水产养殖与渔业生态学

Aquaculture & Fisheries Ecology

主讲：刘利平 胡梦红
邮箱 lp-liu@shou.edu.cn
mhhu@shou.edu.cn
水产与生命学院B325
 课程考核方式
1. 出勤成绩占总成绩10% attendance

2. 平时成绩占总成绩10% mini test

 共两次课堂作业（翻译）

3. 开卷考试 true or false questions

20道 判断题 占总成绩30% (1月6日)

3.课程论文占总成绩50% （1月8日前上交）
 撰写与水产养殖与渔业生态学相关的综述
 论文题目自理，论文字数 5000字左右
 格式规范（按《水产学报》期刊的格式）
 严禁侵犯著作权，否则论文分数记为零分。
 课程论文参考选题
多营养级综合养殖模式的运用
生物絮团的研究进展、问题及展望
近海（池塘或网箱）综合养殖技术的发展
设施渔业相关技术的研究进展
捕捞方式对底栖动物生物群落的影响
稳定同位素技术在水产养殖与渔业生态学的研究
水产养殖对于天然水域的影响
水产养殖模式的生态学机理（混养等）
生态毒理学在渔业中的应用
水产养殖与渔业生态环境监测预警技术的发展
有关水产养殖与渔业生态环境的管理方式的思考
水域生态系统修复与重建技术的发展
Aquaculture: global status and
trends
Dr. Liu Li-ping

E-mail: lp-liu@shou.edu.cn

Shanghai Ocean University

Outline

 Current status of global aquaculture

 Trends & challenge in aquaculture development
Guolian introductory vdo
 Current status of global aquaculture

Global aquaculture grown to around 52.5

million tonnes (68.3 million including aquatic
plants) in 2008
Worth US$98.5 billion (US$106 billion
including aquatic plants)
accounting for more than 50% of the world’s
fish food supply.
Figure 1. Global aquaculture production by region.
Source: FAO (2010).
 Figure 2. Average annual growth rate of all aquaculture
production in terms of quantity over a 5-year period.
Calculated using the difference between mean values from the periods 2000–
2002 and 2005–2007. Red, greater than -10%; orange, -3 to -10%; rose, 0 to -3%;
violet, 0–3%; light blue, 3–10%; dark blue, greater than 10%. Source: FAO
(2009b). Rwanda (909.5%) and Ukraine (590.8%)
• Figure 3. Aquaculture production by output and value for major
species groups in 2008. Source: FAO (2010), excluding aquatic plants.
the top 20 species for 74 percent of production
• Figure 4. Mean aquaculture production from freshwater
systems as a function of land area (kg km-2 yr-1) for the period
2005–2007.
Dark green, 0–50 kg km-2; light green, 50–100 kg km-2; yellow, 100–250 kg
km-2; light orange, 250–500 kg km-2; dark orange, 500–1000 kg km-2; red,
1000–3000 kg km-2; maroon, greater than 3000 kg km-2. Source: FAO
(2009b).
Table 1. Most significant species (more than 1 million tonnes in
2008), by quantity and value. FAO (2010). nei, not elsewhere
included.
Table 2. Examples of aquaculture employment, output
and value. Adapted from FAO (2009a).
Figure 5. Development of production volume of Atlantic
salmon and rainbow trout in Norway and number of
employees (blue), illustrating trends in industrialization
of production (red) systems.
 Trends and challenge for
aquaculture development
 strong focus on improving the efficiency of resource
utilization through management and integration or
more technological solutions available through
advances in engineering and bioscience.

 Both approaches will be important and influenced by

wider social and economic factors including
globalization, urbanization, factor prices
(especially energy) and consumer demand.
Trends and challenge for aquaculture development

(a) Integration approaches

Integrated multi-trophic aquaculture(IMTA)
IMTA systems can be described as culture systems that
use species from different trophic levels grown in
combination within the same water body or through some
other water-based linkage (for land-based systems).

In all cases water is the nutrient transport vector for

dissolved and particulate wastes, the releases from one
species acting as food for other species at a lower trophic
level.
Trends and challenge for aquaculture
development

DIN, dissolved inorganic nitrogen; F and PF, feces

and pseudofeces; POM, particulate organic matter.
James S. Diana, Hillary S. Egna, et al. BioScience, 20
Trends and challenge for aquaculture development

Integrated aquaculture/agriculture
• IAA is most common in developing
countries, where it provides a means for
rural systems to diversify and maximize
output.

• The culture method differs from mono-

culture, which is often too risk intensive for
resource-poor farmers.
Trends and challenge for aquaculture
development

Sustainable intensification
technology response to resource limitation
Trends and challenge for aquaculture development

Aquaponics system
In developed countries, there is growing
interest and activity with small-scale
aquaponic systems, which combine
freshwater aquaculture in a recirculated
system with hydroponic horticulture, usually
herbs and salad vegetables.
Aquaponics
 Aquaculture in China
China at a Glance
“Eight Words”
Aquaculture in fresh water sector
Pond culture
Open waters
common cultured species
Aquaculture in marine & brackish
water sector
Aquaculture modes
• China at a Glance
♦ Population: 1.35 billion
♦ Rural residents: 47.4%
“We eat all with four legs on
land except tables, we eat all
with two wings in the sky
except airplanes, and we eat
all with fins in water except
submarines”

♦ Aquatic Production 61 mt (2013)

♦ Consumption/person 16 kg
- Largest producer of carps, eels, tilapia, penaeid
shrimp, macrobrachium prawns etc.
- Largest exporter of tilapia, the second largest
exporter in the volume and third in value of shrimp
in the world.
- Macrobrachium prawns mainly provide for domestic
market.
 Aquaculture in China

Records of aquaculture in China date back 2500 years. “Fan

Li on Pisciculture” is the first written work in the world on
fish farming, summing up the rich experience of raising carp in
ponds in the fifth century B.C.
 Aquaculture in China
Summarization and extension of the
experience of Chinese freshwater fish
culture(1960s)

“Eight Words”

Water, Seed, Feed, Density

Polyculture, Rotation,
Disease, Management
 Aquaculture in China
In freshwater sector:
Pond culture shares 70% of total
freshwater aquaculture production.
(Average yields have increased to 5,480
kg/ha in 2004.)

