Part 1 - Epithelial Tissues

The boundary between a multicellular animal and its environment is distinguished

by continuous layers of cells called the epithelium. This boundary is unbroken
forming a continuous layer. Epithelial tissues form a protective layer for the body
and at the same time interact with the environment. Epithelial cells are tightly
packed together with almost no intercellular spaces, and are usually separated from
other tissues by connective tissues. They form a continuous layer over the entire
body surface, line the coelomic cavity, and line the digestive tract.
• Protect the body from injury and prevents drying out.
• Provide a semi-permeable barrier that controls the movement of all substances
into or out of the body.
• Secrete substances.
• Provide sensory surfaces.

There are five subtypes of epithelial tissue:

• Simple squamous epithelium
• Stratified squamous epithelium
• Simple cuboidal epithelium
• Simple columnar epithelium
• Pseuodstratified columnar epithelium

Simple Squamous Epithelium

Simple squamous epithelial cells are flat and irregular in shape. They line the major
cavities of the body and the alveoli of the lungs. Because they are a single layer
they act as passive barriers to the movement of water and associated substances.
Examine a slide of squamous epithelium (H120) and squamous epithelial cells
(H1.11), note their irregular shape. Examine a slide of human simple
squamous epithlium, sec (31-2360). The cells are only one layer thick and surround
the glomerulus of a kidney. Note how thin these cell are. Simple squamous
epithelium (A - surface view) and (B - side view)

Stratified Squamous Epithelium

Stratified squamous epithelium consists of more than one layer of squamous cells
and is usually found in the regions of the body that are subject more to “wear and
tear” and less to metabolic functions. Stratified squamous epithelial cells are
usually supported by a basement membrane of connective tissue. The lower layers
of stratified squamous epithelium are mitotically active producing new cells that
migrate towards the surface to replace “worn out” surface cells. Stratified squamous
epithelium is found in regions that are subject to friction and forms the outermost
layer of the skin, the inner lining of the mouth and esophagus, and the lining of the
vagina. Examine a slide of stratified squamous epithelium (H230). The stratified
squamous layer is the darker pink layer at the top of the section. Examine a slide of
amphibian simple columnar epithelium (H185). The stratified squamous layer is
the distinct pink layer of cells with many nuclei next to the blue layer of connective
tissue in the wall of the intestine.
Simple Cuboidal Epithelium
Simple cuboidal epithelial cells are generally square. They form the walls of the
tubules of the kidney and function in the production of urine. Examine a slide of
simple cuboidal epithelium (H150). Note that they form a circle of single cube
shaped cells forming the tubules of the kidney.

Simple Columnar Epithelium

Simple columnar epithelial cells are a single layer of tall and narrow cells resting on
a layer of connective tissue. Because of the shape of the cells and their uniform
position, the nuclei are usually in a single row. They are usually ciliated, but may
also be non-ciliated. Simple ciliated columnar epithelial cells are found in the
bronchioles of the respiratory tract and the fallopian tubes and uterus of the female
reproductive tract. Non-ciliated columnar epithelial cells line the small intestines,
where their primary function is absorption. They also also line the collecting ducts
of the kidney and ducts of exocrine glands.Examine a slide of simple cuboidal
epithelium. Examine a slide of simple columnar epithelium (H180). The simple
columnar epithelium cells are located in the upper regions of the section
Psuedostratified Ciliated Columnar Epithelium For the beginning biology student
the distinction between psuedostratified ciliated columnar epithelium cells and
simple columnar epithelial cells is often difficult at first. Once specific key
characteristics of each type of cell are understood, recognition of the two types
becomes relatively easy. The name psuedostratified ciliated columnar epithelium
means “falsely stratified”. The cells are are a single layer of tall and narrow cells
resting on a layer of connective tissue just as simple columnar epithelial cells are.
However, the nuclei of psuedostratified ciliated columnar epithelial cells are at
different levels and not all psuedostratified ciliated columnar epithelial cells extend
to the surface. The result is that these cells give the false appearance that there are
more than just one single layer of cells. Most psuedostratified ciliated columnar
epithelial cells are ciliated. Psuedostratified ciliated columnar epithelium line the
upper and lower respiratory tract, where the rhythmic motion of the cilia move
mucus along the surface of the cells in an upward flow. Psuedostratified ciliated
columnar epithelium often has mucus producing goblet cells intertwined with the
columnar cells. Examine a slide of mammal psuedostratified ciliated columnar
epithelium (H210). Note the “falsely stratified” appearance due to the staggered
nuclei. Psuedostratified ciliated columnar epithelium.

Part 2 - Connective Tissues

Connective tissues are the most abundant and widespread tissues in the body. Their
function is to connect, anchor, and support parts of the body. Connective tissues
occur as six different types, but all have three basic structural components: cells,
fibers, and a non-living material called intercellular substances or ground substance.
The proportion of cells, fibers, and ground substance vary, depending on the nature
and function of the connective tissue. The ground substance and fibers together are
often referred to as the matrix.
• Bind organs together.
• Protect and cushion organs.
• Nourish and cushion epithelia
• Provide areas for immune defense.
• Store energy.
• Conserve body heat.
• Fill spaces and shape the body.
• Attach bones to bones.
• Attach muscles to bones.
• Allow joints to move easily.
• Physically support the body.
• Facilitate movement.
• Transport nutrients, gases, wastes, and hormones.

