South-West Finland. Henry’s death
tempted burning of St Catherine. It is un was commemorated in a Latin liturgical text,
certain whether the wooing motif, which has composed in Turku, and read regularly in
no foundation in the earliest records of the Finnish churches. It stated that the Bishop
legend, was inspired by The Golden Bride had wished ‘to impose on a certain murderer
or came about through confusion with legends the corrective discipline of the Church in
about St Margaret (cf. Poems 70, 71). The such a way that he would not regard a pardon
substitution of Herod for Maxentius is a easily acquired as encouragement to further
further example of confusion, with Herod criminal acts. Then that unhappy, blood
occurring as a stock character to represent thirsty man attacked the servant of right
evil. eousness and cruelly killed him.’
The official account and the wealth of
64 local folklore stimulated by the crime gave
Q414 T326.3
birth to St Henry. It appears to have been
composed towards the end of the 13th cen
28—30 These lines, in which the identity of St Cath tury by a poet of some learning - familiar
erine has changed, can be compared to medieval
Swedish church paintings in which the saint is with contemporary Scandinavian chivalrous
depicted as reading. ballads (e.g. the ‘noble-servant-grey horse’
combination), a versatile exponent of Kale
65 vala epic poetry technique and also well
versed in contemporary Catholic legends, on
B102 Q414 T117.il T326.3
which the structure of the poem is modelled.
The Savo variant is a compilation of stock and sur The factual style and earthy vocabulary,
rogate passages. A Finnish variant of the St Cath
erine legend survives in 11. 1-9, 17-24. The substi however, suggest that it was not the conscious
tution of Väinämöinen for Herod in 11. 10-16 was intention of the poet to imitate popular legend
probably confusion by the singer and suggests the poems, but rather to compose a chronicle
influence of the Christian poems composed to deni of Bishop Henry’s life and work in Finland,
grate the pagan heroes. While the Finnish S t C a th
erine legend is apparent in 11. 17-24, it is cast against
embroidering his narrative with as many
the background of poems about Ilmarinen; 11. 25-54, facts as possible (cf. the unusual number
555
of proper names). Several features such as the or Swedish-speaking Finnish officials, had the right
description of the journey and the concluding to claim free board and lodging when travelling on
government business, a privilege that was frequently
episode about divine judgement were added abused; 8 6 -£ 7 Concerning the translation of sa k sa
by a later poet-singer. see German[y]/Saksa in Name Index; 178 p a n n a <
The purpose of the poem, of which fourteen ,Sw. cf. p a n n a ‘brow’.
manuscripts or fragments of manuscripts
survive, was to attract pilgrims to the church 67
at Nousiainen, where Henry was first buried. B155.1 C949.2 K2127.3 V111.3
Nousiainen continued to be an important
place of pilgrimage even after Bishop Henry’s
remains were moved to Turku Cathedral in THE TREE 68
1280. The historical validity of the poem has D950.2
been the subject of much controversy. Lalli’s T h e T re e is an adaptation by early Christian Ingrians
behaviour on hearing his wife’s lies, for ex of a pagan theme. The original idea is found in
ample, is less surprising in the context of the T h e V oyage (Poems 26, 27) as the description of the
time when abuse of the privilege of free search for timber suitable for the keel of a boat. The
motifs in the adaptation have a symbolic function
board and lodging was regarded as a punish comparable to those in E lk a n d S n a k e (Poem 55; cf.
able act. It would seem, however, that the pp. 549, 564): the wood of the tree is rejected as
poem’s propaganda purpose, its legend struc unsuitable for a church because it has been defiled
ture and the changes introduced by later by animals associated with evil.
25—26 These verses suggest that the archetypal poem
generations of singers have obscured the contained a passage describing how the woodmen
historical relevance the poem may once have sought and found a suitable tree, i.e. one associated
had. with animals symbolizing God and virtue (cf. 27:
36-44).
66
B155.1 C949.2 K2127.3 Q,172 Q560 VI 11.3 THE FOREST 69
33 tta n tti ‘coachman’: lit. ‘coachman who stood at
the rear of the sledge behind the passenger’. The C998 D705.2 F979.23
word derives through Swedish from Latin in fa m ; it T h e F o re st appears to have been composed in Esto
was probably this association, together with allit nia, from where it spread into Ingria and north
eration, that determined the choice of va a k sa ‘span’ along the Karelian Isthmus. The association of the
as attribute; 40 m u rsunluiset ‘walrus-bones’: i.e. the moral protest with fertility suggests that the poem
various fixtures by which the traces were attached is a description of some kind of purification ritual
to the shafts and the horse; 41 It is thought that used by Christian priests in places where crops had
v a lja a t ‘harness’ referred solely to the bit; 50 -5 9 A failed to flourish; the lack of fertility was ascribed
stock metonymic passage describing sounds associated to pollution caused by sinful behaviour (cf. 11. 3-6).
with travel; in the view of some scholars the images Hence 11. 7-12 depict the dire consequences of such
may also refer to the designs carved or painted on behaviour: the absence of fertility (11. 7-9), the in
the sleigh; 50 v ir m a : an associative change from k irm a terruption of the natural cycle (1. 10), and the
‘hood placed over a sleigh or carriage’. It is known plunging of the earth into total darkness (11. 11-12).
that these hoods were frequently decorated with The remainder of the poem, describing the purifi
animal motifs; 5 0-55 Hence these verses describe cation ceremony (11. 13-15) and the subsequent re
the decoration on the sleigh hood; 55 i.e. the bear storation of fertility, is an interesting illustration of
skin cover on the horse that was attached by iron how early Christian thought and practice were under
clips. At one time it was also common to fix pieces stood and propagated in the Baltic-Finnish area.
of iron to the bear-skin as protection against evil
spirits and spells; 56 i.e. the bell attached to the
harness (bells were frequently compared to singing
birds); 57 i.e. the ringing of the bell in close prox THE FOUNDLING 70, 71
imity to the bear-skin horse blanket; 58—59 A refer
ence to the popular custom of decorating travel-rugs The Foundling, which is also known in Estonia,
in the same way as the sleigh-hood; 66 k y rsä ‘roll’: brings together several popular medieval
i.e. a flat, round, hard rye loaf with a hole in the
centre; 85 ru okaru o tsi ‘Swede to feed’: a pejorative themes. The underlying idea is the legend of
that derives from the 14th century when Swedish, St Margaret of Antioch (also known as St
556
Marina), who according to some versions of 71
the legend committed suicide to save her
H1510 LI 1.4.4 S341.1 T475.2.1 T585.2
virtue; in other versions either the prefect
Olibrius or the Devil disguised as a dragon (cf. The variant from the Karelian Isthmus preserves a
fuller version of the St M argaret legend. The opening
Poem 55; p. 549) attempts to seduce her while lines (11. 1-14) employ stock introductory material
she is herding pigs. From as early as the 7th (cf. 58:1-7; p. 550) and the legend begins at I. 15. The
century, St Margaret was honoured in the seduction, marking the shift to the ballad theme,
Eastern Church and later was one of the occurs against the girl’s will, thus preserving some
vestige of the ancient legend. The remainder of the
saints commonly invoked by women in labour. poem has the same structure as Poem 70, though
In these variants the main themes of the with greater elaboration of the theme and motifs.
legendäre cast in a ballad framework, simi 37 i.e. the moment had come to give birth; 45
lar to that, for example, of The Forsaken Maid passim m iehiin tu p a ‘men’s house’, n a isiin tu p a ‘women’s
house’: a wealthy home, such as M arketta’s, would
(cf. Poems 92, 93, 94; pp. 563-564); the have separate quarters for the men and women who
seducer, Hannus, also belongs to the same worked there.
tradition: a medieval Finnish Don Juan
character. The legend of St Margaret is
apparent at the beginning of the Finnish THE MAID AND THE DRAGON
poem where Marketta is approached by a 72-74
stranger while she is herding in the forest.
The Finnish version departs from the original The theme of the dragon that refuses to eat
in that Marketta is seduced and conceives, a young woman is unique to Finnish poetry
possibly a reflection of the saint’s association and is one of the first poems to introduce a
with childbirth. The end of the poem, in vein of humour into the generally serious
which the parentage of the child has to be poetry of medieval Finland. Linguistic and
established before it can be baptized, com stylistic features indicate that it was com
bines pagan name-giving practices and ver posed in South-West Finland and was prob
sions of the French legend of St Goar (cf. ably the work of one particular, skilful poetess
Poems 57, 58; p. 550). The Finnish adapta who also produced several other poems that
tion of the legend was used as a cautionary won wide popularity. Composed on the mod
poem to warn girls of the dangers of be el of the legend of St George and the Dragon
coming emotionally involved with strangers (in some variants the young man is called
(cf. pp. 563-564, 568). Yrjö ‘George’), the purpose of the satire is
to rebuke men who are unfaithful to their
70 women, by teasingly suggesting that they
H1510 LI 11.4.4 S341.1 T585.2 should be put to death, and at the same time
Traces of the St Margaret legend can be discerned to draw attention to the importance of women
in 11. 1-16, while 11. 17-24 represent the pagan in a male-dominated society by emphasizing
name-giving practices. The concluding lines skil their role as mothers.
fully and symbolically combine the pagan practices, The use of the first person plural and the
which place the child’s life in jeopardy, with the
St Goar theme. opening lines show that the poem was per
3 -5 These lines illustrate the process of change as formed by girls as they walked in procession.
a motif passes from singer to singer. Together with While it is not possible to date the poem’s
11. 1-2 they are a surrogate passage from T h e K a n te le
(cf. 23:4-5). The earlier form was S u vikunnan su ite t composition precisely, textual evidence sug
v y ö llä ,/v a rsa n v a lja h a t o la lla ‘at his belt the yearling’s gests the early 16th century; dragon themes
reins/shouldering the colt’s harness’; as the poem occur in Swedish and Finnish church painting
was transmitted su vik u n ta ‘yearling’ (lit. 'one-summer-
old’) became sukukunta ‘kin’ (su v i and suku are near only after 1480 and references to war in some
homonyms in certain inflected forms), and varsa of the variants appear to be to Danish attacks
‘colt’ became v a lta (cf. p. 532); 8 v a sta s ‘bath-whisk’: on the southern coast of Finland some
i.e. leafy twigs bound together, with which bathers
beat themselves to stimulate perspiration. twenty years later.
557
72 maritan woman at a well (John 4). The leg
P19.4.1 Q413
end originated in France and spread through
out Europe. Two versions were transmitted
The S t G eorge legend and the satire are obscure in to the Finnish area, most probably by men
the West Finnish variant. The theme and motifs
become clearer, however, when the variant is com dicant Dominican monks for St Mary was
pared with Poems 73 and 74; 11. 1-7 suggest the their patron saint. In its advocacy of humility
assembling of girls in preparation for a procession and condemnation of social differences, the
in which each person, or group of persons, has a poem epitomizes Dominican teaching (cf. pp.
particular role to play. LI. 8-15 correspond to the
episodes in Poems 73 and 74 that describe the 54-56).
hanging.
9 i.e. learning to sing; 10 n iin i 'bast’: inner bark of 75
the lime tree used in rope-making (cf. 73:4—7); 12
h irret 'gallows’: a corruption of Y rjö 'George’, i.e. V211.2.1.3 V223.3
'to hang (St) George*; 13 tien su u 'road’s end’: the The version which survived in West Finland, where
traditional gallows site; 14—15 i.e. a public place, it was performed as part of the Sääksmäki Whitsun
possibly the area in front of a castle or palace. tide celebrations, is regarded as one of the outstanding
products of medieval Finnish poetry. It differs mark
73 edly from the corresponding German, Scandinavian
and Slav versions which are closer to the Latin orig
B11.8 P19.4.1 Q413 inals, and does not describe M ary’s sexual impropri
The variant from the Karelian Isthmus brings out ety, wickedness, and punishment in the same colour
more clearly the principal motifs; 11. 1-14 and 17-18 ful, lewd and malicious terms; the Finnish poet-
describe the procession to the gallows to hang the translator introduced a refined sense of moral con
young man and the reason for his execution. LI. sciousness and cast his version in a restrained style
13-16 are the first stage in the satire cast in terms that skilfully heightens the effect of the dramatically
that recall Pontius Pilate’s inquiry about the reasons powerful climax. Other features added by the poet-
for the condemnation of Jesus. It is possible that a translator include the description of what Mary’s
passage has been lost at 1. 19 where the poem shifts three murdered children might have become, which
to the legend of S t G eorge a n d the D ra g o n ; it would is structurally and thematically similar to T h e W id o w
be in keeping with the satirical tone of the variant (Poems 82, 83), and the emphasis on the difference
for the man to be pardoned and the maid to be in social status between M ary and Jesus, who is
condemned. LI. 19-33 contain the full thrust of the disguised as a herdsman. The portrayal of Mary’s
protest and at the same time throw a rare shaft of vanity as when she regrets the fading of her beauty
light on how women saw their role in Finland in when she sees her reflection in a stream, 11. 16-26)
the Middle Ages (cf. 11. 29-33). is a motif found in the earlier French and Italian
versions but not in those recorded in Sweden.
6 -1 5 Stock introductory material (cf. 58:l-7:p. 550);
74 11 A medieval legend that St Mary Magdalen was
of royal descent has led to her often being depicted,
B11.8 P I9.4.1 Q413 especially in church paintings, as wearing a crown;
4—8 A change has occurred in that the lime tree 28 Concerning k a sk i ‘burnt clearing’ see pp. 524, 546;
which was originally the source of the bast now 57 i.e. the stones or wooden stumps that were placed
provides the timber for the gallows; 8 h ylk ö i ‘wretch’: in marshes to aid travellers; 6 3 -6 4 Two features
a corruption of Y rjö ‘George’; 27 A reference to the have been confused here; stumps placed in marshes,
conditions in which a serf was wholly at the disposal i.e. as a ‘bridge’, and stock phrases about drifting
of his master and could make no appeal to higher at sea. Fi. s ilta originally meant 'wooden plank(s)
authority; 3 2 -3 5 These lines illustrate how a or beam(s) on which to walk’, which explains why
singer, who might herself never have seen a picture it means ‘bridge’ in some dialects and ‘floor’ in
of a dragon, tries to describe one to listeners who others.
know even less; it is possible that she may have had
a picture of a crocodile in mind. 76
T 5 11.1.1-2 V223.3
MAGDALEN 75, 76 The Ingrian redaction was transmitted not through
Finland but through Estonia. It preserves features
that are not found in Scandinavia, but which can
The legend of St Mary Magdalen reached the be shown to be linked to Romance tradition, e.g.
Finnish area in a form that was associated with the concluding episode in the church (11. 48-64).
the account of Jesus’ meeting the sinful Sa Christ here is very different from the merciful char
558
acter in the Sääksmäki redaction; this trait is also a is possible that the poem originally functioned
feature of Romance tradition and appears to have as the text of a moralizing drama.
been intended specifically to emphasize the impor
tance of celibacy among the clergy. The variant
brings out more clearly the pathos of Mary’s shame;
the poet heightens this by presenting her as the 77
epitome of an upper-class young woman of her time
- frivolous, arrogant, fashion-conscious and con Q,171 0560 U90 V515.1.1
temptuous (11. 1-31). The surrogate passage at 11. The Ladoga Karelian variant retains the three-part
32-42, borrowed from T h e M e ssia h (cf. 62:11-17) structure of the archetypal poem. The opening lines
and possibly influenced by accounts of the forbidden (11. 1-20) are a surrogate passage from a lament lyric
fruit, alludes to Mary’s sexual wrong-doing and sug sung by serfs; 11. 21-31 describe the serf’s harsh death,
gests that the listeners were already familiar with 11. 32-52 portray the master’s retribution and punish
the salient facts of the legend. ment after death, and the concluding lines (11. 53-70)
5 k o p u tti < Ru. cf. h a p o t ‘bonnet, hood’; 52 A ref elaborate the Dominican doctrine that wickedness
erence to the traditional procession around the by the rich towards the poor was a sin that could
church that forms part of the Easter Vigil ceremonial; not be atoned in purgatory. To heighten the pathos,
57 passim vateru t < ?Sw. cf. f a d e r ‘father’ (the Swed the singer has used a surrogate passage (11. 1-13)
ish versions refer to a priest in this context). borrowed from another poem in the same tradition,
T h e S e r f 's L a m e n t , as a prologue, and has used 11.
13-20 as a warning, i.e. the wealthy are given an
opportunity to mend their ways if they wish.
SERF AND MASTER 77-79 22 Kar. lu p a ‘leave, permission’ and Kar. v a lta ‘power;
leave, permission’ have overlapping semantic fields
Serf and Master is an outstanding example of which cannot be adequately translated; 15 Con
how the Dominicans taught the sanctity of cerning tsu p p u see p. 540; 18 Concerning ku lo see
p. 523; 55 k y y n ä rä ‘cubit’: i.e. 59 cm; 57 k a p p a
poverty. Better than any other poem, it pres ‘gallon’: i.e. a dry capacity measure, 4.58 litres;
ents the doctrine in its most simple form, 6 9 -7 0 i.e. the only source of water he could
emphasizing the uncompromising way in find.
which the poor understood sin and virtue,
retribution and reward. The association in
many variants of the Christian heaven with 78
pagan Tuonela suggests that the poem took A661.0.1.2 Q.172 0560 U90 V515.1.1
shape at a time when Christianity was only The main features of the original poem survive most
beginning to gain supremacy over the old clearly in the Central Finnish variant, having par
beliefs. The concepts of a separate heaven ticular historical interest for it was collected in
and hell had still to take root; life after death an area where serfdom never existed. Although this
variant lacks the detailed didactic content of the
was thought to be in the same place, though Ladoga Karelian and Ingrian versions, its laconic,
with differing conditions, for everyone. terse style reveals a greater depth of bitterness, a
The theme is thought to be a popular feature that has parallels in other types of oral
adaptation of the parable of Dives and La tradition.
1 -2 A stylistic device, rather than a statement of
zarus in Luke 16. An alternative explanation fact, to impress on the listeners that this is 'a true
is that it may go back further to the ancient story’; 2 i.e. where serfs were treated very badly,
Egyptian legend of Osiris’ punishing a rich ‘in the pagan way’.
man by making him exchange roles with a
poor man. Textual evidence suggests that
the poem reached Finland from Western 79
Europe and was possibly transmitted by 0172 Q560 U90 V515.1.1
Dominican monks who had studied at the Structurally, the Ingrian variant has the same form
universities of Western Europe. The poem as Poem 77: prologue (11. 1-13), death of the serf
survived longest, however, in those areas (11. 14-25), afterlife with reward or retribution (11.
south of the Gulf of Finland, where the 26-143). All these variants reflect Russian Orthodox
doctrine about death and judgement, whereby, un
oppressive Baltic-German system of land like Roman doctrine with its tradition of purgatory,
tenure existed and the contrast and antipathy the soul proceeds at death immediately to judgement
between rich and poor were most acute. It and thence to heaven or hell. A characteristic of
559
this variant is the particularly vivid way in which
the poet-singer has elaborated the legend with con
THE WIDOW 82, 83
temporary fantasy (e.g. 11. 26-32).
The Widow illustrates one aspect of the ethics
4 p iik a 'maid, slave’: although the Finnish word
normally specifies a woman it is clear from the of the mendicant Dominicans and in terms
text that the serf is a man; 11 passim Concern of its cautionary function and antithetic
ing k a p p a 'gallon* see p. 559; 15 Concerning v a lta
structure is comparable to Serf and Master
see p. 559; 96 su u ta < Ru. cf. su yeta 'fuss, bustle’.
(Poems 77, 78, 79) and Magdalen (Poems 75,
76). Textual evidence indicates that it dates
from the late Middle Ages and was possibly
DEATH ON THE PROWL 80, 81 inspired by a monk’s disapproval of episcopal
pomp. Nevertheless, the underlying theme is
The harsh and lonely fate of daughters-in- one central to Christian teaching - the mortal
law is the subject of this lyrical elegy. The sin of pride. While the motif of personified
poem must have struck a familiar chord, for death was well known throughout Europe,
numerous variants of it were sung and re this particular interpretation of the hubris-
mained popular until recent times over an nemesis theme has been recorded only in the
area that extends from Estonia to northern Finnish area, where it appears to have spread
Archangel Karelia. It combines factual de from West Finland into Karelia and Ingria.
tails of daily life with the omnipresent sense Both poems have the same structure: boast
and acceptance of the proximity of death, an ing, death, repentance. Despite the consider
essential element in man’s understanding of able geographical distance between the var
the world in the Middle Ages. Although the iants, the motifs are remarkably similar. The
personification of death is typical of medieval opening verses (82:1-2 and 83:4-5) may have
Roman Catholic thought (cf. Poems 82, 83) been inspired by a heraldic device, possibly
and the ‘climax-of-relatives’ structure is of the bishop whose pomp, according to some
known all over Europe, they are employed authorities, inspired the poem.
in a way which is unparalleled outside the
Baltic-Finnish area: by personifying death as 82
the selective agent in the ‘climax-of-relatives* C451-452 L412 Zl 11-112
pattern, the constant awareness of death is
used to express personal feelings and con
sciously heightens the emotional effect of the 83
poem. C451-452 L412 Zl 11-112
This variant became the accompaniment to a dance;
‘red’ in 1. 8 possibly refers to the colour of the gar
80 ment worn by the person acting the role of the
widow.
Z l 11-112 2 9 -3 0 i.e. she has to support herself by begging.
