1.

Positron Emission Tomography – pg1018

Positron emission tomography (PET) is a test that uses a special type of camera and a tracer (radioactive
chemical) to look at organs in the body. It produces a three-dimensional image or picture of functional
processes in the body using the technology of positron imaging. The positron cameras that are used for PET
makes use of electronic collimation to define the position of a particle or a substance. The process that is
used in PET is that a large number of NaI detectors are arranged in an annular form so annihilation photons
in coincidence at 1800 permits detection of position. Tomographic images are obtained by computer assisted
reconstruction techniques. Several large centres, use PET in conjunction with cyclotron produced short lived
radiopharmaceuticals to provide structural as well as metabolic information. The PET picture may be
matched with those from a CT scan to get more detailed information about where the tracer is located. A
PET scan is often used to evaluate cancer, check blood flow, or see how organs are working.

2. Advantages and Limitations of MRI - pg1071

Advantages
 They do not involve exposure to Ionizing radiation, so they can be safely used in people who may be
vulnerable to the effects of radiation, such as pregnant women and babies.
 They are particularly useful for showing soft tissue structures, such as ligaments and cartilage, and
can be used to organs such as the brain, heart and eyes.
 They can provide information about how the blood moves through certain organs and blood vessels,
allowing problems with blood circulation, such as blockages, to be identified.
 A Principle advantage of MRI is Contrast resolution, i.e. Ability of an image process to distinguish
adjacent soft tissue from one another. It can manipulate the contrast between different tissues by
altering the pattern of RF pulses.     
 With MRI, we can obtain direct, not, coronal and oblique image which is impossible with
radiography and CT. 
 MRI is non-invasive.   
 It could differentiate between acute and chronic transit and fibrous phases parallel with not changes. 
 No adverse effect has yet been demonstrated.     
 Image manipulation can be done.                             
Disadvantages
 MRI scanners are very expensive. A single scanner can cost over £1 million. This means that the
number of scanners a primary care trust (PCT) can afford to fund is limited.
 The combination of being put in an enclosed space and the loud noises that are made by the magnets
can make some people feel claustrophobic while they are having a MRI scan.
MRI scanners can be affected by movement, making them unsuitable for investigating problems such
as mouth tumours because coughing or swallowing can make the images that are produced less clear.
 Because of the strong magnetic field used in patient electrically, magnetically or mechanically
activated implants such as cardiac pacemakers, implantable defibrillators and some artificial heart
valves may not be able to have MRI safely. 
 The MRI image becomes distorted by metal, so the image is distorted in patients with surgical clips
or not, for instance. 
 Bone dose not give MR signal, a signal is obtained only from the bone marrow. 
 Long scanning time and requires patient’s co-operation. 
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  MRI scanners are noisy. 
 Patient could develop an allergic reaction to the contrasting agent, or that a skin infection could
develop at the site of injection. 
 MRI cannot always distinguish between malignant tumours or benign disease, which could lead to a
false positive result.

3. Working of Lithotripsy:
Lithotripsy uses shock waves to pulverize urinary calculi (kidney stones) non-invasively. A shock wave is
characterized by a very rapid pressure increase in the transmission medium and is quite different from
Ultrasound. The shock waves are transmitted through the patient's skin and pass harmlessly through the
patient's soft tissue. The shock wave passes through the kidney and strikes the stone. At the stone boundary,
energy is lost, and this causes small cracks to form on the edge of the stone. The same effect occurs when
the shock wave exits the stone. With successive shocks, the cracks open up, and in turn, smaller cracks form
within the large cracks. Eventually, the stone is reduced to small particles, which are then flushed out of the
kidneys or ureter naturally during urination. The process generally takes about 1 hour during which up to
8,000 shocks are administered. The patient will experience some discomfort during the treatment depending
on the patient's pain tolerance. Analgesics may be administered to make the patient more comfortable.

4. Ultrasound to produce a picture: pg 1045

Ultrasound imaging uses 2 to 22 MHz sound waves to produce reflections from the body to make pictures of
the inside of the body. The sound waves are reflected off the organs inside the body, and are picked up again
by the sensors called ultrasound probe or ultrasound transducer as they reflected back. The sensor probe is
linked to an electronics which is called an ultrasound scanner. This translates the reflected sound waves into
a picture on a display scanner. Because ultrasound produces dynamic moving images, it can show the
structure and movement of the body’s internal organs, as well as blood flowing through blood vessels.
Advancements in ultrasound technology include three-dimensional (3-D) ultrasound that formats the sound
wave data into 3-D images. Ultrasound is a very safe technique and can be used to examine an unborn child
(foetus) in pregnant women to assess its age, health and position. Areas of the body which are covered by
bone or filled with air cannot be successfully examined using ultrasound, for example the brain or lungs.
Abnormalities which can be detected by ultrasound include cysts, tumours, and infections. Blockages in
major blood vessels can also be detected.
A Doppler ultrasound test uses reflected sound waves to evaluate blood as it flows through a blood vessel.
It helps doctors to evaluate blood flow through the major arteries and veins of the arms, legs and neck.

5. an Example of an Application of a Biomaterial where Wear Resistance is a very

important property. Pg 231
One of the material that has been chosen as a biomaterial for its wear resistance characteristic is ceramics.
Ceramic materials are most commonly solid, inorganic compounds consisting of metallic and non-metallic
elements held together by ionic or covalent bonding. They are biocompatible and show exceptional wear
resistance, but are stiffer and more brittle than other biomaterials. In recent orthopaedic applications,
ceramics are widely used in two different aspects. The first involves their use in total joint replacement
components as fully dense ceramics; the second involves the use in bone graft substitute as less dense
ceramics. Examples of ceramics: metal oxides (alumina, silica), carbide, nitrides, sulphites, single element
materials (graphite), compound containing many different elements (superconductors). Experiments showed

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that the alumina ceramics have a linear wear value of less than 5 micrometer per year, which means alumina
ceramics is strongly wear resistant. Alumina ceramics are widely used as a biomaterial because of this
reason. Porous alumina is used as a ‘bone spacer’ and for teeth implants.

{ Applications of ceramics
• Hip implants (Al oxides, Zirconia)
• Bone graft substitutes (Ca phosphate, Ca sulphate, glass)
• Dental implants (Al oxide)
• Heart valve coatings (Carbon)
• Coatings on joint replacements (Ca phosphate)
• Cochlear replacement (Al oxide)
• Orthopaedic implants (Carbon)

• Cell scaffolds (Ca phosphate) }

6. A new Material Is Needed That Is Hard, Wear Resistant And Corrosion

Resistant. What type of material is most likely to meet these criteria?
Ceramics: - Refer above questions.
Eg: Aluminium Oxides, Zirconia, Calcium Phosphate
 Ceramics are composed of atom that are bound into compound forms by ion or covalent bond.
 They are poor conduct conductors of heat or electricity
 Have high melting point.
 Brittle.
 Do not bend
 Corrossion and wear resistant
 Good insulator
Hence this new material is ceramics

7. Advances in Biomedical Engineering do you expect in the next two decades Pg 23

New discoveries and developments in biology and medicine are occurring with greater frequency now than
ever before. This has lead to the rapid change and growth of biotechnology research and industry.
Anticipated innovations in health services and technological advancements in medical equipment suggest
that the biomedical industry is well positioned for growth in coming years. Coupled with broader social
trends such as an aging population, biomedical and healthcare advancements are likely to become more
important. 
In the next two decades, advances in electronics, optics, materials, and miniaturization will accelerate
development of more sophisticated devices for diagnosis and therapy, such as imaging and virtual surgery.
The emerging new field of bioengineering—engineering based in the science of molecular cell biology—
will greatly expand the scope of biomedical engineering to tackle challenges in molecular and genomic
medicine. The accelerating pace of development of bioMEMS (biomicroelectromechanical systems,
integrating electrical, mechanical, and optical systems on a micro scale) and micro fluidic (incorporating
micro level fluid pumping, mixing, and reaction circuits) systems, combined with bioinformatics, will likely

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give rise to a new era of "lab on a chip" diagnostics, enabling routine and sensitive analysis of thousands of
molecules simultaneously from a single sample.

