There are several exceptional cases when the past tense doesn’t have to refer to the past:

a) in Reported speech a past tense reporting verb tends to make the verb of the subordinate clause Past too.
This is called back-shift.
(She is an actress).
We all knew she was an actress.
(My name is Mike.) He told me that his name was Mike.
b) Attitudinal Past –related to the attitudes of the speaker rather than to time. In the following sentences, the
past tense is more polite than Present.
(Do you want to speak to me)
Did you want to speak to me?
I wonder whether you could help me with my washing.
c) Hypothetical past used in if clauses
I would give her a second chance if I were you.
If you didn’t love her, you wouldn’t care about her.

The Present Perfect Simple Tense (AUX: HAVE/HAS)

1) It expresses an event prior to the present moment but unlike the simple past, which refers to a definite event, the
present perfect is simply indefinite in character:
I’ve rung her up.
I rang her up from Bucharest (yesterday).
2) It may also refer to events that occurred in the past but with implications/results in present:
He has injured his ankle. - it still hurts
He injured his ankle two months ago.
Note: with 1) and 2), there are no temporal references.
3) It is associated with adverbials of incomplete time (today, this week, this year, etc.), the present perfect suggests
the possibility of the reoccurrence of the event during the same period of time:
She’s done five exercises this morning. (still morning – She can solve other exercises this morning)
She did five exercises this morning. (the morning is over).
4) With adverbs like: just, already, yet, recently, lately, so far, up to now, it expresses a past event that came to an
end not long before the present moment; recently completed:
We’ve just had dinner.
5) The present perfect is also used to denote repeated events, characteristic of the past, present and future as well. In
most of the cases this use is marked by adverbs of frequency (never, ever, seldom, sometimes, often):
They have often been abroad.
6) It expresses an event which began in the past and continued up to the present moment. If so, it’s always
accompanied by ‘for’ + period of time or ‘since’ + past moment:
I haven’t seen you since June.
Adverbial specification is compulsory and ‘for’ is often omitted in everyday English.
7) When used in time or conditional clauses, the present perfect denotes an event prior to the one in the main
clause whose verb is either imperative or future or simple present.
Call on us as soon as you have got back home.
We won’t go out until we have eaten.
She generally takes a nap when she has had lunch.

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 The Present Perfect Progressive (AUX: HAVE/HAS BEEN)
1) To express an event begun in the past that still holds good and it’s likely to hold on as well:
He has been reading ever since.
2) To express repetition up to the present moment:
They have been going out together for half a year.
It is especially used with momentary verbs such as: kick, knock, jump, etc.
He has been kicking the ball for a while.
When the idea of iteration is specified by lexical means, the progressive is no longer to be used:
He has been knocking at the door for 5 minutes.
He has knocked at the door 6 times.
3) To express the cause of a present effect:
Her eyes are red because she has been weeping for her lost kitten.
Notes: a) The present perfect progressive denotes a temporary situation leading up to a present hold:
John has lived in Vienna since 1989. – definitive
John has been living in Vienna… - temporary
b) The progressive overtones of emotional coloring can also be found:
Who’s eaten my dinner? –it’s gone
Who’s been eating my dinner? – some of it is left.

The Past Perfect Simple (AUX: HAD)

It has the meaning of ‘past in the past’; it denotes an event prior to another past event or to a given past moment,
the event (moment of reference) being almost always mentioned.
USES:
1) To express priority to a given past moment: We had arrived by noon.
2) To express priority to another past event: She had done her duty by the time the film started.
3) To express priority to but also simultaneity to another past event. The event began another past event and
extended into it: He had loved her for two years before he first dared speak to her.
Note: In some contexts the simple past and the past perfect are interchangeable:
After she (had) spent all her money she came back.
Here the connector after is sufficient specification to the fact that the spending of the money had occurred before
her coming, so that the extra time indication by means of the past perfect becomes redundant.

The Past Perfect Progressive (AUX: HAD BEEN)

1) To express a past event begun before another past event and continuing up to it:
She had been looking for her lost kitten for two hours when he eventually turned up.
2) To express an iterated past event prior to another past event:
He had been wooing Mary for two years when I first met them.
3) To express a past event that began before another past event, extended into it and is very likely to have gone on
after it, as well:
They had been quarreling when I entered the room.
4) The cause of a past event:
We were all out of breath because we had been running.

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Means of Expressing Future Time

There is no obvious tense in English corresponding to the time tense parallel for past and present. There are
instead possibilities of denoting future time and futurity, modality and aspects which are closely related and future
time is rendered by means of semi-auxiliaries, modal verbs or by simple present or progressive forms.

