Assignment # 2

Submitted to:
Sir Dr. Muhammad Yasir Javaid
Submitted by:
Ahsan Ali
Subject:
IC Engine Operation
Roll no:
15761
Semester:
5th (B)
Department:
Mechanical Engineering Technology

Government College University Faisalabad

Q.No.8
What do you mean by solid injection system? Enlist the types
of solid injection system. Explain with neat sketch of common
rail fuel injection system.

Solid injection system:

In this Injection system, the fuel will be directly injected into the cylinder without the aid of the
compressed air as like in the Air Injection System. This can be also called as the Airless Mechanical
Injection System.

In this Solid Injection System There are different types of Injection Systems are there.

1. Individual pump and Nozzle system

2. Unit Injector system
3. Common rail system
4. Distributor system

Main Components in Solid Injection system

• Fuel tank
• Fuel Feed pump
• Injection pump
• Governors
• Injector
• Fuel Filters

Following is the schematic representation of Solid Injection system

Types of solid injection system
1. Individual pump and Nozzle system:
Following is the schematic representation of the Individual pump and Nozzle system

(a) with separated pumps (b) With pumps in cluster

In this Injection system, each cylinder will be provided with the individual pump and the nozzle
system. The high-Pressure compression pumps will be provided for each cylinder, but the
arrangement will be close to each cylinder as shown in fig(a) or they may be clustered together
as shown in fig(b). The HP pump will be operated with the help of CAM mechanism. The HP pump
will produce the necessary pressure to open the injector valve to inject the fuel into the cylinder.
The amount of fuel injected into the cylinder depends on the effective stroke of the plunger.

2. Unit Injector system:

The fuel injector nozzle and the pump will be enclosed in one housing as a unit and this unit will
be provided for each cylinder. There will be a low-Pressure pump operated by the rocker arm
actuated the plunger. The amount of fuel injected into the cylinder depends on the effective
stroke of the plunger. This injector nozzle and the LP pump are enclosed as the one single unit as
shown in the above fig.

3. Common rail system:

As we can see the schematic representation of the Common rail system above. It consists of the
common header for all the fuel injector nozzles. The fuel will be supplied to the header by a High-
Pressure pump. The high pressure in the header will pass the fuel to each nozzle at each cylinder.
At the correct time, a rocker and rod mechanism will let the valve open for the fuel to enter into
the cylinder through the nozzles.
 4. Distributor system:

In this Distributed system, there will be a pump which will take care of all the three operation
Pressurizing, metering and timing on injection. The fuel will be sent to the rotating distributor to
inject the fuel into each cylinder. The uniform distribution of the fuel can be achieved due to the
one metering device. There is one more advantage is that the cost of the injection system is also
less.

Common rail fuel injection system

Introduction:
The common rail system of fuel injection was used in marine diesel engines during the early and
mid-19th century. These systems where well known in a particular type of engine famously called
the "Doxford" engines or opposed piston engines. These engines are hard to find these days as
they have been replaced by more efficient engines.
The common rail system of fuel injection is a simple and efficient system. The recent trend in the
automobile industry is the usage of common rail direct fuel injection systems in some modern
vehicles. Some of the engines in the automobile sector introduce this common rail system of
injection not only in diesel engines, but also in petrol/gasoline engines. Let discuss the operation
of a marine diesel engine with a common rail fuel injection system.

Components and Operation of a Common Rail Injection System:

The common rail system has one or more common high pressure, multiple plunger, fuel
pump/pumps. The fuel is discharged into a manifold preferably called a "rail" which is maintained
at a very high pressure. From this common rail, fuel is supplied to all the fuel injectors in the
various cylinder units. Between the rail and the injector or injectors for a particular cylinder is a
"timing valve" which determines the timing and extent of fuel delivery. Spill valves are connected
to the manifold or rail to release excess pressure and accumulator bottles are included to
dampen out pump pressure pulses. The injectors in a common rail system are often referred to
as fuel valves.

The timing valve in the common rail system is operated by a cam and a lever as shown in the
figure below. When the timing valve is lifted by the cam, the lever also is lifted, thus ensuring
that the valve in the timing valve block allows high pressure fuel oil to reach the fuel injectors.
Also, the timing valve operating lever is fixed to a sliding rod. This sliding rod is in turn fixed with
the lever, which in turn governs the amount (quantity) of the fuel to be injected into each cylinder
unit, meeting the load demands on the engine.
Q.No.9

What type of governing used in S.I engine and C.I engine?