{ In the coming years a vast and interesting array of new career prospects will be available for engineers
with these skills both nationally and internationally. Some career areas include:
 Pharmaceutical and biotechnology engineering
 Medical diagnostics and development
 Medical device design and development
 Medical imaging, image processing
 Medical IT, computer systems and telecommunications
 Genetic and proteomic engineering in disease understanding and prevention
 Biomaterials and tissue regeneration and research
 Bio-processing and production of food and medicines
 Human biomechanics and prosthetic research
 Public health engineering as in water supply and reuse of solid and waste disposal systems

 Bio-remediation and environment engineering }

8. the advantages non-contact thermometers compared to contact

of
thermometers Pg 639
Advantages of non-contact infrared thermometer:
1, non-contact temperature measurement has no effect on the measured object.
2, fast response and movement of objects can be measured and the transient temperature.
3, the measurement accuracy, high resolution small.
4, the measurement range.
5, temperature measurement of small areas.
6, can be the same time point, line, surface temperature.
7, can be measured absolute temperature, relative humidity can be measured.
{ In addition, the non-contact infrared thermometer also has a portable, accurate measurement, real-time
measurement, use of safety benefits:
Easy to carry Because infrared thermometer solid, lightweight and easy to put in a holster when not in use,
daily inspection of the factory inspections and the work can be carried.
Real-time measurement Infrared thermometer can quickly provide temperature measurements with
thermocouple reading in the connection point of a leak within the time, with the infrared thermometer can be
read almost all the connection points of the temperature.
Measurement Accuracy; accuracy of infrared thermometers are usually less than 1 degree. This
performance is especially important to do preventive maintenance, such as poor production conditions and
monitoring equipment damage or downtime will result in a special event. With the infrared thermometer,
you can quickly detect even small changes in operating temperature, the time of their germination can to
solve the problem, reduce the costs caused by equipment failure and maintenance range.
Use of safety Security is to use the infrared thermometer is one of the most important benefits. Infrared
thermometer with laser sighting, easy to identify the target area, it can be safely read or cannot reach

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difficult to access the target object and allow the instrument to read the temperature of the target temperature
within the range, thus effectively avoiding the measurement of staff the work of the risks. }
Disadvantages of the traditional contact-type thermometer:
1. Exposure to temperature influence on the measured object temperature.
2. Not suitable for measuring transient temperature.
3. Not easy to measure the movement of objects.
4. Measuring range is not wide enough, and supplies.
5. Not suitable for measuring toxic, high pressure, and dangerous occasions.

9. Material Properties would be required for a Tendon Replacement

Tendons are a fibrous connective tissue which attaches muscle to bone. Their key mechanical properties
include:
 high tension strength (high ultimate failure load), and
 high stiffness (when a load is placed on a tendon it will resist stretching; tendons are only slightly
elastic, usually only stretching up to 6 – 10% when loaded).
Development of suture materials with a minimal cross-sectional diameter and sufficient strength to
withstand the range of forces generated. Any suture material used in tendon repair should elicit a minimal
inflammatory response and biocompatible. Nitinol (NiTi) suture is a new candidate for tendon suture
material with good super-elastic properties. NiTi can be deformed by about 8–10% without damage to the
material.

10. Micro-Electrode
An electrode, with tip dimensions small enough (less than 1m) to allow non-destructive puncturing of the
plasma membrane. This allows the intracellular recording of resting and action potentials, the measurement
of intracellular ion and pH levels (using ion selective microelectrodes) or microinjection. Microelectrodes
are generally pulled from glass capillaries and filled with conducting solutions of potassium chloride or
potassium acetate to maximise conductivity near the tip. Electrical contact, if required, is usually made with
a silver chloride coated silver wire.
{A microelectrode can further be defined as an extremely small electrode with a tip which is capable of
being inserted into the wall of a single cell without causing damage.} Microelectrodes have a number of
uses and potential applications, and several variations have been designed in laboratory environments all
over the world. Numerous tests of microelectrodes on various subjects have also been conducted,
demonstrating some of their potential applications.

11. the difference between Soft and Hard X-Rays

the medical relevance of this difference

Hard X rays Soft X rays

More penetration power (photons have more Less penetration power (photons have less energy)
energy)
More frequency of the order of » 1019 Hz Less frequency of the order of » 1016 Hz

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Lesser wavelength range (0.1Å – 4Å) More wavelength range (4Å – 100Å)
Higher voltages are applied to produce Lower voltages are applied to produce
Produces higher “quality” X-rays Produces very low “quality” X-rays

highest energy x-rays lower energy x-rays

Generated though higher velocity electrons (high Generated though lower velocity electrons (low
voltages) voltages)

Since soft X-rays are absorbed easily, not a lot of X-rays get through so a very poor image is formed. Also
because it is absorbed more, it is also very dangerous to the body as it can cause genetic mutations and
cancers. This is why X-ray machines have an aluminium filter to try to reduce exposure to these soft X-rays
that are dangerous and don’t have much use. So for diagnostic purposes if we are looking for a rubber ball
in the abdomen of a dog, you would use a softer x-ray (lower kV on the tube setting) than if you wanted to
see a bone lesion in the skull.

12. Working of Cochlear Implant

A cochlear implant is an electronic medical device that replaces the function of the damaged inner ear.
Unlike hearing aids, which make sounds louder, cochlear implants do the work of damaged parts of the
inner ear (cochlea) to provide sound signals to the brain.
The cochlear implant system works in the following manner:
• Sounds are picked up by the small, directional microphone located in the ear level processor.
• The speech processor filters, analyzes and digitizes the sound into coded signals.
• The coded signals are sent from the speech processor to the transmitting coil.
• The transmitting coil sends the coded signals as FM radio signals to the cochlear implant under the
skin.
• The cochlear implant delivers the appropriate electrical energy to the array of electrodes which has
been inserted into the cochlea.
• The electrodes along the array stimulate the remaining auditory nerve fibers in the cochlea.
• The resulting electrical sound information is sent through the auditory system to the brain for
interpretation.

13. Are Cochlear Implants suitable for all patients with hearing problems? Explain your
answer.
The cochlear implant system works in the following manner:
• Sounds are picked up by the small, directional microphone located in the ear level processor.
• The speech processor filters, analyzes and digitizes the sound into coded signals.
• The coded signals are sent from the speech processor to the transmitting coil.
• The transmitting coil sends the coded signals as FM radio signals to the cochlear implant
under the skin.
• The cochlear implant delivers the appropriate electrical energy to the array of electrodes
which has been inserted into the cochlea.
• The electrodes along the array stimulate the remaining auditory nerve fibers in the cochlea.

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 • The resulting electrical sound information is sent through the auditory system to the brain for
interpretation.

{ Who can they help?

Cochlear implants can help people who:

 have moderate to profound hearing loss in both ears

 have profound hearing loss in one ear with normal hearing in the other ear
 receive little or no benefit from hearing aids
 score 65% or less on sentence recognition tests done by hearing professional in the ear to be
implanted

Many people have cochlear implants in both ears (bilateral). Listening with two ears can improve your
ability to identify the direction of sound and separate the sounds you want to hear from those you don’t.

What are the benefits of a cochlear implant?

Many adults with cochlear implants report that they:

 Hear better with a cochlear implant than with a hearing aid: A previous study has shown that
people with cochlear implant achieve an average of 80% sentence understanding, compared with 10%
sentence understanding for hearing aids1.
 Can focus better when in noisy environments: This allows them to have conversations with people
across meeting tables, in restaurants and other crowded places.
 Reconnect with missed sounds that they could not hear before their cochlear implant.
 Feel safer in the world as they can hear alarms, people calling out and approaching vehicles.
 Talk and hear on the phone
 Enjoy music

What factors can affect these benefits?

The benefit of cochlear implants is often different for different individuals. This difference is often due to:

 how long they have had hearing loss before receiving a cochlear implant
 how severe their hearing loss is!
 condition of their cochlea (inner ear)
 other medical conditions
 how much practice they include in everyday life when using their cochlear implant system. }

14. the advantages and disadvantages of Artificial Heart Valves compared to Biological
Heart Valves?
  Advantages Disadvantages
Biological  Do not damage red  Prone to becoming hardened over the course of
valves blood cells as they pass through several years
the open valves
 For patients with long life expectancy, there is a
higher chance of further operations to replace the valves

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 (any operation carries risks)

Mechanical  
Very strong and durable Damage red blood cells as they pass through the
valves - able to last a lifetime open valves
 Require the patient to take anti-blood clotting
drugs for the rest of their life
 Some people say they can hear the valves
opening and closing

15. two designs for artificial heart valves

There are two main types of artificial heart valves: the mechanical and the tissue (biological) heart valves.
Mechanical heart valves - Metal and plastic valves designed to mimic native valves
Advantages
 Sturdiness, last for many years
 Very low calcification risks
 Incorporates sewing cuff with facilitates implantation
Disadvantage
 People receive these valves will need to take life-long blood-thinner
medication(anticoagulants) to prevent clot from forming in the mechanical valves.
This will result in strokes
 Valve ticking sound, opening and closing.
 Potential to deteriorate rapidly when fails leaving patient in critical situation.
 Sewing cuff has potential to obstruct blood flow
Biological heart valves
Advantages
 High compatible
 No life-long blood-thinner medication is needed
 Allowing elective replacement procedures.
 Low mortality rate associated with re-do procedures.
Disadvantages
 Not durable as mechanical heart valves, especial for young life(10 years life time)
 Moderate to high calcification risks

16. People have tried to Design and Construct Artificial Hearts for more than half a
century but their success has been limited. the reasons for this Lack of Success

The artificial heart is not without risk, and those risks include wearing out or failure of the electrical motor,
infection, and the need to take blood thinners to prevent clotting. Stroke and bleeding are also possible
complications with the artificial heart. Another disadvantage of the artificial heart is that not all patients
have a body size that allows the device to be implanted into the chest cavity, making small persons unable to
receive the device.

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 Blood Clots

When your blood comes in contact with something that isn't a natural part of your body, such as a TAH, it
tends to clot more than normal. Blood clots can disrupt blood flow and may block blood vessels leading to
important organs in the body.

Bleeding

The surgery to implant a TAH is very complex. Bleeding can occur in your chest during and after the
surgery.