A. The auxiliary verb construction: shall/will.

I shall/will do my best not to disappoint you.
The auxiliary verb construction is also used to refer to a statement seen in the past from a point of orientation in
the future: I’ll have arrived there by tomorrow morning.
B. BE GOING TO: denotes future intention, its general meaning being future fulfillment of the present. If
such constructions are examined more carefully, the conclusion is that they can have 2 more specific meanings:
1. Future of present intention, used chiefly with personal subjects
When are you going to get married?.
Note: With unpremeditated spontaneous intention shall/will is preferred:
I’m bored. – I’ll get you something to read.
2. Future of present cause could be found with both personal and non-personal subjects:
She’s going to have a baby.
Notes: a) BE GOING TO constructions normally refer to a nearer future.
b) Go and come can’t be used after “going to”. In order to express the idea of nearness, the present
progressive form is used:
* He’s going to go to Miami. – He’s going to Miami.
These constructions are not generally used in main clauses having a temporal subclause:
He will make a fine teacher when he has gained some more experience.
? He’s going to make a fine teacher ….
Still we do use be going to constructions with temporal subclauses in order to stress the idea of intention:
He’s going to write a book about school-life when he graduates.
C. Present progressive refers to a future happening anticipated in the present (fix arrangements, planned
programme). It’s especially frequent with dynamic verbs – verbs denoting a transition between two states: arrive,
come, go, take off, land, start, stop.
He is coming by the 6 o’clock train.
The present progressive of most dynamic verbs can be used to denote future happenings as well:
We are playing tennis tomorrow.
Note: Since the basic meaning of this tense is to denote an event in progress at the present moment, the time
adverbial is to be used in order to avoid ambiguity:
He’s going to the theatre. (-now)
He’s going to the theatre tomorrow.(arranged)
D. Simple present – regularly used in subclauses of time and condition:
He won’t propose for her until he knows for sure she won’t reject him.
It is used for statements or about calendar - Tomorrow is 5- or to describe a non-mutual event
When is full moon?
Note:
The simple present tense with reference to future time denotes a happening the occurrence of which doesn’t
necessarily depend on the subject, whereas the present progressive suggests an arrangement/decision took by the
subject.
We leave at 6 o’clock.
We are leaving by the 6 o’clock train.

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E. The Future Progressive Tense
Auxiliary verb construction + progressive:
I’ll be reading this book at this time tomorrow.
It denotes a future action in full progress at a definite moment in the future. It is associated with such adverbs as:
at this time tomorrow, etc.
The use of shall/will + be + verb- ing denotes a genuine future devoid of the emotional colouring (volition,
insistance) of the shall/will+ verb constuction
He’ll do his homework tomorrow. – future + volition
He’ll be doing his homework tomorrow. – future
This complex construction can be used to convey greater tact and consideration than the simple
auxiliary does, especially in questions:
How long will you stay? – How long will you be staying?
E. BE TO + infinitive can express;
1. An arrangement: e.g. They are to get married soon.
2. A command: e.g. You are to go to the blackboard now.
3. Predestined future: e.g. He is to succeed in what he’s doing
F. BE ABOUT + infinitive expresses near future, that is imminent fulfillment:
Trees are about to burst into flower
G. Future time in the past – some of the constructions hitherto discussed can be used in the past tense to
denote a happening that is in the future when considered from a viewpoint in the past.
1. Auxiliary verb construction: would + infinitive – used mostly in literary narrative style and not very
frequently met with in usual language:
The moment wasn’t far off when he would fall off his horse.
2. BE GOING TO + infinitive – mostly with the sense of unfulfilled intention:
They were going to get divorced (but they finally got reconciled)
3. Past progressive to denote something happening in accordance with some previous arrangement:
I was seeing the dean the following day.
4. BE TO + infinitive (be destined to): She was to be sorry for her behavior.
5. BE ABOUT TO + Infinitive meaning “on the point of”
I was just about to call her name when she turned and came straight up to me

SHALL/WILL + BE+ VERB + -ing CONSTRUCTION

1. Used to convey great tact and consideration:
When will you be coming back?
When will you come back?
1. An action that will be in progress at a moment posterior to the moment of speaking:
He’ll be sleeping at 7 tomorrow.
2. An action in progress that will be interrupted by a momentary event:
They will be watching TV when you go home.
3. An action in its parallel progress with another action, posterior to the moment of speaking:
I’ll be listening to some music while you’re having a shower.

FUTURE PERFECT SIMPLE (AUX: WILL HAVE)

FUTURE PERFECT PROGRESSIVE (AUX: WILL HAVE BEEN)

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SPELLING RULES:

1. Verbs ending in ‘o’ add –es in Simple Present, 3rd sg:

do-does, go-goes;
2. Verbs ending in –sh, -ch, -s, -x, -z, add –es in Simple Present, 3 rd sg:
wash – washes, watch – watches, dress- dresses, box- boxes, etc.
3. Verbs ending in silent ‘e’ drop the vowel when adding –ing or –ed:
change- changing, love – loving;
BUT: be – being, free- freeing
4. Verbs ending in –y preceded by a consonant change ‘y’ into ‘i’ and add ‘es’ or ‘ed’, according to tense:
cry-cries, cried; try-tries, tried, etc.
BUT: play-plays, played.
5. Verbs ending in –ie change it into ‘y’ when adding –ing:
lie- lying, die-dying
6. Verbs ending in a consonant preceded by a vowel double the consonant both with a) one-syllable verbs and b)
two-or-more syllable verbs if the last syllable is stressed:
a) drop-dropping, dropped; stop-stopped, stopping; hit-hitting, etc.
b) prefer- preferring, preferred; refer- referred, referring
BUT: enter – entered, entering; happen- happened, happening,
Note: Br.E. always double ‘l’. Am.E. follows the rule of the last syllable stress:
Travel – (Br.E.) travelling, travelled.
(Am.E.) traveling, traveled.