Explain any one of them.
Governing System in IC and SI Engines:
Governor is the mechanism or device used to maintain constant speed irrespective of changes
of load on the engine. And the method of maintaining constant speed is called as Governing.
There are three distinct methods adopted for varying the power of the engine in sympathy with
the action of governor, these methods will again differ in the mechanical means adopted in
regulating the power. In all the cases the ordinary centrifugal governor is used for controlling
the mechanical devices.
Methods of Governing:
The following is the usual classification adopted for the various methods of governing:
(a) Hit and Miss Governing:
In this type of governing, the action of the governor causes the fuel inlet valve to remain closed
during a cycle so that no fuel is admitted. The engine will thus perform an idle cycle. Or in other
words, when the engine speed increases beyond certain limit, the combustion is missed for a
few cycles by preventing the charge to enter into the cylinder. So the engine runs idle for few
cycles.
Disadvantages:
1. Efficiency decreases because of idle cycles along with actual working cycles.
2. Since the combustion is missed during same cycles, it produces very uneven turning
movement for the crank shaft.
(b) Quantitative Governing:
This method varies the power of the engine by regulating the quantity of mixture (fuel and air)
which enters the cylinder. This is sometimes done by throttling the mixture before it enters the
cylinder, the movement of the throttle valve being regulated by the lift of the centrifugal
governor. Another method of quantitative governing, used in gas engines, is by varying the lift
of the inlet valve, and thus reducing the quantity of mixture entering the cylinder.
So, as discussed above, generally centrifugal types of governors are used.
Cylindrical part is the air horn and the narrowest cross-section of which is the venturi. Throttle
valve is provided to regulate the amount of charge (air + fuel mixture) entering the engine
cylinder. Throttle valve is connected to the Governor as shown.
Now when the load on the engine increase, the speed of the engine decreases and because of
reduced speed, fly weights move inwards (shown by dotted arrows) and the sleeve moves
downwards. Then its opens the throttle valve more and hence more charge enters the engine
cylinder to develop more power and to bring engine speed constant.
And when the load on the engine decreases—speeds increases—fly weights move outwards
(shown by arrow) — closes the throttle valve accordingly—reduces the supply of charge. Hence
the engine develops required less power and maintains constant speed.
(c) Qualitative Governing:
In this method of governing the strength of the mixture is altered by the action of the
centrifugal governor, thus varying the quality of the mixture. This is done by regulating the
amount of fuel entering the cylinder, air supply remaining constant. This method of governing is
used in all heavy oil-engines using pure air compression.
The amount of fuel entering the cylinder is varied by the action of the governor. It may vary the
stroke of the oil pump or it may by pass part of the fuel back to the oil tank or it may delay the
closing of the suction valve of the fuel pump. All of these methods will cause a variation in the
point of cut off.

Q.No.10
Define Supercharging and give its advantages. Also list the
methods of supercharging and explain with sketch any one of
them.
Supercharging:
A supercharger is an air compressor that increases the pressure or density of air supplied to an
internal combustion engine. This gives each intake cycle of the engine more oxygen. It lets the
engine burn more fuel and do more work, thus increasing power. So, if more air is forced &
compressed into the cylinder, there will be an increase in the mean pressure & hence will produce
more power.
The power to the supercharger is provided mechanically by the means of belt(usually), gear, shaft
or chain connected to the engine’s crankshaft. Supercharging is a type of forced induction as it is
an external application which forces or helps engine to increase power due to external source.
Supercharging of Engine:
In Internal Combustion engine, we use supercharging to increase the volumetric efficiency. It is
most commonly used in petrol engines.

How supercharger increases the volumetric efficiency:

Superchargers increase intake by compressing air above atmospheric pressure, without creating
a vacuum. This forces more air into the engine, providing a “boost”. With the additional air in the
boost, more fuel can be added to the charge. Thus, the power of the engine is increased.
Supercharging adds an average of 46 percent more horsepower.
In high-altitude situations, where engine performance deteriorates because the air has low
density and pressure, a supercharger delivers higher-pressure air to the engine so it can operate
optimally. Pressure goes on increasing during compression stroke & goes on decreasing during
exhaust stroke.
To pressurize the air, a supercharger must spin rapidly — more rapidly than the engine itself.
Making the drive gear larger than the compressor gear causes the compressor to spin faster.
Superchargers can spin at speeds as high as 50,000 to 65,000 rotations per minute (RPM).