Infection

One of the two available TAHs, the CardioWest, attaches to a power source outside your body through holes
in your abdomen. These holes increase the risk of bacteria getting in and causing an infection.

Device Malfunctions

They are so complex, they can malfunction (not work properly) in different ways. A TAH's:

 Pumping action may not be exactly right

 Power may fail
 Parts may stop working well

17. the function of the Seating Ring Of An Artificial Heart Valve? Would polyester be a
good material for a seating ring Explain

Seating ring is one of the four main parts of an artificial heart valve. Common parts of valves are an occlude,
seating ring, a cage and sewing ring. The function of the seating ring is to hold the occluder when the valve
is closed. Or in other words the occluder bounces back and forth from the seating ring in order to open and
close the valves.
No, polyester is not a good material for ring. Seating ring require strength and stiffness to maintain their
shape. Usually metals are used as rings due to their improved strength.

18. the function of the occluder of an artificial heart valve? Would polyester be a good
material for an occluder
 A catheter-delivered device that blocks a hole in the wall of a heart. Often the occluder is designed with an
umbrella-type design and is folded up until the catheter arrives at the area of the defect in the heart. Once in
place the occluder is unfolded on both sides of the defect so that pressure from both sides keeps it in place.
How does it work?
A doctor makes a small incision in the groin and threads the delivery system and implant through blood
vessels to the heart. Inside the heart, the device is advanced to the site of the defect. When the doctor is
certain the device is placed properly, the implant is released from the delivery system and opened so that the
defect is blocked (or sandwiched) by the mesh discs. The implant remains in the heart and the delivery
system is removed.

Once the device is in place, tissue will grow over it closing the defect. The device then becomes part of the
wall of the heart.

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When is it used?
The AMPLATZER Septal Occluder is intended to close openings between the atria (the two upper
chambers of the heart). It can be used to treat patients with certain types of atrial septal defects. The device
can also be used to close a passageway intentionally made during a surgical operation called a fenestrated
Fontan procedure if the surgeon determines the passageway is no longer necessary. (The fenestrated Fontan
procedure is an open-heart surgery in which a surgeon makes a new passageway for blood to travel through
the heart. It is used to treat a variety of congenital heart defects.)

When should it not be used? 

The Amplatzer Septal Occluder should not be used in patients who:

 have extensive cardiac anomalies and require open-heart surgery;

 have certain types of infections that do not respond to treatment;
 cannot take aspirin or other blood-thinning drugs;
 have blood clots in or near the heart;
 are allergic to nickel.
Polyster is a good material used for the same. Derlin is the common that is being used because of its less
wear characteristics and longer life.
19. Describe Two Causes of Heart Murmurs.
There are two types of heart murmurs: innocent murmurs and abnormal murmurs. A person with an innocent
murmur has a normal heart. This type of heart murmur is common in newborns and children. An abnormal
heart murmur is more serious. In children, abnormal murmurs are usually caused by congenital heart
disease. In adults, abnormal murmurs are most often due to acquired heart valve problems.
Innocent heart murmurs: An innocent murmur can occur when blood flows more rapidly through the heart.
Conditions that may cause rapid blood flow through your heart, resulting in an innocent heart murmur, are:

 Physical activity or exercise

 Pregnancy
 Fever
 Changes in your heart's structure, such as changes from heart surgery
 Not having enough healthy red blood cells to carry adequate oxygen to your body tissues
(anemia)
 An excessive amount of thyroid hormone in your body (hyperthyroidism)
Changes to the heart due to aging or heart surgery may also cause an innocent heart murmur. Innocent heart
murmurs may disappear over time, or they may last your entire life without ever causing further health
problems.

Abnormal heart murmurs: Although most heart murmurs aren't serious, some may result from a heart
problem. The most common cause of abnormal murmurs in children is when babies are born with structural
problems of the heart (congenital heart defect). Common congenital defects that cause heart murmurs
include:

 Holes in the heart or cardiac shunts. Many heart murmurs in children are the result of holes in the
walls between heart chambers, known as septal defects. These may or may not be serious, depending

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 on the size of the hole and its location. Shunts occur when there's an abnormal blood flow between
the heart chambers or blood vessels, which may lead to a heart murmur.
 Heart valve abnormalities. Congenital heart valve abnormalities are present at birth, but sometimes
aren't discovered until much later in life. Examples include valves that don't allow enough blood
through them (stenosis) or those that don't close properly and leak (regurgitation).
Other causes of abnormal heart murmurs include infections and conditions that damage the structures of the
heart and are more common in older children or adults. For example:

 Rheumatic fever
 Endocarditis
 Valve calcification
 Mitral valve prolapse

20. Name two causes of heart murmurs.

There are two types of heart murmurs: innocent murmurs and abnormal murmurs.
 Innocent heart murmurs:
 Physical activity or exercise
 Pregnancy
 Fever
 Changes in your heart's structure, such as changes from heart surgery
 Not having enough healthy red blood cells to carry adequate oxygen to your body tissues
(anemia)
 An excessive amount of thyroid hormone in your body (hyperthyroidism)
 Abnormal heart murmurs:
 Holes in the heart or cardiac shunts
 Heart valve abnormalities.

 Rheumatic fever

 Endocarditis

 Valve calcification

 Mitral valve prolapse

21. Functions of the Nervous System?

The nervous system is the major controlling, regulatory, and communicating system in the body. It is the
center of all mental activity including thought, learning, and memory. Together with the endocrine system,
the nervous system is responsible for regulating and maintaining homeostasis.
The functions of the nervous system is,
● to detect, analyse, utilise and transmit information generated by sensory stimuli

● to organise and coordinate body functions, including movement

{Through its receptors, the nervous system keeps us in touch with our environment, both external and
internal. Like other systems in the body, the nervous system is composed of organs, principally the brain,
spinal cord, nerves, and ganglia. These, in turn, consist of various tissues, including nerve, blood, and
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connective tissue. Together these carry out the complex activities of the nervous system. } The various
activities of the nervous system can be grouped together as three general, overlapping functions:
 Sensory
 Integrative
 Motor

22. the differences between Blood Flow in A Vessel and The Flow Of Water in a
Pipe?
A fluid whose viscosity is , flowing through a pipe of radius r and length L, has a volume flow rate Q
given by;

or

where:

is the pressure drop

L is the length of pipe
is the dynamic viscosity
Q is the volumetric flow rate
r is the radius
d is the diameter
is the mathematical constant Pi
Water behaves as a Newtonian fluid and its viscosity is independent of flow velocity. Unlike water, blood is
non-Newtonian, that is the viscosity is not independent of flow at all flow velocities and contains proteins
and other nutrients. The water is a homogeneous fluid and its viscosity is determined by molecular
interactions between water molecules. The blood plasma has a higher viscosity than water. In fact, plasma at
37°C is about 1.8-times more viscous than water at the same temperature; therefore, the relative viscosity of
plasma (compared to water) is about 1.8.

23. How do Calcium Ions Interact with the Myofibrillar Elements to cause muscle
contraction?
 Calcium ions creates active sites on actin filaments which forms a cross bridge between actin and
myosin and the muscle contract.
 Muscle fibres contains sarcolemma and sarcoplasm. The myofibrils are attached to this sarcolemma
at each end of the cell which creates muscle fibre contraction.
 So when the nerve is simulated, vesicles in the axons terminals ejects a neurotransmitter,
acetylcholine, into the synapse between the neuron and the muscle.

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  This acetylcholine diffuses across the synapse ad binds to receptors in a special area, the motor end
plate, of the sarcolemma.
 This causes the Na channels in the sarcolemma to open up, which produces action potential in the
muscle fibre.
 This action potential spreads over the entire sarcolemmal surface and travels down all the T tubules
where it triggers a sudden massive release of calcium by the cisternae.
 This calcium triggered helps in the production of the thin filaments in active sites so that cross
bridges with myosin can form and muscle contraction occurs.
24. Why should somebody who has Just Fainted Lie Down?
When someone faints, it's usually because changes in the nervous system and circulatory system cause a
temporary drop in the amount of blood reaching the brain. When the blood supply to the brain is decreased,
a person loses consciousness and falls over. After lying down, a person's head is at the same level as the
heart, which helps restore blood flow to the brain. So the person usually recovers after a minute or two.

25. Why is it necessary for the Ventricular Action Potential to have a relatively long
absolute refractory period?
The long absolute refractory period protects the cardiac pump, as it is not possible to bring ventricles into
smooth tetanus.
The ventricular action potential has a long refractory period so that the mechanical response of the ventricle
will be discrete; one coordinated mechanical response per electrical activation sequence. Otherwise, with
additional electrical stimuli, the mechanical responses would summate producing a prolonged contraction.

26. the difference between Invasive and Non-Invasive Measurements? Give some
examples of each.
An invasive procedure is one which penetrates or breaks the skin or enters a body cavity. Examples of
invasive procedures include those that involve perforation, an incision, a catheterization, or other entry into
the body. Examples are Surgery, rectal examination, blood test etc.
A medical procedure is strictly defined as non-invasive when no break in the skin is created and there is no
contact with the mucosa, or skin break, or internal body cavity beyond a natural or artificial body orifice.
Examples includes pulse-taking, the auscultation of heart sounds and lung sounds (using the stethoscope),
temperature examination (using thermometers), respiratory examination, peripheral vascular examination,
oral examination, abdominal examination, audiometry, eye examination, measure blood pressure with
sphygmomanometer, electrocardiography, X-rays, EMG etc.

