DTH Set-Top-Box Installer

DTH Set-top Box
Installer and Service

Technician
Student Handbook
DTH Set-top Box Installer and Service Technician
Index
Chapters. Page No.
1. Install and repair DTH set-top box

2. Comprehend customer’s requirement
3. Interact with other employees
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Chapter 1
Install and repair DTH set-top box
❖ Basics of Geo stationery satellite and Other Communication Satellite

❖ Azimuth, elevation and polarization
❖ Spectrum utilization
❖ Optimum signal strength/ signal quality for good reception
❖ Basics of input/output functions and block diagram of the set top box
❖ Functions of the set top box and remote control
❖ Structure of cable, parameters and the implications on signal
❖ Basic functioning of tuners
❖ Function of Low Noise Block down Convertor (LNBC)
❖ Basics of digital signals and difference in analogue and digital
❖ Transmission of television signals and functioning of television sets
❖ Specifications of different kind of inputs available on TV sets such as RF, AV,
RGB, VGA, USB and HDMI
❖ Digital signal processing chain including CAS and SMS

❖ Frequently occurring faults, causes and solutions
❖ Safety standards and practices to be followed while using power connection,
stair to climb, first aid
❖ Quality of Service (QOS) and End of Line (EOL) parameters and optimum
range as specified by IS13420
❖ Parameters for digital signals, viz., MER, BER, C/N, CTV and CSO and
proper recording of these for future reference
❖ Output ports of all types of set top boxes and input/ output ports of compatible
products such as LCD/ LED TV, Projectors, PCs
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❖ Connectivity of STB via additional device/ PC

❖ Safety precautions to be followed while using set top box by customer
❖ Implementation process for Engineering Change Order (ECO)
❖ Switch mode power supply (SMPS)
Introduction:-
Direct To Home (DTH) Technology – Working

Overview
Direct to home technology refers to the satellite television broadcasting process which is actually
intended for home reception. This technology is originally referred to as direct broadcast satellite
(DBS) technology. The technology was developed for competing with the local cable TV
distribution services by providing higher quality satellite signals with more number of channels.
In short, DTH refers to the reception of satellite signals on a TV with a personal dish in an
individual home. The satellites that are used for this purpose is geostationary satellites. The
satellites compress the signals digitally, encrypt them and then are beamed from high powered
geostationary satellites. They are received by dishes that are given to the DTH consumers by DTH
providers.
Though DBS and DTH present the same services to the consumers, there are some differences in
the technical specifications. While DBS is used for transmitting signals from satellites at a
particular frequency band [the band differs in each country], DTH is used for transmitting signals
over a wide range of frequencies [normal frequencies including the KU and KA band]. The
satellites used for the transmission of the DTH signals are not part of any international planned
frequency band. DBS has changed its plans over the past few years so as to include new countries
and also modify their mode of transmission from analog to digital. But DTH is more famous for
its services in both the analog and digital services which includes both audio and video signals.
The dishes used for this service is also very small in size. When it comes to commercial use, DBS
is known for its service providing a group of free channels that are allowed for its targeted country.
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DTH in India
India is one of the biggest DTH service providers in the world. The requirement is very high
because of the high population and the increased number of viewers. The low cost of DTH when
compared to other local cable providers is also one main reason for this substantial growth.
In India the DTH requirement is more than in any country as the population of viewers is at very
high rate.
The idea of DTH was first provided to India in 1996. But it was not approved then as there were
concerns about national security. But the laws were changed by the year 2000 and thus DTH was
allowed. According to the new rule, DTH providers are required to set up new stations within 12
months of getting the license. The cost of the license is almost $2.15 million in India with a validity
of 10 years for renewal. The latest reports suggest that almost 25% of the total Indian population
use this facility while others use local TV connections.
Some of the common DTH providers in India are

1. TATA Sky
2. BIG TV
3. Sun Direct DTH
4. Dish TV
5. Airtel DTH
6. Videocon DTH
Working of DTH
To know the working of DTH better, take a look at the diagram below.
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DTH Technology
For a DTH network to be transmitted and received, the following components are needed.
• Broadcasting Centre
• Satellites
• Encoders
• Multiplexers
• Modulators
• DTH receivers
It must be noted the channels that are broadcasted from the broadcasting centre hare not created
by the DTH providers. The DTH providers pay other companies like HBO, Sony MAX and so on
for the right to broadcast their channel to the DTH consumers through satellite. Thus the DTH
provider acts as a mediator r broker between the consumers and the programme channels.
The broadcast centre is the main part of the whole system. It is from the broadcast station that the
signals are sent to the satellites to be broadcasted. The broadcast station receives the signals from
various program channels.
The satellite receives the signal from the broadcast centre and compresses the signals and makes
them suitable for re-transmission to the ground.
The DTH providers give dish receivers for the viewers to receive the signal from the satellites.
There may be one or multiple satellites that send the signals at the same time. The receiver receives
the signal from them and is passed on to the Set Top Box [STB] receiver in the viewer’s house.
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The STB receiver changes the signal in a form suitable for our television and then passes it on to
our TV.
Advantages of DTH Technology
• The main advantage is that this technology is equally beneficial to everyone. As the process is
wireless, this system can be used in all remote or urban areas.
• High quality audio and video which are cost effective due to absence of mediators.
• Almost 4000 channels can be viewed along with 2000 radio channels. Thus the world’s entire
information including news and entertainment is available to you at home.
• As there are no mediators, a complaint can be directly expressed to the provider.
• With a single DTH service you will be able to use digital quality audio, video and also high
speed broadband.
❖ Basics Of Geo Stationery Satellite And Other Communication Satellite