2 t a u t i ‘disease’ preserves in this context an earlier
use of the word in Finnish, i.e. ‘disease that causes
death’ (< OSc. cf. Sw. d ö d ‘death’; Eng. 'dea th ' THE DEATH OF ELINA 84
derives from the same Germanic root); ta lv itie ‘winter
road’: i.e. the route used in winter that went across F 1041.1.11.3 K2112 0,172 Q560 S62 T61.4
frozen swamps and lakes in contrast to the more V211.2.1.3
circuitous ‘summer roads’; 9 Concerning k a sk i ‘clear The five-scene dramatic poem, which may have
ing’ see pp. 524, 546. been intended to be acted, was written down about
the middle of the 16th century. It is uncertain to
what extent it spread beyond Vesilahti in West
81 Finland where it was composed; fragments collect
ed in Ingria indicate that it entered oral tradition.
F492.1 Z l 11-112 The poem was inspired by a widespread tale about
2 Concerning ta u ti ‘disease’ see above; 24 Concerning a lord of a manor who burned his innocent wife and
k a s k i ‘clearing’ see pp. 524. 546. his best workman to death after a malicious chamber
560
maid had lured them into a bedroom and locked MDial. lik k a ; 49 passim f r o u v a cf. MFi. rouva; 80
the door. The m urder is set in the manor of Laukko, passim k la p a ta cf. MDial. la p a ta ; 81 passim f iin i cf.
close to Vesilahti, which from 1450 until 1470 be MDial.; 109 p r y k ä tä cf. MDial.; 138 k la s i cf. MFi:
longed to Klaus Kurki, the provincial judge of Ia si 148 tren k i cf. MFi. renki; 173 sla h d a ta a n cf.
Ylä-Satakunta in South-West Finland and who was MDial. la h d a ta ; 209 passim s ta lli- cf. MFi. ta lli- .
well-known for his efforts to stamp out witchcraft 6 p iik a ‘girl’, but cf. 1. 32 ‘lass’ (i.e. servant, maid).
(cf. 1. 73). Although folk tales link his name with This Swedish loan had both meanings in Old Fin
the crime, documentary sources show that it was nish; 9—10 i.e. a wealthy home; 18 tu le n o sta : a
committed at the end of the 14th century by Klaus corruption of tu len n osta or tu len n a sta from tu len ta
Djäkn, one-time provincial judge of the Province of ‘coming’; 43—44 Glass in the windows indicates
Häme (1383-1390) and later commandant of Turku wealth; it is also an important dating criterion, for
Castle (1409-1434); after burning his wife to death, window panes were not introduced into Finland
he married one Kristina Jönsdotter. until about 1500; 185 p a n n i ‘pan’: a medieval dry
T h e D e a th o f E lin a is the last major medieval poem capacity measure, 91.6 litres; p a h a t ja u h o t ‘bad flour
in the Kalevala epic tradition and was composed i.e. gunpowder; 216—219 The description of
shortly before the tradition began to die out in Elina appears to have been influenced by paintings
West Finland. As such the poem and the circum of the Virgin Mary.
stances surrounding its composition illuminate the
period of transition from oral literature to conscious
artistic creation. The poet’s identity is not known,
although it has been suggested that he may have THE FAITHFUL BRIDE 85, 86
been a clerk in the Kurki household. Textual evi
dence shows him to have been a masterly exponent The Faithful Bride is one of the few examples
of Kalevala epic, familiar with its technique and (cf. The Death of the Bride, Poems 87, 88) of a
practice in both West and East Finland. He was
also a man of some education and was well versed chilvarous ballad in Finnish folk poetry. It is
in the poetry of Scandinavia { T h e D e a th o f E lin a largely a translation of the Swedish Lagmans-
displays, for example, the influence of the Danish visa, the most important of the numerous
ballad L a w e S tisön o g F ru E lin e ); he had some know
ledge of the requirements of dramatic technique, he Swedish bride-stealing ballads. The poem
skilfully handled the psychological development of reached West Finland by not later than the
the narrative and revelled in the macabre melodrama
(cf. 11. 157-160, 173-175).
15th century, was transmitted to Ingria by
The Vesilahti variant, recorded at least 160 years the ancestors of the Äyrämöinen and da-
ago, is the only one known to cue each character. vakko Finns in the 16th century, and through
The original 300-line drama was divided into five
scenes. In this variant the division is: Scene 1 = 11. them reached the Izhors. In Finland the
1-46, Scene 2 = 11. 77-98, Scene 3 = 11. 99-137, poem survived only as part of the Sääksmäki
Scene 4 = 11. 138-195, Scene 5 = 11. 196-236. The Whitsuntide festival (cf. p. 58).
sequence of the lines in the opening scene has been
confused and should be 1-3, 17-19, 4-11, 20-21, While the main characters and themes of
12-14, 22-24, 15-16, 25-46. The episode in which the Swedish poem remain in the Finnish
Elina and Kirsti go to do their washing (11. 77-98) variants, the latter have acquired motifs from
should form the opening of the second scene and
precede 1. 47. In this variant Elina’s reply in 11. other, unrelated Scandinavian ballads (e.g.
69-73 omits any reference to her advanced state of letters bearing false news, 85:18-19). The
pregnancy and the dialogue in 11. 139-141 does not
include the plea of mercy for her new-born son, conclusion of the Swedish ballad, describing
whom Klaus maintains is not his but Olovi’s. Simi how the knight threw himself between his
larly, the description of how Kirsti entices Elina betrothed and his usurper when they were
and Olovi separately into the bedroom where, con
trary to instructions, she has prepared a bed for two, already in the nuptial bed, has been omitted
no longer reflects the scale or content of the from the Finnish variants. The betrothal of
corresponding episode in the original poem. The Inkeri while still in her cradle, or only a
most complete section of this variant is the conclu
sion, in which the influence of legend poetry is child, is another motif that does not occur
evident. in the Swedish poem. The Finnish variants
An interesting linguistic aspect of the text is the also differ in certain points of emphasis; the
frequency of Middle Swedish loanwords, some of contrast, for example, in the social status of
which preserve phonetic forms that no longer occur
in Modern Finnish, while others never rooted in the the hero and his rival appears to be a dis
standard language. Examples are: 39 f lik k a cf. tinctively Finnish motif.
36 561
85 joki and Kokemäki, royal estates in the
♦K1851.2 T61.5.1 T65 T210.1
Middle Ages, also refer to his nobility. The
poem appears to have been composed in
Textual features show that by the time this variant Finland during the 14th century, although it
was recorded, it was little more than the vocal
accompaniment to a procession with little attention, •was clearly influenced by popular Swedish
if any, paid to content and meaning (cf. notes to ballads. The archetypal form of the ballad
11. 42 and 44). LI. 42-47 show, for example, that the cannot be reconstructed. It is evident, how
singers had only the vaguest notion of the kind of ever, that the poet was well versed in the
vessel in which Lalmanti was sailing, a result of the
transmission of the poem to an inland area where European ballad tradition. The opening epi
the singers were unfamiliar with seafaring imagery. sode suggests the influence of the Swedish
The poem is in three parts; 11. 1-16 describe the ballad of The Boy Returning Homefrom School,
betrothal and 11. 17-40 the attempts to persuade In while a Swedish version of the Scottish Bride
keri to marry someone else and her loyalty to Lal
manti. The third part (11. 41-58) depicts Lalmanti’s who was not a Virgin seems to be the source of
return just in time to prevent Inkeri being forced the albeit obscure main theme: i.e. because
into marriage with another man. the bride was pregnant at the time of her
2 vaku < Sw. cf. v a g g a 'cradle*; 3 A reference to the marriage, either by her husband or someone
solemnisation of betrothal by clapping hands; 4 2
tu n tu m a s ta : a meaningless corruption of tu len n a sta
else, she had to be punished by death. In
(i.e. tu len ta ‘coming’), probably the result of regressive this respect the poem has a cautionary pur
assimilation caused by tu nnen; 4 4 p u r tta (partitive of pose comparable to that of Poems 75-83.
p u r s i) 'boat*; a corruption of p u r je tta (partitive of An Ingrian poet-singer later replaced certain
p u rje ‘sail’).
themes and motifs with features from The
86 Mother (cf. Poem 101).
T 6 1.5.1 87
The original theme is obscure in the Ingrian variant. T211.9
The betrothal scene remains (11. 1-5), but the knight's
departure has been reduced to a single verse (1. 6). The South-West Finnish variant has an historio
The motif of the rival suitor has been lost and the graphical interest in addition to containing the nu
only indication of an attempt to marry the girl to cleus of the poem. The text, one of the earliest
another man is implicit in 11. 26-27 and 11. 29-31. surviving specimens of Finnish folk poetry, has sur
The waiting for and the return of the knight are vived in Daniel Juslenius* study of Turku, A b o a
structurally similar to the corresponding passages in vetu s e t no va (1700); the poem was quoted in a pa
the West Finnish variant, although different motifs triotic endeavour to prove the antiquity of schools,
are used to convey the idea. LI. 17 and 19-21, in and thus of civilisation, in Finland.
which the person who greets the knight switches
from the girl to the mother, or possibly her brother, 88
indicate that a passage has been lost and that at
one time the poem may have been cast as a frame T61.4 T211.9
work repetition poem. The two concluding lines are
a surrogate passage. The main theme and the cautionary function emerge
3 An adaptation by a poet-singer who did not clearly in the variant from Ingria, where the poem
understand the original verse (cf. 85:5); 5 i.e. at survived longest (fragments have also been found in
the moment of birth (the bath-house was the place Finnish Karelia). It retains the structure of the
where confinement traditionally took place, cf. p. archetypal poem, even though surrogate passages
547); 7 A stock endearment phrase in Finnish poetry, from at least six other poems and numerous stock
it refers to searching for lice (see Plate 16). phrases have been used to convey the motifs. One
motif appears to be missing between 11. 35 and 36;
the following two verses, however, suggest that a
surrogate passage from T h e M o th e r (cf. 101:21-28)
DEATH OF THE BRIDE 87, 88 was once included here, describing how a woman
falls ill and how her son seeks help from shamans
Death of the Bride is another example of a (cf. also p. 566). The poet-singer has introduced to
Finnish chivalrous ballad (cf. The Faithful this variant a touch of macabre melodrama in the
Bride, Poems 85, 86). The reference to shields two-part prophecy of doom: the warning by the
sexton (U. 52-55), and the relative preparing the
and the young man’s epithets identify him cofiin (II. 61-68). The husband’s suicide at the end
as a nobleman, and it is possible that Pyhä of the poem (1. 82) was determined not by the main
5 62
theme, but is part of another poem that the singer descriptions of the flow of blood usually follow 1. 30,
incorporated as the conclusion (11. 78-84) of this greater emphasis is placed on the girl’s virginity,
variant. while Antti’s reproaches are more elaborate,
76—77 i.e. she was in labour. referring to the fine the girl’s father will have
to pay and thus strengthening the protest of the
poem.
9—12 Hinges of stiffened canvas (1. 12) were common;
THE PRIEST-KILLER 89 moistening them with a liquid corresponds to
oiling a metal hinge; 44—45 A passage appears to
♦N770.1 Q.243.2.1 R345.1 T320.2 be missing here in which Antti asks Kaisa what she
The poem about a girl who kills a priest when he has done.
attempts to seduce her is similar in theme to T h e
I n tru d e r-K ille r (Poem 90). It also shares a similar
purpose in that it asserts a woman's right to defend
her virtue. The other main feature of the poem is
THE HUSBAND-KILLER 91
its emphasis on the sanctity of the priest’s oath of R310-317 T173
celibacy, and in this respect it can be compared to
the corresponding passage in M a g d a le n (76:55-64). T h e H u s b a n d -K ille r ballad probably originated in
The basic theme comes from an otherwise lost West North Estonia from where it spread into West In
Finnish ballad recast in the ‘going-weeping-home’ gria; fragments of the poem have also been recorded
nucleus repetition form as a result of medieval Esto in Central Ingria. Although the subject of the poem
nian influence. This is the only variant in which the has certain thematic similarities with the ballad of
postulated original idea survives, although certain L a d y Isa b e l a n d the F a lse K n ig h t , it is not possible to
features of it are embedded in T h e H a n g e d M a i d establish a common origin, or any thematic influence,
(Poems 104, 105). The concluding lines indicate that either with the L a d y Isa b e l ballad or with any other
the poem was performed as the accompaniment to source outside the Estonian-Ingrian area; certain
some kind of drinking ceremony. motifs, however, may have been borrowed from
7 - 9 A reference to the early days of Christianity in elsewhere (e.g. the motif of the knife in the bed is
Finland when priests often had to defend themselves reminiscent of Brunhild). The poem appears to have
from attacks by pagans; 87 Concerning u m m isk en k å been inspired by an actual, though long since for
‘closed shoe’ (see p. 553). gotten, sensational m urder committed by a woman
married against her will.
Incremental or framework repetition poems deal
ing with themes of love seen from a woman’s point
THE INTRUDER-KILLER 90 of view and characterized by frequent use of dialogue
were a development of the medieval ballad common
K1340 Q,243.2.1 T210.1 T320.2 in areas south of the Gulf of Finland. This variant
Certain thematic similarities with the ballad of L a d y of T h e H u s b a n d -K ille r appears to have been cast in
have led some scholars
Isa b e l a n d the F a lse K n ig h t the framework repetition pattern and reaches its
to postulate a common origin. It is more likely, climax with the murderer fleeing from place to place
however, that T h e I n tru d e r-K ille r originated inde in search of refuge. In its earliest form, the poem
pendently in Finland during the Middle Ages. From ended with the sea accepting the girl; some variants
there it spread to Finnish Karelia and Ingria where conclude with a description of how she was burned to
it survived until recent times, becoming associated death. Missing from this variant (between 11. 21-22)
with many other ballads warning young women is a dialogue in which Maie tells her mother-in-law
about the dangers of having anything to do with that the blood in her bed is that of a lamb and
men they do not know, especially foreigners. the latter accuses Maie of murder.
The opening episode of the archetypal poem, 6, 11 h elm erin ta ‘bead-breasted’: i.e. wearing some
which is missing from this variant, describes how a kind of bead necklace or ornamentation; 18—21 A
man, frequently H a n n u s S aaren S a k sa la in en ‘Hannus, popular Ingrian stock phrase for waking people.
the German of the Island’ (Poems 70, 71) or V iet-
r ik k å (possibly from ‘Friedrich’), tries to entice Kaisa
into his bed. This variant begins at the point where
the rejected stranger, having lulled everyone to sleep
THE FORSAKEN MAID 92-94
with his kantele, pretends to be Kaisa’s betrothed
and enters her bed. On discovering that he is not From the 12th century, which saw the ex
her betrothed, Kaisa stabs him to death. The end pansion of Hanse trade into every part of
of the poem, describing how the man who discovers the Baltic, until the end of the 15th century,
the killing condemns Kaisa, asserts the same idea when winter sailing became more common,
as T h e P r ie s t- K ille r (Poem 89) - a woman’s right to
defend her virtue at any cost. This variant lacks merchants were often forced by weather con
certain characteristic features of the poem; vivid ditions to spend the long winters in ports
563
away from home. Relations with the local service around an outdoor altar and were returning
population were complicated by the fact that to the village. The revenge-theme has not been
wholly lost and is suggested by 11. 5-7, a stock
the merchants were not permitted by the phrase borrowed from incantations. Annikkainen’s
rules of the Hanse League to marry foreigners. longing for worldly possessions is emphasized by the
The sexual associations point to the main •retardation repetition in 11. 15-22.
function of the poem, a warning to young 2 Concerning the social function of bridges see pp.
553-554; 10 k e s ti ‘Hun(nish)’: the translation is an
women to avoid foreigners, and may explain attempt to reproduce the pejorative overtones of the
why it was included among the poems per Finnish ( < Sw. cf. g ä s t 'guest; stranger’).
formed at the Sääksmäki Whitsuntide Fes
tival (cf. p. 57). 93
The Forsaken Maid is set against the wealthy
A284 D2141
trading background of medieval Turku,
where the poem appears to have taken shape. The Ladoga Karelian variant retains the framework
and the underlying idea, but transfers it to an inland
It appears to have been a strictly local milieu, introduces a delicate sensitivity and conveys
response to the problem of relations between the theme in a series of surrogate phrases. The only
Finnish girls and foreign merchants, for com indication that the seducer is a merchant is in 11.
parable poems have not been recorded out 35-38, while the archetypal poem is evident in the
warning (11. 8-16), the description of how the girl
side the Finnish area. Some scholars have cares for the merchant (11. 17-22), the final curse
seen in the final episode a connection with (11. 41-51) and her malicious joy at his fate (11.
the reputation that Finns had in many parts 52-59).
of Europe of being able to raise terrible 17—21 The occurrence in Finnish of each word in
storms; this seems unlikely, however, for a the plural implies that she has bought a large quan
tity and variety of each commodity (cf. 94:14—15);
similar motif occurs in the Swedish ballad 21 Concerning su o la t ‘salt’ see p. 533; 2 9 passim
Ungersvens svek. The boisterous, slightly satir m iero ‘wayward’ < Ru. cf. m ir 'world; peace; vil
ical humour that characterizes The Forsaken lage. It is the last meaning that entered Finnish
Maid is in marked contrast to the more and Karelian. However, in Karelian Old Believer
communities (Ru. r a sk o ln ik i), where a very conserv
common serious cautionary tone of medieval ative form of Russian Orthodoxy was practised,
Finnish poems, and has led some scholars to the term acquired the secondary meaning of ‘com
the view that the author may have belonged munity that does not adhere to the old beliefs’,
to the same circle as the woman who com while in Olonets Karelia it came to mean 'com
munity and homes of strangers’; in both cases the
posed The Maid and the Dragon (Poems 72, word can be used pejoratively and it is the pejor
73, 74), or may even have been the same ative tone that is relevant here. English ‘wayward’
person. (the Karelian noun functions adjectivally) attempts
to combine the pejorative with what the word has
come to mean in MFi. i.e. ‘homeless, reduced to
92 begging’.
A661.1.0.4 A2681
The archetypal poem is obscure in the Sääksmäki 94
variant; 11. 1-4 set the scene for the telling of a D2141
cautionary tale: the young and innocent girls of the
town have gathered to listen to Annikkainen’s story. The Ingrian variant survives in a form close to the
The arrival of the merchant is depicted in 11. 8-10, archetypal poem, retaining the original place-name
while 11. 11-27 imply that he and the girl spent the and each of the four episodes in their original order
winter together (cf. in particular 11. 11-14) and tell (11. 1-17, 18-32, 33-51, 52-65). The variant is un
of his departure as soon as weather conditions im usual for an Ingrian poem in that it contains only
prove. The final episode, the girl’s revenge by con one surrogate passage (11. 3-4) and only a small
juring up a terrible storm to destroy the merchant, number of stock phrases (11. 25-26, 38-39, 42-43).
was omitted by the clergy, under whose supervision 3—4 The surrogate passage comes from a lyric poem
the Whitsuntide celebrations took place, and was in which a girl longs for her lover and is used to
replaced by surrogate passages that were thought to indicate Annikke’s falling in love (cf. 93:1-7 where
be more appropriate for young girls: 11. 28-40 are a more complete version of the passage occurs);
the conclusion of E lk a n d S n ake (Poem 55; cf. p. 549) 6 Concerning k e s ti ‘H un’ see above; 42—43 A stock
and 11. 41-50, characterized by a seafaring metaphor, phrase referring to the rights of ownership of the
were sung after the girls had taken part in a religious finder of jetsam.
564
THE WIFE-KILLER 95, 96 from S t Catherine (Poems 64, 65).
65 netelä ‘seven days’ < Ru. cf. nedelya ‘week’.
The Wife-Killer is one of several Russian
poems that were partly translated and partly THE DAUGHTER-KILLER 97, 98
adapted in the Finnish area. Characterized
by detailed, gory descriptions of particularly The Daughter-Killer is another example of a
cruel murders, they professed to show that Finnish poem in the style of the Russian
murderers do not profit from their crimes. horror ballads which profess to illustrate the
The Russian poem, from which the Finnish futility of murder as a means to an end. It
variants were adapted, was itself a compila has not been possible to identify the original
tion from two poems. The main theme and Russian poem, which reached Estonia (prob
the brutal motifs were drawn from the poem ably in the 17th century) and spread to
of Fyodor and Marfa, while the elevated moral Ingria. The Ingrian variants, which enjoyed
message that introduced and concluded the great popularity, differ in certain respects
poem came from The Sister-Poisoner, a poem from those recorded in Estonia. They contain
that originated in Poland and was popular lines from several other poems and new,
among the Russians and other peoples in though minor features of detail and emphasis
cluding the Lithuanians, Germans, Ruma (e.g. the ironical tone in which the young
nians and Albanians. The Russian poem bride is always mentioned).
entered the Finnish area through Ingria and A reason for the poem’s popularity in In
from there spread into North and Ladoga gria, apart from morbid interest in murder,
Karelia. The main differences between the was the implicit comment on the position
Ingrian-Karelian and Russian versions lie in of daughters-in-law in the extended family.
the names, which have been adapted to local In this respect the poem is of particular in
tradition. terest because it was more common in lyrical
Both the North Karelian and the Ingrian epic to portray the suffering and abuse of
variants have the same structure, and their the daughter-in-law (cf. Poems 80, 81). In
contents diverge only in emphasis and moral this poem the newcomer is seen through the
tone. The Ingrian poet-singer retains far eyes of her husband’s kin and the poet de
more of the original, brutal detail in de plores how daughters-in-law are often spoilt
scribing the murder of the wife and its effect at the expense of the daughters of the house.
on the children. Although both variants The suggestion that the arrival of a daughter-
condemn murder, the North Karelian var in-law exposed other members of the family
iant displays some sympathy for the husband, to stress and conflict is a psychologically
blaming his crime on the temptations of evil convincing trait which, together with other
women (cf. Poem 7:47-51). Ingrian poems that comment on the life and
position of women in the extended family
95 (cf. Poems 80, 81, 90, 99), helps to recall
N770.1 T75.4.1 S62
the tenor of social life during the Middle
Ages, and long afterwards, in the Baltic-
4 passim p a ja r i ‘boyar’ < Ru. cf. b o ya rin ‘member of Finnish area.
old Russian nobility’.