27. Give a list of Specifications required for an Artificial Heart.

The following are the specifications of an artificial heart should have.
● Fit of the system ● Material used ● Efficiency of the motor ● Minimum heat generated ● Pump
performance ● Pump’s flow rate ● Should be highly efficient ● ficiapatibility ● Reliability ● Quality of
life ● Device should be made as small as possible ● Weight of the device ● Output pressure ● Flows and
venous pressure ● Load responses ● Should prevent infections related with the device and wires ● The
source of power should be reliable, compact and last long ● Should fit inside all persons including men and
woman ● Able to adjust its cardiac output to the appropriate level ● Able to balance the left and the right
side of the circulation ● Able to be responsive to changes in after load ● Able to produce a substantial
pulsatile component in the arterial pressure waveform ● Able to regulate the rate of pressure rise in the
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ventricles to be near physiological levels ● Should be simple and reliable ● Able to respond to ambient
pressure changes ● To have primary failure mechanisms which will result in only reduced or degraded
performance that are not life-threatening.

28. meant by The Resolution of an Ad Converter?

The resolution of the converter indicates the number of discrete values it can produce over the range of
analog values. The values are usually stored electronically in binary form, so the resolution is usually
expressed in bits. In consequence, the number of discrete values available, or "levels", is a power of two

Resolution can also be defined electrically, and expressed in volts. The minimum change in voltage required
to guarantee a change in the output code level is called the least significant bit (LSB) voltage. The resolution
Q of the ADC is equal to the LSB voltage. The voltage resolution of an ADC is equal to its overall voltage
measurement range divided by the number of discrete values:

where M is the ADC's resolution in bits and EFSR is the full scale voltage range (also called 'span'). EFSR is
given by

where VRefHi and VRefLow are the upper and lower extremes, respectively, of the voltages that can be coded.

Normally, the number of voltage intervals is given by

where M is the ADC's resolution in bits.

That is, one voltage interval is assigned in between two consecutive code levels.

29. the purpose of an AD converter?

Analog to digital converters are used to transform biological signals from continuous analog waveforms to
digital sequences so that the microprocessor will be able to read, understand and manipulate the data.

The questions that I would ask in order to select the right AD converter are as follows;
 What is the Maximum Sample Rate?

 What is the resolution of the device?

 How many bits does it have?

 What is the voltage range?

 What is the total power consumption?

 What is the operating temperature range?

 What is the total price of the device?

 What is the input range?

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  What is the maximum and minimum digital supply?

 What is the maximum and minimum analog voltage?

 What is the total input channels supported?

 What is the numeric voltage range?

 What is the Power required to operate?

 What is the SNR and SFDR?

 Does it have Dynamic Power Scaling?

 What is the Standard Swing voltage?

 What is the Low Swing voltage?

 What is the Default Strength voltage?

 Is parallel CMOS interface supported or not?

 What is the total Programmable Gain?

 Does it have DC Offset Correction?

 What is the Input Clock Amplitude?

30. In your opinion what is the Most Important Medical Development After 1950?
Motivate your answer.
Paul Lauterbur and Sir Peter Mansfield were awarded the 2003 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for
their "discoveries concerning magnetic resonance imaging". For decades’ magnetic resonance was used
mainly for studying the chemical structure of substances. It wasn't until the 1970s with Lauterbur's and
Mansfield's developments that nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) could be used to produce images of the
body. They introduced the idea of applying gradients in the magnetic field which allows for determining the
origin of the radio waves emitted from the nuclei of the object of study. This spatial information allows two-
dimensional pictures to be produced. MRI scans to help diagnose multiple sclerosis, brain tumours, torn
ligaments, tendonitis, cancer, strokes etc. An MRI scan is the best way to see inside the human body without
cutting it open. High-resolution images of organs or any area of the body can be made without the need for
using x-rays because MRIs use radio frequency (RF) light. Since they use RF light, MRIs do not present any
known health risks to the patients; however, anyone with metal implants could not receive a MRI. If a
person's nervous system needed to be studied, an MRI image would be the best imaging method to use,
especially if the brain or spinal cord needed to be investigated.

31. three Categories of Biosignals. Give at least one example for each category.
Biosignals is a summarizing term for all kinds of signals that can be continually measured and monitored
from biological beings. The term biosignals is often used to mean bio-electrical signal. However, biosignals
refers to both electrical and non-electrical signals. Electrical biosignals or bio-electrical signals are usually
taken to be changes in electric currents produced by the sum of electrical potential differences across a
specialized tissue, organ or cell system like the nervous system.

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Can be classified according to:
• to their source or physical nature
• to biomedical application.
• to signal characteristics.
• according to the origin
There are two broad classes of signals:
- continuous signals and
- discrete signals.
Signals are again divided into two main groups:
- deterministic and
- stochastic signals.
Types of biosignals according to the origin:
a) Bioelectric signals. They are generated by nerve cells and muscle cells. Its source is the membrane
potential, which under certain conditions may be excited to generate an action potential. The bioelectric
signal requires a relatively simple transducer for its acquisition. E.g.: ECG, EEG, EMG and others.
b) Bioimpedence signals. The impedance of the tissue contains important information concerning its
composition, blood volume, blood distribution, endocrine activity, automatic nervous system activity, and
more. The bioimpedence signal is usually generated by injecting (or superficially) into the tissue under test
sinusoidal currents (frequency range of 50 kHz to 1 MHz, with low current densities of the order of 20 _A to
2 mA). E.g.: impedance plethysmography or rheography.
c) Biomagnetic signals. Various organs, such as the brain, heart, and lungs, produce extremely weak
magnetic fields (10−9 T to 10−6 T). The measurements of these fields provide information not included in
other biosignals (such as bioelectric signals). Due to the low level of the magnetic fields to be measured,
biomagnetic signals are usually of very low signal-to-noise ratio. Eg: Magneto encephalography (MEG),
Magnetocardiography (MCG), MMG, MOG, Superconducting quantum interference devices (SQUID)
d) Bioacoustic signals (eg: microphones, accelerometers, phonetic and non-phonetic utterances, breathing)
e) Biochemical signals e.g. pH, oxygenation
f) Biomechanical signals e.g. the mechanomyogram or MMG
g) Bio-optical signals e.g. movements
h) Thermal biosignals
i) Radiological biosignals
j) Ultrasonic biosignals

32. some causes for Noise in an EEG Recording.

Severe contamination of EEG activity by eye movements, blinks, muscle, heart and line noise (60 Hz) and
aliased line noise frequencies (near 12 Hz, 105 Hz, 135 Hz) is a serious problem for EEG interpretation and
analysis. Since many noise sources, include muscle noise, electrode noise and line noise, have no clear
reference channels, regression methods cannot be used to removed them. This noise comes from a number
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of sources, from presence of extraneous signals to adjustments in signal amplification and shot noise in the
circuits used for data collection. Some other causes of noise includes,
 Thoracic and abdominal movements
 Power line interference - Electromagnetic fields from power lines can cause 50/60 Hz sinusoidal
interference, possibly accompanied by some of its harmonics
 Electrode contact noise, baseline drift and motion artifacts
 EMG from the chest wall
 Interference noise by power lines (50 or 60Hz), fluorescent lights, AM/FM radio broadcasts,
computer clock oscillators, laboratory equipment, cellular phones
 High frequency and low frequency noise
 Electronic circuit noise and inherent noise
 Instrumentation noise
 Electrosurgical noise
 Baseline wander can be caused by: Perspiration (effects electrode impedance), Respiration, Body
movements
 Muscle noise - Muscle noise can cause severe problems as low-amplitude waveforms can be
obstructed, especially in recordings during exercise

33. the role of “Venous Return” In Cardiac Output.

Venous return (VR) is the flow of blood back to the heart. Under steady-state conditions, venous return must
equal cardiac output (CO) when averaged over time because the cardiovascular system is essentially a
closed loop. Otherwise, blood would accumulate in either the systemic or pulmonary circulations. Although
cardiac output and venous return are interdependent, each can be independently regulated.

The circulatory system is made up of two circulations (pulmonary and systemic) situated in series between
the right ventricle (RV) and left ventricle (LV) as depicted in the figure to the right. Balance is achieved, in
large part, by the Frank-Starling mechanism. For example, if systemic venous return is suddenly increased
(e.g., changing from upright to supine position), right ventricular preload increases leading to an increase in
stroke volume and pulmonary blood flow.  Increased pulmonary venous return to the left atrium leads to
increased filling (preload) of the left ventricle, which in turn increases left ventricular stroke volume by the
Frank-Starling mechanism.  In this way, an increase in venous return can lead to a matched increase in
cardiac output.