Open-waters culture(lakes, reservoirs,

river channels) and paddy cuture
contribute the remaining output.
Aquaculture in China

Pond culture(shrimp)
Aquaculture in China

Pond culture(tilapia)
 Aquaculture in China

• Guolian introductory vdo

Aquaculture in China
Pen culture in lakes
 Aquaculture in China

Reservoir cage culture

 Aquaculture in China
Common farmed species

Local species:
Silver carp
(Hypophthalmichtys molitrix)
Bighead carp
(Aristichtys nobilis)
Grass carp
(Ctenopharyogodon idellus)
Black carp
(Mylopharyngodon piceus)
Common carp
(Cyprinus carpio)
Crucian carp
(Carassius auratus)
Silver carp Bighead carp

Grass carp
Black carp
Family fishes
 Aquaculture in China
Blunt snout bream
(Megalobrama amblyocephala)
Mud carp
(Cirrhina molitrorella)
Mandarin fish
(Siniperca chautsi)
Japanese eel
(Anguilla japonica)
River crab, Chinese mitten crab
(Eriocheir sinensis)
Japanese prawn
(Macrobrachium nipponensis)
Soft-shelled turtle
(Trionyx sinensis)
 Wuchang Fish

Japanese eel Tilapia

giant prawn crayfish

River crab
 Aquaculture in China
Exotic species:

Tilapia
(Oreochromis niloticus)
Rainbow trout
(Onchorhynchus mykiss)
Channel catfish
(Ictalurus punctatus)
Largemouth bass
(Micropterus salmoides)
Giant prawn
(Macrobrachium rosenbergii)
In marine / brackish water sector
Kelp culture&harvesting

Porphyra culture
In 2004 the shrimp production reached 535,230 t
In 2012 the shrimp production reached 1,330,000t

Shrimp pond
Aquaculture in China

White leg shrimp

(Litopenaeus vannamei)
 Aquaculture in China
In 1990s, sea water based farming,
such as sea-cage culture, is getting
popular in south China for:
Big yellow croaker
(Pseudosciaena crocea)
Grouper
(Epinephelus spp)
Sea breams
(Pagrosomus spp)
Perch
Aquaculture in China
Sea cage culture
Aquaculture in China
Aquaculture in China
Aquaculture in China
Aquaculture in China
 Aquaculture in China
Land based farming, such tank culture
for flounder (Paralichthys olivaceus),
turbot (Psetta maxima) is getting popular
in north China, because of high profit
Aquaculture in China
 Aquaculture in China

Diversification of farming modes

The major mode can be categorized
as following
 Aquaculture in China

A. Polyculture systems

B. Integrated farming system

 Aquaculture in China

Integrated farming system

Fish culture is closed integrated widely
with conventional agriculture, and are
managed in a comprehensive way
for example
Fish-crop integration
Mulberry-dike fish pond
Fish-livestock integration
Fish-duck integration etc
Aquaculture in China
Fish-crop integration
 Aquaculture in China

Fish-duck integration

Fish-pig integration
 Aquaculture in China

C. Intensive culture system

It becomes a trend coupled with
technologies such as formulated
feed, water quality management,
and diseases control
 New Technology:
Biofloc technology
Charpter 1 Why do we need
technologies for aquaculture
 What are the Limitations??
1.Water

In 2050, 70% of world population lack of water

2. Land

3. Environment

4. Money
Extensive ponds (<2 ton/ha)
Are not sustainable!!!!
 Intensive Aquaculture

• To produce more farmed seafood（p4）

• Environmental friendly
• Economic and social sustainably
Chapter 2 Overview of
aquaculture system
 Development of ponds intensity (P10)
Name Major Treatments Yield, Limiting Factor
Kg/Ha*Year
Fishing None < 500 Fertilizers, Algae
Very Extensive Stocking, fertilizers 1000 Natural feed web
Fed Extensive Feed (grains --> Pellets 2000 – 4000 Night time oxygen

Night aeration Night or emergency 4000-8000 Pond Soil conditions,

Intensive aerators Sludge
Highly intensive 24 hours aeration and 100,000 Water quality, Water
Biofloc mixing, >30 hp/ha. -300,000 velocity, Economy
Lined constructed
ponds
Super Intensive Tanks, raceways, 100,000- Water Quality. Price
shrimp ponds <100m2 300,000 of product, economy
 Carbon added with feed

250
DAILY FEED CARBON, KG/HA

200

150

Algae
100
Bacterial
Control
Control

50

0
0 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000

SHRIMP, KG/HA
Daily oxygen profile(P12)
Carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus recovery in fish or
shrimp expressed as a percentage of feed input (p52)
Organism C N P
Shrimp 30 10.5
Shrimp2 11.5 45.3 21.3
Shrimp 12-14 11-14
Shrimp 17-21
Shrimp 25 9
Shrimp 6-11 18-27 10-15
Shrimp 35.5 6.1
Shrimp 22.7 10.6
Shrimp 17-34.6
Carp 16 26.7 31.8
Catfish 9.1 24.8 29.7
Average 13 29 16
SD 8 8 9
Important fact to remember
• Fish (shrimp) are fed with a lot
of feed

• About 70-80% of it remains in

the pond, in the water or the
sediment.

• Ponds contain a high load of

nutrients
 Scheme of recirculating aquaculture system
(RAS， p14)

• Scheme of biofloc technology( p14)

Yoram et al, Biofloc Technology A Practical Guide Book(3rd edition, 2015)

CONCLUSIONS:
A lot of residues during and after
shrimp culture!!!
Even more for fish culture!!!
• Charpter 3 Microbial processes
and communities relevant to
aquaculture
 Heterotrophic bacteria
• Heterotrophic bacteria feed on organic
matter.
• They are secondary consumers.
• BASICALLY
• C6H12O6 + 6O 2 6 CO2+ Energy
• Use Chemical energy in organic
substrates. Consume oxygen (Though
there are anaerobic bacteria).
• Unlike algae, almost un-limited capacity
 Composition of Bacteria
• microbial cells contain
• 25% dry matter.
• On a dry matter base, bacteria contain
48.9% carbon,
• 5.2% hydrogen,
• 24.8% oxygen,
• 9.46% nitrogen (=60% crude protein),
• and 9.2% ash
Those stupid fish
are not eating
properly. They
leave half of the
food for us.
Comparison of Algae and Bacteria Controlled Systems ( P39)

PROPERTY ALGAE CONTROL BACTERIA CONTROL

Energy Solar radiation Mostly organic matter

source

Occurrence Ponds with low organic Dominance in ponds with high

matter concentration. Algae supply and concentration of
density increases with the organic substrate, normally
availability of nutrients up limited to intensive ponds with
to limitation of light. zero or low water exchange.