Advantages of supercharging:
1. Higher power output
2. Greater induction of charge mass
3. Better atomization of fuel
4. Better mixing of fuel and air
5. Better scavenging products
6. Better torque characteristics over whole range
 7. Quick acceleration of vehicle
8. Complete and smooth combustion
9. Even fuel with poor ignition quality can be used
10. Improved cold starting
11. Reduced exhaust smoke
12. Reduced specific fuel consumption
13. Increased mechanical efficiency
14. Smooth operation and reduction in diesel knock tendency

Methods of supercharging:
There are various other ways to force the air which doesn’t need extra power unlike
compressors. The 2 most widely applied are:

Ram effect supercharging:

Here, the inlet manifold is designed in such a way that the air gets automatically pushed into
the cylinder. The air continuously tries into the cylinder but the intake valves open/close several
times a second. Every time the valve closes, the air just rams into it. This generates a pressure
wave which travels in the opposite direction until it hits the plenum & gets reflected back.
Now if the resonant frequency of the plenum & engine matches, this pressure wave carries
more air into the cylinder doing the work of a supercharger.

Under piston supercharging:

This type of method is generally adopted in large marine engines. It utilizes the bottom side of
the piston for compressing the air. With proper timing of valves, this system gives an adequate
supply of compressed air, as there are 2 delivery strokes to each suction stroke of each stroke!

Limitations:
• Draws power from engine. Though the overall mechanical efficiency is increased but it
consumes power from the engine. The same job is done by a turbocharger without
consuming extra power!
• Increased heat generation. The engine should have proper heat dissipation systems as
well as it should be able to withstand thermal stresses!
• Induces stress. The engine must hold up against the high pressure & bigger
explosions generated in the cylinder. If the engine is not designed considering these
stresses, it may damage the piston head.
Q.No.11
Explain stages of combustion in C.I. engines.

Stages of combustion in IC engine:

Combustion is a process of the rapid chemical reaction between fuel and the air. This process
results in the generation of heat and light. In IC Engine, there are different stages of combustion
for different engines. In this post, we are going to focus on stages of combustion in CI
engine. Stages of combustion in SI engine are completely different than the CI engines.
In CI or compression ignition engine, in the compression stroke, only air is compressed at very
high pressure and temperature. The compression ratio used is in the range of 12 to 120.
The temperature of the air becomes higher than the temperature of the fuel which is diesel in
the CI engine. Then diesel fuel is injected in the combustion chamber under very high pressure
about 120 to 210 bar. The temperature of this fuel is around 20° to 35° before TDC (Top Dead
Center).

Diagram / Graph of
stages of combustion in CI engine
Point A on the above graph shows the time at which diesel fuel injection starts. Then, the process
of combustion in the CI engine starts. This combustion takes place in four stages as discussed
below.
There are four different stages of combustion in CI engine where proper combustion of air and
fuel takes place as follows:
 1. Ignition Delay Period
2. Period of Uncontrolled Combustion
3. Period of Controlled Combustion
4. After Burning
Ignition Delay Period:
At this first stage of combustion in the CI engine, the fuel from the injection system sprayed in
the combustion chamber in the form of a jet. Due to atomization and vaporization, this fuel
disintegrates at the core which is surrounded by a spray of air and fuel particles.
In this vaporization process, the fuel gets heat from the compressed and hot surrounding air. It
causes some pressure drop in the cylinder. You can see this pressure drop (curve AB) in the
above figure.
After completion of the vaporization process, the reaction of the mixture in the combustion
chamber starts. During the reaction, pressure into the cylinder starts increasing with the release
of energy at a slow rate.
This reaction starts slowly and then speeds up until the ignition of the fuel takes place. You can
see this process at point C on the diagram.
This time interval between the starting of the fuel injection and the beginning of the
combustion is called the delay period. This delay period can further be divided into two parts –
Physical delay and chemical delay.
The period between the time of injection of the fuel and its achievement of self-ignition
temperature during vaporization is called physical delay. When physical delay completes, the
time interval up to the fuel ignites and the flame of the combustion appears is called chemical
delay.
If this delay period performs longer than usual, then we can here knocking in CI engine.