34. In a pathological condition known as Coarctation of The Aorta, the lumen (internal
space) of the aorta becomes narrowed due to an external compression of its walls (a squeezing
action). If such aortic coarctation reduced the internal diameter by one third, what is the effect
on the mean velocity of the blood through the constricted area?
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Mean velocity of the blood is inversely proportional to the cross sectional area. That means as the cross
sectional area decreases, mean velocity increases.
Cross sectional area: pi*D2/4 = pi* (1/3)2/4 = 0.08722
Mean velocity = cardiac output / cross sectional area
Mean velocity = cardiac output / 0.08722 = 11.47*cardiac output
OR
Flow = cross section * velocity
Velocity = flow/Cross section = flow/0.08722 = 11.47*flow
Here, it can be clearly seen that the mean velocity of the blood increase by 11 times if the internal diameter
is reduced by one third.

35. Give two examples of the Application of Ultrasound.

 Obstetrics and Gynecology
o measuring the size of the fetus to determine the due date
o determining the position of the fetus
o checking the position of the placenta
o seeing the number of fetuses in the uterus
o checking the sex of the baby
 Cardiology
o seeing the inside of the heart to identify abnormal structures or functions
o measuring blood flow through the heart and major blood vessels
 Urology

o measuring blood flow through the kidney

o seeing kidney stones
o detecting prostate cancer early

36. How can Oxygen Saturation Be Measured?

Pulse Oximeter: A pulse oximeter is a device intended for the non-invasive measurement of arterial blood
oxygen saturation and pulse rate. Typically it uses two LEDs (light-emitting diodes) generating red and
infrared lights through a translucent part of the body. Bone, tissue, pigmentation, and venous vessels
normally absorb a constant amount of light over time.
CO-oximeter: A CO-oximeter is a device for detecting hypoxia and works similar to a pulse oximeter. CO-
oximeter measures absorption at several wavelengths to distinguish oxyhemoglobin from
carboxyhemoglobin and determine the oxyhemoglobin saturation even when the patient has carbon
monoxide poisoning.
Other methods include:
 Arterial blood gas (ABG) analysis
 Capnometer

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 37. How can Blood Flow and Blood Pressure Be Measured? What are the limitations
of these measurement techniques?

Blood pressure can be measured by using 2 numbers.

First number is systolic blood pressure which will measure the pressure in the blood vessels when hart beats.

Second number is diastolic blood pressure which measures the pressure in your blood vessels when your
heart beats.

The blood flow and blood pressure can be measured by invasive and non-invasive methods.

The non-invasive methods for measuring blood flow are;

 Electric-Impedance Plethysmography

The disadvantage of using Electric-Impedance Plethysmography is that;

• The accuracy is often poor or unknown

 Photoelectric Plethysmography

The disadvantage of using Photoelectric Plethysmography is that;

• Poor measure for changes in volume

• Very sensitive to motion artefacts

Some other non-invasive methods are:

 Ultrasound Doppler
 Laser Doppler Flowmetry
 Strain Gage Plethysmography
 Thermal Convection Probes
 Electromagnetic flow transducer

The invasive methods for measuring blood flow are;

 Thermal Dilution Method

The disadvantage of using Thermal Dilution Method is that;

• Extreme nonlinear properties

• Difficulties in practical use (e.g. variable thermal characteristics of skin)

 Dye Dilution Method

 Radioisotopes

The non-invasive methods for measuring blood pressure are;

 Palpatory Method

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The disadvantage of using Palpatory Method is that

• Only the systolic pressure can be measured (not diastolic pressure)

• The technique does not give accurate results for infants and hypotensive patients.

 Auscultatory Method

The disadvantage of using Auscultatory Method is that;

• A mechanical error might be introduced into the system e.g. mercury leakage, air leakage,
obstruction in the cuff etc.

• The observations do not always correspond with intra-arterial pressure.

• The technique does not give accurate results for infants and hypotensive patients.

 Ultrasonic Method

The disadvantage of using Ultrosonic Method is that;

• Subject’s movements change the path from sensor to vessel

 Oscillometric Method

The disadvantage of using Oscillometric Method is that;

• Many devices use fixed algorithms leading to large variance in blood pressures

 Tonometry

The disadvantage of using Tonometry Method is that;

• Relatively high cost

• The wrist movement and tendons result in measurement inaccuracies

Some other non-invasive methods are:

 Sphygmomanometer
 (Riva-Rocci Method)

The invasive methods for measuring blood pressure are;

 Extravascular Sensor
 Intravascular Sensor

38. What is the purpose of a 50 Hz Notch Filter?

• A notch filter is a filter that filters out a particular frequency from a signal.

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•In human bio-potential recordings, it is common practice to apply a 50/60 Hz notch filter to eliminates
power-line interference from the ECG signal. In such cases, there is no considerable distortion observed on
the recorded signal.

•These interference components are stored and further subtracted from the signal wherever non-linear
segments are encountered.
39. What is the purpose of notch filter?
The notch filter allows signals in the frequency band less than w1 (omega 1) and greater than w2 (omega 2)
to pass through the filter and eliminates any signals or noise outside this interval. – Refer Previous Question

40. What is the difference between Continuous-Time and Discrete-Time Signals?

Are most bio-signals continuous-time signals or discrete-time signals?

Continuous signal is a varying quantity whose domain which if in time, is a continuum the domain of a
continuous-time (CT) signal is the set of real numbers. In discrete signals, the domain of a discrete-time
(DT) signal is the set of integers (or some interval).

Most of biomedical signal presents a continuous form of signal. A biosignal is any signal in living beings
that can be continually measured and monitored. Biosignals may also refer to any non-electrical signal that
is capable of being monitored from biological beings, such as mechanical signals (e.g. the
mechanomyogram or MMG), acoustic signals (e.g. phonetic and non-phonetic utterances, breathing),
chemical signals (e.g. pH, oxygenation) and optical signals (e.g. movements).

41. Give at least three examples of Drug Delivery Systems.

 Miniature infusion pumps have been developed for patients with special therapeutic needs like
diabetes patients.

 Implantable pumps use a concentrated form of the drug. Eg: morphine around the spinal cord.

 Refilling of the reservoir is percutaneously by means of a needle.

 Topical drug delivery systems involve the introduction of a drug to the surface of the body, in a
formulation which can be absorbed. Skin patches are an example of topical drug delivery systems.

 Targeted drug delivery, sometimes called smart drug delivery, is a method of delivering medication
to a patient in a manner that increases the concentration of the medication in some parts of the body
relative to others.

42. Draw the Stress Strain Curves for a brittle and a ductile material.

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The diagram below shows stress strain graph for a brittle and a ductile material.

•The brittle materials reach failure with only a small amount of deformation strain.

•Brittle materials do not have a yield point, and do not strain-harden. Therefore, the ultimate strength and
breaking strength are the same.

•One of the characteristics of a brittle failure is that the two broken parts can be reassembled to produce the
same shape as the original component as there will not be a neck formation .

•ductile materials stretch or compress a great deal before failure.

•Ductile materials are characterized by their ability to yield at normal temperatures. A neck forms where the
local cross-sectional area becomes significantly smaller than the original.

43. What is the relevance of a Stress Strain Curve for a Biomaterial that is Used to
Fix Broken Bones?
 Stress strain curve shows the elastic properties of the bone that vary depending on whether the load
is being applied or removed, displaying hysteresis.
 Stress strain curve for biomaterial in order to fix broken bones is shown below:

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  Stress strain curve shows the plastic region of deformation.
 Stress strain curve shows the elastic properties of the bone differ depending on the whether the
sample is cut longitudinal or transverse direction.
 Bone is uch weaker and less stiff in tranverse compared to longitudinal direction as is illustratred by
the large difference in the yield and ultimate stresses and slopes of stress-strain curves.

44. What is a Hardness Test? Give an example of an application of a biomaterial for which this
is a relevant test.

Hardness is the measure of how resistant solid matter is to various kinds of permanent shape change when a
force is applied.

•Hardness test is a method to achieve a hardness value is to measure the depth or area of an indentation left
by an indenter of a specific shape, with a specific force applied for a specific time.

•There are three principal standard test methods for expressing the relationship between hardness and the
size of the impression, these being Brinell, Vickers, and Rockwell.

Example- Hardness Evaluation of Biological Tissue Using Nanoindentation- is used to study the hardness
and elastic modulus of 3 separate areas of prosciutto (fat, light meat and dark meat).
45. What is a Total Hip Replacement? What material characteristics are required for
materials used in a total hip replacement?

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Total Hip Joint replacement or Total Hip Replacement involves surgical removal of the disabled ball and
socket and replacing with a metal ball and stem inserted into the femur bone and an artificial plastic cup
socket.
In total hip replacements, the bulk properties of materials, such as proper elasticity and hardness, are
important. However, the material interacts with the control of surface properties using different kinds of
treatments or coatings may improve total hip replacements considerably. The most studied surface
treatments include ion implantation and methods to control surface topography, such as grit or sand blasting
or plasma treatments. Among the large variety of coatings, hydroxyapatite, titanium oxide and nitride,
zirconium oxide, pyrolytic carbon, and diamond like carbon coatings have shown the most promising
results.