Both variants use surrogate passages from
Kaukamoinen (Poems 37, 38), The Orphan
96 (Poems 41,42, 43), The Incest (Poems 44, 45)
N770.1 S139.7 T75.4.1 S62 and BoyIMaid and Cloud (Poems 129, 130,
A typically Ingrian feature of the variant is the 131). They have identical structures and the
instability of names. They frequently serve, as in narrative flows easily through six episodes.
this variant, as function symbols and change accord Although corresponding episodes receive dif
ingly. H elenaJH elteen ä (11. 25, 30) is here associated
with the woman who finds the child in T h e F o u n d lin g ferent emphasis and motifs vary considerably,
(Poems 70, 71), while K a tte e riin a (11. 26, 31) comes the underlying idea remains clear.
565
97 areas the original theme was forgotten and the poem
became confused with several others. The most im
•N770.1 P231 S 12.2.4 portant of these was a poem about a boy who tried
8 i.e. to pay his taxes, cf. 98:1-3 for a more complete to repay his mother for the pains she had suffered
version of this motif; 31, 34 Concerning h elm irin ta at his birth. By not later than the 17th century,
'bead-breasted’ see p. 563; 32, 35 k a a tterip erse , this confusion of themes had produced a new poem
‘ tassel-bottomed’: i.e. referring to a style of dress of which T h e S on is a typical variant.
in which tassels were attached to the back of the The structure and theme of T h e E lk are apparent
skirt ('bottom ’ here as ‘buttocks’); 3 1 -3 5 i.e. girls of in the opening episode (11. 1-30), although little
marriageable age who will not hurry to him and show remains of the original motifs, and in the other
their interest by curtseying; 63 n iis i 'heddle’: the part tasks the boy performs to please his mother. The
of the loom that facilitates the passage of the shuttle; theme of the son repaying his mother begins at 1. 31
6 7 —74 The singing of a lament by a non-living and in the remainder of the poem provides the
object is a characteristic feature of Finnish folk poetry structure for what little survives of T h e E lk . The
(cf. 23:12-22; 40:15-20); 73 i.e. to stop the cloth repetition framework of the poem is modelled on
unravelling; 94 liits a < Ru. cf. lits o ‘face; likeness*. that used to describe the tasks demanded of the
suitor in T h e C o u rtsh ip (Poems 16, 17, 18). Con
cerning the surrogate passages and stock phrases
98 from which this variant was compiled see pp. 71-72.
♦N770.1 P231 1 A corruption of L a u r i p o ik a la p p a la in en ‘Lauri boy,
the Lapp’ (cf. 53:2); 4 k a p la s ‘sledge-shackle’: for
1—3 The reference to the real reason for his journey, joining the upright struts that link the runners with
to find a wife, has been omitted (cf. 97:1-11); 76 the upper part of the sledge’s chassis; 17 passim
i.e. steps to the otherworld. Ingr. p u n a ‘brown’.
56 6
Ingria and Karelia the poem was adapted vived, it depicts principally the conflict that
to the epic style and became popular as a springs from the failure of close relatives to
refrain song; on the Karelian Isthmus it was understand each other. Both variants have
recast in the ‘climax-of-relatives’ repetition a similar structure: the approach of the
structure. Though both variants are very suitor, the girl’s distress, the mother’s delight,
similar, there is some variation in emphasis. and the girl’s suicide. The motifs used to
The main difference lies in the final choice convey these ideas, however, vary and the
of burial place. While in the Ladoga Kare Archangel Karelian version makes greater
lian variant (Poem 103), the girl wishes to use of surrogate passages, especially at the
be buried in consecrated ground, the church end of the poem (11. 87-118) where the
yard is rejected as a place of burial in the fantasy is in marked contrast to the ethno
Ingrian variant (Poem 102). The choice of graphical realism of the main body of the
the churchyard as burial place is thought to poem; another variant of the poem can be
be a feature of the archetypal poem. seen as part of a typical Archangel Karelian
series (cf. Poem 124; p. 572).
102
7 - 8 Part of Russian Orthodox funeral ritual; 9, 13 104
i.e. to the place of burial; 44 k i w i 'stone': lit. 'the A911 F1041.21 »N770.1
(handtumed) mill-stones’.
2 2 -2 6 Adornments are often used in Finnish folk
poetry as chastity-symbols, hence the suggestion that
103 she has violated the sexual taboo; 2 5 -2 6 sim p su k a i-
se t 'beads’, k u lta rip su t 'gold tassels’: i.e. headband
65 lu u m äki 'bone-hill’: i.e. burial ground.
adornments worn by unmarried girls: 34 Concern
ing s ilta ‘floor’ see p. 558; 4 2 -5 4 i.e. the mother is
the only person in whom Anni can confide: with
THE HANGED MAID 104, 105 the other members of the family she has to use
euphemisms.
The Hanged Maid has been recorded in Arch
angel and Ladoga Karelia and in Ingria; 105
variants are known in Estonia and the ‘going- A911 F1041.21 *N770.1
weeping-home’ nucleus repetition structure
is of Estonian origin. All the redactions 9 Concerning m o lo tsa see p. 532; 19 Concerning e tsiä
'groom’ see p. 562.
evolved from the same basic idea; the girl
goes to make bath-whisks and a man makes
some kind of proposal. Various theories have THE LOSS 106-109
been advanced to explain the reason for the
girl’s suicide. It is possible that the archetypal All the motifs of The Loss were borrowed
poem was one of the rare Finnish examples from Estonia and preserve the main charac
of a nature myth and described a tragic teristics of their sources. The structure is
union between a mortal and an immortal simple: the loss of an important item, the
(cf. pp. 550,573). A second, more likely ex loser returns home weeping, reports the loss,
planation is that the poem is related to The is consoled. The idea of loss springs from sub
Priest-Killer (Poem 89) and that the girl conscious fear-fantasy and is often dream
hangs herself out of shock at the enormity like, e.g. the loss of one’s clothes; it may also
of the priest’s attempted crime, the underlying have associations with the violation of the
idea being the sexual taboo, the violation of sexual taboo similar to those in the Archan
which drives the victim to suicide. This sug gel Karelian The Hanged Maid (Poems 104,
gests, though it is not stated in the variants 105). The ‘coming-weeping-home’ nucleus
of The Hanged Maid, that the suitor’s advances repetition possibly indicates that the poem
stopped short of a proposal of marriage. was sung as the accompaniment to a game.
In the form in which the poem has sur The variants found in the Finnish area
5 67
usually contain fewer motifs than the corre outstanding example of how an entirely new poem
sponding Estonian poems. The Loss is a rare can be compiled largely from surrogate passages and
stock phrases. These have been arranged on the
example of a poem incorporating the ‘coming- model of ceremonial poems such as those used in
weeping-home' nucleus repetition structure wedding ritual to welcome the bridegroom (e.g. 11.
that is widely known further north than .13-18, 42-46). The opening lines personifying the
South Karelia. dance are one of the few passages that appear to
be original to this poem; 11. 5-8 are a stock distance
hyperbole, 11. 9-10 are suggestive of poems about
106 the impregnation of the Virgin Mary (cf. 59:1-2),
11. 11-18 are a stock metonym possibly describing
K1335 »N770.1 the sounds associated with travel (cf. 66:50-59, p.
556), while 11. 19-20 are a fragment from T h e S in g in g
107 M a tc h (cf. 11:13-14). The concluding episode (11.
58-73) is modelled on N e w s o f D e a th (Poems 137,
B871 *J868 *N770.1 138, 140, 141) and suggests that the poem served
This variant is set against the background of the as the oral accompaniment to a game or dance.
traditional return to the parental home of a newly
married woman (cf. Poem 121; pp. 59, 571), hence
the ring motif. In a complete version of the variant,
11. 3-9 would probably be repeated after 1. 15.
THE SUITORS FROM THE SEA
108 111, 112
*J868 *N770.1 The Suitors from the Sea is widely known
In the opening lines (3-10) the poet-singer has used throughout the Baltic-Finnish area. It reveals
a dream series technique, associating trees with the the influence of a pastoral ballad style that
object made from them, followed by a further asso
ciation with what is eaten or drunk from the product was common throughout Europe; the Fin
(suggestive of the ritual function of T h e G rea t O a k , nish variants, which were the accompani
cf. pp. 546-547). It seems likely that in the arche ment to a ring or line game, have some
typal poem 11. 3-10 followed 1. 15. similarity with poems about a maid who
3 vesi ‘water*: a corruption of m esi ‘honey’, one of
the ingredients of mead; 4 The dream association meets her suitor(s) on the seashore (The
here is that jugs were made from tree roots (cf. 1. 6) Mermaid). The Baltic-Finnish poem appears
and that these were full of beer; 5 A dream asso to have taken shape in Finland in the late
ciation with the source of wooden plates and other Middle Ages, where it was adapted to the
vessels; 40-41 A stock horse hyperbole.
‘climax-of-suitors’ framework repetition struc
ture, before it spread into Estonia. The poem
109 reflects the social mores of a tightly knit
*J868 «N770.1 peasant community in which strangers were
This version of T h e L o ss (usually known as K y n tä jä suspect. Using the symbols of men made of
j a pedot‘The Ploughman and the Beasts’) is a further precious metals emerging from the sea, it
example of a poem incorporating the ‘coming
weeping-home’ nucleus repetition structure that has warns young women about the dangers of
been recorded further north than South Karelia. becoming involved with merchants and other
The animals are thought to symbolize the girl’s
suitors.
exotic strangers and urges them to choose a
husband from their own community, sym
bolized by bread. The motif of the preference
THE DANCE 110 for bread over precious metals is not un
*Z129
common in primitive communities and in the
Finnish area finds expression in several prov
Only three variants have been recorded of T h e D a n ce,
all from Archangel Karelia. Whether it is genetically erbs (e.g. Ei kulta kultaa ole, leipäkulta kultaa,
related to an Estonian poem with which it shares a pun, lit. ‘Gold is not gold, bread-gold is
certain themes (e.g. personified Joy or Dance trav gold’, i.e. ‘Gold is not precious, only precious
elling in a sleigh or boat which is tempted by various
people to join them) is not known. T h e D a n ce is an bread is precious’).
56 8
111 fungus grows on the walk, and the walk and the
floor rot away, i.e. she is too dirty for the young
F521.3 L213.3 T131.0.2 man to marry.
Poem 114 retains certain of these features. Although
the bath-house episode is omitted, the conclusion -
112 that they do not marry because the girl is so dirty
F521.3 L213.3 T131.0.2 - remains. The poem contains several surrogate and
11 k ih la t 'gifts’: lit. ‘betrothal gifts*. stock passages from other wooing poems; the opening
lines (1-7) can ako be seen, for example, in T h e
W if e - K ille r (Poems 95, 96). The suitor’s reply to the
offer of refreshment (11. 19-22) is drawn from wedding
THE SUITORS FROM AFAR 113 poetry. Comparison of the last five lines (an East
Finnish-Estonian lyric sung by men) with the be
A736 A753.1 L213.4 T131.0.2 ginning of the poem illuminate the allusory character
T h e S ta to rs f r o m A f a r was inspired by social factors
of the Ingrian patchwork technique, which does not
similar to those that underlie T h e S u ito rs f r o m the Sea require any correlation of the topographical refer
(Poems 111, 112): it advises young women to beware ences.
of strange men and to choose their husbands from 35 su ola ‘salt’: one of the staple items of trade in
their own area and background. The poem originated Viipuri (concerning the significance of ‘salt’ see p.
in Estonia between 1300 and 1500 and spread 533).
through Ingria into Ladoga Karelia; it is also
known among the Vepsians. The Finnish variants
differ from the Estonian poem in that the rejected
suitors do not always represent the sun-moon-star
THE THIEF AS SUITOR 115
trio, but are sometimes linked to real though rela T131.0.2 X201
tively distant places. The wooing theme has often
led this poem to be associated in Ingria and Karelia T h e T h i e f a s S u ito r is a parody of didactic poems
with others of similar content, e.g. F in d in g a H u sb a n d about choosing a husband (cf. T h e S u ito rs f r o m the
(Poem 120). S ea , Poems 111, 112) that was popular throughout
The poem has a special cultural-historical interest, Estonia, Ingria and South Karelia; the comparison
for an Estonian redaction ( S a lm e la u t ‘Song of Salme’) of the suitors has been adapted to the ‘climax-of-
was adapted by Elias Lönnrot and published in suitors’ framework repetition structure with the girl
his K a n te le ta r (1840) under the title Su om ettaren k o sia t rejecting respectable and well-to-do suitors in favour
‘Wooers of Suometar’ (S u o m eta r 'Finland personified of a shiftless or poor man. The theme was known
as a female spirit’). Lönnrot’s free translation came in many parts of Europe and a Latin version dating
to symbolize the endeavours of the exponents of the from 1459 survives in Prague and describes how
Finnish national movement to develop a distinctly the girl rejects a knight, a monk and a farmer, and
Finnish culture that would preserve its own identity accepts a student; in Scandinavia the girl’s choice
in the face of powerful influences from both east falls on a minstrel.
and west. The Finnish poem is closest to those recorded in
29 An idiom meaning that it cannot be trusted; Poland and Estonia and is thought to have been
35—38 An allusion to the harsh system of serfdom influenced by Slavic poems. It was the accompani
that Ingrians, themselves serfs, associated with Esto ment to a dance in which a girl stood in the middle
nia (cf. Poems 77, 78, 79); 4 1 -4 4 A popular Fin of a ring, chose another girl and asked her if she
nish proverb. would marry her brother. The two girls walked
together until the song reached the point where the
second girl rejected the man. The occupations of
THE FOUL MAID 114 rejected suitors varied and were chosen by the girls
to tease the boys watching the dance.
44 k y ttä < Sw. cf. sk ju ta ‘to shoot’.
W l 15.1
Variants of T h e F o u l M a i d have been recorded in
Savo, throughout Karelia and in Ingria. A parody
of wooing poems that praise the beauty of a girl,
THE USELESS BRIDEGROOM
it appears to have been adapted as one of the nu 116
merous poems sung as part of wedding ritual; its func
tion was to tease the bridal couple. The Karelian This poem enjoyed great popularity both in Estonia
variants describe in detail the young m an’s pre and the Ingrian-Karelian area. Similar themes were
parations before he sets off to woo the girl and the also known among the Latvians and it was probably
tasks he has to perform before he is allowed to see these that provided the inspiration for the Estonian
her. Variants of the poem usually end in a hyperbole poem; it appears to have reached Ingria by the
advising the girl to stay in the bath-house until 17th century. The Ingrian variants have lost some
569
of the Estonian motifs and added others from local a fragment of the archetypal poem in 11. 10-15.
tradition. The happy conclusion of this particular The following lines (16-22), describing the intention
variant is unusual; in the Estonian variants the to cook the bird, are typical of the East Finnish
young man dies and his remains are carried to an variants in which the bird asks to be spared and
ant-hill, while in Ingria and Karelia he is usually in return promises to help with the housework.
taken first to a swamp and then to a stove where . 1—2 i.e. seen from West Karelia, a distant and exotic
his body is devoured by various small animals. creature.
The poem is an example of female anti-male
humour at its most boisterous. It epitomizes a love- 118
hate relationship and in the description of the wo
m an’s greater physical strength expresses a sense of B463.3 X1259
superiority. While the poet-singer of Poem 116
optimistically believed that men could be taught to 3 - 4 A popular nonsense theme.
change their ways, most variants of this poem are
characterized by irreconcilable hatred.
6 - 7 i.e. a barrier-net with stone weights attached THE EARLY RISER 119
to the bottom; 24—25 i.e. the air in the bath-house
was poisonous; 29 sä ä tä jä in 'my own one’: the Fin A736
nish is obscure. Singers were themselves unsure of
its meaning and substituted various phonetically The didactic purpose of this naively jolly nucleus
similar but more familiar words. The translation is repetition poem was to encourage girls to rise early
based on a gloss provided by a singer of another and devote themselves enthusiastically to housework.
variant; 30 syvänkuuro ‘pang’: the Finnish is obscure. In its detail it provides an ethnographically factual
Interpretations of the sentiment in variants and in description of women’s household duties. The sun
the corresponding Estonian poem suggest a feeling of symbol occurs in many songs and legends and was
sorrow or pity; 34 Concerning s ilta 'bridge’ see p. common during the Middle Ages in the folk literature
558; 41 Concerning um m isk en k ä 'closed shoe’ see of southern Europe, Scandinavia and Russia (con
p. 553. cerning its function in the Finnish area cf. Poems
5 9 ,6 0 ,6 1 ,1 1 1 ,1 1 2 ).
44-51 A time hyperbole stylistically typical of the
lyrical poetry sung by women in the southern parts
THE CRANE 117, 118 of the Baltic-Finnish area; 63 ta lo ila m m a s 'yearling
sheep’: lit. 'winter-sheep’, i.e. a sheep that has
The Crane is an animal fantasy, sung to lived through one winter; 65 i.e. she had already
children, and is one of the most widely dis spun the wool into a thread; 66 sa k k a < Ru. cf. sa k
tributed narrative poems in the Baltic-Fin- ‘coat’.
nish area. It is thought to have originated
at least two thousand years ago and the FINDING A HUSBAND 120
existence of a similar theme among the Vep-
sians, where it survived in a herdsman’s L l 12.4.1 T596 W115.1
nonsense poem, points to its antiquity. In is thematically related to T h e
F in d in g a H u sb a n d
the corresponding Estonian poem, which is F o u l M a i d (Poem 114) and like T h e E a r ly R is e r
thought to be close to the archetypal form, (Poem 119) was a popular didactic poem in West
and Central Ingria. Its function was to instil a sense
the narrator finds a crane ploughing in a of personal and domestic hygiene. In its present
forest, a magpie harrowing and a crow fur form the poem provides a factual illustration of
rowing. She takes the crane home, but a naming procedure (cf. pp. 550, 557) and humorously
serving maid refuses to milk it. The narrator demonstrates a common belief in the mystical power
of names (11. 10-24). The arrival of a suitor, or
herself starts to milk the bird and obtains suitors, with which the poem ends (11. 65-86), is
enough milk to fill a pail. In the description common to all variants. The motifs are expressed
of the crane, the South-West Finnish variant with stock passages and the wooing episode is gener
(Poem 118) retains a form close to the Esto ally borrowed from T h e W if e - K ille r (Poems 95,
96), although T h e S u ito rs f r o m A f a r (Poem 113) was
nian poem. also a popular source with some singers.
15—22 The pejorative associated with each of the
117 rejected names is based on alliterative criteria;
23—2 4 i.e. the name was taken from a saints’ cal
B463.3 X I 259 endar; 27 i.e. a necklace or pendant made from
A surrogate passage from T h e L o s s (cf. Poem 107) coins; 50 Concerning e ts iä 'to groom’ see p. 562;
introduces the Savo-Karelian variant. It preserves 66 A metaphor to convey the eagerness of the suitor;
570
and many parts of East Finland; 74 m u n a p ata 'potted
7 6 -4 6 Concerning the stock journey description see egg’: a delicacy made from eggs baked in a clay
p. 523. pot; 77 i.e. it was slow to heat; 80 voim uru ‘butter-
crumb’: pieces of bread soaked in milk or butter
milk and fried in butter; 8 7 -8 9 A stock passage
THE UNWELCOME VISITOR from children’s poetry.
121
W 155.6
THE UNHAPPY BRIDE 122, 123
T h e U n w elcom e V isito r describes a custom that formed
part of Ingrian and Karelian wedding ritual. Shortly The Unhappy Bride, a poem known in Kare
after the wedding, the bride returned to the parental
home where she stayed for several weeks (o lja m issa lia (including Tver Karelia) and Ingria, has
k ä y n ti) . The end of this visit formally marked the a theme and structure - the woman ill-
girl’s separation from her old home. Women tra
ditionally looked back on this last visit with nostalgia treated by her husband - that were borrowed
and recalled it as the happiest time of their married from a Russian poem. The version in the
lives. T h e U n w elco m e V isito r challenges the validity Finnish area may have taken shape in the
of these memories and offers a cynical though
psychologically convincing description of how such 16th century in the vicinity of Lake Ladoga.
visits could be in reality. It retained the ‘climax-of-relatives’ frame
This lyrical epic poem was sometimes included in work repetition structure of the Russian
the series of songs performed in connection with
wedding ritual and its function was to make the model, but substituted the girl’s own kin
bride weep. The poem, which appears to have for the ‘stranger’ who in the Russian version
originated among the Russian Orthodox Ingrians asked why the young wife was weeping.
on the Karelian Isthmus, or in Ingria proper, spread
to the local Lutheran population and into Ladoga It is thought that the Finnish poem was
Karelia. It uses numerous stock phrases and some once sung as the accompaniment to a
surrogate passages to convey the underlying idea.