Period of Uncontrolled Combustion:

This is the second stage of combustion in the CI engine. After the above-mentioned delay
period is over, the air and fuel mixture will auto-ignite as they have achieved their self-ignition
temperature.
The mixture of air and fuel in CI engines is heterogeneous unlike homogeneous in the SI
engines. Due to this heterogeneous mixture, flames appear at more than one location where
the concentration of the mixture is high.
When the flame formed the mixture in the other low concentration starts burning by the
propagation of flames or due to auto-ignition, because of the process of heat transfer.
The accumulated fuel during the delay is now started burning at an extremely rapid rate. It
causes a rise in in-cylinder pressure and temperature. So, the higher the delay period, the
higher would be the rate of pressure rise.
During this stage, you can’t control the amount of fuel burning, that’s why this period is called
a period of uncontrolled combustion. This period is represented by the curve CD in the above
figure.

Period of Controlled Combustion:

When the accumulated fuel during the delay period completely burned in the period
uncontrolled combustion, the temperature and pressure of the mixture in the cylinder are so
high that new injected fuel from the nozzle will burn rapidly due to the presence of sufficient
oxygen in the combustion chamber.
That’s the reason we can control the rise of pressure into the cylinder by controlling the fuel
injection rate. Therefore, this period of combustion is called a period of controlled combustion.

After Burning:
This is the last stage out of the four stages of combustion in CI engine.
Naturally, the combustion process is completed at the point when the maximum pressure is
obtained in the combustion chamber at point E as shown in the figure.
Practically, the burning of the fuel in the combustion chamber remains to continue during
the expansion stroke. The main reason behind it is the reassociation of dissociated gases and
unburnt fuel.
Therefore, this last phase of combustion is called After Burning.

Q.No.12
Classify different types of combustion chambers in S.I and C.I
engine. Also explain any one of them.
Combustion chamber:
A combustion chamber is an enclosed space inside of a combustion engine in which a fuel and
air mixture is burned. Burning fuel releases a gas that increases in temperature and volume.
When you heat a gas, the atoms in the gas start bouncing off each other with more energy and
vigor. The hard bouncing causes them to get thrown out farther and the whole gaseous cloud
expands.
Types of Combustion chambers for SI Engines:
• T-Head type
• L-Head type
• I-Head type
• F-Head type

T-Head Type:
There will be two valves on each side and a spark plug from the top side. This type of
combustion chambers was used in the early stages of the engine’s development. In this type of
combustion chamber, the knocking tendency is more because of the distance across the
combustion chamber is long. There is need of two cam shafts for the two valves. which is
another disadvantage.

L-Head type:
One of the disadvantages in the T-head type is having two valves on either side which needs two
camshafts to operate them. Bringing these inlet and exhaust valves to the same side will solve
this problem. In this L-Head type combustion chamber, you can see both inlet and the exhaust
valve will be on the same side operated by the same camshaft.
L-Head type combustion chamber the charge need to take a right angle turn to enter into the
combustion chamber. This cause the loss of velocity and low turbulence results in the slow
combustion process. To avoid this, we have Ricardo’s turbulent head design for the L-Head
combustion chamber (Right side picture). The head design will be helpful to create the turbulence
for the charge to keep the velocity for improving the combustion process.
I-Head type:
This I-Head type combustion chamber is also called as the overhead valve combustion chamber.
As you can see the inlet and the exhaust valves are located on the top of the cylinder head.
The main advantage of this combustion chamber is that it can achieve high compression ratios,
and also less tendency to the knock. High volumetric efficiency. We can avoid the thermal
failures by keeping the hot exhaust valve in the head instead of the cylinder.

F-Head type:
F-Head type combustion chamber is an inspired design from the L-head type and the I-Head type
combustion chambers. As you can see the F-Head type combustion chamber in the above
diagram One exhaust valve is in the cylinder head, the inlet valve in the side, and the spark plug
is in the cylinder head. Again, this has the same disadvantage as the T-Head type combustion
chamber as the two valves need to be operated by two different camshafts.
Types of Combustion chambers for CI Engines:
There are two different types of combustion chambers for CI Engines.