Sensitivity Light is essential (activity Does not need light. Adapts to a

toward lowered in cloudy days). variety of conditions. Crashes are
environment Crashes are common. exceptional.
al variables
 Algae Bacteria
Effect on Oxygen is produced during Oxygen is consumed
Oxygen the day, consumed at night

Relevant Primary production: Degradation of organic matter.

activities Produces organic matter Nitrification. Production of
and oxygen. Ammonium microbial protein.
uptake.
Inorganic Uptake driven by primary Uptake of nitrogen affected by
nitrogen production. Maximal the C/N ratio of organic matter.
control capacity 0.7 g NH4/m2 day. Practically unlimited capacity.
Potential Normally, daily primary Limited by substrate
capacity production <4gO2/m2. concentration and rate constant
of degradation.
• There are no totally autotrophic, algae
controlled ponds;

• and there are no totally heterotrophic

ponds;

• There is always a mix between the two.

 Nitrification-
autotrophic bacteria (p28)
• NH3 + 1.5 O2 → NO2- + H+ + H2O
• ammonia-oxidising bacteria

• NO2- + 0.5 O2 → NO3-

• nitrite-oxidising bacteria

• NH3 + 2 O2 → NO3- + H+ + H2O

• Overall process
 Some important facts
• Generation time of heterotrophic bacteria
is in the order of 0.5 hours (under optimal
conditions).
• Generation time of nitrifying bacteria is in
the order of hours – days. Thus slow
development and slow adjustment to
changes.
Nitrification sequence in BFT pond
(p29)
 Some important points (2)
• Nitrification takes place only in systems
that have enough oxygen.
• The second stage of nitrification is more
sensitive to low oxygen (sulfides and other
reducing compounds). Thus:
• NH4 -> NO2 ; NO2 --] to NO3
• And NO2 accumulates
• Very important for detection of conditions
in the pond!!!
 Conditions for bacteria
• 1. There is a lot of available food for
bacteria. The pond is loaded with organic
residues.
• 2. The pond is fully aerated (needed for
proper fish growth).
• 3. The pond is well mixed (typically 24
hours a day)
Intrinsic features of intensive ponds:
Highly mixed, Fully aerated.
Identical to bio-technological reactor
Optimal conditions for microbial
activity
 “Microbial soup”
• Closing or limiting water exchange in
intensive ponds leads to the accumulation
of organic matter.

• Aerating and mixing promotes the

generation of very dense microbial
population.

• Bacteria The number of bacteria in

such ponds is 106 up to 109 in one
cm3!!!!
Can we use this microbial activity?
• We will deal with this extensively.
• The microbes degrade the waste, part of it
to CO2 and about 50% to microbial
biomass.
• We can manipulate the microbial activity
toward the control of nitrogen in the pond.
• The bacteria makes an important part of
the food chain.
• They seem to improve disease protection.
The nitrogen syndrome
•N
• NH3
• NH4+-N
• NO2--N
• NO3--N
• Organic N
The Major problem: Inorganic nitrogen.
Ammonia, NH3 and nitrite, NO2
Are toxic.
Maximal safe NH3 concentration for shrimp is
0.2 mg/l
At neutral pH maximal total NH4 concentration
= ~ 2 mg/l

NH3)/(NH4) ( = Kd/(H+)

The fraction of NH3 rise with increase in

Practical Implications and Tips
It is important to know the fraction of the toxic NH3 species within total ammonium
nitrogen (TAN). The following table is useful to get a general approximated idea.

Table 5.2: Percentage of NH3 species within total TAN

Temp 240C 320C
(0C) pH
7 0.5 0.9
8 4.9 8.7
9 34.4 49
10 84 90.5
As seen, the NH3 fraction rises with temperature. However, this
fraction is slightly lowered with an increase of salinity.

For example, at 240C and pH = 8.0, this fraction is 4.9, 4.5, 4.3 and
4.2% for fresh water, 20, 25 and 30 ppt, respectively.

Adding acid in case of an acute rise of NH3 to slightly lower the pH is

sometimes a good emergency means to save the fish.
 Ammonia toxicity

The lethal level of un-ionized ammonia is a bit different for

various fishes, in the range of 1-2 mg/l.
 Nitrite (NO2) is also toxic
Nitrite entering the blood stream oxidizes the iron in
the hemoglobin molecule from Fe++ to Fe+++, changing
the hemoglobin to methemoglobin and poisoning the
respiration process.
 Mechanisms for Removal of
Nitrogenous Wastes
• Dilution

• Plant and algal

uptake

• Nitrification by
autotrophic bacteria

• Assimilation by
heterotrophic bacteria
 Shrimp Retain ~30% of Added Nitrogen:
~70% is excreted
1 kg feed (35% protein) contain 54 g N.
38 g are excreted

In pond containing 5000kg shrimp/ha,

daily feed = 10g/m3
Daily N addition is 0.54g, 540 mg
Daily N excretion is 380 mg.
Theoretical increase of N concentration = 380mg/m3
Or 0.38 mg/l per day.
In 5-6 DAYS The pond may REACH THE
 WATER EXCHANGE:
Prohibited in most countries to prevent pollution
Against bio-security
Water limitation
 ALGAE CONTROL OF NITROGEN

• Carbon Assimilation:
• 6CO2+6H2O ---------- C6H12O6 + 6O2

• This is a production of SUGARS

• However, algae are made mostly of
protein, thus they need to take up
ammonium from the water.
• * One Nitrogen is needed
for each 5 Carbon
assimilated.