The poet-singer appears to have been influenced by ring game. Nevertheless, this function was
the 'go-and-look’ dialogue structure in T h e C o u rtsh ip later forgotten and it was performed either
(Poems 16, 17, 18). The material has been skilfully for its own sake or as one of the songs used
put together, particularly in the deliberate use of
pathos, and at the same time provides a factual in connection with the part of wedding ritual
description of aspects of daily life on the Karelian where the bride had to be made to weep
Isthmus (cf. Poem 119). (cf. Poem 121). The poem found a ready
12—14 i.e. she walked; 16-19 Emotionally, the pivot
of the poem: the poet-singer uses a stock paradise and appreciative audience among the women
metaphor to suggest the girl’s momentary joy at folk of the Karelian extended family, for it
leaving the misery of her husband’s home and at survived and flourished in some areas where
the same time to tell her that she is no longer wel
come at her old home; 2 7 -3 0 , 90—96 This motif all other examples of Kalevala epic were
was borrowed from poems known in Ingria and forgotten.
Estonia depicting an evil mistress or stepmother.
In this context the underlying idea is that the
obligations of hospitality make it necessary to slaugh 122
ter valuable livestock. O f particular interest is the
way in which the poet-singer makes the visitor M411.20 Q413 Q414 S62
defend herself in 11. 90-96 by reinterpreting the
metaphor literally (the singer has confused the order
of the lines: 11. 90-96 should follow 1. 30); 27 passim 123
m urhe 'grief’: this is either a corruption or poetic
S62
adaptation of m urha 'death’; 29 passim la a h e ‘slaugh
ter’: the Finnish is obscure and the translation is The role of the ‘stranger’, who performs the function
based on la a k k a 'destruction, killing’, which occurs of the young wife’s own kin in Poem 122, is probably
in some variants of the poem; 53 A reference to not a survival of the original Russian version, but
the Karelian practice whereby the master of the a secondary development in Karelia.
house served a portion of meat of appropriate size 8 b u a tjk o i < Ru. cf. b a t'k a ‘father’; 18 m u a tjk o i < Ru.
to each person at table; 54 k a a li- ‘cabbage-’: cabbage cf. m a tk a ‘mamma’; 49 U id a < Ru. cf. z h i d 'Jew’;
was an essential part of the staple diet in Russia 50-51 i.e. with which he beats her.
571
THE WATER-CARRIER 124, 125 sexual associations in the relatives’ reprimand (11.
16-20 passim): the poet-singer has used a surrogate
passage alluding to laziness that has been adapted
The Water-Carrier was borrowed from a Rus from a poem about three men who spend their time
sian adaptation of the Teaching a Lie theme, guaging the depth of the sea. It is likely that in
known in many parts of Europe. The latter the form in which this variant was sung, its function
describes how a girl is told by her lover to had ceased to be narrative and it had become the
oral accompaniment to a ring game.
lie if her relatives scold her for having been
with him. In the Russian tradition the theme
was adapted to the ‘climax-of-relatives’ THE MAID AND THE BOAT
framework repetition structure, but the 126-128
theme of teaching a lie changed to one of
accusation of lying. It was in this form that The Maid and the Boat is based on a theme
the poem reached the Karelian area in the that originated in the North Mediterranean
Middle Ages. It spread to Ingria in the 17th area. It described the abduction of girl by
century and later reached Estonia. The re a Moor and her ransom. Versions of the
daction in the Finnish area, represented more theme were transmitted from Sweden to Esto
clearly by the Ingrian variant (Poem 125), nia and Finland; the version which reached
retains most of the features of the Russian the latter area, probably in the 16th century,
version. A series of relatives accuse the girl of was cast in the West European form of the
lying, although certain changes have occurred ‘climax-of-relatives’ framework and a ‘Rus
in the roles ascribed to each of them (the per sian’ substituted for the Moor. In this form
son who takes the girl’s side can be her sister- the poem spread to every part of the Baltic-
in-law or grandmother) and the poem has Finnish area and as such provides an un
acquired a new motif describing how the girl usually pristine example of the ‘climax-of-
offers water to each of her relatives in turn. relatives’ framework repetition structure. The
concluding curses (Poems 127, 128), which
124 have been compared to the corresponding
F1041.21 K2112 N770.1 part of the second lay of Helgi Hundingsbani,
The Archangel variant is a typical example of the
are remarkably similar in every part of the
tendency to link poems into a series. T h e W a te r- large area over which the poem was known.
C a rrie r ends at 1. 76 and the variant shifts to the In many Ingrian variants and in certain
theme of T h e H a n g e d M a i d (Poems 104, 105; cf. p. old variants from areas further north the
567). The shift was stimulated by the implicit theme of the sold maid was adapted as the
accusation (expressed by stock phrases) in T h e W a te r-
C a rrier of sexual impropriety.
poem’s introductory episode; an example of
9—10 An epithet that derives from the custom of this development is seen in Poem 127, which
throwing coins into a well as an offering to the describes how a girl is approached by suitors,
well’s resident spirit; 17 Concerning tu lin i la u tta in this variant merchants, who tell her that
‘scarlet whore’ see p. 552; 41 sm eik k a < ?Ru. cf.
sm e zh e t ’ ‘to close’; 100 Concerning m iero (n ) ‘wayward’
they have bought her from her relatives. In
see p. 564. more eastern areas, especially in Karelia, the
original theme was reversed: it is the girl
125 who stands on the shore and wishes to enter
K2112 N770.1 a boat rowed by each of her relatives in turn.
The reversal of roles is thought to have been
The structure of the Ingrian variant represents the
poem’s -archetypal form in the Baltic-Finnish area. caused by the influence of certain thematic
There has been some change, however, in the motifs ally similar Russian poems.
(cf. 11. 5-6 with 124:9-10), although the connection
with the well remains. The sexual associations, which 126
are evident in some variants, are obscure; references
to silm ä v e si ‘eye-water’ (11. 9-11 passim) indicate the 4 passim rodnoi < Ru. cf. rodnoy 'own; dear’; 39
purity of the water and may be an allusion to the passim h o tj < Ru. cf. k h o t’ ‘though’ (used here to
girl’s virtue. Similarly, it is difficult to see any obvious express contrast); 40 a < R u . cf. a ‘and, but, whereas’.
572
127 regions of the Finnish area the child is a boy,
•M464.1 R12.4 R i l l T52
in Ingria a girl. The theme is known in
many parts of the world and describes how
Although this variant was recorded in Ingria, the humans fall victim to non-human powers, a
narrative nevertheless reveals the poem’s West Fin
nish origin. This can be seen in the reference to typical example of which are tales about
the merchants, for example, as both 'Karelians’ mountains that swallow people. As such
(1. 1) and 'Russians’ (1. 22 passim); the singer was BoyjMaid and Cloud is a rare example of a
not confusing nationalities, but reflecting the West Finnish nature myth ballad. The fact that
Finnish Lutheran standpoint. Originally, 'Russian’
was not a national name in Finnish, but the design the poem has different introductory episodes
ation of a member of the Russian Orthodox Church according to area is the result of borrowing
(a function the word still occasionally retains). from The Water-Carrier (Poems 124, 125) and
27 P u n a p a rta 'Redbeard’: a corruption of B o n a p a rte, The Lost Brother (Poem 135). There are in
hence a pejorative; 32 v ä ltti- < Sw. cf. f ä l t ‘field’;
46 i.e. the Gulf of Finland; 47 i.e. the area of Fin dications in some variants that the poem was
land under Swedish rule. originally cast in the ‘climax-of-relatives*
framework repetition structure and function
ed as the oral accompaniment to a game (cf.
128 the refrain structure in Poem 129).
•M464.1 R12.4 R i l l T52
The opening line reveals the West Finnish origin 129
of the variant: verik o rva 'bloody-ear’ is a corruption F967.5 H I385.8 N770.1 P233
of verikoira ‘bloody-dog’, one of the more common
pejoratives used by Finns for Orthodox Karelians
and Russians. 130
6 In some areas singers misunderstood the poem and •D763.3 »F967.5 H1385.2-3 »N770.1
thought the girl was in the water; this variant shows
how the misunderstanding has been confused with The variant from the Karelian Isthmus has the same
the older and more common account of her being structure as Poem 129. The abduction motif (11.
in a boat; 53 passim In the context of this poem 1-20), however, is conveyed by a surrogate passage
the reference to ‘crowns’ appears to be suggestive typical of a hunter’s environment. A fragment of
of wealth. Underlying it, however, may be an ob the archetypal poem survives in the concluding
scure reference to West Finnish ‘crown wedding’, verses (11. 21-27).
when a crown was worn by the bride. 25 Concerning p ä r e 'splint’ see p. 539.
131
BOY AND CLOUD, MAID AND D764 *F967.5 H I 385.2-3 N770.1 P232
CLOUD 129, 130, 131 The Ingrian variant is a patchwork which never
theless preserves the narrative flow. The surrogate
passages are themselves composed of shorter surro
These three poems, together with The Lost gate passages and numerous stock phrases. The ab
Brother (Poems 135, 136), reflect the pro duction and search motif (11. 1—35) begins with a
found sense of insecurity that until recent secondary passage drawn from stock introductory
times dominated every aspect of daily life. material (cf. 58:1-7; p. 550), which heightens the sense
of loss by emphasizing the importance of the girl
Although each poem is a fantasy, the under (11. 1-15). The description of the abduction incorpor
lying idea is the same: the fear and uncer ates motifs from T h e W a te r-C a rrie r (II. 11-19) and
tainty that were associated with the act of a popular Ingrian pun (1. 20). The account of the
separation, however temporary, when a per search (11. 24-35) uses the same structure and similar
motifs to Poems 129 and 130. The concluding episode
son went beyond the boundaries of the home (11. 50-55) suggests that the poem was sung in con
area, e.g. set out on a journey or even went nection with a drinking ceremony.
to the nearby forest to pick berries or fungi. 12—15 Adornments indicating that she was the
A poem about a child that is abducted by daughter of a wealthy family; p a n k a ‘handle’: lit.
a cloud is known throughout Karelia and ‘detachable wooden handle’, used here only as a
parallel to ‘cowlstaff’ with which it is similar in
Ingria, and dates from the Middle Ages. On shape; 20 a pun on ‘Novgorod’ (see Name Index);
the Karelian Isthmus and in the northern 25 v e d < Ru. cf. ved ' ‘after all; but’.
573
THE LOST BRUSH 132 Lost Goose. The final episode was drawn from
F833 H1347 »N770.1 a Russian ‘cannibalistic entertainment’ song
T h e L o s t B ru sh is a remarkable example of symbolism
and is reminiscent of The Gift (Poems 19, 20).
and word association in folk poetry. The poem, Only the opening episode, i.e. the girl and
which is known throughout Ingria and as far north .her loss of the goose specifically associated
as Ladoga Karelia, took shape in Estonia during with a ‘ditch’ (or swamp) and ‘hummock*
the late Middle Ages, apparently independent of
outside influences. The archetypal poem was a (11. 7-9) followed by dialogue, is native to
melancholy song sung by serfs as they waited for the Baltic-Finnish area.
the sun to set and thus mark the end of the day’s 133
work. The underlying idea is expressed in nature
symbols: the rays of the setting sun are the brush, H I 386.3
and the sun - originally personified as the sun’s The Archangel Karelian poem illustrates clearly the
son - is using the brush. The setting of the sun over wish-fulfilment fantasy. The opening episode (11.
the sea symbolizes first the falling of the brush into 1-13) shows the girl talking to herself and conveys
the sea and then the diving of the brusher (i.e. the her sense of expectation. The recovery of the goose
sun) into the sea to recover it; variants of the poem is described with a surrogate passage (11. 53-56)
describe how the sun first sought unsuccessfully the from S t C a th erin e (Poems 64, 65) cast in the gay
help of Catholic saints to recover the brush and nonsense tone that characterizes the whole poem
then dived into the sea itself. Before the poem (cf. 11. 47-48) and was possibly inspired by a non
reached the Finnish area a second theme, a dream sense motif in which animals perform human tasks
poem about the finding of a sword in the sea, be (thus indicating that K a t t i in 11. 53-54 refers to a
came associated with it and formed the concluding cat). The poem’s final episode is lacking in this
episode (11. 33-53). The poem’s original function variant.
was forgotten in East Estonia, where it became a 28 Concerning k o stin tso i ‘gift’ see p. 531; 34, 3 6 i.e.
song to accompany swinging. It was with this form on the spikes that form part of the grain husk;
and function that it was borrowed by Ingrian girls, 38 i.e. the smoke from the open fires lit in the
who retained the theme and motifs, but recast the threshing shed to dry the grain; 52 su m u < Ru. cf.
poem in the first person. shum ‘noise, m urmur’; 55 Concerning p ir ta ‘reed’
21 A stock phrase used for hair-brushing and refer see p. 555.
ring to a situation in which the brushing takes
place indoors, i.e. a board was placed across the 134
knees to catch the lice brushed out of the hair (cf. H I 386.3 »N770.1
e ts iä ‘to groom’, p. 562).
Apart from its retention of the concluding horror
episode (11. 55-59), the Ingrian variant has the same
THE LOST GOOSE 133, 134 structure as Poem 133, although the emphasis and
A favourite theme in Karelian (including motifs show some difference and the sense of gaiety
is lacking. The poem opens (11. 1-24) with a series
Tver Karelian), Ingrian and Estonian poetry of loosely linked surrogate and stock phrases before
was the loss of a goose which a brother brings the main theme begins (11. 25-59).
home as a present from the war. The girl 10-13 i.e. a suitor (cf. Poems 124, 125); 40 Con
does her best to watch over it, but it escapes. cerning v irsta ‘verst’ see p. 538; 41 Concerning va a k sa
‘span’ see p. 532; 4 8 -4 9 A riddle, i.e. a well (cf.
She goes in search of it and asks the people p. 572;) 5 1 -5 2 A hyperbole describing the flight of
she meets whether they know where her an eagle.
goose is. Finally she is told go to to a house or
manor where she is made to sit in a goosebone THE LOST BROTHER 135, 136
chair on a goose-feather cushion and is given The profound sense of insecurity which gave
goose to eat and goose-blood to drink. rise to the loss fantasy in Boy/Maid and Cloud
The poem appears to have taken shape not (Poems 129, 130, 131) is seen at its clearest
later than the end of the 16th century some in The Lost Brother where it is expressed by
where south of the Gulf of Finland and is the imagined death of a close relative. The
an example of female fantasy poetry. Its casting of a brother in the role of the person
main themes were borrowed from Russian who dies is thought to be a euphemistic
sources. The most important of these was a device to denote the singer’s lover or hus
song about a pigeon which flies in search of band, the naming of whom would have been
another; the song had two redactions in Rus improper. The use of a brother in place of
sia and elements of both are found in The the sexual partner is also common in many
574
other contexts, especially in Ingria and South panying song (Skön Engeld), cast in the West
Karelia. European ‘climax-of-relatives’ structure,
The Lost Brother embodies several themes which reached Finland in the late Middle
and motifs. The structure is modelled on Ages. The association of the departure idea
poems in which a woman sets out to look with the structure of the Swedish song pro
for a lost relative and finally learns of the duced at least two distinct poems. One, rep
latter’s death or murder, cf. the search by resented by Poems 137 and 138, describes
Lemminkäinen’s mother for her lost son. how a warrior, either about to depart or
already on his way to war, asks each of his
135 relatives in turn whether they will weep for
him if he dies. In most variants, known
E363.3 H I347 H I 385.8 *N770.1 throughout Karelia and Ingria, the reply is
The poem is known only in a small area of Ladoga that all but his wife will mourn; she will
Karelia and illustrates how a new poem can be put rejoice. In certain areas the somewhat awk
together almost entirely from other poems. The main ward ‘climax-of-relatives’ structure was sim
theme is the disappearance of one of three brothers
and is expressed with surrogate passages: 11. 1-15 plified until only two replies were given, e.g.
are from B o y / M a i d a n d C lo u d (Poems 129, 130, 131), in Poem 137 the mother will mourn, the
11. 16-25 from T h e L o s t B ru sh (Poem 132), and 11. father will not, while in Poem 138 it is the
26-32 from T h e L o s t B ro th er I I ) . Stock phrases from father who will mourn and the betrothed
several sources can also be identified.
who will rejoice.
The other version, represented by Poems
136 140 and 141, is likewise found throughout the
E363.3 H I385.8
same area, although it is also known in Esto
nia. In this version the theme is reversed.
In the southern parts of the Finnish area the poem The ‘climax-of-relatives* structure is used to
was conditioned by the seafaring milieu and was
usually called L a iv a ssa su rm a ttu v eli (‘The brother describe how a warrior on his way to war,
murdered in a boat’). It appears to have taken shape or man or a woman in an inn, receives mess
by not later than the 17th century and was known ages that each of his relatives has died; in
in Ingria and on the Karelian Isthmus. It was put the original version he shows no sign of grief
together with stock phrases and surrogate passages
from several sources including T h e C o u rtsh ip (cf. 11. until the last message arrives with the news
6-14 with 17:6-7, 49-56) and F ire (cf. 11. 31-32 of his wife’s death (e.g. Poem 140). Poem
with 9:76-79). 141 is a more common redaction of the poem,
4 -5 Concerning Moscow and Kaprio see p. 547; known over an area extending from Ladoga
51 -5 7 i.e. they must dress in mourning.
Karelia to Ingria, in which the recipient of
the news mourns all the dead relatives except
THE WARRIOR’S DEPARTURE, the betrothed or marriage partner.
NEWS OF DEATH 137-141 137
The underlying idea of this series of poems P231
possibly derives from an apparently simple 4 i.e. he is going to fight for the Swedes against the
account of a warrior’s preparations for de Russians.
parture - generally for war, although in some 138
areas there is a different reason for his leaving. M411.20 Q413 Q414
This theme is seen in its simplest form in 16 passim i.e. fighting at the foot of the town's
Poem 139. Whether this shares a common fortifications.
origin with the thematically similar poems in
the series is not known. The origin of the 139
other poems has been attributed to the asso A142 A1432.1 A1447 F343.3 F833 N855
ciation of the idea of a warrior’s departure The description of the preparations for war in the
with a Swedish ring game and its accom Ladoga Karelian variant is expressed by two surro
575
gate passages. The first (11. 1-12) is from T h e O rig in an uprising in his support was brutally suppressed.
o f Iron incantation and is linked to an Ilm a rin en The popular attitude is implicit in this poem, prob
passage (11. 13-23). ably composed early in the 17th century shortly
2 2 -2 3 This could either depict the design on the after the campaigns, and which describes from the
sword or be an image inspired by the figurative point of view of an eyewitness the landing near Turku
meaning of 'Kalevala’s sword’, i.e. the central part in 1597. A manuscript, which records the expedition
of the constellation Orion; 23 o ä s ti < Sw. cf. f ä s t e of 1599, mentions by name many of the Finnish
‘fortification’. leaders who were put to flight and continues with
an account of Charles’s voyage to Viipuri.
140 Although the poem is in the Kalevala epic style,
it contains little genuine folk poetry; the repetition
T211.9 of s i t ‘then’, for example, is a feature of prose narrative
(cf. 11. 13, 25, 29, 63, 118). Not only does the author
have an inadequate command of the poetic form,
THE WARRIOR 142 but textual evidence, in particular the abundance
of historical detail, suggests that he was probably
B130 B211.1.3 P551 not a folk singer but a junior officer who compiled
the poem for propaganda purposes (cf. 11. 55-62).
The theme of T h e W a rrio r is a sister’s advice to her The fact that the text has survived in only a small
brother not to be heroic in battle and his ignoring number of manuscripts suggests that it never found
her advice. Its origin is thought to be two songs that its way into oral tradition.
took shape during the 12th and 13th centuries in 1 -4 Contemporary stock phrases referring to Char
Kievan Russia and referred to the wars against the les’s titles; 51 son n i < Sw. cf. son ‘son’; 53 to th o lla ri
Tartars; it was transmitted by Russians to Ingria < Sw. cf. stå th å lla re ‘governor’; 100 i.e. grape-shot;
and Estonia and other Baltic areas. The new Ingrian- 112 i.e. tinder-box; 114-115 i.e. as a fuse, probably
Estonian version is thought to have taken shape a reference to aiguillettes.
about the 15th century. The form known in the
Baltic-Finnish area differs in several respects from
the Slav and Baltic variants. Motifs that have been
added include the joke at the beginning that the JACOB PONTUS 144
girl should go to war (11. 6-19), the bath-house
ceremony (11. 32-37) and the sister’s advice on how In the 16th and 17th centuries many Finns served
to behave in battle (11. 38-49). The Finnish variants in the armies of the two Swedish generals, Pontus
have lost the motifs describing the warrior’s departure de la Gardie (1520-1585) and his son Jacob de la
and the mourning for his death, both of which play Gardie (1583-1652). In folklore, however, they have
an important role in the versions of the poem outside been assimilated into a single, legendary character
the Baltic-Finnish area. The Estonian poem gener attributed with great magical powers. The variant
ally ends happily with the soldier returning home from Finnish Karelia dimly reflects stories about
having followed his sister’s advice. the five-week siege and capture of Riga during the
The poem sees war from a woman’s point of view 1621 war against Poland, in which 4400 Finnish
and is in striking contrast to the more boisterous soldiers took part under Jacob de la Gardie. The
and glamorous male attitudes that generally char poem appears to have taken shape in the 17th
acterize war poetry. Both in its sentiment and in century and spread throughout Finnish Karelia and
the choice of motifs the poem has some affinity with Ingria. The concluding episode of this variant con
laments sung by women when their menfolk went tains fragments of T h e G rea t P ig (11. 26-27) and
off to war or were recruited into the army (cf. Poem A S o ld ie r's P ra y e r (11. 36-40).