A communications satellite is an artificial satellite that relays and
amplifies radio telecommunications signals via a transponder; it creates a communication
channel between a source transmitter and a receiver at different locations on Earth.
Communications satellites are used for television, telephone, radio, internet,
and military applications. There are about 2,000 communications satellites in Earth's orbit, used
by both private and government organizations. Many are in geostationary orbit 22,236 miles
(35,785 km) above the equator, so that the satellite appears stationary at the same point in the sky,
so the satellite dish antennas of ground stations can be aimed permanently at that spot and do not
have to move to track it.
The high frequency radio waves used for telecommunications links travel by line of sight and so
are obstructed by the curve of the Earth. The purpose of communications satellites is to relay the
signal around the curve of the Earth allowing communication between widely separated
geographical points. Communications satellites use a wide range of radio
and microwave frequencies. To avoid signal interference, international organizations have
regulations for which frequency ranges or "bands" certain organizations are allowed to use. This
allocation of bands minimizes the risk of signal interference.
Communications satellites usually have one of three primary types of orbit, while other orbital
classifications are used to further specify orbital details.
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• Geostationary satellites have a geostationary orbit (GEO), which is 22,236 miles (35,785 km)
from Earth's surface. This orbit has the special characteristic that the apparent position of the
satellite in the sky when viewed by a ground observer does not change, the satellite appears to
"stand still" in the sky. This is because the satellite's orbital period is the same as the rotation
rate of the Earth. The advantage of this orbit is that ground antennas do not have to track the
satellite across the sky, they can be fixed to point at the location in the sky the satellite appears.
• Medium Earth orbit (MEO) satellites are closer to Earth. Orbital altitudes range from 2,000 to
36,000 kilometres (1,200 to 22,400 mi) above Earth.
• The region below medium orbits is referred to as low Earth orbit (LEO), and is about 160 to
2,000 kilometres (99 to 1,243 mi) above Earth.
As satellites in MEO and LEO orbit the Earth faster, they do not remain visible in the sky to a
fixed point on Earth continually like a geostationary satellite, but appear to a ground observer to
cross the sky and "set" when they go behind the Earth. Therefore, to provide continuous
communications capability with these lower orbits requires a larger number of satellites, so one
will always be in the sky for transmission of communication signals. However, due to their
relatively small distance to the Earth their signals are stronger.
One very popular orbit format is the geostationary satellite orbit. The geostationary orbit is used
by many applications including direct broadcast as well as communications or relay systems.
The geostationary orbit has the advantage that the satellite remains in the same position throughout
the day, and antennas can be directed towards the satellite and remain on track.
This factor is of particular importance for applications such as direct broadcast TV where changing
directions for the antenna would not be practicable.
It is necessary to take care over the use of the abbreviations for geostationary orbit. Both GEO and
GSO are seen, and both also used for geosynchronous orbit.
Geostationary orbit development
The idea of a geostationary orbit has been postulated for many years. One of the possible
originators of the basic idea was a Russian theorist and science fiction writer, Konstantin
Tsiolkovsky. However it was Herman Oberth and Herman Potocnik who wrote about orbiting
stations at an altitude of 35 900 km above the Earth that had a rotational period of 24 hours making
it appear to hover over a fixed point on the equator.
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The next major step forwards occurred when Arthur C Clarke, the science fiction write, published
a serious article in Wireless World, a major UK electronics and radio publication, in October 1945.
The article was entitled "Extra-Terrestrial Relays: Can Rocket Stations Give World Coverage?"
Clarke extrapolated what could be done with the German rocket technology of the day and looked
at what might be possible in the future. He postulated that it would be possible to provide complete
global coverage with just three geostationary satellites.
Arthur C Clarke's Geostationary Orbiting Satellites Concept