• *Normally, assimilation
capacity is ~ 4g/m2 * day

• *Thus the algae nitrogen

control limit is about 0.8
g/m2 * day
 Nitrification
Nitrification is the two step process in
which ammonia is oxidized first to nitrite
and then to nitrate by two different
microbial populations.
NH4+ + 1.5O2Nitrosomonas 2H+ + H2O + NO2-
ammonium nitrite
ion
- = Nitrobacter
NO2 + 0.5O2 NO3
nitrite nitrate
 Autotrophic System Requirements-for
Nitrification,or algae activity
• Provision of large
amount of
surface area for
nitrifying bacteria

• Rapid & efficient

removal of
suspended solids

• Chemical
supplementation
with bicarbonate
Recirculating Aquaculture Systems,
RAS
 Advantages of “bio-filter” systems
• Consistent clean water.
• Clear water.
• Proven Technology and equipment
• Adaptable to a wide range of species and
production systems.
• Known design and operation parameters.
• Some turn key systems.
 However…
• Need for water treatment module in
addition to fish culturing one.
• Significant investment and maintenance of
water treatment module.
• Intensive pumping needed.
• No feed recycling
• Scaling up (to acre, ha scales), almost
impossible.
• World price of commodity fish ~ $3/kg!!!
 Nitrogen immobilization,
assimilation, uptake

Ammonium can be nitrified,

but can also be assimilated to organic N
 MICROBIAL CONVERSION

•MICROBES PRODUCE from organic substrates

•NEW CELL MATERIAL (protein)
AND ENERGY (+ CO2 ):
DC = CO2 + DCcell
DCcell/DC = e
= Microbial conversion efficiency
•normally, 0.4-0.6 for aerobic microbial
processes. Lower for anaerobic.
 But: Bacteria have to produce protein. If the
substrate is mostly carbonaceous, they need to take
nitrogen from the water
Changes in TAN concentration in a suspension of pond bottom soil (2% dry soil)
following the addition of glucose (TAN/glucose ratio of 1/20)*

*Avnimelech, 1999.
 Manipulating bacteria
• Normally, there is enough nitrogen
in ponds for new cell production.

• BUT we can add carbon rich and

protein poor material (carbo-
hydrate, CH), such as starch or
cellulose (ground grains,
molasses, cassawa etc.

• Then, there is a need for

nitrogen.
 Inorganic nitrogen control is
possible and predictable.
• EXAMPLES

• Fish ponds in Israel

• Over wintering of tilapia
• Emergency treatment in shrimp ponds in
Thailand
• Shrimp ponds in many places
Scheme of Biofloc Technology
pond
 Manipulating bacteria
• We can add carbon rich
and protein poor DC = CO2 + DCcell
material (carbo-hydrate, DCcell + NH4 ->
CH), such as starch or Microbial protein
cellulose (ground
grains, molasses,
cassawa etc.) To induce
accelerated nitrogen
uptake.
Inorganic nitrogen control
is achievable and predictable
 Feeding fish with bacteria

• We can induce the production of

microbial protein. Will it be a
good feed source for fish???
• Can they physically harvest
bacteria? Individual bacteria are
too small (~1mm)
• Is it nutritive? Bacterial
proteins are different.
• Will they digest it? Probably so
 BIOFLOC Systems
Let us floc
together and
keep company
Each cm3 of floc plug contain 10-30
mg dry matter
200 µm x10 x20 x40

200 µm 200 µm
x10 x10

Bio flocs are made of bacteria,

F
l
protozoa, etc. Typicaly their
o

diameter is 0.1-2 mm.

Courtesy of Dr. Michelle Burford
Courtesy of Dr Michelle Burford
 The ‘FLOC’
FLOC COMMUNITIES AND SIZE

100 µ

The ‘FLOC’
Defined as macroaggregates – diatoms,
macroalgae, facial pellets, exoskeleton,
remains of dead organisms, bacteria, and
invertebrates.
(Decamp, O., et al 2002)

As Natural Feed (filter feeders – L. vannamie

& Tilapia) : It is possible that microbial protein
Brown Green has a higher availability than feed protein
(Yoram, 2005)
 A Bit Wider Look
• Biofloc in a new
concept.
• It has implications on
water ecology,
microbiology,
biochemical
processes and new
concepts in
aquaculture
 Ecology
• Let us look at this figure:

• The water around the

biofloc is a “desert” No
feed, very low
concentration of nutrients.

• Yet, in the floc, there are

many goodies: Detritus,
bacteria…

Every one comes to join the party. There is lot of activity

here, just a mm away of the dull water
 Marine Snow
• A rather new term used in oceanography:

• Marine snow represents fluffy particles,

made out of fecal pellets (fish, zooplankton)
adsorbing detritus, algae bacteria etc.
Considered as an important vehicle to the
sedimentation of organic matter. Very
similar to our bioflocs.
Microbial physiology within and out
of the marine snow (Biofloc?)
• A given bacteria suspended in the water, should
not waste energy, since his energy reserves
may be depleted. Very slow metabolic rate (low
enzymes kinetics).
• However, for a bacteria in the biofloc, Fast
metabolism is an advantage: There is a lot of
food and if he use it fast he will multiply fast.
• It was found, that the same microbes have faster
enzymes kinetic in the floc. They modify
according to the conditions.
 Residence time of biofloc material
• It was found, using 15N enriched systems, that
the residence time of protein in the biofloc is
about 10 hours (Avnimelech & Kochba, 2010).
• It means that existing organisms are eaten,
degraded or harvested and new ones are
generated. The biofloc comprises of young
active organisms.
• Most probably, fast growing organisms are
selected.
 Oxygen, nutrients
• The biofloc is highly
porous
• As it moves through
the water
(sedimentation, water
mixing), it enable flow
of water through the
floc, better than for an
individual bacteria
 Protection
• Many animals floc
together to protect
most individuals
against predators.
• As seen in picture,
the bacteria within the
biofloc are protected.
 Sampling Method
Measuring procedure

1 liter / 2 places/ 15 cm deep/ between 10-12 am

Let it settled for Read density of flocs in

15-20 minutes cone (ml/l)
Practical Implications and Tips

 The biofloc system is a dynamic and

versatile system. Biological turn-over
rate of the biofloc is less than 1 day.
This biological residence time is
indicating that new flocs are created,
while the old ones have been harvested
and degraded. A period of a few days
with lowered feed input to the pond may
change the system.

Due to the transient nature of the flocs, it seems that
changes of feeding with time may affect the
concentration and properties of the flocs. It is
advisable to keep a rather constant feeding regime
with minimal perturbations.
A steady state is achieved within a few weeks if feed
input is steady.
The bioflocs contain microbes, algae, protozoa and
zooplankton, all together probably supplying the fish
with nutritious source of feed.
Whenever steady state TSS concentration is too
high to allow for perfect mixing and maintenance of
particles in suspension (ca 200-500 mg/l), an
intervention is needed: Either water exchange or
drainage of sludge.
 Protein Recycling
• Normally, fish or shrimp recover just ~25%
of feed protein.