There are six subtypes of connective tissue:

• Loose connective tissue
• Fibrous connective tissue
• Adipose tissue
• Cartilage
• Bone
• Blood

Loose Connective Tissue (Areolar Tissue)

Loose connective tissue is the most common connective tissue in the body. It is a
very loose arrangement of random fibers mostly collagen and some elastic fibers
forming a very loose network in the intercellular material. Loose connective tissue
attaches epithelial tissue to underlying tissues, binds organs together, and fills in the
spaces between organs. It protects and cushions other tissues and organs. Loose
connective tissue underlies all epithelial tissues, forms the outer covering of blood
vessels, nerves, muscles, and other organs.

Dense Connective Tissue

Dense connective tissue consists of densely spaced, parallel collagen fibers and
fibroblast cells. Dense connective tissue binds bones together and attaches muscle
to bone. It is found in tendons and ligaments.

Adipose Tissue
Adipose (fat) tissue consists of cells with a large fat-filled droplet that distends the
cell, reducing the cytoplasm (matrix) and pushes the nucleus to the side. Adipose
tissue stores energy, conserves body heat, and cushions many organs. Adipose
tissue is found in the dermis of the skin, around the heart, breasts, and abdominal
membranes. It is most noticeable in obese animals.

Cartilage
Cartilage is a pliable tissue that consists of widely spaced cells called chondrocytes
in small cavities called lacunae. The matrix is called chondrin and is
firm but rubbery. Cartilage eases the movements of joints, keeps the trachea from
collapsing, and shapes the ears and nose. Cartilage is found in surfaces of joints,
intervertebral discs, the ear and nose, and connects the ribs and sternum

Bone
Bone tissue is a hard and rigid tissue. Like cartilage, bone consists of living cells
(osteocyctes) with large amounts of ground substance or matrix. The matrix
consists of organic salts such as calcium carbonate (7%) and calcium phosphate
(85%). The matrix also contains numerous collagenous fibers and water.
Collagen fibers together with the bone cells constitute the organic (living) matter
in bone tissue. In living bone, blood vessels and nerves are located in tubes called
Haversian canals. The Haversian canals are surrounded by concentric layers of
matrix called lamellae. There are rings in between called lacunae, which contain the
bone cells or osteocytes. Bone cells develop as a result of ossification of cells of
cartilaginous hyaline tissue or connective tissue. Bone tissue is living tissue. It is a
reserve of ions (mainly calcium ions) that, when needed, can be used by the body.
Examine a slide of bone ground human (H780). Locate the Haversian canal,
lamellae, lacunae, and osteocytes.

Blood
While most would not consider blood to be connective tissue, it meets all the
requirements of connective tissue. Blood connects and support parts of the body
and contains all three basic structural components: cells, fibers, and intercellular
substances. The proportion of cells, fibers, and ground substance differ
considerably from all other connective tissues, with intercellular substances making
up most of blood.
• Transports oxygen and carbon dioxide.
• Transports waste products of metabolism.
• Transports hormones, enzymes, nutrients.
• Transports blood cells.
• Maintains body temperature.
• Controls pH.
• Removes toxins from the body.
• Regulates body fluid electrolytes.

Blood consists of:

• Plasma (55%)
• Cellular components (45%) (Erythrocytes – red blood cells; Thrombocytes –
platelets; Leucocytes – white blood cells - eosinophils, lymphocytes, neutrophils)

Examine a slide of blood (H1155), H6455), or (A145-1),(Figure 1-13). Locate

erythrocyctes (red blood cells), thrombocytes (platelets), and leucocytes (white
blood cells).

Part 3 - Muscle Tissues

Muscle tissue is unique because it has the ability to contract and shorten its length.
The result is that anything that muscles are attached to can be moved or tension
altered. Muscles attached to the skeleton are responsible for movement of limbs or
the entire body. Muscles that are part of organs (eg. - heart or intestines) can change
the tension of the organs to perform movement such as the pumping of blood or the
movement of food through the digestive system). The contraction of muscle tissue is
due to changes in the fiber proteins in muscle cells called actin and myosin.

There are three types of muscle tissue, each with distinct features and functions:
Smooth muscle, striated muscle, and cardiac muscle

Examine a slide of muscle types (H1360). Locate and be able to distinguish

skeletal muscle (closest to the label), cardiac muscle (in the middle), and smooth
muscle (furthest from the label). Examine a slide of cardiac muscle intercalated
disks. You must be able to locate the intercalated disks.

Part 4 - Nerve Tissue

Nerve tissue forms the nervous system of the body (brain, spinal cord, and
peripheral nerves. The nervous system consists of intercommunicating cells called
neurons, and support cells called glia.
• Receives information in the form of electrical impulses from inside and
outside the body.
• Analyses and processes the incoming information (electrical impulses).
• Generates new information (electrical impulses).
• Conducts this new information as electrical impulses to special cells and
tissues called effectors.

Nerve tissue consists of neurons. Each neuron has a cell body with a single
nucleus. In addition each neuron has one or more cyctoplasmic extensions. There
are two types of extensions. There are usually multiple shorter extensions called
dendrites, which bring electrical impulses to the cell body. Usually a single longer
extension called an axon, carries electrical impulses away from the cell body
Nerve tissue also consists of glial cells. Glial cells are support cells and perform
several important functions:
• Surround neurons and hold them in place.
• Supply oxygen and nutrients to neurons.
• Insulate one neuron from another.
• Remove dead neurons.