46. Give some medical Applications of Electric Stimulators.

Stimulators can be used to stimulate the sphincter of the ureter to prevent incontinence or to stimulate the
bladder to help patient expel the condense of their bladder.
Muscle stimulators:
 Muscle stimulators can be used in physical therapy
 Muscle stimulators are useful to prevent the muscular atrophy in people who are paralysed.
 Muscle stimulators have also been used for stroke victims
 Patients with spinal cord injuries can regain some functions by electric stimulaton of the muscle.
Nerve stimulators: include cochlear implants( stimulation of auditory nerve)
 Stimulator of the retina cells for the visual cortex are being developed to give the blind people some
vision.
 Pain suppression by transcutaneous nerve stimulation

47. What Methods can be used to Evaluate Brain Function?

Traditional Methods;
 Surgical Ablation or Method of extirpation,

 Stimulation Method: Electrical Recording or Action Potential Method (EEG)

 Direct Brain Stimulation (Electro corticography)

 Histology

Scanning and Imaging Techniques;

 CT (computed tomography scan) or Computer axial tomography (CAT) scan

 Angiogram

 MEG (Magneto encephalogram),  

 SQUID (Superconducting Quantum Interference Device),

 SPECT (Single-Photon Emission Computerized Tomography),

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  X – Rays,

 MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)

 positron emission tomography (PET)

Latest Techniques;
 Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy,

 Single-photon emission computed tomography,

 Circuit Tracing Method (Brainbow and ATLUM)

 functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI),

 Pharmacological functional MRI (phMRI)

 Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)

 Diffusion tensor-MRI (DTI)

 Structural magnetic resonance imaging

 single photon tomography (SPECT)

48. In some diseases the Myelin Sheath of Nerves is damaged resulting in a longer
conduction time. Describe a method to Measure the Conduction Time and
Conduction Speed of a Nerve.
1. Intracellular Recording:
 Two electrodes are placed on either side of the membrane of the neuron, one inside the cell
and one outside.
 As the ions move into and out of the cell a change in potential difference is recorded between
the electrodes.
 This technique is performed on large, isolated neurons.
2. Extracellular Recording:
 A pair of electrodes is placed on the outside of the neuron.
 As the action potential passes along the neuron, a change in potential between the electrodes
may be measured and recorded as a biphasic AP.
 This method does not measure ion flow but the net difference in potential as the action
potential passes first one electrode and then the other electrode.
 Its advantage is, it can be used to record the passage of an action from the surface of the body
and is also used to record action potentials from whole nerves.

The Conduction Velocity of the action potential is determined by;

Conduction velocity = distance travelled(m)/time taken to complete the reflex arc(sec).

1. Measurement of distance is relatively straightforward. It can be done using a ruler or a tape measure.
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 2. The measurement of time is more complicated. Action potentials travel very quickly; therefore, the
times to be measured are very small and require more sophisticated instrumentation. The computer
with PowerLab, like the oscilloscope, is ideally suited to measure events that happen in a very short
amount of time.

49. A person is Not Hearing Well. Give at least three possible causes and explain what can be
done about them.
1. Infections - find he infection arts and try to fix the infected areas by drugs.
2. Ototoxic drug intake – stop the drug intake.
3. Structural problem of the ear such as stenosis, absence or malformation of the outer ear, ear canal,
ear drum, ear bones & inner ear malformations – surgery or implantation on faulty parts.
4. Genetics – Syndromic Vs Non-syndromic hearing loss.

50. What is the difference between Therapeutic and Assistive Devices?

Therapeutic Assistive
They are the devices used to treat Devices used to increase or improve the
diseases. It is more like a brace that helps functional capabilities of individuals with
the ankle heal by immobilizing it. disabilities.
Used to treat a condition They don’t treat, they simply help ease he
issue
Example: ventilators, hemodialysers, Example: manual wheelchair
pacemakers, infusion pumps

51. What is a Ct Scanner?

 A CT scan stands for Computed Tomography scan.
 Also known as a CAT (Computer Axial Tomography) scan. It is a medical imaging method that
employs tomography.
 It is a painless procedure.
 CT scanner uses X-rays and a computer to make pictures of the inside of your body.
 It used to be called an EMI scan, because it was developed by the company EMI.
 Similar to plain X-ray, that takes number of pictures of a section instead on one.

52. What is MRI? Explain how it works.

 MRI is short for Magnetic Resonance Imaging.

 It is a procedure used in hospitals to scan patients and determine the severity of certain injuries.
 An MRI machine uses a magnetic field and radio waves to create detailed images of the body.
Working:
 A strong magnetic field is created by passing an electric current through the wire loops.
 While this is happening, other coils in the magnet send and receive radio waves.
 This triggers protons in the body to align themselves.
 Once aligned, radio waves are absorbed by the protons, which stimulate spinning.

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  Energy is released after "exciting" the molecules, which in turn emits energy signals that are picked
up by the coil.
 This information is then sent to a computer which processes all the signals and generates it into an
image.
 The final product is a 3-D image representation of the area being examined.

53. Mention Two Vitamins, Which Affect the Strength Of Bone And Indicate
whether they affect the strength of bone in compression or in tension.

 Vitamin D affects bone strength by promoting the absorption of calcium from your small intestine.
 Without Vitamin C, the bone matrix forms abnormally, leading to weak bones
 The influence of vitamin A on new cell formation and specialization proves essential for the normal
growth and development of your bones.
 It affects the compression

Movement Of Ions
54. What are the main factors involved in the across the Cell
Membrane In The Steady State Solution?
The flow of ions through the cell membrane depends mainly on three factors:
 the ratio of ion concentrations on both sides of the membrane
 the voltage across the membrane, and
 the membrane permeability.

55. List three factors which influence the Strength of Bone.

 Age factor
 Genetic factor
 Nutritions
 Hormones (Thyroid Hormone, calcitonin, Parathyroid hormone, Growth hormone, Estrogen and
Testosterone)

56. Which methods can be used to evaluate Brain Function?

 Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
 Positron emission tomography (PET)
 Single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT)
 Neuro-sonography
 Doppler ultrasound
 Electroencephalography

57. What is the most common source of noise in ECG signals? Does this type of noise also
affect other biological signals? Explain your answers.
 Noise produced during movement of muscles and eyes.
 Power line interference
 Electrode contact noise, baseline drift and Electrode contact noise, baseline drift and
 motion artifacts
 EMG from the chest wall EMG from the chest wall
 Instrumentation noise Instrumentation noise
 Electrosurgical noise

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Biological signals are very small and typically contain unwanted interference or noise. Such interference has
the detrimental effect of obscuring relevant information that will be available in the measured signal.

58. What is the purpose of a heater in an Airflow Transducer? In what way would the
measurements change if it would not work?

When a small heater is placed in the air flow transducer, the heater heats the screen so water vapour does not
condense on it over time and produce an artificial high pressure drop

If there is no heater, it will create a high pressure drop which will be the opposing work of an airflow
transducer. Air velocity if proportional to the slight pressure drop produced in the air flow transducer. Hence
pressure drop is an important factor. Without heater this will be changed which will adversely affect the
actual working of air flow transducer.
59. What is the difference between Invasive and Non-Invasive Measurements? Give some
examples of each.
An invasive procedure is one which penetrates or breaks the skin or enters a body cavity. Examples of
invasive procedures include those that involve perforation, an incision, a catheterization, or other entry into
the body. Examples are Surgery, rectal examination, blood test etc.
A medical procedure is strictly defined as non-invasive when no break in the skin is created and there is no
contact with the mucosa, or skin break, or internal body cavity beyond a natural or artificial body orifice.
Examples includes pulse-taking, the auscultation of heart sounds and lung sounds (using the stethoscope),
temperature examination (using thermometers), respiratory examination, peripheral vascular examination,
oral examination, abdominal examination, audiometry, eye examination, measure blood pressure with
sphygmomanometer, electrocardiography, X-rays, EMG etc.

60. Compare an artificial leg with a real leg and explain the limitations of the artificial leg?

  Advantages Disadvantages
Artificial  Replaceable  Not a real leg
Leg  Never get tired which means a longer and faster travel  Can feel nothing
distance.
 No strains in such as standing on a sharp surface or
applieng in any sports

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 
 Not replaceable  Real leg with the
Real Leg
 Get tired after travelling a certain distance.eh speed of sense of feeling
travelling is much slower than a power supported artificial
legs
 Can’t stand on sharp edges

61. Explain the relevance of Evoked Potentials for the testing of Hearing.
An evoked potential or evoked response is an electrical potential recorded from the nervous system of a
human or other animal following presentation of a stimulus, as distinct from spontaneous potentials as
detected by electroencephalography (EEG), electromyography (EMG), or other electrophysiologic recording
method. Such potentials are useful for electrodiagnosis and monitoring.
EVOKED POTENTIAL FOR AUDITORY PURPOSE
Auditory evoked potential can be used to trace the signal generated by a sound through the ascending
auditory pathway. The evoked potential is generated in the cochlea, goes through the cochlear nerve,
through the cochlear nucleus, superior olivary complex, lateral lemniscus, to the inferior colliculus in the
midbrain, on to the medial geniculate body, and finally to the cortex.
Auditory evoked potentials (AEPs) are a subclass of event-related potentials (ERP)s. ERPs are brain
responses that are time-locked to some "event", such as a sensory stimulus, a mental event (such as
recognition of a target stimulus), or the omission of a stimulus. For AEPs, the "event" is a sound. AEPs (and
ERPs) are very small electrical voltage potentials originating from the brain recorded from the scalp in
response to an auditory stimulus, such as different tones, speech sounds, etc.
Brainstem auditory evoked potentials are small AEPs that are recorded in response to an auditory stimulus
from electrodes placed on the scalp.
Advantages of hearing aid selection by brainstem audiometry include the following applications:

 evaluation of loudness perception in the dynamic range of hearing (recruitment)

 determination of basic hearing aid properties (gain, compression factor, compression onset level)
 cases with middle ear impairment (contrary to acoustic reflex methods)
 non-cooperative subjects even in sleep
 sedation or anesthesia without influence of age and vigilance (contrary to cortical evoked responses).