• In bacterial controlled ponds, they eat the

protein twice; Once in the feed and then
they consume microbial protein. The
protein recovery reaches almost 50%.
• Protein is the most expensive part of the feed.
Composition of suspended detritus filtered from the water column of intensive zero
water exchange shrimp ponds fed with 31.5% or 22.5% protein feed*

Crude Protein Level of Feed (%)

Composition of Suspended Detritus Low- 31.5 High- 22.5 Mean
Organic Matter (%) 78 66 72
Ash (%) 21 32 26
Protein (%) 51 35 43
Fat (%) 10 15 12.5
Arginine (%) 2.3 1.61 1.95
Methionine (%) 0.61 0.35 0.48
Lysine (%) 2.5 1.7 2.1
*Adapted from Chamberline and co-workers, 2001.
 Expt. # 1 30% 20%
Protein
51 days Protein
FEED C/N 11.1 16.6

Daily Gain (%) 1.59a 2.0b

FCR 2.62 2.17
PCR 4.38 2.42
FEED COST (US$/Kg fish) 0.848 0.583
Exp. # 2 (30 days)

C/N 11.1 16.6

Daily gain (%) 1.63a 2.22b
FCR 2.62 2.02
PCR 4.35 2.18
Feed cost 0.848 0.543
(US$/Kg fish)
(1) Protein conversion is protein input in feed / protein gain in fish
 Single Cells Proteins, SCP
• The idea – produce feed
(or food) by industrial
processes.
• No problem in production.
• Failed due to high cost of
separation, handling,
packaging
• Here, fish are doing it all.
Scheme of Biofloc Technology
pond
 Pellets containing 40% protein:
C = 500 g/kg feed
N: Protein = 400g/kg feed, N = 62 gN/kg feed (Protein x
0.155)
C/N = 500/62 = 8.06
 Tilapia pond fed daily with 5 kg 30% protein pellets + 4.5 kg
corn starch:
Carbon = (5 + 4.5)* 50% = 4.75 kg
Nitrogen: Protein = 5 x 30% = 1.5 kg; Nitrogen = 1.5 x
0.155 = 0.2325
C/N = 4.75/0.23 = 20.6
: TAN concentrations vs. time in zero water exchange tanks experiment, growing shrimp
(Monodon) (At a density equivalent to 30/m2).
 Research questions:
• Do the fish (shrimp) eat the flocs?
• Are they assimilating it?
• How much?? (We need numbers!!)
• What are the effects of fish species, size,
etc?
• What are the effects of biofloc?
characteristics (size, with/without algae,
composition etc.)?
 Field/pond evaluation
• Usually we try to answer these
questions by following growth of fish in
ponds (tanks).

• HOWEVER:
• We need a long time.
• It is difficult to check variables (fish size,
biofloc characteristics etc.)
Using 15N tagging is very useful,
and not so difficult
 Nitrogen is made of 2 stable
isotopes: 15N and 14N
• 15N makes 0.366% of total nitrogen
(International standard reference).

We can get artificially enriched 15N sources

(Price is quite high).

With modern instrumentation, determination

Of 15N enrichment is fast and very accurate.
 How to get a 15N enriched biofloc
sample?
• 1. Prepare large enough batch of biofloc
suspension (water + feed, mix & aerate).
• 2. Add 15N salt.
• 3. Add starch, at a C/N ratio of > 15
• 4. After a few hours, practically all 15N is in
the bioflocs.
 How to run the experiment?

• 1. grow fish with the 15N enriched

biofloc suspension.
• Sample both water and fish at T=0 and
later-on.
• Filter the water to collect bioflocs.
• Send samples to an isotope laboratory.
• It is not too difficult or expensive (if you
use small scale systems).
Results 1: % 15N in fish

% 15 N in fish

0.5500

0.5000

0.4500
% 15N

0.4000

0.3500

0.3000
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15

Days
 Partial conclusions:

• 1. Fish ate and assimilated 15N tagged bioflocs.

• 2. We can calculate total nitrogen assimilation.
• 3. The net uptake slows down with time

• Net 15N uptake = 15N Gross Uptake

- 15N excretion
 Net Uptake

• In the present study it was found that the daily

net uptake of microbial protein by tilapia from a
bio floc suspension amounted to the daily
uptake of 1.56 g protein/kg fish, about 25% of
the normal protein ration given to tilapia.
 15N% in bioflocs decreases since
fish excrete more 14N
% 15 N sus matter

3.500

3.000

2.500
atom%

2.000

1.500

1.000
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15
Days
 Excretion of nitrogen
• Excretion of nitrogen
was found to be twice
its net uptake. (It is in %15 N of excreted N
line with data on the 4.0

utilization of protein). 3.5

3.0
• This implies that the 2.5

%15N
2.0
gross uptake of 1.5
bioflocs is x3 the net 1.0
0.5
uptake. 0.0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
days
 Residence time of bioflocs
• Bioflocs were taken up by fish and
degraded biologically. Yet, the amount of
bioflocs stayed almost constant. This
implies that new flocs are constantly
produced (using the excreted N).
• The residence time of bioflocs was
calculated to be around 8 hours. The flocs
seem to be a very dynamic system.
• most cells in the flocs are young and
active.
• The problem with the
method discussed is
that 15N salts are
quite costly.

• Tagging a real pond

is not realistic. Thus,
we are limited to tank
experiments
 Data on feed protein utilization
• Conventional fish, shrimp ponds 20-25%
• ASP Tilapia ponds (Avnimelech) 45%
• ASP Shrimp ponds (McIntosh) 45%
• Closed shrimp tanks (Velasco) 63%

• ASP shrimp ponds, 15N study 18-29% of total

N consumption (Michele Burford et al.)
* Tilapia, 15N Study, flocs supplied about 50%
of fish protein requirement. (Avnimelech).
Practical Implications and Tips

 Monitoring floc volume (FV) is an easy and

efficient means to follow and evaluate bioflocs
development and abundance.

 Experiences in both research and farm systems

show that if the pond is not fed for a few days,
FV drops due to its consumption by the fish.
Biofloc concentration can be built up by
additional feeding
oxygen
oxygen
A few basic facts:
• 1. Oxygen solubility in water is very low.
Its saturation (maximal content) in sea
water at ~ 30℃ is about 6 mg/l.
• O2 saturation in fresh water, 20℃ is 9.1
mg/l.