In the article, Clarke determined the orbital characteristics required as well as the transmitter power
levels, the generation of solar power could be used, even calculating the impact of solar eclipses.
Clarke's article was well ahead of its time. It took until 1963 before NASA was able to start
launching satellites that could test the theory. The first serviceable satellite able to start testing the
theory was Syncom 2 which was launched on 26 July 1963. [Syncom 1 failed as it was unable to
reach its correct geostationary orbit].
Geostationary orbit basics
As the height of a satellite increases, so the time for the satellite to orbit increases. At a height of
35790 km, it takes 24 hours for the satellite to orbit. This type of orbit is known as a
geosynchronous orbit, i.e. it is synchronized with the Earth.
One particular form of geosynchronous orbit is known as a geostationary orbit. In this type of orbit
the satellite rotates in the same direction as the rotation of the Earth and has an approximate 24
hour period. This means that it revolves at the same angular velocity as the Earth and in the same
direction and therefore remains in the same position relative to the Earth.
In order to ensure that the satellite rotates at exactly the same speed as the Earth, it is necessary to
clarify exactly what the time is for the rotation of the Earth. For most timekeeping applications,
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the Earth's rotation is measured relative to the Sun's mean position, and the rotation of the earth
combined with the rotation around the Sun provide the length of time for a day. However this is
not the exact rotation that we are interested in to give a geostationary orbit - the time required is
just that for one rotation. This time period is known as a sidereal day and it is 23 hours 56 minutes
and 4 seconds long.
Geometry dictates that the only way in which an orbit that rotates once per day can remain over
exactly the same spot on the Earth's surface is that it moves in the same direction as the earth's
rotation. Also it must not move north or south for any of its orbit. This can only occur if it remains
over the equator.
Geostationary orbit can only be over the Equator

Different orbits can be seen from the diagram. As all orbital planes need to pass through the geo-
centre of the Earth, the two options available are shown. Even if both orbits rotate at the same
speed as the Earth, the one labelled geosynchronous will move north of the equator for part of the
day, and below for the other half - it will not be stationary. For a satellite to be stationary, it must
be above the Equator.
Geostationary satellite drift
Even when satellites are placed into a geostationary orbit, there are several forces that can act on
it to change its position slowly over time.
Factors including the earth's elliptical shape, the pull of the Sun and Moon and others act to
increase the satellite orbital inclination. In particular the non-circular shape of the of the Earth
around the Equator tends to draw the satellites towards two stable equilibrium points, one above
the Indian Ocean and the other very roughly around the other side of the World.. This results in
what is termed as an east-west libration or movement back and forth.
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To overcome these movements, fuel is carried by the satellites to enable them to carry out "station-
keeping" where the satellite is returned to its desired position. The period between station-keeping
manoeuvres is determined by the allowable tolerance on the satellite which is mainly determined
by the ground antenna beamwidth. This will mean that no re-adjustment of the antennas is required.
Often the useful life of a satellite is determined by the time for which fuel will allow the station-
keeping to be undertaken. Often this will be several years. After this the satellite can drift towards
one of the two equilibrium points, and possibly re-enter the Earth's atmosphere. The preferred
option is for the satellites to utilise some last fuel to lift them into a higher and increasing orbit to
prevent them from interfering with other satellites.
Geostationary orbit coverage
A single geostationary satellite obviously cannot provide complete global coverage. However, a
single geostationary satellite can see approximately 42% of the Earth's surface with coverage
falling off towards the satellite is not able to "see" the surface. This occurs around the equator and
also towards the polar regions.
Geostationary satellite coverage

For a constellation of three satellites equally spaced around the globe, it is possible to provide
complete coverage around the equator and up to latitudes of 81° both north and south.
The lack of polar coverage is not a problem for most users, although where polar coverage is
needed, satellites using other forms of orbit are needed.
Geostationary orbit and path length / delay
One of the issues with using satellites in a geostationary orbit is the delay introduced by the path
length.
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The path length to any geostationary satellite is a minimum of 22300 miles. This assumes that the
user is directly underneath the satellite to provide the shortest path length. In reality the user is
unlikely to be in this position and the path length will be longer.
Assuming the shortest path length, this gives a single trip i.e. to the satellite or back of a minimum
of around 120 milli-seconds. This means that the round trip from the ground to the satellite and
back is roughly a quarter of a second.
Therefore to obtain a response in a conversation can take half a second as the signal must pass
through the satellite twice - once on the outward journey to the remote listener, and then again
with the response. This delay can make telephone conversations rather difficult when satellite links
are used. It can also be seen when news reporters as using satellite links. When asked a question
from the broadcasters studio, the reporter appears to take some time to answer. This delay is the
reason why many long distance links use cables rather than satellites as the delays incurred are far
less.
Advantages and disadvantages of geostationary orbit satellites
While the geostationary orbit is widely used for many satellite applications it is not suitable for all
situations. There are several advantages and disadvantages to be taken into consideration:
Geostationary orbit advantages:
• Satellite always in same position relative to earth - antennas do not need re-orientation
Geostationary orbit disadvantages:
• Long path length, and hence losses when compared to LEO, or MEO.
• Satellites more costly to install in GEO in view of greater altitude.
• Long path length introduces delays.
• Geostationary satellite orbits can only be above the equator and therefore polar regions cannot
be covered.
Despite the disadvantages of using satellites in geostationary orbit, they are still widely used
because of the overriding advantage of the satellite always being in the same position relative to a
given place on the Earth.
❖ Azimuth, Elevation and Polarisation

