Pipe Gradients

Above ground and below ground horizontal drainage pipes should be laid to an
adequate gradient.

Gradients from 1 in 40 to 1 in 110 will normally give adequate flow velocities.

A gradient of 1 in 80 is suitable for commencing calculations for pipe schemes.

If a gradient is too steep i.e. steeper than 1 in 40, the liquid may run faster than the solids in the sloping
foul water pipe thus leaving the solids stranded, which could then block the pipe.

If the gradient is not steep enough, i.e. less than 1 in 110, then the pipe could still block if the solids slow
down and become stranded.

The fall in a pipe may be defined as the vertical amount by which the pipe drops over a distance. The
distance can be between sections of pipe or between manholes. The diagram below show pipe fall and
distance.
 Distance

Pipe
Flow direction

Fall

FALL IN DRAINAGE PIPE

A gradient may be defined as fall divided by distance.

GRADIENT = FALL / DISTANCE

For example is a 24 metre section of drainage pipe has a fall of 0.30 metres, calculate the gradient.

Gradient = 0.30 / 24

Gradient = 0.0125

This can be converted into a gradient written as a ratio or 1: some number.

Gradient = 1 / 0.0125 = 80

Gradient = 1 in 80

The above formula may be rearranged for Fall if the gradient is known:
 FALL = GRADIENT X DISTANCE

For example, calculate the fall in a 50 metre section of foul water pipework if the
gradient is to be 1 in 80.

A gradient of 1 in 80 is converted to a number instead of a ratio.

1 / 80 = 0.0125

Fall = Gradient x Distance

Fall = 0.0125 x 50

Fall = 0.625 metres or 625mm.

The previous diagram may be completed by adding a pipe gradient.

Distance

Pipe Gradient
Flow direction
1 in 80

Fall

FALL & GRADIENT IN DRAINAGE PIPE

Invert Levels

The Invert Level of a pipe is the level taken from the bottom of the inside of the
pipe as shown below.

Crown of pipe

Section through
Water level
pipe
Invert level

INVERT LEVEL OF PIPE

The level at the crown of the pipe is the Invert level plus the internal diameter of
the pipe plus the pipe wall thickness. It may be necessary to use this in calculations
when level measurements are taken from the crown of a pipe.

Manholes
A manhole or access chamber is required to gain access to a drainage system for un-
blocking, cleaning, rodding or inspection. A typical manhole is shown below.

Cover and
frame

Brick wall
Pipe channel
for access to
system
Sloping
concrete/mortar Concrete base
bed or haunching

BRICK BUILT MANHOLE

Manholes may be manufactured from masonry or precast concrete. Sometimes
several precast concrete rings are used to form a manhole which speeds up the on-
site construction process. Normally deep manholes below 1.0 metre in depth
require step irons to assist access for a workman.
Manholes and access chambers are also manufactured in PVC. An access chamber
is not usually large enough to admit a person but is suitable for access by cleaning
rods or hose and they are used for domestic applications, a common size of plastic
access chamber is 450mm diameter. For the domestic market plastic, fibreglass or
galvanised steel lids may be used but cast iron lids are required where traffic crosses.

A back drop manhole is used in areas where the surface level slopes as shown
below.
If the undergroung sewer pipe is to stay below ground it must follow the average
gradient of the slope. This invariably means that the pipe gradient becomes too
steep, resulting in the solids being left stranded in the pipe therefore causing a
blockage.
To overcome this problem the back drop manhole was developed, as shown below.

Sloping
surface

Underground
sewer Excessive
gradient

SEWER ON A SLOPING SITE

Access cap

Back Drop
manhole

Sloping
surface Back Drop
manhole

Underground Access cap

sewer

Normal pipe
Vertical
gradient section of
pipe
USE OF BACK DROP MANHOLES

An easier way to construct a back drop manhole is to use an internal vertical section
of pipe as shown below.
 Sloping
surface Cast Iron screw
Underground Foul down lid
Water pipe Access cap

Step Irons

Drop
Outlet section
distance
of pipe Back Drop
manhole
Sloping surfaces

BACK DROP MANHOLE WITH INTERNAL OUTLET

PIPE

Drainage Pipe Sizing

Foul Water Pipe Sizing

The following method is one way of sizing pipework.

1. Choose a minimum gradient for all pipes, say 1:80

2. Use the table below to calculate the total number of discharge units in pipe.

No. Appliance No. of Total units

units
WC 14
 basin 3
bath 7
shower 4
sink 6
washing machine 4
dish washer 4

3. Size section from pipe manufacturers’ graphs.

An example of a pipe-sizing graph is shown below.

Example
 Size the foul water pipework for 12 houses from the DATA below in the table.

1. Use a minimum gradient of 1:80 for all pipes.

2. Discharge units from each house:

No. Appliance No. of Total units

units
2 WC 14 28
2 basin 3 6
1 bath 7 7
1 shower 4 4
1 sink 6 6
0 washing machine 4 0
0 dish washer 4 0
Total 51

12 houses x 51 = 612 discharge units.

 Flow graph gives 150mm-dia. foul drain since the convergence of the two
lines on the graph is between the pipe size 100mm diameter and 150mm
diameter.

Surface Water Pipe Sizing

The following method is one way of sizing pipework.

1. Choose a minimum gradient for all pipes, say 1:80

2. Use the table below to calculate the flow rate in each section.
 SURFACE TYPE AREA IMPERMEABILITY TOTAL
FACTOR (f)
(A) m2 (A x f)
Road or pavement 0.90
Roof 0.95
Path 0.75
Garden 0.25
Access road, 0.90
parking
Total

3. The area of each surface is calculated from drawings.

4. The impermeability factor allows for water, which runs off each surface.
5. The flow rate (Q) for each house can be calculated from:

Q = area drained x rainfall intensity x impermeability factor

6. If Rainfall intensity = 50mm/hr, then Q becomes:

Q = A x 50 x f

Q = (A x f) 50 ((litres/hour)

7. Divide Q by 3600 to get value in litres/second.

8. Multiply Q by number of houses to get Total Q.
9. Estimate pipe size from Pipe Sizing graph.

For example, size the pipework for 12 houses from the drawing

Example
Size the surface water pipework for 12 houses using the DATA below in the
table.

1. Choose a minimum gradient for all pipes, say 1:80

 2. Surface water flow from each house.

SURFACE TYPE AREA IMPERMEABILITY TOTAL

FACTOR (f)
(A) m2 (A x f)
Road or pavement 20 0.90 18.00
Roof 40 0.95 38.00
Path 15 0.75 11.25
Garden 68 0.25 17.00
Access road, parking 25 0.90 22.50
Total 192 Total 103.50

3. Rainfall intensity 50mm/hr.

Q = area drained x rainfall intensity x impermeability factor

Q = A x 50 x f

Q = (A x f) 50

Q = 103.50 x 50 = 5175 litres/hour

Q = 1.438 litres/second per house X 12 houses.

Q = 17.25 litres/second.
Flow graph gives 150mm dia. surface water drain since the point on the graph lies
between 100mm and 150mm