• 2. As a comparison, oxygen consumption

of 1 kg shrimp (or fish) is about 300 mg/hr.
oxygen
Contribution of algae
• Primary production:
• 6CO2 + 6H2O ->C6H12O6 + 6O2
• Range – 3-8 gC/m2 * day
• About 8-21 gO2/m2 *day

• HOWEVER:
• The organic matter is respired:
• C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6CO2

• Luckily, part of the organic matter is respired

slowly and part sediment to the bottom.
oxygen
Goals of Aeration:
• Supply oxygen to overcome oxygen
limitations and to enable higher stocking
and yields.

* Distribute the oxygen in the pond,

(a) horizontally and (b) vertically.

* Mix water and sediment – water interface.

* Control sludge coverage, location and

drainage.
oxygen

Common Aeration Intensities:

• South-East Asia 5-30 hp/ha
• Brazil 8-12 hp/ha
• Very intensive 20-60 hp/ha
• Approximation:
• 1 kw supports an increased yield of about
500 kg shrimp (370 kg/hp)
 Do we have to aerate the pond,
or just to supply oxygen to fish???

Traditional fish ponds are equipped to supply emergency

(night time) aeration at one point in the pond.

It is assumed that fish will get there if needed and avoid

low oxygen damage.
Oxygen& Aeration
Oxygen
Aerating the pond helps!!
• Through the addition of aerators and proper
deployment, tilapia yields in Israel were doubled
as compared to ponds with the conventional
night time aeration.
Oxygen& Aeration
Mixed Pond = Efficient Bio-reactor
• Industrial bio-reactors
are aerated, mixed
systems.

• So are aerated ponds,

though perfect mixing is
obtained only with
intensive aeration.

• Microbial processes
(organic matter
degradation,
nitrification..) are faster
in aerated ponds
Oxygen& Aeration
Oxygen

Breaking Oxygen Stratification

• Even with high oxygen in 9

8
top layers, oxygen might 7

be very low near the 6

5
O2, mg/l

bottom. 4

• This may impair shrimp 2

development, they live 0

10
S2

50 S1

near the bottom. Hight from bottom, cm

100
140

• Even mild aeration help to

get uniform O2
Oxygen& Aeration

Long Arm Paddle Wheel Aerator

Oxygen& Aeration
Paddle Wheel
Oxygen& Aeration
Up Flow aerator
Oxygen& Aeration
Oxygen& Aeration
Radial aeration pattern

Stagnant area (Water velocity < 1 cm/sec) in 1.2 ha shrimp

Pond equipped with long arm paddle wheel aerators (2 hp each)
Aeration& sludge

Stagnant zone = sludge accumulation zone.

Sludge coverage in a 1.2 ha plastic lined shrimp pond

Black color >10 cm deep, gray 5-10 cm, light gray, <5 cm).
Aeration& sludge
Aeration& sludge
Stagnant zone = Oxygen deprived area
Flow and Early Morning Oxygen Concentration,

30 cm above the pond bottom

((Calle Delgado et al, 2003)

a
Aeration& sludge
Sedimentation in Stagnant Zone
Aeration& sludge
Stagnant area = stressed shrimp
Tank No. Feeding before Feeding Increased
sludge removal after sludge feeding
removal (%)
1 297 367 124
2 328 480 146
3 335 420 125
4 292 410 140
5 302 380 126
6 273 373 137
7 282 430 152
Average 301 409 136
SD 23 40 11
Aeration& sludge
Stagnant area = less shrimp
Shrimp trapped in inner and outer regions during
day and night.

NIGHT
DAY
Outer Inner Outer Inner
Mean
shrimp/trap 16 3 2 1
Standard
deviation 9 5 1 1
Number of
traps 14 12 10 9
Aeration& sludge
What can be done??
Aeration& sludge
Radial aeration pattern

Stagnant area (Water velocity < 1 cm/sec)

in 1.2 ha shrimp pond
equipped with long arm paddle wheel aerators (2 hp each)
Aeration& sludge
Conventional placement
Aeration& sludge
Redirecting aerators
Aeration& sludge
Aerators 1/3 toward center
Aeration& sludge

Addition of aeration toward center

Aeration& sludge

Drainage of Sludge
Aeration& sludge
Pond Operation
High Aeration

Feeding

Siphoning
Paddle Wheels position
Aeration& sludge

• Shrimp live, stay most of their time and eat

in the bottom of the pond.

• Thus, they are very sensitive to conditions

at the pond bottom.

• !!!!!!!
Practical Implications and Tips
1. Selection and placement of aerators is a critical step
in managing ponds. Most failures in BFT ponds are due to
wrong selection and placement of aerators.

2. Ample aeration is essential. Do not let oxygen go

below 4 mg/l (certainly not below 3 mg/l).
Practical Implications and Tips

3.Electricity is a major expense. Use aerators in a rational

way. Start the season by operating ~ 25% of maximal
capacity and raise aeration with the growth of fish and rise
of feeding ration.

4. However, use aerators also during day time in order

to mix the water column. You may stop all aerators during
windy hours.
Practical Implications and Tips

5. Place the aerators in a way as to minimize formation of

sludge piles. Place air-lifts or aspirators in places where
the paddle wheels do not mix the sludge.

6. Drain sludge as needed.

7. Unfortunately there are no clear and simple rules as to

the placement of aerators. Conditions are different for
different locations, fish and ponds. Nothing can replace the
experience of farm manager.
Practical Implications and Tips

8. One has to get into the pond, measure oxygen in

different sites and depths, monitor NO2, and feel the
sludge accumulation.

9. Be careful of resuspending sludge piles.

Sludge

Organic residues
+ eroded soil
Create sludge
accumulating
in pond bottom
Sludge
Sedimentation
• Shrimp accumulate less than
30% of feed.

• The rest, in addition to

sedimenting algae Mostly
accumulate on the pond
bottom
Sludge
Accumulation of sediments in shrimp ponds (Ton/ha per
season)

Measured Location Reference

sedimentation
Tons ha-1
157-290 Thailand Boyd (1992)
144-461 Thailand Satapornvanit (1993)
100 Australia Smith (1993)
20 – 165 Australia Smith, (1996)
185 – 199 Thailand Funge-Smith and Briggs
(1994)
148 (1.61 ton ha-1 South Carolina, Calle Delgado et al.,
of organic USA (2002)
carbon)
291 New Caledonia Martin et al., (1998)
Sludge
Range of concentrations in pond water and pond soils

Component Unit Concentration range

Water Pond bottom soil
Dry matter % 10- 3-10 - 1 20-80
Organic matter mg/kg 10-100 10,000-200,000

Total N mg/kg 1-10 1,000-20,000

Total ammonium N ppm 0.1-10v 1-1000

Total P ppm 0.01-1 1,000-20,000

Sludge accumulation is one of the major
Problems of auqaculture
WHY IS SLUDGE TOXIC TO SHRIMP (FISH)?