Disadvantages of hearing aid selection by brainstem audiometry include the following applications:

 in cases of severe hearing impairment including no or only poor information as to loudness

perception
 no control of compression setting
 no frequency-specific compensation of hearing impairment

62. Is the Blood Pressure the same everywhere in the body? If not, where does the highest
blood pressure occur and where does the lowest blood pressure occur? Explain your answer.
No, it is not same throughout the body.

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Simplified diagram of circulatory systems - systemic and pulmonary
During a single cardiac cycle (one heartbeat), the blood pressure varies between a systolic (maximum) and
diastolic (minimum) value. This is what the waveform looks like:

Physiologically, we convert the varying pressures to a single value called Mean Arterial Pressure (MAP),
calculated as
MAP = (CO × SVR) + CVP
Where CO - Cardiac Output, SVR - Systemic Vascular Resistance, and CVP - Central Venous Pressure
(approx 0 mmHg).

63. What is the purpose an airflow transducer?

 It produces a slight pressure drop as the air is passed through the tube. The pressure drop created
across the screen is measured by a differential pressure transducer.
 They are used to monitor volume, flow and breathing rates of patients on mechanical ventilators.
 Airflow transducers can be used to perform a wide variety of experiments relating to air flow, lung
volume, and expired gas analysis.
64. What is a ventilator? Briefly describe the different types of ventilators and explain under what
circumstances they might be used.
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 A ventilator is a machine that supports breathing. These machines mainly are used in hospitals.

 Get oxygen into the lungs.

 Remove carbon dioxide from the body. (Carbon dioxide is a waste gas that can be toxic.)
 Help people breathe easier.
 Breathe for people who have lost all ability to breathe on their own.

A ventilator helps make sure that you continue breathing during surgery.

A ventilator doesn't treat a disease or condition. It's used only for life support.

Types of ventilators are

1) Mechanical ventilators- it can be used todeliver air or oxygen to a patient controlled by

microprocessors.
2) Negative pressure ventilators- surround the thoracic cavity and force air into the lungs by creating
negative pressure around the chest. Greatly limits access to the patient.
3) Positive pressure ventilators- changes the pressure within the thoracic cavity to positive during
inspiration whih affects venous return o the heart and cardiac output.
4) High frequency jet ventilaors-causes less interfearence with cardiac output than does positive
pressure ventilation.

65. You are asked to design a portable fitness tracking system for the people who want to get in
better shape. Describe briefly how you would approach this task.

for the fitness minded or those that need that extra push in motivation, there are numerous portable
fitness tracking devices to help track and improve workout routine:

Fitbit– featured in the 2008 Tech Crunch 50, FitBit - it acts as a pedometer, measures calories burned
and distance travel and even measures sleep quality. Fitbit has a 3D motion sensor like a Wii and is one
of the smaller devices on the market that can be worn in a variety of places, and all fitness information is
uploaded to your Fitbit.com page to track online from anywhere. Fitbit is only $99 USD.

66. What is inflammation? Could implanted biomaterials trigger a chronic inflammation response?
Explain your answer.
 If we have inflammation in part of our body, then extra protein is often released from the site of
imflamation and circulates in the blood stream.
 Biomaterial degradation may lead to chronic nonhealingwounds that are arrested at one of the normal
phases ofwound healing.
 This may happen if a biomaterial degrades too quickly and release particulate matter that extends the
inflamation stage.
 Persistent inflammation leads to the formation of gaint multinucleated cells that continue to attempt
to remove the offending material through secretion of acids and enzymes that destroys healthy tissue.

67. Consider a bone to be a perfect cylinder with an outer diameter of 2cm and a thickness of 2mm.
During a compression test it is shown that the bone can withstand 14kN before it fractures.
What is the maximum stress the bone can withstand?

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Stress= force/area
Force= 14000 N
Area= (Pi/4)*(0.02^2-0.016^2)
Stress = 123.784 MN/m^2

68. What are the challenges in using dialysis machines in remote communities?

 High cost of dialysis

 Unavailability of pure water for the dialysis fluid
 Lack of reliable power supply

69. Dosimetry is the measurement of the dose of radiation received by tissue. When would it be
useful to measure this? Does it matter what tissue might be affected and is it relevant which
type of radiation is received? Explain your answer.

Dosimetry is useful in measuring the amount of radiation given to the cancer patients. These ionizing
radiations are completely undetectable by human senses, hence dosimetry is used.

Some tissues are radioactive because their nuclei are unstable. The ionizing radiations carries energy and
these energy can be absorbed by the tissues, which can cause the damage to the tissues. If the energy is
concentrated on a small mass of tissue, the absorbed dose is greater.

70. What is the difference between the Nernst equation and the Goldmann equation? Under what
circumstances can the Goldmann equation be approximated by the Nernst equation?

The Nernst equation is used to calculate the electrical potential (Pd) across a membrane when this membrane
is permeable to a single ion either K+, Na+ or Cl-. The Nernst equation does not give a very good estimate
of membrane potential.

The Goldman equation takes other ionic conductances into account and it may be used to calculate
membrane potential using the relative permeability (Pion) and the concentration gradient of all three ions
(K+, Na+ and Cl-).

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When the permeability to one ion is exceptionally high, as compared with the other ions, then membrane
potential predicted by goldman equation can be approximated by Nernst equation for that ion.
71. Two people have the same cardiac output at rest but one of them has a much higher heart rate
than the other. What could be a potential explanation for this difference?

The cardiac output is simply the amount of blood pumped by the heart per minute. Necessarily, the cardiac
output is the product of the heart rate, (which is the number of beats per minute), and the stroke volume,
(which is amount pumped per beat).
Ie. CO = HR X SV
The person with higher heart rate has less stroke volume than the other person.

72. What is Doppler effect? What is the medical relevance of the Doppler effect?

The Doppler effect (or the Doppler shift) is the change in frequency or wavelength of a wave (or other

periodic event) for an observer moving relative to its source.
"Doppler" has become synonymous with "velocity measurement" in medical imaging, in many cases it is not
the frequency shift (Doppler shift) of the received signal that is measured, but the phase shift (when the
received signal arrives). Velocity measurements of blood flow are also used in other fields of medical
ultrasonography, such as obstetric ultrasonography and neurology. Velocity measurement of blood flow in
arteries and veins based on Doppler effect is an effective tool for diagnosis of vascular problems like
stenosis.
73. A person has had a high blood pressure for several years and his heart has a low
stroke volume. Would it be useful to use a defibrillator? Explain your answer.

Using an automated external defibrillator (AED) on a person who is having sudden cardiac arrest (SCA)
may save the person's life. The most common cause of SCA is an arrhythmia called ventricular fibrillation
(v-fib). In v-fib, the ventricles (the heart's lower chambers) don't beat normally. Instead, they quiver very
rapidly and irregularly. Another arrhythmia that can lead to SCA is ventricular tachycardia. This is a fast,
regular beating of the ventricles that may last for a few seconds or much longer.In people who have either of
these arrhythmias, an electric shock from an AED can restore the heart's normal rhythm (if done within
minutes of the onset of SCA).

What Are the Signs of Sudden Cardiac Arrest?

If someone is having SCA, you may see him or her suddenly collapse and lose consciousness. Or, you may
find the person unconscious and unable to respond when you call or shake him or her. The person may not
be breathing, or he or she may have an abnormal breathing pattern. If you check, you usually can't find a
pulse. The person's skin also may become dark or blue from lack of oxygen. Also, the person may not move,
or his or her movements may look like a seizure (spasms). An AED can check the person's heart rhythm and
determine whether an electric shock is needed to try to restore a normal rhythm.

Working
Automated external defibrillators (AEDs) are lightweight, battery-operated, portable devices that are easy
to use. Sticky pads with sensors (called electrodes) are attached to the chest of the person who is having
sudden cardiac arrest (SCA).The electrodes send information about the person's heart rhythm to a computer
in the AED. The computer analyzes the heart rhythm to find out whether an electric shock is needed. If a
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shock is needed, the AED uses voice prompts to tell you when to give the shock, and the electrodes deliver
it.Using an AED to shock the heart within minutes of the start of SCA may restore a normal heart rhythm.
Every minute counts. Each minute of SCA leads to a 10 percent reduction in survival.