• Direct Injection type

• Indirect Injection type

Direct Injection type combustion chambers:

Direct Injection type combustion chambers are also known as the open type combustion
chambers. This open type combustion chambers, the combustion chamber volume will be
located in the cylinder. The fuel will be injected directly into the combustion chamber with the
help of the fuel injector.

There are four design variants available in Direct Injection type combustion chambers. those
are

1. Shallow depth chamber

2. Hemispherical chamber

3. cylindrical chamber

4. Toroidal chamber

1. Shallow depth chamber

Shallow depth combustion chambers are mostly used in the heavy engines running with the low
speeds. As you can see the shallow depth chamber diagram, the depth of the cavity provided in
the piston is quite small and the diameter is large. Due to the large diameter, there will be
almost negligible squish.
2. Hemispherical chamber

2. Hemispherical chamber

As we can see the hemispherical chamber, the depth to the diameter ratio can be varied. so
that the squish can be controlled to attain better performance.

3. Cylindrical Chamber

In a few modern diesel engines, this type of combustion chambers was implemented. As you
can see the Cylindrical Chamber diagram, the shape of the combustion chamber is truncated
cone with the base angle of 30°. The Squish can be varied by varying the depth. The swirl can be
produced by masking the valve for nearly 180°of the circumference. Squash also can be
controlled by varying the depth.

4. Toroidal Chamber
 4.

This Toroidal chamber design is mainly focused to provide the powerful Squish along with the
air moment. As the more Squish, the mask needed on the inlet valve is small and there is better
utilization of oxygen.

Q.No.13

Explain briefly the phenomenon of “Diesel knock”.

Diesel knock:

Diesel knock is the clanking, rattling sound emitted from a running diesel engine. This noise is
caused by the compression of air in the cylinders and the ignition of the fuel as it is injected into
the cylinder. This is much the same as a gasoline engine suffering from pre-ignition or spark
knocking. The timing of the fuel being injected into the diesel engine is critical to prevent parts
breakage, which can result from severe knock.
A diesel engine functions differently than its gasoline counterpart. In a gasoline engine, fuel is
mixed with air and then compressed before an electric spark ignites the mixture. In a diesel
engine, only the air is compressed. The fuel is then injected into the cylinder filled with
compressed air, and the heat from the compressed air ignites the fuel without the aid of an
electric ignition.
The telltale sound of an operating diesel engine is due in part to the fuel injection process. By
injecting raw fuel into extremely hot compressed air, the fuel ignites as the piston is still
traveling up in the cylinder, causing a detonation and subsequent rattling sound to be heard.
The process is compression driven, and the higher the compression ratio within the cylinder,
the greater the power output of the engine.
While gasoline engines typically operate at 8:1 to 10:1 compression ratios on the street, the
typical diesel engine operates at 14:1 to 25:1 compression ratios. This higher compression
allows a diesel engine to operate much more efficiently than its gasoline cousin. Diesel knock is
a by-product of the raised compression and fuel injection process and is an acceptable result of
the ignition sequence.
A diesel engine is difficult to start in cold weather due to its lack of an electronic ignition
system. Many manufacturers equip diesel engines with glow plugs to aid in starting the engine
in cold climates. A glow plug uses the battery to heat a wire coil red hot in the combustion
chambers. This causes more noticeable diesel knock in the engine until it reaches operating
temperature. Knocking declines as the fuel begins to ignite more easily within the engine.
Some manufacturers have created special engine mounts that help muffle diesel knock from
passenger compartments. As the cost of fuel rises, diesel engines are being fitted into an
increasing amount of passenger vehicles due to superior fuel efficiency. Knock is seen by many
as a tolerable side effect of better fuel economy.