147). 11 v a ik k u n i < Sw. ( < It.) cf. f a lk o n ( e tt) ‘small canon
3 2 -3 7 i.e. an essential part of departure ritual; firing a ball not heavier than 1.3 kg’ (first used in
3 8 -3 9 Advice of this kind is found in several Slav the Baltic area in the 16th century); 15 P u olan herra
poems, although not in those versions of T h e W a rrio r ‘Poland’s lord’: i.e. King Sigismund II Vasa; 25
known among the Baltic peoples. It seems likely, R iia n v irta ‘Riga’s stream’: i.e. the Western Dvina;
therefore, that the motif was borrowed separately 30—35 These lines, possibly a reference to the des
from a different Russian poem. perate defence of the city, should follow 1. 14; 3 6 -4 0
i.e. sent bad weather.
DUKE CHARLES 143
Duke Charles, later Charles IX of Sweden, under IVAN 145
took two campaigns against Finland (1597 and 1599) *R90
in order to assert his power after the nobles had
given their support to King Sigismund of Poland, a war poem known in Archangel, Olonets and
Iv a n ,
Charles’s rival for the throne of Sweden. The sym Ladoga Karelia, tells how either Ivan or Peter the
pathy of the people, however, was with Charles, and Great fought the Swedes and forced ‘Matti Laurin-
576
poika', governor of Viipuri or Volmar Castle, who THE CONSCRIPT 147
had first mockingly rejected demands to surrender,
to humble himself. References to wars fought in
several different centuries have been incorporated P551
in the poem with no consideration for historical fact: This 18th century poem, of which some 200 variants
Ivan I II besieged Viipuri Castle in 1495, and Ivan have been collected from Ingria and South Kare
IV in 1555, 1556 and 1572; Mats Larsson Kruuse lia, was well known in some areas of Finland and
('M atti Laurinpoika') was appointed governor of Karelia that were under Russian rule during the
Viipuri Castle in 1583. A battle took place in the 18th century and where every twentieth serf was
vicinity of Volmar, or Riga Casde in 1621 (cf. liable to service in the Russian army. The poem
Poem 144). The enemy’s plea for peace (11. 49-57) is a factual, step-by-step account of the process of
may even be a reference to the bitter struggles conscription, delivery to the army and military
fought between Finns and Karelians in the North* training (cf. in particular 11. 56-80, 95-131, 142-
East Finno-Russian frontier area in the 16th cen 151). Military service in the 18th century, which
tury. was notoriously harsh and long, inspired epic and
The poem has been put together from numerous lyric poetry that was commonly sung at the departure
stock phrases and also employs a surrogate passage of the young men each autumn. The purpose of
from T h e S in g in g M a tc h (df. 11. 54-61). The poem the poem’s positive ending was probably to console
is hostile to Sweden because the events are seen both those departing and their relatives. Poems
through the eyes of Russian Orthodox Karelians about the horrors of conscription were common in
who regarded ‘Swedes’ (i.e. the Lutheran inhabi Estonia and are also known to have existed in
tants of Sweden and Finland) as their enemies; this Russia, although relatively few of the Russian ver
emerges clearly in the epithets in 11. 22-23. Stylisti sions survived for the censor did not permit the
cally, the variant contains certain features that point publication of such ‘revolutionary’ material in the
to a poet-singer of considerable individuality. The 19th century.
metaphor for battle in 11. 12-13 is unique to this The variants in the Finnish area appear to have
poem and the response of the women to the death been a strictly local response to the annual conscrip
of their menfolk (11. 14—17) reveals a boisterous, tion and were put together mainly from stock pas
though somewhat macabre sense of humour. sages. The motif of sending messages by birds (11. 132-
2 k u lla n so lk i ‘golden buckle': a popular splendour 151, 155-169) was borrowed from Russian folklore.
metonym; 3 - 8 The ‘duck and ducklings' is a stock The description of the emperor pondering whether to
metaphor in Finnish folk poetry to describe the recruit a rich man (11. 40-49) is unrealistic, because
launching of ships; 48 Houses were commonly roofed different regulations regarding public service applied
with strips of birch-bark; 4 9 -5 0 ‘Russian’ and ‘Kare to the gentry; the passage is probably a surrogate
lian' were often synonymous in Finnish, the former passage used to express a sense of social injustice.
denoting the religion of the Karelians. The sympathetic terms in which the emperor is
described reflects the love and respect in which he
was traditionally held by Russian serfs.
2 va n k i ‘captive’: a corruption of van h in ‘eldest’;
CHARLES XII 146 11 sta a ra sta < Ru. cf. sta ro sta ‘headman’; 33—35
Conscription was frequently used to rid the village
King Charles X II of Sweden, who won his first vic of its unwanted members; 63 k u p ern a a tteri < Ru. cf.
tory over Tsar Peter I of Russia in Ingria in 1700, g u b e m a to r ‘provincial governor’; 65 isva ssik k a < Ru.
but suffered a decisive defeat at the Battle of Poltava cf. isv o zc h ik ‘carrier, carter’; 93 viessa < Ru. cf. ves'
in 1709, is seen in this Archangel Karelian poem ‘scales’; 94 p u n te ri < Ru. cf. f u n d ‘pound (weight)’;
through the eyes of a Russian Orthodox Karelian: 97 a rssin a < Ru. cf. arsh in ‘71 cm’; 98 verska < Ru.
cf. vershok ‘4 cm’; 109 m unteri < Ru. cf. m u n dir
as a bloody invader and a wretched refugee. Neither ‘uniform’; 122—123 A military proverb known in
the structure nor the motifs are original, the latter many parts of the world; 146 p ra a sn ik k a < Ru. cf.
being for the most part stock passages. Nevertheless, p r a z d n ik ‘(religious) festival’; 165 su h a ri < Ru. cf.
the poet has achieved a lively rhythm and pace with su k h a r ’ ‘piece of dried bread; rusk’; 166 This line
which to convey his deeply-felt hatred of the Swedes. was usually sung in association with 11. 142-151.
2 - 4 An echo of contemporary propaganda; 13-14
i.e. cannonballs and bullets; 19 sin iso rk k a ‘blue-
hoofed’: possibly a reference to the colour of the EPILOGUE 148
trousers of Swedish uniforms; 28 Concerning P u n a -
p a r ta 'Redbeard’ see p. 573; 29 tiiru ‘steering oar’
Concerning the choice and function of Epilogue
< Sw. cf. sty ra ‘to steer’; 33 i.e. the crews were not materials see p. 522. 21 runo ‘poet’: the use of runo
able to set the sails and manoeuvre their vessel; (cf. MFi. ‘poem’) in this sense was common in OFi.
42 vet < Ru. cf. o ed' ‘after all; but’; 49 i.e. officers; and dialect; 23 p a in a n ta ‘pressing’: i.e. of cloth; 3 5 -3 6
50 i.e. soldiers. Common metaphors for ‘skull’, hence ‘memory’.
37 577
NAME INDEX
578
C h arles/ Kaarle, Kaarlo In the North-East Baltic region such areas were
1 Duke of Södermanland until 1599, then Charles clearly defined. The Hanse merchants had made
IX of Sweden-Finland (1550-1611): suppresses German the common language in the ports, and
rebellion in Finland (1597) 143 often in centres of trade in the hinterland. North
2 Charles X II of Sweden-Finland (1682-1718): of the Gulf of Finland the derivative s a k s a la i n e n
campaigns against Russia 146 denoted variously ‘foreigner’, ‘travelling merchant’,
‘shopkeeper’, and ‘townsman’, while s a k s a - , as the
C h ris t -»-Jesus first component of a compound, usually denoted
excellence or greatness of size. Hence a clearly
C re a to r -» God, Jesus defined area of usage in folk poetry concerns
wealth and splendour, i.e. imported goods, or goods
C uckoo Hill/Käenmäki made by a professional craftsman in contrast to
fictitious place-name 72:8 cruder, home-produced wares. South of the Gulf
of Finland, in West Ingria and Estonia, S a k s a had
C u m å -» Kokemäki the same use but was also associated both admiringly
and deprecatingly with the local gentry, who spoke
E a ste rn Bothnia/Bothnia orientalis German as their first language (just as those of
area corresponding approximately to present-day comparable social position in Finland spoke Swed
Ostrobothnia (Pohjanmaa) (-»m ap) 87 ish). A further factor that has to be considered,
especially in the Russian Orthodox areas of Ingria,
E e rik (k i) -» Eric is the use by Russians of ‘German’ to mean ‘for
eign (er)’, a usage that dates from the influx of
Eeva skilled and professional men at the time of Peter
young girl (epithet: maid of R iga): falsely accused the Great
125 1 place-name 25:12; 103:26
2 wealth, size, or splendour symbol (i.e. made to
E lin a, Helinä order by a craftsman or imported) 12:189; 52:8;
derivations of Helena ( -») 99:5; 107:17,18; 117:2; 134:11,16; 140:88,90;
1 woman: finds abandoned child 70:17; (parallel: 141:6,20
Katro) 71:1,40 3 urban 76:9; 93:21
2 Klavus Kurki’s wife (-»): falsely accused and 4 foreign (probably Hanse) 66:85-86; 71:22,60
murdered 84
God, Creator/Jumala(inen), Jumma(a)la, Jumalut,
Eric/Eerik(ki) Luoja, Luojo(-i), Luojut
1 Eric IX Jedvardsson of Sweden (murdered 1160, cognate forms of Fi. j u m a l a ‘god’ in dialects and
later canonised): crusades in Finland 66; 67 related languages meaning ‘worker of magic’,
2 knight: attempts to obtain wife by subterfuge ‘lightning’, ‘heavens’, ‘supreme deity’ suggest that
85:17 j u m a l a was originally a general term of reference
for supernatural powers or persons. The word was
Estonia[n]/Viro adopted as the name of the Christian deity by the
1 place-name 22:2; 24:2,27; 36:10; 98:1,2,4,5; early missionaries in the Finnish area, when it also
103; 132:11,15,17; 141:15,29 acquired the parallels L o r d , C r e a to r , J e s u s (-»). In
2 distance symbol 45:53; 88:74; 113:22/; 117:1 the minds of the early Christian converts the
3 home of workers of magic 88:36; 101:27 difference between the pagan and the Christian god
4 poverty symbol 25:1,13;, 78:1 was not always distinct and confusion of the two
is common in folk poetry, particularly in incan
F in la n d [Finnish]/Suomi tations from the Middle Ages.
in folk poetry usually the province of Varsinais- 1 Christian deity 7; 14:145,146; 27; 32:6,84; 34:108;
Suomi (South-West Finland, -» map); in Ingrian 49:19; 50:45; 59:253/; 61:80/; 62:82/; 91:24,32;
poetry it generally refers to the southern coast 99:8/; 100:20; 112:68; 147:105; raises wind 3:17;
of Finland help sought 26:82/; 66:194,195; 94:36/; performs
1 place-name 43:8, 10; 67:85; 75:33, 34; 112:2; miracle(s) 33; 66:150/ 79:26/; 94:27/; 144:36;
143 praised 42:65; birth of son (-»Jesus) 63:27; reveals
2 wealth symbol 23:35; 134:12,15 sins 76:49,50; merciful in heaven 79:41/; ends
3 distance symbol 38:126/; 49:36; (parallel: war 86:23
Sweden/Ruotsi) 127:46,66,88; 136:3 2 Jesus (-») 59:227; 60; 61:105/; 62:47,111/;
77:33
German[y]/Saksa 3 pagan deity (parallel: Väinämöinen) 49:1
for a singer of folk poetry in the Finnish area
S a k sa (-la in e n ) ‘Germany’, ‘German ’referred to lang Hanhenpajusto (lit. ‘Goose Willow Patch’)
uage-usage, i.e. an area, or an object pertaining unidentified place-name, near Turku, South-West
to that area where German dialects were spoken. Finland 143:85
579
H an n u s, Hannas, Hanno H oly River/Pyhäjoki
1 young man (epithet: German of the Isle): se parish in West Finland on the coast of the Gulf
ducer: denies fatherhood 70; 71 of Bothnia 87
2 married man (epithet: Pannus): murders wife in
order to remarry 95 H onkela
, (parallels: Tapio Salakaarto -►) mythical place-
H ein (i)rik k i, Heinärikki -*■ Henry St name derived from the personification of h o n k a
‘fir’ + locality formative - l a , i.e. ‘Fir forest realm’
H ek k o (-i) 6:2 (cf. Metsola, Tapi(v)ola)
1 young girl: ungrateful 22:24,26
2 maid: learns to attract suitors 120 H oora
< H o u r a < Ru. cf. A u r o r a
H el(le)ena name rejected for daughter 120:22
wife (parallel: Katteeriina): murdered by husband
H uotola
possibly a corruption of Luotola, South-West Fin
H elin ä -> Elina 1 nish archipelago
place-name 46:20
H en ry St/Henrik Pyhä, Hein(i)rikki, Hentrikki,
Heinärikki H äm e
Englishman (d. 1156), Finland’s patron saint, first province (-»-map) 51:3; 66:15; 67
bishop of Finland, later canonised: murdered while
travelling in South-West Finland 66; 67 Iiv a n a
1 husband (epithet: Ko(i)jo(i)ne(n)’sson; parallels:
H e n trik k i -»{Henry St Ilmorini, Kojo): murders wife and bakes pie from
her parts 19; 20; murders wife in order to remarry
Herod/Ruotus, Ruatus 96 (cf. Hannus 2)
1 Herod the Great (c. 73-4 BC), client king of 2 -* Ivan
Judea under the Romans at the time of Jesus’
birth, associated with Gospel legends of the Magi Ik i T u rs o -» Iku Turso
and the Massacre of the Innocents: ill-treats the
Virgin Mary 59:57# loses stableman, St Stephen Ik u T ie ra , Niera’s son
(->) 63; bums St Catherine (-») 64; 65 (parallel: mythical hero: accompanies Väinämöinen to steal
Väinämöinen) s a m p o 12:223#
2 chieftain: killed in a due J37:99#
Ik u T u rs o , Äiö’s son
Herodias/Kiiva, Tiiha cf. MFi. tu r s a s ‘sea-monster;, creature living in water'
wife of Herod Antipas (son of Herod the Great), < OSc. cf. Old Norse P u r s ‘giant, monster’
the ruler who ordered the execution of John the Leviathan: tries to capsize boat in which Jesus is
Baptist and received Jesus from the Romans after sleeping 27:91#
his arrest. In Finnish folk poetry Herodias is treated
as the wife of Herod the Great (-► 1): ill-treats I lm a r i (-nen), Ilmolline, Ilmollini, Ilmori(-nen),
the Virgin Mary 59:63# loses stableman, St Ilmorini, Ismaro
Stephen (-») 63 possibly a derivative of i l m a ‘air’
as a deity variously associated with the air and the
H iisi, Hiito(-i, -la), Hiizi, Hittoi, Iitto(va) wind his role is more commonly that of the smith-
the word originally denoted a place associated with culture hero. In the oldest poems it is not always
the deceased, from which it came to denote var possible to separate these two roles, while later the
iously a sacred place, the otherworld, a distant, name was frequently applied to any kind of smith
often hostile mythological place, a supernatural 1 smith-god/smith-culture hero: shapes the sky 8
being (e.g. forest tutelary spirit), all of which were (cf. 7); strikes primeval spark 9:1 (cf. 15:134);
associated with destructive powers and the de shapes s a m p o and helps to steal it 12:109# 14; 15;
ceased. The name was later applied to Christian makes bride from gold 21; 22; tempers sword
concepts of the devil and hell. 139:8,13 (-»> Ingrian smith)
1 distant, often hostile mythological place, or its 2 smith-culture hero: suitor 16; 17
ruler 14:14,102; 19,98# 31:29; concealed sun and 3 name given to a child found abandoned in a
moon 32; guardian of treasure 46:24,38; possesses marsh 57:5, 58:20
elk 53; 54; 55:1 (cf. 17; 23:55; 24:11,55; 139:31) 4 -►Iivana 1
2 hell 60:69,72; 62:221# cf. 66:187
3 Devil 141:49 Im a n d ra Island/Imandran saari
mythical place-name, sometimes associated with
H irs k a Ahti 1 Manala (-») and Tuonela (-* ■ ) 4:27,33
580
In a ri J u m a la (-inen), Jumma(a)la, Jumalut -> God
small market town and administrative area in
Lapland: distance symbol 145:22 Jy rk i
young man: murdered by wife 91
In g ria n smith/seppä Inkeroine
corruption of Ilmarinen
Russian Orthodox Ingrian of Karelian descent: K aalim aa -»■Cabbageland
marries 121:71
K a a ra s (t)a
In k e ri place-name, possibly Oranienbaum, near St Peters
maid: faithful to her betrothed 85 (cf. 86) burg 41:10, 13; 102:28
Island/Saari K aarle, Kaarlo -> Charles
unspecified place, sometimes mythical
1 place-name 22:1; 39:3; 94; 102:2 K aia, Kaio -»- Catherine St
2 refuge place 37:206/; 38:143/
3 distance symbol 49:36; 71:22, 60; 136:3 (cf. also K aija, Kaisa, Kaisu, Katoi(-nen), Katri, Katro,
16) Katteeriina, Katti
Is m a ro -> Ilmari 1 girl: kills seducer 90
2 girl: one of three sisters 61:3
3 girl: tries to milk crane 118:16
Isp o n en 's Hill/Ispostenmäki 4 girl: prefers local suitor 113
Ispoistenmäki, hill near Turku, South-West Fin 5 woman: finds abandoned child 71:2 (parallel:
land 143:44 Helinä)
6 woman: weaves 133:53, 54
Ivan/Iivana 7 grandmother: has three grand-daughters 61:1
1 Tsar Ivan III (1440-1505) or Ivan IV (1530- 8 -»• Helena
1584): at war with Sweden 145
2 -> Iivana
K aisa, Kaisu -> Kaija 1
Jacob/Jaakko P o n tu s
a legendary figure based on two historical char K ale (r)v a(-in en ), Kalehva, Kalervo(-i), Kaler-
acters: the Swedish generals Pontus de la Gardie vikko
(1520-1585) and his son Jacob de la Gardie (1583- one of the oldest Baltic-Finnish names, possibly
1652): attacks Riga and Narva 144 cognate with the Balt god-smith K a l e o i a s , cf. Balt
k a l w i s ‘smith’
J e s u s , Christ/Jeesus, Jessus, Jiessus, Kiesus, Kris 1 (shaman-)chieftain: kills sister and brother-in-
tus law 36
son of God (parallels: God, Creator) 33:9,39, 2 chieftain: attacked by brother Untamo (-»•) 41; 43
58; 72:3; 77:33; 92:41,47; 94:21,29; in a boat, 3 warrior: killed at feast 38
overcomes sea monster 27; birth and youth 59:227/; 4 intruder (parallel: Osmonen): drives girl to
resurrection 60; conception, life and works 61; 62; suicide by his attentions 104:10,50
works miracles 62:158,159; 71:68,69; 94:29, birth 5 epithet and parallel name ‘K.’s handsome priest’,
revealed 63:27/; follower acquired 63:30; conceals Riiko’s son/Riion poika ( -»•) 89:7,29
identity and confronts people with their- sins 75; 6 name of unidentified person 46:79
76:48/; 84:203; at gates of heaven with St Peter
78:9,31 K aie(r)va, Kanerva, son of/Kale (r) van, Kanervan
poika
J o m p a in e n -»-Joukahainen in West Finnish and Estonian tradition a giant,
destructive hero (principal character in the Estonian
J o u k a(h a)in e (-n ), Jompainen, Jougamoine, epic K a l e v i p o e g )
Joukamoi(-ne), Joukavainen 1 orphan: survives massacre 41:43; avenges 42; 43
?■ —jo u h e a ‘tali’; a second theory links the name 2 epithet: Väinämöinen (->) 5:8; 49:3; Lemmin
to j o u t s e n ‘swan’ (cf. Ostrobothnian dialect j o u k h a i - käinen (-►) 35:189/; Kullervo (->) 137; 139; 140
n e n ) , in which case the animal might be a personi
fication of a shaman’s familiar K alla, Kalo Cape/Kalla-, Kalonniemi
1 young shaman: competes against Väinämöinen unidentified place-name: home of wooed girl 88:
10; 11; 15:159/; 29:41/
2 young warrior: helps to steal s a m p o 13; 14 17; 96:5,67 (parallel: Kontu Cape-*-)
3 possible husband 19:3, 4
K anerva, son of/Kanervan poika -»• Kaleva, son of
Jordan/Jortanainen
river that never freezes 62:55 K a n k a h a ta r -»- Loom Girl
581
K ap rio K in erv a -> Kullervo
district in Central Ingria (-»-map): distance sym
bol 49:40; 136:5 K irja m o
village in Narvusi district of Ingria (-► map) 49:
K arelia/K arjala 67, 70
area comprising regions of several provinces situated
partly in Finland, partly in the USSR (-» map). K irsti(-n e n ), Kiitti
In folk poetry Karelia is a region loosely associated ~ C h r is tin e
with those parts of historical Karelia that lay 1 serving maid: falsely accuses mistress 84
within the sphere of influence of the Russian Ortho 2 virtuous girl: kills priest who tries to seduce
dox Church 42:9; 43:9, 12; 137:4 her 89
3 girl: wooed 111
K a rju k k a in -►Mai(j)a 10 4 -►Anni 6
K atie -►Catherine St K itty -v Catherine St
K ato i(-n en ) -*■ Maija 6 K iulo
dialect form of Köyliö, lake near Turku, South-
K a triin a -►Catherine St West Finland 67:16
K a tri -*■ Kaija K lavus -►Kurki, Klavus
K a tro -> Kaija; Catherine St; Elina 1 K o(i)jo(i)ne(-n) (< Ru. G o d in o v ic h ) -> Iivana 1
K a tte e rlin a -►Kaija; Helleena K oijola
unidentified place-name, home of Kojonen (-►Ii
K a tti -> Kaija vana 1) 61:7
K augo -> Kaukamoinen K oivisto
district on Karelian Isthmus (-►map) 18:2
K a u k am ieli -> Kaukamoinen
Kojo-> Iivana 1
K au k am o in en , Kaugo, Kaukamieli, Kauko (-i)
possibly a personification of a word meaning ‘far- Kokemäki/Cum ä
sighted’ or ‘proud’ district in South-West Finland (-►map) 87
1 smith-culture hero (parallel: Estonian Smith/
Viron seppä): makes k a n t e le 24:1,26 K olkanpää
2 adventurer: invited to feast 34:49#’ (-►Ahti 3); village in Soikkola district of Ingria (-►map) 147:
kills host, flees, sexual prowess 37; 38 66, 73
K au k o (-i) -> Kaukamoinen K öm m i
father: sets impossible tasks for suitor 19:12jf
K au p p i
male name, possibly derived from Sw. J a k o b K o ntu(-i)
Lapp hunter (parallel: Vuojolainen): catches Hiisi’s (parallels: Narentka, Kalla Cape/Kallaniemi) un
elk 53 identified, place-name component (‘homestead’)
common throughout Ingria and Karelia: home of
K avala wooed girl 20; 88:16; 96; 114:1,2
(parallel: Korkka) unidentified place-name 88:15
K o rk k a
K em i (parallel: Kavala) unidentified place-name: home
North Ostrobothnian port (-> map): distance sym of wooed girl 88:14
bol 34:192
K oroinen
K e rttu unidentified place-name, possibly near Turku
Lalli's (-►) wife: lies 67:37 146:22
K iesu s -> Jesus K oski
unidentified, place-name component (‘rapids’) com
K iiv a -> Herodias mon throughout Finnish area: home of wooed girl
95 (-► Virta)
K iljan ta
(parallel: Paastue) unidentified place-name 102:24 K ris tu s -►Jesus
582
K ullervo, Kinerva, Kulerva L aukko
? < k u lta 'gold* manor in West Finland owned by the Kurki (->)
warrior (epithets: Kale(r)va’s son, Kanerva’s son): family 84
asks relatives whether they will mourn his death
137; killed in battle 139; hears of relatives’ death L eh en lem m y k k äin e
while at war 140 (cf. Kalervainen) Ingr. corruption of lie to 'wanton* + L em m in käin en
spiteful hostess: killed by brother 36 -*■ Lemmin
K u p itsa käinen 1
Kupittaa, near Turku, South-West Finland 143:84
L e m m a ste rv a
K u rk i, Klavus Ingr. corruption of L e m m in k ä in e n ) + terva ‘tar’
legendary murderer. The name is compounded (an allusion to 'tarry objects’, one of the magic
from two historical characters: K la u s K u r k i, judge devices used by a shaman)
of Ylä-Satakunta (West Finland), fifteenth century spiteful host: killed by brother-in-law 36
-*■ Lemminkäinen 1
owner of the Laukko estate, and K la u s D jä k n , an
officer of the Swedish crown in Finland: marries, L em m enlahti-> Lempi Bay
believes false rumours about wife, burns her alive 84
L e m m in k ä in (-e n ), Lemmingäin(-e), Lemmin-
K u u ro -> Teuri göine
1 shaman-chieftain: skill at magic 1:45; uninvited
K yllikki guest, kills host 34 (cf. 36); killed by host, goes
? '■«*' k y llä ’sufficient’ to otherworld 35
Ahti’s (-»-Ahti 5) wife: breaks promise, left by 2 hunter: catches Hiisi’s elk 54 (cf. Kauppi)
husband 39; 40 3 Tuiretuinen (-►) 44:2,34
-> Lehenlemmykkäine, Lemmasterva
K äen m äk i Cuckoo Hill
L em pi Bay/Lemmenlahti
K öyrötyinen, Köyrötty unidentified place-name, possibly Lemlax in Parai
smith: sets Kullervo (-»■) to work 42:10/ nen, South-West Finland 17:130
L a ari L ittle M eadows/Pienet, Pikku niittuset
< Sw. L a rs < < Lat. L au ren tiu s unidentified place-name, Laukko (-»■), West Fin
son: tries to please mother 100 land 84:59/
L a b ala -*■ Manala L oom Girl/Kankahatar
tutelary spirit of weaving 148:24
L a isa
unidentified place-name 16:5 Luoja, Luojo(-i), Luojut -*■ God, Jesus
Lalli, Lalloi L u u tits a
pagan peasant: murders St Henry (-»■) 66:65/; unidentified place-name, possibly L u u sh itsa in the
67:32# Kattila district of Ingria 120:13
LaUoila M a a n ita h a n
Lalli’s home 66:65 Ingr. corruption of the West Fi. line of poetry
L a lm a n ti iso ritari (cf. 85:1)
L a lm a n ti warrior: saves his betrothed from marriage to an
Finnish adaptation of Sw. la g m a n ‘sheriff’ other man 86
warrior: saves his betrothed from marriage to an
other man 85 (-> Maanitahan) M aariain , Maarja, -> Virgin Mary
583
3 Marjatta’s (->) sister 61:3 N a a s ta
4 mother: daughter raped 69:4 < Ru. cf. A n a sta sia
5 young wife: kills husband 91 rejected as name for daughter 120:21
6 girl (parallel: Katoi): tries to save dying mother
101 N a re n tk a
7 mother: dies after eating berries 101:18 , (parallel: Kontu -*) unidentified place-name: home
8 girl: tries to milk crane 118:14 of wooed girl 20:9
9 girl: abducted by cloud 131
10 mother (parallel: Karjukkain): looks for lost N ie ra -»■ Iku Tiera
daughter 131
N o rth Land/Pohjanm oa
M an a(la), Labala, Manula area, probably comprising the whole of the Arctic
? < m a n a ‘loss, destruction’ + locality formative - l a : North, beyond the more northern Finnish settle
otherworld (commonly with parallels: Tuonela, ments at any given time (cf. Lapland/Lappi, Poh
Tuoni -*) 9:6,13; 15:139; 16:29; 17:207/; 34:212; jola): size symbol 48:12
35:93,191,243/; 79:94; source of spells 29; 30;
61:126 N o u siain en
district in South-West Finland where St Henry
M an tu (->) is thought to have been buried 66:128
tutelary personification of mantu ‘hard, barren earth’,
the earlier usage of which is reflected in incantations N o v g o ro d /U u si linna
addressed to local earth spirits mannun isäntä ja singers of Finnish folk poetry frequently punned
eukko ‘earth master and dame’ the components of the name (a caique: 'new town/
son of Mantu killed by woman he tries to seduce 90 castle’). Where the pun is more important than
the place-name, the components of the name have
M a rg a re t (St)/M arketta been translated
her mother milks snake 55:15 1 distance symbol 110:5
2 pun and distance symbol 131:20; 147:127
Mari-»- M ai(j)a
N u rm i-T u o m a s -►T urf Thomas
M a ria tta
girl: bears child 58 (cf. 57) O ap su
? < A b sa lo m
M arjukkain-*- Mai(j)a 6, 9 father: sets impossible tasks for suitor 20
584
O stro b o th n ia -* Eastern Bothnia/Pohjanmaa P ie ta ri, Piiteri -* Peter; Petersburg
P a a r its a P iltti
village in the Kolppana district of Ingria 69:13 < Sw. cf. piit 'small boy*
its occurrence as a proper name is exceptional
P a a s tu e serving maid: looks for place for the Virgin Mary’s
< Ru. cf. p o g o st ‘parish* (-*) confinement 59
(parallel: Kiljanta) unidentified place-name 102:23
P o h ja -* Pohjola
P a a tits a
place-name, possibly a variant of Paaritsa (-*•) P o h jan m o a -> North Land
120:12
P o h ja, Pohjanmaa, Pohjo(-inen, -la)
P ala g a, Palaka(inen) 1 land in the North, destination of dangerous
< Ru. cf. P e la g iy a journeys (an analogue of the Nordheim, Nordbotn of
1 name rejected for daughter 120:15,16 the Fornaldarsögur) 4:11; 5:65; 12; 13; 14; 15; 16
2 daughter of Kömmi (-*) wife of Iivana 1 (-*) 2 otherworld 17:183, 195; 31:20/; 50:36/
(parallel: Oljona(-inen)): murdered by husband, 3 strange land: as refuge 46:7; 62:23/
baked in pie and given to father 19:183 4 South Ostrobothnia 84:57/
5 parallel of Lapland 54:30/
P alv o n en , Pavannainen
< Fi. p a lv o a ‘to worship’, i.e. ‘one who is wor Poland/Puola
shipped’ attacked by Jacob Pontus (-»-) 144:15j
deity often associated with Ukko (->) and Viro-
kannas (->). It is uncertain whether Palvonen is P o n tu s -»-Jacob Pontus
an epithet of Ukko or a separate deity: parallel
of Ukko (-*) 12:46; baptizes illegitimate child P u o la -> Poland
58:26
P y h ä A nna -* Ann St
P a p in lu o to (lit. ‘priest’s rock’)
place-name, near Turku, South-West Finland P y h äjo k i -* Holy River
143:30
P y h ä H e n rik -* Henry St
P a ra s k a
< Ru. cf. P a ra sk eviya P y h ä K a triin a -* Catherine St
name rejected for daughter 120:18, 19
P y h ä P ie ta ri -* Peter St
P av an n a in en -* Palvonen
P y h ä T a p a n i ->- Stephen St
P e d ro -* Peterkin
P äivölä
P ellerv i, Pellervoinen, Pellervöinen -* Sampsa mythical place-name derived from personification
of p ä iv ä ‘sun’ + locality formative -lä . In Finnish
P e n tti incantations P ä iv ö lä functions as the antithesis of
castle lord: inhospitable to travellers 26:110,111 P o h jo la (-> Pohja 1), which was associated with
darkness and evil; in epic poetry, however, the
P e te r St/S antta Pietari antithesis does not occur and the name generally
helmsman 27; at gates of heaven 78 refers to the place where heroes meet to feast
34:74/; 37 (parallel: Sariola ->)
Peterkin/Pieni Pedro
i.e. St Peter’s day, 29th June, a major feast in the R a h a n sa a ri
Russian Orthodox calendar, traditionally the date (parallel: Metsola ->) mythical island-name de
on which burn-beat clearing was started (see Plate rived from the primary meaning of raha ‘fur pelt’
13): date of departure to search for wood 26:3 ( < Sc.), hence ‘island on which there were (many)
fur-bearing animals’ 58:41
Petersburg/Pietari, Piiteri R aisu
1 distance symbol 110:6 understood by the Ingrian singer as an Estonian
2 attacked 146:4 place-name (but more likely a misunderstanding
of the Estonian expletive ra u d a , ra ib e ‘rotten’) 49:
P ien e t n iittu se t-* Little Meadows 68,71
P ien i P ed ro -*■ Peterkin R ak k av u o ri, Rakkavuuri -> Rakvere
585
R akvere/R akkavuori, Rakkavuuri S a n tta A nna Ann St
town in North Estonia (German: Wesenberg):
size symbol 49:68,71 S a n tta P ie ta ri -> Peter St
Riga/Riika S a ra ja
Baltic port (now capital of Latvian SSR) , < s a r a j a s ‘sea’, later sometimes associated with
1 epithet 125 Jerusalem
2 threatened and attacked 144 mythical place-name: no place in S. village for
the Virgin Mary to deliver her child 59:48jf
R iik a -> Riga
S ario la
R Jiko's son/Riion poika mythical place-name, variant of Saraja (-*■): (par
? < F r e d r ik allel of Päivölä -►) place where heroes meet to feast
priest (epithet and parallel: Kaleva’s (->) hand 37
some priest): killed by girl he tries to seduce 89:
6,28 Savo
province (-> map) 4:12; 145:61 (parallel: Sweden
R iion p o ik a -> Riiko’s son - 1)
R u o tsi -> Sweden S iim e t Isle/Siimetsaari
place-name, identified by some scholars as Sima-
R uatU S, Ruotus -> Herod salo, an island in the Sipoo Archipelago, Gulf of
Finland 17:133 (cf. Lempi Bay/Lemmenlahti)
R u sk iak a llio (lit. ‘brown rock’)
Ruskeakallio in the district of Raisio near Turku, S in e tä r Blue Girlj
South-West Finland 143:31
S in iv e rm o
Russia/Venäjä ?< s in iv e rk a ‘blue cloth’ -> Väinölä
its army attacked by Charles X II 146:6
S tep h en St/Pyhä Tapani, Tahvana
S a a ri -»- Island Herod’s stableman: sees star in stream 62:53, 59;
reveals the birth of Jesus 63
S t A nn ->• Ann St
S tockholm /T ukhulmi
port, capital of Sweden 103:27
S t C a th e rin e -*■ Catherine St
S uokas, son of/Suokkaan poika
S t H en ry Henry St young man: rapes a girl 69:1
S t P e te r -> Peter St S uom ela
birthplace of Elina (-»•), estate near Laukko (-»•),
S t S tep h e n -> Stephen St 84:150
5 86
Turku and spoke Swedish amongst themselves), T ie ra Iku Tiera
while to a Karelian it was more likely to mean an
area corresponding approximately to present-day T iih a -> Herodias
Finland. For the few Karelians and Ingrians with
a wider knowledge of geography, ‘Sweden’ corre T o ra River/Torajoki
sponded approximately to Sweden-Finland of the mythical place-name 52:30,31
17th and 18th centuries and may have continued
to have the same meaning even after the union T o ra jo k i -> Tora River
of the Grand Duchy of Finland in 1808-1809.
1 Sweden (without Finland) 25:11 (parallels: Es- T o rm io
tonia[n]/Viro -*■, German[y]/Saksa -►); 66:4/; dialect form of Est. T o r m a , district in the Tartu
67:3; 74:40; 75:45; 87; 142:2 (parallel: Finland/ (Dorpat) administrative area 91:2
Suomi ->), 74/; 145:23,60 (parallel: Savo); 146:
3, 48; wealth symbol 3:31; splendour symbol 82:7,
12; 83; 143:2; distance symbol (parallel: Finland/ T orni(v)o
Suomi ->) 127:47/ port in North Ostrobotnia (-»> map): size sym
bol 34:191,51:4
2 Sweden-Finland 74:40; 127:47,67,89; 143; 145:
23,60; 146:3,48
T u k h u lm i -> Stockholm
T a b le -*■ Tapio
T u o m a s -> T urf Thomas
T a h v an a -> Stephen St T uonela
mythical place-name < T u o n i ( -»•) + locality forma
T a l li m ä k i (lit. ‘stable-hill’) tive - l a . Originally T u o n e l a meant 'place of death’,
hill near Turku, South-West Finland 143:87 i.e. ‘grave’ from which evolved the secondary
meaning of ‘place, home of all the dead’, i.e. ‘other-
T a n ik k a, M artti of, Tanum artti/Tanikan M artti, world*
Tanumartti 1 otherworld 34:211 (parallel: Manala); 61:123/;
folk personifications of forms of the name D e n m a r k source of spells (parallel: Manala) 30
(< * D a n a m a r k ) that entered 15th century Fi. dia 2 heaven 77:36,54; 79:87,95 (parallel: Manala)
lects in several forms (e.g. T a n a m a r k k i , T a n u m a r t t i ) :
enemy 73:33; 74:41 Tuoni
origin unknown, possibly cognate with a Lapp word
T apio, Tabie meaning ‘smell of a starved reindeer’
possibly a personification of ‘trap, snare’ > 'area 1 ruler of the otherworld, personified as death
where trapping took place* 9:43,44; 15:26/; 16:28; 17:181/; 23:58,59; 30;
1 male supreme forest deity 6:1 (parallel: Hon 98:75,76; 101:72; sets impossible tasks for daugh
kela Salakaarto ->); 53:44 ter’s suitor 18; will not allow girl to visit relatives
2 -> Väinämöinen 29:57 124:181
2 otherworld 29:8/; 35:92,233/(parallel: Manala);
T ap i(v )o la 6 1 :1 2 5 /(parallel: Labala)
mythical place-name < T a p i o (->) + locality
formative - l a , i.e. ‘Tapio’s realm’, often personified T u rf Thom as/N urm i-T uom as
as ‘forest’ i.e. Thomas who is buried beneath the grass, death
otherworld (parallel: Pohjola -> 2) 15 personification: takes girl 3:34
587
T uruinen -»■ A n n ik k i 6 Viena(n vedet) -► W h ite S e a
T u u lik k i V iipuri
? < tu u li ‘wind* city, port and market on Karelian Isthmus 45:2;
Tapio’s (->) daughter: wooed 6 144:2,31; market 93:20; 108:35; 114:34; size sym
bol 44:39
T u u ri
< Sc. cf. T h o r V ipunen, Antervo, Virone, Anderus’
unidentified place-name, probably mythical 45:1 possibly a derivative of v ip u ‘lift-trap’
ancient shaman: Väinämöinen visits his grave in
T u u rik k a in e , Tuireturnen, Tuurit(t)uinen search of spells 28; 29:18,19
< Sc. cf. T u re
1 wealthy young man: unwittingly seduces his sister V irgin M ary/M a(a)ria(-in), Maarja, M arjatta
44 (parallel: Lemminkäinen); 45 as mother of Jesus: 26:4; 64:28; 68:16,22; 71:69;
2 father: his son as seducer 58:15 72:4; 92:42, 48; 94:22/; bears child 59; 61; 62;
searches for lost child 59:238/; 62:75/
U kko V iro -»■ Estonia
possibly a back-formation and personification of
ukkonen ‘thunder’
god of thunder, supreme Finnish pagan deity: V iro k an n as
deity associated with fertility: baptizes illegitimate
determines weather 2:26; 12:45 / (parallel: Pavan- child 58:25
nainen); 93:42; fails to slaughter great pig 52
-> Ilman ukko V irone -*■ Vipunen, Antervo
U m an to , Umento V irta
< uvanto 'area of slow-flowing water’ unidentified, place-name component (‘river; cur
mythical place-name, home of Väinämöinen; epi rent’) common throughout the Finnish area: home
thets ‘man from U .’, ‘bridegroom from U .’: Väi of wooed girl 95 -»■ Koski
nämöinen (-»■) 12:7; 16:25
Volmar/Volmari
U n ta m o (-inen), Unto (-i), Untomaa, Uttamo fortified town near Riga, present-day Valmiera
male name, originally possibly associated with Latvian SSR: attacked 145: 27,34
stranger, often hostile
1 vaguely sketched character, sometimes attributed
with supernatural powers 33:46/; master of ferocious V uojolainen, Vuoljalainen -> Kauppi
animals 37:74,91; guest at feast 38:30
2 ship’s captain (epithet: Ylermö’s son) 26:63/ V äin äm ö i(-n en ), Väinämöini, Väinö
3 chieftain: attacks and believes he has destroyed < v ä in ä ‘broad, deep, slow-flowing river’
brother and brother’s family (-> Kale(r)va 2) 41; the most commonly mentioned character in ancient
43; 105:26,28 Finnish epic poetry, Väinämöinen also appears in
4 -»• Väinämöinen 12:76,84 incantations and has often replaced characters in
poems in the early versions of which he did not
feature. Whether his original role was that of a
V eitik k i, Veitikkä deity or a culture hero is uncertain. In the earliest
? < V etrik k a , cf. Est. V id rik , Fi. veitik k a ‘rascal, scamp, stratum of poems he is probably a water-spirit. In
rogue’ or F riedrich later poems he is variously attributed with the role
adventurer: guest at a feast 34:50/; 38:34 (-> Ahti of a creator, a deity, and a culture hero; usually his
3) role becomes that of a shaman or sea-hero in a
coastal fishing milieu
V ellam o 1 god/culture hero: takes part in creation of world
? < velloa ‘to undulate (of water)* 4; 5; 15:145/; strikes primeval spark 9:2; 15:135;
parallel of Ahti (-> 1) 56:41 rejected by mankind, departs for otherworld 57; 58
2 shaman-singer: sings Joukahainen into swamp 10;
V enaa 11; 15:159/; 29:130/; sings Lemminkäinen into