We need to understand the oxygen system

in the pond
 Electron Acceptor Process Approximate
(Oxidizing system) Redox
Potential (mV)
Oxygen O2 Aerobic respiration 500-600
(C + O2  CO2
Nitrate NO3- Denitrification 300-400
2NO3+3C->
3CO2+N2
Organic Fermentation < 400
components Organic Acids
Fe+3, Mn+4 Reduction 200
SO4, S Sulfur reduction -100
CO2 Methane -200
fermentation
Sludge

• The Average addition is

about 200 tons/cycle.

• Density of top layer

0.25-0.3 g/cm3

• Average addition 600 –

800 m3/ha,

• or 6-8 cm /season
Sludge

As a result, oxygen in the bottom is depleted

Sludge
Effect of Sludge on Shrimp survival in closed
lined pond (Hopkins et al. 1994)
Sludge Remain Remove Resuspend
treatment

Survival ( % ) 0.2 32.8 54.1

Production 18 2406 3474

(Kg/Ha)
Sludge
Sludge
Sludge
Means to control pond bottom conditions
• 1. Aerators
• 2. Pond bottom geometry
• 3. Dry and treat between crops
• 4. Drain sludge
• 5. Chemical treatment

• GOALS:
• Aerate, minimal area, minimal long term
accumulation
Sludge
Wind
W E
Sludge
Bacterial density
Density 100 - 1000 times higher on surfaces 
Bottom 
Submerged surfaces, periphyton 

Algal density and bacterial density in water 

column are linked – high primary productivity
Algae bacteria
BFT
technology
might
partially
work
Foods Webs
Bacteria
Plate counts

Difference in THB-count
Strong correlation to production
Bacteria
Effect of Periphyton (Scheme)
Control pond VERTICAL SUBSTRATES
Bacteria

Vertical Substrates, Hitide Sea Frams, India, Sept. 2011

Practical Implications and Tips
1. Drying and oxidation of pond bottom between production cycles is not a
waste of effort. It effectively adds oxygen to the pond and enables at
least partially aerobic processes to take place on the pond bottom.
2. Reducing the organic carbon in a 10 cm deep pond bottom by 0.1% is
equivalent to the reduction of 10,000 kg sediment oxygen demand per
hectare in the next production cycle.
3. Modern means of application of vertical substrates have to be further
developed with the goal of efficient deployment of inexpensive substrate.
FARM MANAGEMENT
 Starting
• Goal: Develop the biofloc system.
• In lined ponds, you start from almost zero.
• Before stocking, add organic matter (old feed,
molasses, etc.)
Add N fertilizers, 0.5-2.5 mgN/l (5-25 kg/ha)
INOCULUM?
Often, just some soil from pond is enough (~50
kg/ha).
Commercial inoculums: Be careful
 Development of biofloc system
• It may take a few weeks, depends on the
biomass.
• First algae develop. Transition, foam
formation then it get brown.
• Transition is fast with tilapia, longer with
shrimp
• Add carbon if TAN is above ~2 mg/l
• Best: Recycles water from good biofloc
pond!!!!!!
 Feeding
• Feed C/N ratio ~ 15-25
• ADJUST ACCORDING TO TAN and NO2
LEVELS
• The total C/N is important. Feed with low protein
pellets or with High protein pellets + Carbon?
• Still not clear. Advantages and disadvantages in
both. Need more experience
• In tilapia ponds, drain sludge 1-2 time daily. In
shrimp ponds, end of season, drain weekly.
 Monitoring
• Very important!!! This is your control
• Keep in computer and display graphs
• Normal aquaculture: Oxygen, T, pH,
alkalinity, ….
• Ammonium, Nitrite and possibly nitrates.
Bioflocs: Imhoff cone
 Bioflocs evaluation
• Imhoff cones: Measure following 15-20
minutes.
• In shrimp ponds 1-40 ml/l (Drain >15?)
• In fish ponds 2-100 ml/l (Drain >30?)
• Total Suspended solids, TSS:
• Not above 200-400 mg/l
• Volatile suspended solids, VSS
• Turbidity
 Responses to monitoring
• High ammonium: Raise carbohydrates,
reduce protein in feed. RESPONSE
QUICKLY.

• High nitrite: Check for low oxygen zones,

sludge accumulation, aerator placement.
Add carbon

• Low floc volume: you may add carbon

• Too high floc volume: Drain
Practical Implications and Tips
1. Bioflocs develop in ponds having a high fish (shrimp) biomass and high
feed application. Often, especially in shrimp production systems, such
conditions develop only after a few weeks, when organisms grow. In
order to take advantage of the bioflocs and utilize the ponds, a high
stocking rate is advantageous. Transfers or partial harvests can be
planned so as to keep the pond at a high density which does not exceed
carrying capacity of the system.
2. A strategy of recycling water from the good ponds in the farm to newly
filled ponds will help in maintaining a well balanced microbial
community adjusted to your farm’s conditions.
3. Drainage of excessive sludge is important. For effective draining it is
good to have a vigorous out flow of water from the pond bottom. The
drainage system should be based upon a steep hydraulic gradient.
1. Carbohydrates added to the pond should be made of finely ground
powder or of soluble liquids (molasses). Depending on location, the
available and inexpensive sources should be identified.
2. Computers are now common in practically all farms. Monitoring and
recording data in computerized files and plotting the results in charts is
a way to see trends, compare data and draw conclusions. It is
recommended to process data into computerized format and to draw
charts as soon as possible, in order to see changes as they occur in real
time. Keeping records of past years also helps in detecting long range
changes.
3. Sampling water from several points in the pond is a good practice to
remain familiar with your pond, find out how uniform the pond is and
find out the need to better adjust aerators.
Pond Construction
BFT ponds should be designed and constructed in a way to
enable aeration and mixing of the whole pond area/depth.

The classical design is based upon a round pond concept with

aerators inducing radial water flow, or other-wise square or
rectangular ponds where water flow is sort of radial, mostly in
parallel to the pond dykes.