Q.No.14
What are the major pollutants from the exhaust of gasoline
&diesel engines? What are the detrimental effects of these
pollutants?
Diesel engine exhaust:
During that period, substantial changes occurred in engine and emission control technologies,
and additional changes are to be expected in the future. It is also reasonable to expect that the
emissions characterized recently may not represent fully emissions in earlier times. The
available data refer mainly to light-duty vehicles; quantitative data on emissions from heavy-
duty diesel engines are relatively sparse. Because of these limitations, the data presented here
should be considered only as illustrative of the emissions of internal combustion engines; they
should not be interpreted as representative of either current emissions from the wide range of
engines used at present or of those that may have occurred in the past.
Compounds emitted from diesel engines include all of the compounds and compound classes
listed in Table 1. Diesel engines produce two to ten times more particulate emissions than
gasoline engines (without catalytic converter) of comparable power output and two to 40 times
more particulate emissions than gasoline engines equipped with a catalytic converter (Table 3).
The particles consist primarily of elemental carbon, sulfuric acid (2–7%; Pierson, 1983) and
some metallic species, e.g., iron from the engine and exhaust system (Lang et al., 1981), barium
from fuel (Hampton et al., 1983) and zinc from lubricating oil (Hare & Baines, 1979), and
adsorbed organic compounds (National Research Council, 1982).
Gasoline engine exhaust:
All research to date indicates that emissions from spark-ignition engines run on unleaded
gasoline are qualitatively similar to the emissions from diesel engines ( et al., 1984; see Tables
3, 6 and 10). However, there are significant quantitative differences (see section 1.4). The data
reported below relate to four-stroke engines, unless otherwise specified, although the
emissions from two-stroke engines are qualitatively similar. Since several PAHs have been
shown to be carcinogenic (IARC, 1983, 1987a), much research has been directed to the
identification of individual compounds in these emissions (Table 10; Grimmer et al., 1977). As
for diesel fuel, the emission of PAHs (measured as benzo[a]-pyrene) varies with the aromatic
content of the gasoline.

Effects
Occupational health effects
Exposure to diesel exhaust and diesel particulate matter (DPM) is an occupational hazard
to truckers, railroad workers, occupants of residential homes in vicinity of a rail yard,
and miners using diesel-powered equipment in underground mines. Adverse health effects
have also been observed in the general population at ambient atmospheric particle
concentrations well below the concentrations in occupational settings.
In March 2012, U.S. government scientists showed that underground miners exposed to high
levels of diesel fumes have a threefold increased risk for contracting lung cancer compared with
those exposed to low levels. The $11.5 million Diesel Exhaust in Miners Study (DEMS) followed
12,315 miners, controlling for key carcinogens such as cigarette smoke, radon, and asbestos.
This allowed scientists to isolate the effects of diesel fumes

Specific effects
Exposures have been linked with acute short-term symptoms such as headache, dizziness, light-
headedness, nausea, coughing, difficult or labored breathing, tightness of chest, and irritation
of the eyes, nose, and throat Long-term exposures can lead to chronic, more serious health
problems such as cardiovascular disease, cardiopulmonary disease, and lung
cancer. Elemental carbon attributable to traffic was significantly associated with wheezing at
age 1 and persistent wheezing at age 3 in the Cincinnati Childhood Allergy and Air Pollution
Study birth cohort study.
The NERC-HPA funded Traffic Pollution and Health in London project at King's College London is
currently seeking to refine understanding of the health effects of traffic pollution. Ambient
traffic-related air pollution was associated with decreased cognitive function in older men.
Reference:
Q.No.8
https://extrudesign.com/classification-of-injection-system/

https://www.slideshare.net/friendsrtg/8ic-en-ii-fispf

https://www.brighthubengineering.com/marine-engines-machinery/42648-common-rail-system-of-
fuel-injection/

Q.No.9
https://www.engineeringenotes.com/mechanical-engineering/ic-engine/ic-engines-cooling-lubrication-
and-governing-system-thermodynamics/50461

http://www.aboutmech.com/2016/01/governing-of-ic-engines.html?m=1

Q.No.10
https://becurious.co.in/supercharger/

https://clubtechnical.com/supercharger

http://mechstuff.com/how-superchargers-work-types-advantages-limitations/

Q.No.11
https://www.enggstudy.com/stages-of-combustion-in-ci-engine/

Q.No.12
https://study.com/academy/lesson/combustion-chambers-definition-types-design.html

https://extrudesign.com/different-types-of-combustion-chambers-for-si-engines/

https://extrudesign.com/different-types-of-combustion-chambers-for-ci-engines/

Q.No.13
https://www.scribd.com/doc/302997565/Diesel-knock-pdf

Q.No.14
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK531367/