place-name, probably the village of Vena in the otherworld river 35:149/; enters mouth of ancient
Narvusi district of Ingria (->) 79:2 shaman 28; visits otherworld in search of spells
29; 30; releases sun from rock 31; makes and plays
V ento ka n tele 23:53/; plays ka n tele 24:23/; 29:107/
vaguely sketched male character, possibly possessing 3 wizard-chieftain: wounds knee 5; 6:31/; suitor 6;
supernatural powers 33:46/; guest at feast 38:30 15; 16; 65:10 (parallel: Herod -»-); steals sam po 12
(parallel: Untamoinen); 13; 14; 15; holds feast
V enäjä Russia (parallel: God) 49:2; catches water spirit 56; burns
588
St Catherine (parallel: Herod) 65; makes maid W hite Sea/Viena(n vedet)
from gold 65:43jf -*■ map, distance symbol 110:7
Väinölä Y lerm ä -»■Alermo
mythical place-name, Väinämöinen’s home 35
(parallel: Sinivermo) Y lerm ö -*■ Untamo 2
Väärnoja Y linen Antero 2
Vääräoja, village in the Soikkola district of Ingria
(-► map) 147:74 Äiö -»■ Iku Turso
589
MOTIF INDEX
The arrangement of the motif types occurring in Al 115 Why the sea is salt - 13
the Anthology and their codes are based on the A1251 Creation of man from tree stump - 11:16
system published by Stith Thompson in his M o t i f - 41:7
I n d e x o f F o l k - L i t e r a t u r e . An asterisk preceding a code A1414 Origin of fire - 9 15:134
number indicates that the motif is not included in •A1415.2.2 Fire carried in sea by fishes - 9:21
Thompson’s Index. In most cases reference is given A1425 Origin of seed - 46
only to the number of the poem. Line numbers are A1432.1 Origin of iron - 139
given where it would be otherwise difficult to identify A1447 Origin of metal-working - 7-8 31 139
the part of the poem where the motif is introduced. A1457.3 Origin of the net for fishing - 9:36
A1461.2 Origin of lyre - 23-25
A1836 Creation of bear - 48
A. Mythological Motifs A2602 Planting the earth - 46:80
A2681 Origin of trees - 46:80 55 92
A 13.2 Bird as creator - 2-5 A2681.2 Origin of oak - 49-50
A142 Smith of the gods - 2 7-9 12:106 14-19
21-22 24-25 31 139
A284 God of thunder - 12:45 15:134 52:16 93:41
A430 God of vegetation - 46-47 B. Animals
A527.1 Culture hero precocious - 8 31
A605.1 Primeval darkness - 32-33 B11.8 Dragon as power of good - 73-74
A625.2 Raising of the sky - 10:32 B16.1.5.1 Monster ox killed - 26:123 51
A641 Cosmic egg - 2-5 B31 Giant bird - 12-15
A652 World-tree - 49-50 B81.13.11.1 Mermaid caught by fisherman - 56
A661.0.1.2 Saint Peter as porter of heaven - 78 ♦B91.8 Flying serpent - 31
A661.1.0.4 Deer and the fountain - 92:28 B102 Animals of precious metal (gold) - 21-22 65
A671.2 Horrible sights in hell - 34-37 B130 Truth-telling animals - 62-63 142
A672 Stygian river - 30-31 B 155.1 Building site determined by halting of ani
A677.1 Smith of hell - 60-62 mal - 66-67
A713.1 Sun and moon from belly of a fish - 5 B184.1.4 Magic horse travels on sea or land - 11-12
A714.2 Sun and moon placed in top of tree - 32-33 18 20 62:143
•A733.6 Sun melting the grave of Christ - 60 62 B 184.4 Magic deer - 53-55
A734 Sun hides - 31-33 B211.1.3 Speaking horse - 142
A736 Sun as human being - 33:105 113 119 B264.2 Fight between eagle and fish - 5:88 17:218
A737 Causes of eclipses - 31 B401 Helpful horse - 59:215
♦A739.8.1 Sun placed evenly over rich and poor - B437.3 Helpful squirrel - 34
32-33 B463.3 Helpful crane - 117-118
A753.1 Moon as wooer - 113 B531.2 Unusual milking animal (viper) - 55
A811 Earth brought up from bottom of primeval B575.1 Wild animals kept as dogs - 35-37
water - 5:79 15:146 B576 Animal as guard - 15-17
A814.9 Earth from egg breaking on primeval water - B845 Wild animals herded - 42
3-5 B871 Giant beasts - 26 51 52 107
A911 Bodies of water from tears - 104:87 B872.1 Giant eagle - 12:344 14:113
A1012.3 Flood from blood - 5-6 B875.1 Giant serpent 34:115 35:30
A1071.1 Underground monster fettered by trick - B877.1.2 Giant sea monster overpowered by saint -
60-62 27
590
C. Taboo D2141 Storm produced by magic - 93-94
D2142.1 Wind produced by magic - 12:47 31:35
•C l 02 Extreme abhorrence of sexual intercourse — D2143.3 Fog produced and dispelled by magic -
58:8 61:69 14:155
C451-452 Boasting of wealth/children - 82-83 D2153.1 Rock in sea created by magic - 12 14
C623 Forbidden well - 62-63
C949.2 Baldness from breaking taboo-66:157 67:91
G998 Trees wither because of broken taboo - 69 E. The Dead
E32 Resuscitated eaten animal - 63
D. Magic E168.1 Roasted cock comes to life and crows - 63
E l86 Failure at resuscitation - 35
D152.2 Transformation: man to eagle - 12 14-15 E363.3 Ghost warns the living - 35:275 135-136
17:218 E366 Return from dead to give counsel - 30:94
D154.4 Transformation: bride to gull - 17:246 •E420.1 Appearance of deceased expressing manner
D191 Transformation: man to snake - 30 of death - 30
D412.2.1 Transformation: herd of cattle to wolves - E481.2.1 Bridge to land of dead - 50:35
43 E481.2.2 Boat to land of dead - 30 61:123
D523 Transformation through song - 10-11 E741.1.1.2 Star as sign of birth of hero - 62-63
D615.1 Transformation contest between magicians - E761.1.7 Life token: comb drips blood - 35
34
D672 Obstacle flight - 12:323 14:91 32:38
•D705.2 Forest disenchanted by priests - 69 F. Marvels
•D763.3 Disenchantment by scorching cloud - 130
•D764.9 Disenchantment by giving beer to cloud 131 F81.1.2 Journey to land of dead to visit deceased -
•D791.2.3 Disenchantment by enchanter - 10-11 15 28-29
29 F87 Journey to otherworld to secure bride - 17-18
D853 Magic object forged by smith to order - 2 F93.1 River entrance to lower world- 29-30 61:123
12 15 18-19 25 F95.5 Tree as roadway to underworld - 50:35
D945 Magic hedge - 34 36 42 FI 12 Journey to island of women - 37-38
D950.2 Magic oak tree - 27 49-50 68 F141.I River as barrier to otherworld - 29-31 33
D1121 Magic boats - 5-6 14 26-29 FI42 River of fire as barrier to otherworld - 34-35
D1175 Magic match - 12:322 14:91 15:131 37
D1208 Magic whip - 14:171 FI52.1.6.1 Bridge to otherworld covered with knives
D1222 Magic horn - 42-43 - 28:31, cf. 19:65
D1273 Magic formula (charm) - 5-6 48 FI67.11.1 Serpents in otherworld - 30 35-36
D1275 Magic song - 10-11 14-15 28-29 34-35 37 F343.3 Fairy smith gives knight a magic sword - 139
58:44 •F492.1 Death on skis - 81
D1311.4.0.1 Oracular twig - 63 F521.3 Men of metal - 111-112
D1311.6 Moon and sun answer questions - 59 61-62 F531.2.6 Giant lies underground with trees growing
D1364 Object causes magic sleep - 12:233 32:24 all over his body - 28-29
D1419.3 Magic object prevents ship from moving - F535.1 Thumbling - 50:23
12 14 23 27 29 F610.2 Dwarf-hero of superhuman strength - 50:23
D1441.1.3.2 Magic harp calls animals together - 51:12
23-25 29 F614 Strong man's labours - 42
D1503.1 Magic song heals wound - 6 62 F663 Skilful smith - 7-8 21-22
D1562 Magic object removes obstacles - 33 F735 Island rises up in sea - 3-4 15:146
D1610.9.1 Speaking sword - 36 F771.5.1 Castle guarded by beasts - 34-37
D1810.13 Magic knowledge from the dead - 28-30 F833 Extraordinary sword - 36 132 139
D1812.5.1.2 Bad dream as evil omen - 39:20 •F838.3 Knife handle with golden leaves - 63
591
F841 Extraordinary boat - 6 26-29 *K1851.2 False message of death - 85
*F849 Extraordinary skis - 53-54 K2112 Woman slandered as adulteress - 84 124-
•F859 Extraordinary rake - 2 35:248 125
F871 S a m p o - 1:44 12-15 ♦K2127.3 Bishop falsely accused of usurpation -
F911.5 Giant swallows man - 28 66-67
F960.1 Extraordinary nature phenomena at birth of
holy person - 61-63
•F967.5 Child caught by cloud - 129-131 L. Reversal of Fortune
F979.23 Trees wither when tragic things happen - 69
F989.15 Hunt for extraordinary animal - 17 53-54 LI 11.4.4 Mistreated orphan hero - 41-43 70-71
F1021.1 Flight on artificial wings - 12:344 *L112.4.1 Dirty girl advised and wooed - 120
F1041.1.11.3 Suicide from fright of evil prophecy - LI 13.6 Smith as hero - 7 15-18 21-22
84:230 •L213.3 Man of bread preferred to suitors of prec
F1041.21 Reactions to excessive grief - 101 104 124 ious metal - 111-112
•L213.4 Neighbour’s son preferred to celestial suit
ors - 113
G. Ogres L412 Rich woman made poor to punish pride -
82-83
G61 Relation’s flesh eaten unwittingly 19-20
G500 Ogre defeated - 27
M. Ordaining the Future
H. Tests
Ml 14 Oath taken on sacred object - 39
H252 Act of truth - 63 M205 Breaking of bargains or promises - 39-40
H335 Tasks assigned suitors - 6-7 15 17-20 M411.20 Curse by spouse - 122 138
H335.0.1 Bride helps suitor perform his tasks -17:168 ♦M464.1 Curse of a woman against her former
H373 Bride test: performance of tasks - 20:68 family - 127-128
H1021-1022 Task: construction from impossible kind/
amount of material - 6 20
HI 131.1 Task: building bridge over land and sea -
N. Chance and Fate
18:74 ♦N126.3 Lots cast to determine life or death - 101
HI 154 Task: capturing anim ab - 17 19 N365.3 Unwitting brother-sister incest - 44-46
HI 188 Task: ploughing field of vipers - 17:155 *N381.2 Ant urinating on leg of crane causes chain
H I347 Quest for lost comb - 132 135 of accidents - 12:269 14:64
H I 382.1 Quest for unknown magic words - 28-29 N542.1 With one-night-old colt on one-night-old
H I385.2 Quest for vanished daughter or son - 59 ice - 11:29 18:89
61-62 130-131 ♦N770.1 Leaving the home as occasion for the begin
H I 385.8 Quest for lost brother - 129 135-136 ning of adventures - 89 95-98 101 104
H I 386.3 Quest for lost bird (goose) - 133-134 106-109 124-125 129-132 134-135
H1510 Vain attempts to kill hero - 41 43, cf. 70-71 N774.2 Adventures from seeking domestic beast
(horse) - 23
J. The Wise and the Foolish N818.1 Sun as helper - 60 62
•N819.5 Summer boy helper - 47
*J868 Consolation by dreams of future compen N825.2 Old man helper - 5-6
sation - 107-109 N855 Helpful smith - 2 19 25 139
K. Deceptions P. Society
K1335 Clothes of bathing girl stolen - 106 P ll Choice of king - 58:38
K1340 Entrance into girl’s room by deceit - 90 PI9.4.1 King as judge - 72-74
592
P I73.2 Killed enemy’s son as slave - 41-43 T 6 1.5.1 Betrothal in cradle - 85-86
P231 Mother and son - 35 97-98 100 137 T65 Betrothal restrictions - 85
P232 Mother and daughter - 101 131 •T75.4.1 Lady humiliates lover who killed wife for
P233 Father and son - 130 her - 7 95-96
P551 Army - 142 147 T81 Death from love - 88
P677 Customs connected with duelling - 34 37-38 T117.il Marriage to a statue - 21-22 65
♦T131.0.2 Maiden has restricted choice of husband -
111-113 115
Q. . Rewards and Punishments T173 Murderous bride - 91
T210.1 Faithful wife -,8 5 90
0,87 Reward for preservation of chastity - 89:80 T211.9 Excessive grief at wife’s death - 87-88 140
0172 Reward: admission to heaven - 66:183 77-79 T311 Woman averse to marriage - 58:8 61:66
84:215 T320.2 Girl kills man who threatens her virtue -
0243.2.1 Attempted seduction punished - 89-90 89-90
0*13 Punishment: hanging - 72-74 122 138 T326.3 Martyrdom to preserve virginity - 64-65
0414 Punishment: burning alive - 64-65 84 122 138 T415 Brother-sister incest - 35 44-46
0451.9 Punishment: woman’s breasts cut off - 19-20 T475.2.1 Intercourse with sleeping girl - 71
0560 Punishments in hell - 35 66:184 77-79 84:222 T511.1.1—2 Conception from eating apple or b erry-
59 61-62 76
T581.4 Child born in stable - 59 62
R. Captives and Fugitives T585.2 Newborn child speaks - 57-58 70-71
R12.4 Girl enticed into boat and abducted —127— T596 Naming of children - 57-58 120
128
*R90 Ransom refused - 10-11 145 U. The Nature of Life
Ri l l Rescue of captive maiden - 127-128
R 153.4 Mother rescues son - 35 *U62 God places the sun evenly over rich and poor-
R225 Elopement - 15:113 33
R310-317 Refuges: forest, meadow, well, sea, island *U90 Wealth and poverty: exchange of roles in
- 3 8 91 otherworld - 77-79
R345 Cities of refuge - 89
V. Religion
S. Unnatural Cruelty
V10.1 God prevents suicide - 61:87
*S 12.2.4 Mother drowns childen - 97 VI 11.3 Place where a church must be built miracu
S62 Cruel husband - 7:38 84 95-96 122-123 lously indicated - 66:121 67:86
5139.2.2.1 Heads of slain enemies impaled upon *V 138 Bridge preferred by Christ to church - 62:187
stakes - 37:22 ♦V211.2.1.3 Christ disguised as poor man - 60:66
S139.7 Murder by slicing person into small pieces - 96 75:27 84:203
•S177 Mutilation: breasts cut off - 20:81 V211.7 Christ’s descent to hell - 60-62
5322.1.1 Father who wanted son will expose daugh V211.8 Christ’s resurrection - 60 62
ter - 99 V223.3 Saint can reveal hidden sins - 75-76
5341.1 Exposure given up on account of newborn V229.1 Saint commands return from dead with
son’s protest - 57-58 70-71 supernatural information - 35:275
V515.1.1 Chairs in heaven - 77-79
r. Sex
W. Traits of Character
T52 Bride purchased - 12:124 15:64 16:71 127-
128 W115.1 The slovenly fiancée - 114 120
T61.4 Betrothal ceremony - 84 88 •W155.6 Hospitality refused - 59 121
38 593
X. Humour Z- Miscellaneous Groups of Motifs
•X201 Thief preferred as suitor to farmer, smith Z111-112 Death/Sickness personified - 80-83
and hunter - 115 *Z129 Dance personified - 110
X1201 Lie: the great animal - 26 51-52 Z216 Supernatural origin of hero: magic concep
♦X1259 Lies about crane - 117-118 tion - 59 61
Z252 Hero at first nameless - 57-58
Z356 Unique survivor - 41 43
594
KALEVALA AND KANTELETAR
CONCORDANCE
The poems in the present work are closely related 41: 23-25. 42: 12-15, 27. 43: 12-15. 44: 23-25.
to many of those used by Elias Lönnrot to compile 46: 48. 47: 9. 48: 9. 49: 31. 50: 1, 57-59, 61-62,
the K a le v a la and its companion volume the K a n te le 75-76, 148.
ta r. The concordance shows the relationship between
the genuine oral tradition and Lönnrot’s compila K a n te le ta r (1840-1841), Book III
tions. The bold numbers refer to the poems in the
1849 edition of the K a le v a la and the 1840-1841 and 1: 113. 2: 53-54. 3: 64-65. 4: 77-79. 5: 75-76.
1887 editions of the K a n te le ta r and are followed by 6: 59-63. 7: 66-67. 8: 84. 9: 85-86. 10: 145. 11: 144.
a reference to the relevant poems in the present work 12: 146. 13: 92-94. 14: 90. 15: 104-105. 16: 95-96.
17: 70-71. 18-19: 44-45. 20: 49-50. 21: 127.
23: 124-126, 128. 24-25: 7, 18-20. 26-27: 128.
28: 126. 29: 113. 30: 137-138. 31: 133-134. 32:
K a le v a la (1849) 92-94. 33: 116. 34-37: 106-109. 38: 111-112.
1: 1-5. 2: 46-47, 49-50. 3: 10-11. 4: 104, 135-136. 39-40: 122-123. 41: 102-103. 42-43: 135-136.
5: 56. 6: 4-5, 12. 7: 7-8, 12. 8: 5-7. 9: 139. 10: 12. 45-46: 120. 47: 72-74. 48: 124-125. 49: 116.
11: 39-40. 12: 34-35, 37, 39-40. 13: 53-54. 14: 17, 50: 115. 53-54: 129-131. 55: 102-103. 56: 114.
35. 15: 35, 59. 16: 26-28, 30, 35, 61. 17: 28-29.
57: 109, 114. 60 : 80-81.
18: 15-17. 19: 5, 17, 19. 20: 26, 34-35, 37, 51-52.
23: 121. 24: 12. 25: 1, 30. 26: 34-37. 27: 34-38. K a n te le ta r (1887), Book III
28: 37-38, 91. 29: 37-38. 30: 40. 31: 41-43. 32: 2 : 32-33. 23: 68. 25 : 82-83. 36 : 87-88. 51: 100.
42-43. 33 : 42-43. 34: 137. 35 : 44-45. 36: 137-141. 52: 143. 59: 147. 105: 101. 120: 142. 127: 132.
37: 21-22, 65. 38: 19. 39: 12-14, 23, 139. 40: 23-25. 130: 119. 137: 69.
595
SOURCE INDEX
596
103 V I I 2 1367 120 I I I 3 2703 137 V I, 30
104 I , 233 121 X I I I , 928 138 X I I I , 11
105 I I I 3 2725 122 X I I I, 969 139 V II, 654
106 IV 3 2931 123 V I I 2 1256 140 V I I , 904
107 IV a 1504 124 I 2 1206 141 I I I 2 1442
108 IV 2 1867 125 V , 1035 142 I I I , 979
109 IV 3 3927 126 I I 1420 143 V I I I 1006
110 I a 1188 127 V , 697 144 V I I 2 1361
111 IX , 10 128 X , 58 145 I 2 1054
112 II 351 129 I 2 1170 146 I 2 1064
113 I I I , 687 130 X I I I , 978 147 I I I , 987
114 V I, 179 131 I I I 2 1358 148:1- 7 X I I I , 1792
115 V , 1027 132 I I I , 71 148:8- 17 X I I I , 1902
116 X I I I , 367 133 I a 1212 148:18-20 V I, 552
117 V I, 244 134 I I I 3 3529 148:21 -2 8 I 3 1327
118 V III 3745 135 V I I 2 1237 148:29-42 X I I , 341: 11
119 IV , 979 136 IV , 567
597
COLLECTION LOCALITY INDEX
5 98
S avoFinland T u u p o v a a ra North Karelia, Finland
148:18-20 (cf. also Juva, Kiuruvesi, Lemi) 95
S erepetta (Z h ereh ya t) Ingria, Russia T y rä ( T i r i s ) Ingria, Russia
96 38 86 100 108 119 136
S k u o ritsa (S k v o rits) Ingria, Russia
(Jhtua Archangel Karelia, Russia
107
40 50 104 129 145
(Soykin o ) Ingria, Russia
S oik k o la
18 22 26 32 41 47 49 90 99 101 131 141 V aasa South Ostrobothnia, Finland
66
S o rta v a la Ladoga Karelia, Finland (later Russia)
24 V a lk ea sa a ri ( V a lk i) Ingria, Russia
Sou th - W e st F in la n d 3
87 (cf. also Koski, Pyhämaa, Turku;
Venjoki Ingria, Russia
S u ista m o Ladoga Karelia, Finland (later Russia) 68
4 44 53 89 93 123 135 140
V esila h ti Häme, Finland
S u om u ssalm i Kainuu, Finland 84
1:15-22
V u okkin iem i Archangel Karelia, Russia
Sävsen Dalecarlia, Sweden
5 19 57 80 124 (cf. also Latvajärvi, Vuonninen)
13
Vuole ( V o ly ) Ingria, Russia
S ä ä k sm ä k i Häme, Finland
75 85 92 20 25 83 115 127
125 10 16 30 56 58
T u rku South-West Finland T lö jä r v i Häme, Finland
143 128
599
COLLECTOR INDEX
Ahlqvist, A. E. Hainan, 0. A.
1826-1889, Finno-Ugrist, poet, publicist, university 1856-1910, writer on the history of Eastern Finland
teacher and Ingria, teacher
52 122 4
Alava, V. Heikkilä, A.
1870-1935, journalist, teacher fl. 1720-1740
36 62 74 79 98 127 66
Arwidsson, A. I. Härkönen, /.
1791-1858, historian, publicist, university teacher, 1882-1941, writer, teacher, activist in the Karelian
director, Royal Library, Stockholm movement
65 148:10-20 123
Berner, A. Juslenius, D.
1843-1892, school inspector 1676-1752, linguist, cleric, publicist, Bishop of Skara,
124 Sweden
87
Borenius{-Lähteenkorva), A. A.
1846-1931, folklorist, school inspector Järvinen, N.
1:1-14 3 5 8 15 16 21 29 30 34 40 43 50 54 55 75 1831-1901, cleric
138 148:21-28
72
Cajan {later Kajaani), J. F. Karjalainen, K.
1815-1887, writer on Finnish history, assistant to
E. Lönnrot, cleric, publicist 1871-1919, Finno-Ugrist, university teacher
27 60 19 145
Castren, M. A. Karttunen, U.
1813-1852, linguist, ethnographer, a pioneer of the 1874-1959, historian, secondary school teacher
comparative study of the Uralic languages, univer 61 112
sity teacher, translator of the O ld K a le v a la into
Swedish Killinen, K.
9 57 64 1849-1922, teacher, poet
24
Crohns, E. A.
1785-1865, cadet school teacher, cleric Kohvakka {later Kohvakka-Järvi), T.