74. What is a composite material? How can the properties of a composite material be determined?

A composite material (also called a composition material or shortened to composite which is the common
name) is a material made from two or more constituent materials with significantly different physical or
chemical properties that, when combined, produce a material with characteristics different from the
individual components. The individual components remain separate and distinct within the finished
structure. (Also refer page number 234 text book for the answer). The advantages of composites are that the
properties can be tailored to fit nearly any application, however it is difficult to make a composite with an
ideal structure. the performance of composite mateials is much better than the single componenets so it is
widely used in biomedical applications.
75. The picture below shows a recorded ECG signal. Give possible explanation for the fact that it
doesnot look like a standard ECG signal. Would it be possible to determine whether the heart is
healthy or not based on the recording below? Explain your answer.

 Considerable signal averaging or comb filtering and spectral or spatial filtering are required to
remove non ECG signals and noise from the ECG signal.
 These noise signals include movement of muscles and eyes, causing baseline potential shifts. The
pattern of the time, location and amplitude of the ECG will response to the auditory, visual or
emotional imagery.
 In the first figure, the noise makes it difficult to extract the actual wave pattern. Thus, surface
recorded potentials are embedded in considerable noise, resulting in a low signal to noise ratio.
 In the second figure, enhancing the signal to noise ratio is performed by filtering the activity from the
electrode to the frequency band of the signal of interest, rejecting frequencies dominated by noise.
 Low pass FIR filter for enhancement signal-to noise ratio. The filters parameters are following pass
band: 40Hz, stop band: 50Hz, sampling frequency: 250Hz. The method is able to remove noise and
achieve high compression ratios because of the “concetrating” ability of the wavelet transform.

{ Basic de-noising concept *(not important in this answer)

The digital ECG signal is stored electronically and can be filtered for display. Typical settings for the high-
pass filter and a low-pass filter are 0.5-1 Hz and 35–70 Hz, respectively. The high-pass filter typically filters
out slow artifact, such as electrogalvanic signals and movement artifact, whereas the low-pass filter filters
out high-frequency artifacts, such as electromyographic signals. An additional notch filter is typically used
to remove artifact caused by electrical power lines (60 Hz in the United States and 50 Hz in many other
countries) }

76. Briefly describe the relevance of Galvani’s frog experiments?

 The experiment lead to the discovery of animal electricity which was the pioneer
of bioelectromagnetics.
 Galvani discovered that the muscles of dead frogs' legs twitched when struck by an electrical
spark 

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  This was one of the first forays into the study of bioelectricity, a field that still studies the
electrical patterns and signals from tissues such as the nerves and muscles.
 Galvani found that frog legs contracted when the nerves were stimulated with the help of an
electrostatic machine. Frog legs also contracted when the nerves were in contact with aerial wires
during lightning.
 He found that animal electricity is real and the stimulus consists of an action potential
 The neuron (nerve cell) has a potential difference between the inside and the outside of the cell.
When a certain potential difference is reached an action potential is generated.
 This lead to the idea of electric potential and hence the invention of the battery, launching the
field of electrical engineering

77. A new material has been implanted into a rabbit to test for biocompatibility. The site of
implantation is examined at 5 days. The site is slightly red and swollen. What concerns does this
raise about its biocompatibility?

Bio-compactibility-

 the rabbit pyrogenicity test is required during the initial evaluation of the product.
 This test is done for evaluating redness and swelling. the redness and swelling are also indicators
of irritation. Since the site is red and swollen it indicates that the material used can cause
irritation to the body.
  It assesses whether or not a test article has the ability to cause a feverlike response.
(pyrogenicity)
 It may be a toxin component for human body.
“Refer page number 260 for the answer. For any additional adding”
What is biocompatibility. How can a new material be tested for biocompatibility?
Bicompacability is the tissue-biomateril interactions which investigates the implantationof biommaterial
in a body and analyse how the body affects the bio materials and biomaterial affect the body.
Biocompacability of a newmaterial is tested using invitro assays, in vivo models and human clinical
traits.

78. Explain how displacement tranducer works?(pg 621)

 It is used to measure the physical changes in the position of an object/medium.

 They are used in detecting changes in length, pressure or force. Variation in these parameters can be
used to quantify and diagnose abnormal physiological functions.
 Diferent types of displacement transducer are inductive type- used to measure blood pressure.
Electromagnectic transducer- to measure blood flow, potentiometer transducer- to measure linear or
angular changes in position. Etc.

79. What is the relevance of sampling frequency?

 Sampling frequency is the number of samples per second in a sound.
 According to sampling theorem, fs (sampling frequency) should be greater than or equal to 2 fm.
( maximum frequency)
 The sampling theorem states that if f m is the maximum frequency component in the analog signal,
then the information present in the signal can be represented by its sampled version provided the
number samples taken per second is greater than or equal to twice the maximum frequency
component. 

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 80. Can sound or ultrasound be used to diagnose diseases? If no, why not? If yes, explain how it can
be used.

Ultrasound is not limited to diagonosis but ca also be used in screeing for disease and to aid in treatment of
disease or conditions.

Different diagnoses uses for ultrasound are

Obstetrics- Ultrasound is routinely used for assessing the progression of a pregnancy

Cardiology-  evaluates the heart, the heart valve's motion, and blood flow through them. It also evaluates
the heart wall motion and the amount of blood the heart pumps with each stroke.

blood vessels- Ultrasound can detect blood clots in veins (superficial or deep venous thrombosis) or artery
blockage (stenosis) and dilatation (aneurysms)

neck- The thyroid gland can be imaged using ultrasound looking for nodules, growths, or tumors.

abdominal structures- Aside from its use in obstetrics, ultrasound can evaluate most of the solid structures
in the abdominal cavity. This includes the liver, gallbladder, pancreas, kidneys, bladder, prostate, testicles,
uterus, and ovaries.

knee joint- Ultrasound can be used to detect bulging of fluid from a swollen knee joint into the back of the
knee, called a Baker's cyst

81. Can sound or ultrasound be used to treat diseases? If no, why not? If yes, explain how it can be
used.

Ultrasound is not limited to diagonosis but ca also be used in screeing for disease and to aid in treatment
of disease or conditions.

Ultrasound is routinely used for assessing the progression of a pregenancy. Pelvic ultrasound can be
obtained trans-abdominally where the probe is placed on the abdominal wall or trnas vaginally, where
the probe is placed in the vagina. For example ultrasound in obstetrics is used to diagnose growth or
tumours of the ovary, uterus or fallopian tubes.

82. A person is exposed to a certain potential difference. What factors determine the physiological
effects on his body?

decrease in the potential difference over cell membrane results in increased permeability for sodium ions
which would further cause depolarization and even reversal of the membrane potential

A sustained ventricular contraction followed by normal heart rythym.( defibrillation). Temporary

respiratory paralysis and possibly burns. Voltage required to produce the current with assumed body
resistance 600000 V.

83. List three factors which influence the growth of bone.

1. growth hormones and growth factors in the blood, under the control of the endocrine system. 
2. blood levels of calcium and the regulation (including diet and excretion) 
3. the presence of epiphysial plates to allow for an increase in bone size, because bone must begin as type 1
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collagen, which is similar to hyaline cartilage.

84. Design a portable system for indirectly measuring blood pressure every 5 minutes of
ambulatory subjects. It should operate without attention from the subject for 24 hours. Show a
block diagram and describe the systems operation.

There are two techniques for measuring ambulatory blood pressure: the commonly used method of
intermittent measurement over 24 hours and the developing method of continuous waveform analysis.

Intermittent measurement— Many of these devices have been validated for use in specific groups, such as
elderly people and pregnant women, and in differing circumstances, such as during exercise and in different
postures. Validating devices for use in ambulatory conditions presents many methodological difficulties, and
some evidence suggests that inaccuracies found during static conditions may be amplified in ambulatory
conditions.
Devices for continuous non-invasive blood pressure monitoring of a finger—The Portapres, a portable
recorder for 24 hour ambulatory monitoring, can provide beat to beat monitoring which gives waveform
measurements similar to intra-arterial recordings. However, the technique is subject to various inaccuracies,
which the use of correction factors and digital filters in the latest model may remove; this model is awaiting
formal validation.

85. Describe how a bone fracture is repaired.

 Removal of blood clot, remaining cells and damaged bone
 Proliferation of fibroblasts which surrounds the fracture
 Formation of bone callus by endochondral and intramembreneous ossification
 Remodeling of bone

86. What is meant by the turnover rate of a tissue? Why is this relevant?

Turnover rate is defined as the rate at which a substance is replaced in the tissue cells.this is essentially
the concentration of the substance in the tissue divided by the turnover time. It is also defined as the
biological average life. (refer pg 302 text)

87. Explain briefly the main challenges in modeling blood flow in the body.
 Blood is not a Newtonian fluid. It is very complicated fluid made of RBC,WBC, plasma and
oxygen. However it can be assumed to behave as newtonian fluids at high shear rates( greater
than 100/s).Blood looses material when travelling through the vessel this breaks the
concentration of momentum energy and mass.
 Any modeling errors greatly affect simulation results. For capillaries and vessels such as
arterioles and venules, which connect capillaries to arteries and veins, the difficulty is how to
scale up the molecular-based modeling. So we have developed a multiscale approach to capture
the effects of both the flow and the particle dynamics and to quantify their interactions. The
geometric complexity of the human arterial tree is another big challenge.

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