In such cases, corners are rounded or cut to minimize stagnant

area.
Draining outlet, slope toward the outlet
Drain bottom sludge twice daily till
you get clear water
A different approach is to construct the pond as a
closed raceway, where water flow is directed by a
solid or loose partition along the pond.
Lining of ponds is usually done with High
Density Polyethylene (HDPE) sheets of
about 1 mm (30-40 mil). Cheaper
alternatives may be constructing pond
bottom with compacted laterite soil (or
crushed stones).
Disease control & Probiotics
 Bio-security
• Very important!!
• Minimize water replacement.
• Imported water in a receiving reservoir,
sanitized.
• For special uses, covered structure, even
controlled atmosphere.
• Minimize entrance of people.
 Explanations
• 1. The overall effect is proven. Reasons,
not clear.
• Could be antagonism of pathogens with
millions of heterotrophs.
• Could be competition on feed
• Could be competition on adherence sites
• ????
• Similar effects documented in plant
disease, human health etc.
Other added values of bioflocs

Effects on sexual maturity

Of shrimp and tilapia
Figure 2 –
Reproductive performance trials of L. vannamei (biofloc),
F. duorarum (tank-reared vs biofloc) and L. stylirostris
(pond-reared vs biofloc) performed in 40, 45 and 30 days
after ablation, respectively (more details in Emerenciano et al 2011).
Mean weights in parenthesis.
According to microbial ecology, the
bacterial population is the one most
suitable to any given system

• Very difficult to assume that we can add

‘good” bacteria that can survive in the
pond.
• However, it is possible that we can add
bacteria that are competitive on or in the
shrimp: Competition in surface adherence,
antagonist to pathogens.
 How about adding specific good
bacteria??
• 1. Good and proven in aquaria, nurseries,
small and closed systems.
• 2. In open grow out ponds the added
bacteria has to be:
• A. Really good
• B. Competitive with natural flora
• IS IT POSSIBLE?
MORE RESEARCH NEEDED
EXPERIENCE WORLD WIDE
 Tilapia
• Israel:
• Commercial (or semi commercial) practice
in the Genosar station: Grow out
(Avnimelech et al.) and over-wintering.
• Commercial production in farms,
especially in the desert, where tilapia
grown successfully using very little water.
 Tilapia, USA
Pacific Aqua farms in Southern California
(Farrell, 2006) used concrete cement ponds
to grow Tilapia (Mozambique) using either
high exchange or BFT technology ponds
using a daily water exchange rate of up to
5%,
Daily excessive sludge drainage. Tilapia biomass in the
BFT ponds was around 20 kg/m3.
BFT ponds are fed with 20% protein pellets.
In cases when TAN levels rose, corn starch was applied
to raise the C/N ration and control inorganic nitrogen
concentrations.
Average daily fish growth was 2.7 g
The production expenses in the BFT ponds were
lower than those for the conventional high water
exchange ponds by US$ 0.4/kg.
About 50% of this due to lower feed cost
Tilapia, Mexico
 Shrimp, Belize
Ponds in BAL are 0.065 to 1.6 ha in size, the commercial
ones are1.6 ha. No negative effect of size was found.
Depth of ponds was above the 1 meter common depth in
shrimp ponds: 1.4 m at the edges and 2.3 m at the point
of drainage (average depth of 1.8 m). Deepening the
ponds seemed to have some advantages particularly in
buffering temperature, both daily, and to some extent
seasonal water temperature variability was reduced. In
addition, deeper ponds allowed for a larger oxygen
reservoir and the water volume for organic matter
Belize 1.6 Ha PVC lined ponds
Pay attention to distance of paddle wheel aerators from dykes
And to inner circle of aerators
Ponds are stocked with white shrimp (L. vannamei)
at a rate of 125 – 140 PL/m2. It was found that
when stocking rates fall below 100 PL/m2, it
becomes more difficult to establish the
heterotrophic community because there are not
enough organic substrates to support the
microbial growth.
Advantages:
1. Very good bio-security minimized WSSV occurrence.
2. Zero water exchange.
3. Production (carrying capacity) 5-10% better than
normal systems.
4. Shrimp size, about 2.0 g higher than normal systems.
5. Low FCR, 1.0-1.3 (Without grain based pellets).

6. Production costs lower by 15-20% as compared to

conventional systems.
 ‘Floc’ Development

Floc (ml/L) Average Floc Development

14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130
Floc DOC (days)

Company Commercial ponds - Block 71 Module 24 Row 47

Disadvantages:
1. High energy input, 28 hp/ha
2. Power failure for more than 1 hour is critical. Need
for back up.
3. Need for full HDPE lining (minimum partial coverage)
4. Technology is more advanced than conventional.
Need to train technicians.
1. We need more research
2. Farmer has to understand the system
)
Some developments
on the way
• Proven as to Streptococcus disease of
tilapia. Will it work with vibrio for shrimp??
• Possibility of adding Probiotic effects to
flocs (Gent Univ. Belgium)
• Probiotic effects of BFT:
• Control of floc formation and composition.
• Effects of mixing, aeration, feeding etc on
floc properties (Gent, Technion, etc.)
 How to do it??
• 1. Enough aeration to maintain oxygen
above 4-5 mg/l.
• 2. Lined pond: Plastics, concrete, soil
concrete, laterite.
• 3. Placement of aerators in a way that all
pond volume will be mixed. NO
ACCUMULATION OF SLUDGE!!
 How to do it (2)
• 4. Feed with low protein % (20-30%) or
add enough carbon (molasses, starch,
cassava etc.)
• 5. If inorganic nitrogen accumulates, add
carbohydrates at a rate of 20 kg per kg N
you want to remove.
• 6. Maintain alkalinity > 50-100 mg.
 How to do it (3)
• 7. Minimize water exchange.
• 8. If sludge accumulates, drain sludge out
or dry/clean between seasons.
• 9. It was demonstrated that the same
principles can be used in stagnant
ponds!!!

• Every farm is some what different. Learn

from yours and others experience.
 Finally:

• 1. It seems to work, in principle.

• 2. Can it suit all fish? Probably not.
• 3. How consistent it is?
• 4. Can it be operated by every one?
• 5. An important point: Even if you do
not operate the exact system, the
principles are important
Within zero-exchange culture
systems it has been possible to
reduce feed costs by half, by
reducing dietary protein levels to 30%
and eliminating micro-nutrients suppl.
(Al Tacon)