148:18-20 1910-, teacher, librarian
117
Europaeus, D. E. D.
1820-1884, folklorist, linguist, archeologist, assistant Koskivaara, A.
to E. Lönnrot, publicist 1892-1918, forestry student
1:48-52 7 14 17 35 39 44 70 86 100 132 136 139
130
Ganander, K.
Liipola, J. S.
1741-1790, folklorist, linguist, archeologist, cleric
23 42 51 1868-?, primary school teacher
63
Gottlund, C. A.
1796-1875, linguist, folklorist, archeologist, publicist, Lorvi, J .
university teacher 1910s- student
13 46 137 109
600
Lukkarinen, J. Rothman, A.
1884-1963, ethnographer, editor of Suom en K a n sa n 1821- 1890, postmaster
V anhat R u n ot 78
134
Rudbeck (later Salmelainen), E.
Länkelä, J.
1830-1867, folklorist, teacher
1833-1916, pedagogue 78
22 26 49 91 99
Lönnbohm, 0. A. F. Ruotsalainen, J . F.
1856-1927, pedagogue, journalist, museum curator 1877-1951, journalist
106 120
Lönnrot, E. Rytkönen, A.
1802-1884, folklorist, physician, linguist compiler of 1870-1930, journalist, author
the K a le v a la and K a n te le ta r, university teacher 81
1:23-47 12 28 37 56 58 59 73 85 92 95 103 104 110
129 144 146 148:1-17 Saxa, K.
Marttinen, I. 1796-1849, cleric
1:15-22
1870-1934, shopkeeper, insurance agent
80
Saxbäck, F. A.
Niemi, A. R. 1836-1863, theology student
1869-1931, folklorist, university teacher, editor of 25
Suom en K a n sa n V anhat R u n o t
133 Seppänen (later Itkonen), I.
1904-, technical school teacher
Oksanen, J. 118
1866-?, teacher
82 Sirelius, S.
Pajula, F. 1822- 1848, theology student
53 89
1857-1918, teacher
20, 83, 115
Sjögren, A. J.
Paldani, B. A. 1794-1855, linguist, ethnographer, historian, ex
1823-1860, cleric plorer, academician (St Petersburg)
128 10
Petrelius, V. Slöör, K.
1869-1963, bank manager 1833-1905, journalist, author, school inspector (Fin
126 nish schools in St Petersburg)
69 121 125
Polin, R.
1823-1884, journalist, editor, teacher Stråhlman, K.
77, 93, 135, 140 1821-1898, cleric, secondary school teacher
107
Porkka, V.
1854-1889, linguist, authority on the Ingrian dialects Tallqvist, T.
2 11 18 32 33 41 45 47 76 90 94 96 97 101 102 108 1839-1912, railway construction engineer
113 131 141 142 147 38 88 119
Reinholm, H. A. Tarkiainen, V.
1819-1883, archeologist, ethnographer, cleric 1879-1951, literary scholar, university teacher
68, 71, 116 114
601
Topelius, Z' Tömeroos, A.
1781-1831, folklorist, physician 1835-1896, poet, journalist, primary school teacher
6 148:29-42 38 88 119
Toppola, J . Unknown
1869-1928, secondary school teacher 23 31 42 67 84
111
602
SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY
The wealth of material written about Kalevala epic decide for himself which particular aspects of Finn
and closely related subjects made the compilation of ish folk poetry he wishes to pursue. The final Sec
a bibliography especially difficult, all the more so tion comprises monographs and articles, mainly in
as the editors had to consider the very different English, French, German and Russian, all of which
interests of the general reader and the specialist, and provide additional references to works in languages
of readers both with and without a knowledge of other than Finnish.
Finnish. With these various requirements in mind,
the editors based their choice on two main criteria: Abbreviations:
they restricted their selection to works that provide
a starting-point for further reading and are likely to FFC Folklore Fellows Communications, Helsin
be readily available in major libraries. ki, 1910-.
The Bibliography is divided into four sections. The FUF Finnisch-Ugrische Forschungen, Helsinki,
first (Collections of folk poetry) was compiled pri 1901—.
marily with the Finnish reader in mind, while Sec
tion II (Translations of the K a le v a la ) is intended for JSF Arv. Journal of Scandinavian Folklore,
Stockholm, 1945-.
both Finnish and other readers. Section III (Intro
ductory works) assumes a knowledge of Finnish. In JSFO u Journal de la Société Finno-Ougrienne,
view of the huge amount of material, both general Helsinki, 1886-.
and specialist, in Finnish, the editors thought it
wisest to limit their choice to four basic works which MSFOu Mémoires de la Société Finno-Ougrienne,
Helsinki, 1890-.
include important bibliographies and to other major
bibliographical sources, thus allowing the reader to SF Studia Fennica, Helsinki, 1933-.
6 03
tr. Francis
T h e K a le v a la or P oem s o f the K a le v a D is tr ic t, Helsinki, 1841-. Indexes in Vois IV: 20 (1927)
Peabody Magoun, Jr., Cambridge, Massachusetts, and V: 20 (1938).
1963 (prose).
(Periodical of the Mother Tongue Society),
V ir ittä jä
L e K a le v a la . É popée p o p u la ire fin n o ise , tr. Jean-Louis Helsinki, 1883-. Indexes compiled by Erkki Itkonen
Perret, Paris, 1931. & Pertti V irtaranta (1952), Reino Peltola (1961),
K a le v a la , d a s fin n isch e E p o s d es E lia s L ö n n ro t, tr. Lore ’ Ilja Leena Suhonen (1973), and Eeva Mäkelä-
and Hans Fromm, München, 1967. Henriksson (ethnological, 1963).
K a le v a la , tr. Albert Lange Fliflet, Oslo, 1967. IV. BACKGROUND W ORKS
K a le v a la . F in sk a y a n a rodn aya epopeya, tr. L. P. Bel’skii, A n tti A arn e , D a s estn iseh -in germ an län disch e M a ie -
S.-Peterburg, 1888. L ie d . E in e vergleichende U ntersuchung ( = FFC 47),
K a le v a la , tr. Maria Dolores Arroyo, Barcelona, 1953. 1922.
- D a s L ie d vom A n g eln d er J u n g f r a u V ellam os. E in e
K a le v a la , tr. Björn Collinder, Stockholm, 1948. vergleichende U ntersuchung ( = FFC 48), 1923.
R auni P uranen , ‘Kaarle Krohn. Bibliography’, S F M a rtti H aavio , ‘Das Seelengericht’, SF 9, 1961.
11, 1964. - ‘Der Charakter der finnischen Heldendichtung’,
- ‘M artti Haavio. Bibliographie’, S F 8,17, 1959,1974. N o rd isch e R u n dsch au , V III Jahrg. Leipzig & Berlin,
1935.
K a ija V irtanen , ‘Jouko Hautala. Bibliography’, - ‘Elias Lönnrot’, JS F 25-26, 1970.
3 SF 21, 1971. - E s s a is fo lk lo r iq u e s ( = SF 8), 1959.
- H e ilig e H a in e in In g erm a n la n d ( = FFC 189), 1963.
Periodicals: - Väinäm öinen. E te rn a l S a g e ( = FFC 144), 1952.
(‘Yearbook of the Kalevala
K aleva la seu ra n V u osik irja U no H arva [form erly H olmberg ], ‘Antero Vipu
Society’), Helsinki, 1921 —. Ethnological Index in nen’, FUF 24, 1937.
Voi. 40 (I960), Author Index in Voi. 50 (1970). - ‘Der Bacchus der Altfinnen’, S itzu n g sb erich te der
F innischen A k a d e m ie d er W issen sch aften 1 9 4 4 , Hel
(Periodical of the Society for Local Studies),
K o tise u tu
Helsinki, 1909-. Indexes compiled by Eeva Mäkelä- sinki, 1945.
Henriksson (1953), Kirsti Kuisma (1962), and - ‘Ilmarinen’, FUF 29, 1946.
Henni Ilomäki (1977). - ‘Sämpsä Pellervoinen’, S itzu n g sb e ric h te der F in n i
schen A k a d em ie d er W issen sch aften 1946, Helsinki,
S u om i (Periodical of the Finnish Literature Society), 1947.
604
J ouko H autala , 'Die folkloristiselle Forschung in K ro h n u n d w eiterg efü h rt von nordischen F o rsch em , Oslo,
Finland’, JSFO u 60, 1958. 1926.
- ( = The History
F in n ish F olklore R esearch 1 8 2 8 - 1 9 1 8 - ‘Die Freierei der Himmelslichter’, FU F 3, 1903.
of Learning and Science in Finland 1828-1918, - ‘Die Fundorte der epischen Gesänge des Kalevala
Voi. 12), Helsinki, 1969. (mit einer Karte)’, FUF 4, 1904.
- 'Vicissitudes in Publishing the Ancient Poetry of - F o lk lo re M e th o d o lo g y , F o rm u la te d b y J ulius K rohn
the Finnish People’, SF 7, 1957. a n d E x p a n d e d b y N o r d ic R esearchers ( = Publications
- 'Ü ber Arbeitsweise und Möglichkeiten bei der Er* of the American Folklore Society, Bibliographical
forschung altfinnischer Runendichtung’, SF 5, and Special Series, Vol. 21), Austin & London,
1947. 1971.
- ‘Kaleva und seine Sippe’, JSFO u 30, 1918.
U no H olmberg [later H arva ], D e r B a u m d es L eb en s,
- K a lev a la stu d ie n I-V I ( = FFG 53, 67, 71, 72, 75,
Helsinki, 1922. 76), 1924-1928.
- ‘Finno-Ugric Mythology’, T h e M y th o lo g y o f A ll
- ‘Lemminkäinens Tod < Christi > Balders Tod’,
R aces , Vol. 4, Boston, 1927.
FUF 5, 1905.
L auri H onko , ‘Finnische Mythologie*, W örterbuch - 'Sampsa Pellervoinen > Njordr, Freyr?*, FUF 4,
d er M y th o lo g ie (herausg. von H. W. Haussig), Teil 1904.
II: D a s a lte E u ro p a , Stuttgart, 1965. - 'Ü ber Ortsnamen in den Gesängen des archangel-
- ‘Uno Harva’, JSF 25-26, 1970. schen Karelien I - I I I ’, FUF 16, 1923.
- Z UTfinnischen M y th o lo g ie , Voi. I ( = FFG 104), 1932.
O skar K allas, D ie W ied erh o lu n g slied er d er estnischen
V olkspoesie, Voi. 1 ( = MSFOu 16), 1901. K u ltu rh isto risk t L ex ik o n f ö r n o rd isk m e d e ltid f r å n vik in g a
t i d t i l l refo rm a tio n stid , Vois. 1-19, Helsingfors, 1956-
V äinö K aukonen , ‘Die Entstehung des Kalevala- 1975 (sub e.g. A h ti, A n n ik a in en , A n tero V ipunen,
Epos’, W issen sch a ftlich e Z e its c h r if t d er E r n s t M o r itz A n teru s f r å n P y h ä jo k i, B a lla d d ik tn in g , Ilm a rin en , K a
A r n d t U n iv e rsitä t G r e ifs w a ld , 8, Gesellschaft- und le v a , K a le v a la , K a n te le , K a u k o m ie li, K u lle rv o , L egen d-
sprachwissenschaftliche Reihe 3, 1958-1959. viso r, L em m in k ä in en , M a r ia d ig tn in g , M a r ia M a g d a
- 'Elias Lönnrot als Förderer der Kenntnis der nahe len a , M y tis k e d ik t, N a tu r m y tis k a viso r, O sm o , R e ise r,
verwandten Völker Finnlands’, A c ta E th n o g ra p h ica , S a m p o , S k jem teviser, S ä m p sä P ellervo in en , T ro lld o m ,
11, Budapest, 1963. U n ta m o , V äin äm öin en ).
- 'Elias Lönnrot, velikii uchenyy karelo-finskogo
naroda’, Izv e s tiy a A k . N a u k S S S R , o td . U t. i y a z y k a E rich K unze , ‘Goethes "Finnisches Lied” ’, SF 6,
11, Leningrad, 1952. 1952.
- 'Jacob Grimm und das Kalevala-Epos*, D eu tsch es
J a h rb u ch f ü r Volkskunde, 9, Berlin, 1963. A nna-L eena K uusi, ‘Finnish Mythology’, A n cien t
- 'Kalevala-Dichtung im heutigen Viena’, M i t t e i C u ltu res o f th e U ra lia n P eo p les (ed. Péter Hajdü),
lungen des V ereins f ü r fin n isch e V olkskunde, 2: 1-2, Budapest, 1976.
Helsinki, 1944.
- ‘Sozdanie eposa "Kalevala” F in n o -u g o rsk a ya f ilo - M atti K uusi, ‘Beiträge zur Feuermythologie’, M i s
cellanea K . C . P eeters, Antwerpen, 1975.
lo g iy a , Leningrad, 1962.
- 'The Kalevala and the Kalevipoeg’, A n cien t C u l - ‘Le discours direct comme critére de datation de
tures o f the U ra lia n P eo p les (ed. Péter Hajdü), Buda
la poésie épique ancienne’, M ila n g e s offerts å A u r i-
lien S a u va g eo t p o u r son so ix a n teq u in zx lm e a n n iversaire
pest, 1976.
( = Études Finno-Ougriennes 8), Paris, 1971.
I ivar K emppinen , T h e B a lla d o f L a d y Isa b e l a n d the - T yp o lo g in en a n a ly y si ( — MSFOu 96),
S am po-eepos.
F a lse K n ig h t, Helsinki, 1954. 1949 (Deutsches Referat).
- * ‘The Bridge and the Church’, an Anti-church
A. K hurmevaara , " K a le v a la ” v R o s s it. K is to r ii p e re - Legend’, SF 18, 1975.
voda, Petrozavodsk, 1972. - ‘Über Wiederholungstypen in der Volksepik unter
J ohn I. K olehmainen , E p ic o f the N o r th . T h e S to ry besonderer Berücksichtigung der Edda, der Byli-
o f F in la n d 's K a le v a la , New York Mills, 1973. nen und der finnisch-estnischen Volksdichtung’,
SF 6, 1952.
W olfgang K rause , ‘Zur Herkunft von finn. runo
'Lied” , FUF 37, 1969. A rmas L aunis, ‘Über Art, Entstehung und Verbrei
tung der estnisch-finnischen Runenmelodien. Eine
J ulius K rohn , 'Das Lied vom Mädchen, welches Studie aus dem Gebiet der vergleichenden Volks
erlöst werden soll’, JSFO u 10, 1892. melodienforschung’, MSFOu 31, 1913.
K aarle K rohn , ‘Das Lazarusthema in der finnisch O u n L eh tipuro , Trends in Finnish Folkloristics’,
estnischen Volksdichtung’, MSFOu 52, 1924. SF 18, 1975.
- ‘Der gefangene Unhold’, FUF 7, 1907.
- ‘Der Hansakaufmann in der finnischen Volks P entti L eino , S tru k tu ra a lin en a lk u so in tu su om essa, Hel
dichtung’, FUF 16, 1923. sinki, 1970 (Summary: Structural alliteration in
- D ie fo lk lo r is tis e lle A rb eitsm eth o d e, begrü n det von J u liu s Finnish).
605
N ils L id , ‘Kring Kalevala-miljeet’, S yn o g S egn, W. E dson R ichmond, ‘The Study of Folklore in Fin
Oslo, 1943. land’, J o u r n a l o f A m erica n F o lk lo re, Vol. 74, Phi
- ‘The Mythical Realm of the Far North as it ap ladelphia, 1961.
pears in the National Finnish Epic Kalevala and M atti S adeniemi, D ie M e tr ik d es K a lev a la -V e rse s
the Scandinavian Fornalder-Saga Tradition’, L a o s, ( = FFC 139), 1951.
1, C o m p a ra tive S tu d ie s o f F o lk lo re a n d R e g io n a l E th
n o lo g y , Stockholm, 1951. V äinö S alminen , 'Die alten Lieder des finnischen
Volkes’, M itte ilu n g e n des Vereins f ü r finnische V olks
O skar L oorits , G ru n d zü g e d es estnischen V o lk sg la u b en s,
kunde,I: 1-2, Helsinki, 1943.
3 vois, Lund, 1949-1957 (cf. Namen- und Stich
wortregister, Vol. 3, sub e.g. B a lla d e , E ic h e , F in n en , A urelien S auvageot . L e s a n d e n s F in n o is, Paris, 1961.
fin n isch -u g risch , H e ld en ep ik , In g erm a n la n d , K a le v a la ,
I ngrid S chellbach , ‘Die Bahuvrihi-Komposita in
K a re lie n , L egen de, M a ie - L ie d , S ch m ied , W a sserju n g
der alten finnischen Volksdichtung’, JSFO u 65,
f r a u , W e lteim yth e, W ied erh o lu n g slied er).
1964.
V. J . M ansikka, 'Alesha Popovich i Ivan Godino-
vich v Finlyandii’, E tn ografich eskiye O b o zren iye, E. N. S etä lä , ‘Das Rätsel vom Sampo*, FUF 22,
Moskva, 1907. 1934.
- 'Der "blaue Stein” in der finnischen Volkstradi - ‘Die Übersetzungen und Übersetzer des Kaleva-
tion’, FUF 11, 1911. las. Kleine Nachträge zu der Bibliographie der
- ‘Kleinere Beiträge zur Balder-Lemminkäinen- Kalevala-Übersetzungen’, FUF 10, 11, 1910, 1911.
frage’, FUF 8, 1908. - ‘Kullervo-Hamlet. Ein sagenvergleichender Ver
such’, FUF 3, 7, 10, 1907-1910.
E. M. M eletinskii, ‘K voprosu o genezise karelo- - ‘Zur Etymologie von Sampo’, FUF 2, 1902.
finskogo eposa’, S o vetsk a ya etn o g ra fiya , Moskva, 1960
(English summary). W olfgang S teinitz , D e r P a ra lle lism u s in der fin n isch
k arelischen V olksdich tu n g untersucht an den L iedern des
R udolf M ey er , K a le w a la . D e r fin n isch e M y th o s und karelischen S ä n g ers A rh ip p a P erttunen ( = FFC 115),
d a s G eisteserbe F in n la n d s, Stuttgart, 1964. 1934.
E rnest J . M oyne , H ia w a th a a n d K a le v a la . A S tu d y F en n ica , Voi. 11. Dédié å la mémoire de
S tu d ia
o f the R e la tio n sh ip betw een L o n g fe llo w 's “ In d ia n E d d a ” Kaarle Krohn å 1’occasion de son centenaire, par
a n d the F in n ish E p ic ( = FFC 192), 1963. la Société de la Littérature Finnoise, 1964 (Artides
E ino N ieminen , ‘Finnisch
k a n tele und die damit ver on Kaarle Krohn in English, German and French
bundenen Namen baltischer Musikinstrumente’, by M artti Haavio, Irja-Leena Evijärvi, Jouko
SF 10, 1963. Hautala, M atti Kuusi and Bertalan Korompay).
F elix J . O inas, 'Folk Epic’, F o lk lo re a n d F o lk life (ed. S t ith T hompson and J onas Balys, 'Finnish Folk
Richard M. Dorson), Chicago, 1972. lore’, S ta n d a r d D ic tio n a ry o f F o lk lo re, M y th o lo g y an d
- S tu d ie s in F in n ic -S la v ic F o lk lo re R e la tio n s ( = FFC L eg en d , Voi. 1, New York,' 1949.
205), 1969.
Y. H. T oivonen , ‘Le gros chéne des chants popu
I stvån P a pp , ‘Die Rhythmusprobleme des Kale late s finnois’, JSFO u 53, 1947.
vala’, JSFO u 58, 1956.
A sko V ilkuna , D a s V erhalten d er F innen in “ H e ilig e n ”
J uha P entikäinen , ‘Julius and Kaarle Krohn’, JSF S itu a tio n en ( = FFC 164), 1956.
25-26, 1970.
W illiam A. W ilson , F o lk lo re a n d N a tio n a lis m in M o d
E rich P oh l , D i e deutsche V o lk sb a lla d e von d er “ L o sg e e m F in la n d , Bloomington and London, 1976.
kau ften *'. E in Versuch z u r E rfo rsch u n g d es U rsp ru n g s
u n d W erdegan ges ein er V o lk sb a lla d e von eu ropäischer L eea V irtanen , ‘Väinö Salminen’, JSF 25-26,
V erbreitung ( = FFC 105), 1934. 1970.
P irkko -L iisa R ausmaa, ‘Antti Aarne’, JS F 25-26, V. Ya . Y evseyev , Isto rieh esk ie osnoyy karelo-finskogo
1970. ep o sa , 2 vois, Moskva-Leningrad, 1957, 1960.
606
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The editors wish to thank the following for permis 14, 17, 19, 20), the Finnish Literature Societv, Hel
sion to reproduce the photographs used in this book: sinki (Plates 1-3, 5-11, 25, 27-31, 34, 35, 37, 38),
the National Museum of Finland, Helsinki (Plates and the Department of Ethnography in the Univer
12, 15, 16, 21, 22, 23, 24, 26, 32, 33, 36, 39-46), sity of Tampere (Plates 4, 18).
the General Staff of the Finnish Army (Plates 13,
607
MATTI KUUSI, born in 1914, Professor
of Finnish and Comparative Folk
Poetry at the University of Helsinki
since 1959. His publications include a
major study of the sampo -theme
(Sampo-Eepos, 1949) and numerous
monographs and articles on folk poetry
and closely related subjects. From 1959
to 1970 he was editor-in-chief of
Suomen Kirjallisuus, the eight-volume
history of Finnish literature.
Printed in Finland