How to Point a Satellite Dish
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After you have installed your dish and have calculated your Elevation and Azimuth angles from
the above calculator then you are ready to align your satellite dish. These are the basic steps needed
to point any satellite dish (4.8m or an 80cm TV sat dish) as the principles are the same:
• Tip: A Compass or GPS, an Inclinometer and a Sat Finder will make pointing a lot quicker
and easier.
1. Elevation Adjustment. Place the inclinometer on the back frame of the dish (taking in to
account any dish offset if required – see Fig 5). Adjust the elevation up or down to the desired
angle as accurately as possible. Snug the hardware to stop possible movement.
Fig 1. Satellite Antenna Elevation

• Tip: Typical satellite antenna offsets are 22.3º and 17.3° (i.e Calulated Elevation – Offset =
Measured Elevation angle).
2. Azimuth Adjustment. Rotate the dish to the azimuth bearing (use magnetic North bearing
for a compass or True North if using a handheld GPS).
• Tip: If using a GPS, walk out on the bearing a few times and place a marker on the point
where the dish should point (Azimuth)
3. Fine Alignment. The satellite dish should now be in rough alignment and will now require to
be peaked up on the signal using a sat finder or the satellite modem. The satellite is about 35,000km
away so make small adjustments.
• Tip: If using the Sat Finder (see Fig 2 & 3) keep on increasing the attenuation when you are
peaking up the signal. This inexpensive bit of kit (about $20) will peak the signal very well.
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Fig 2. Satellite Finder Meter
Fig 3. Sat Finder Connections

4. Polarisation. Adjust the LNB skew, the adjustment figure given is from standing behind the
antenna. Rotate the LNB in the indicated direction, this is the satellite polarisation angle offset.
This is used to preform Cross-Pol isolation tests with the satellite operator and a typical isolation
value is 30dB.
• NB: LNB skew is not used with circular polarisation.
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Fig 4. Satellite Antenna Polarisation
Fig 5. Antenna Elevation Measurement

5. Secure Antenna. Tighten all the hardware used for adjustment making sure that you do not
move the antenna position.
6. Testing. You should now complete an Isolation and compression test with your satellite
operator to confirm correct operation and maximum efficiency of the link.
• Tip: Isolation or XPOL is checking if you are transmitting (causing interference) on the
oposite pol.
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• Tip: Compression test is sometimes refereed to as a 1dB test. A Carrier Wave (CW) is
transmitted from the remote to find the point where the Tx signal stops being linear.
Troubleshooting
I cannot find a Satellite Signal
1. Double check your Azimuth and Elevation calculations again;
2. Do you have a clear line of sight to the satellite? Make sure there are no buildings, trees, etc.
in the way;
3. Move away from metal objects if using a compass;
4. Is your dish offset (like the picture above)? Double check your offset value;
5. Set your Elevation and move the dish through 180° in Azimuth;
6. Check your LNB (see below);
7. Remember your compass is correct – you are wrong!
I have found a satellite signal but my Rx is not green/locked
1. The sat finder only detects RF energy and not whether you are pointing at the correct satellite
or not. Don’t worry you will not be too far away;
2. Measure your Azimuth and Elevation again;
3. Read the wiki about the Clarke Belt. Depending on where the satellite is in the Clarke Belt you
will need to go right or left and up and down;
4. You could always mark the starting position or count the number of turns you make so you
can always go back to your starting position;
5. If you are using a SCPC sat link then check things like the MODCOD, bitrates, FEC, etc with
the distant end.
I think my LNB is not working
Here is a quick and easy method to tell if you have a knackered LNB (Rx – Receiver) or not.
1. Point the dish to clear sky within your reach;
2. Put your hand in front of the Feed Horn assembly (due to RF energy make sure there is NO Tx
signal at this point) and you should see the noise floor increase and decrease on a spectrum
analyser or your sat finder box as you move your hand in front of the feed horn;
3. Your LNB is working OK;
4. Keep on aligning the dish.
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❖ optimum signal strength/ signal quality for good reception

Most TV will give separate readings for both signal and quality but others may not, some may give
you just a percentage with no separation between the two and others will give no signal information
at all. I had a customer that asked me “Is it like volts and amps?”, I said no it’s not, but it’s not
necessarily a bad way of looking at it and got me thinking that others may be wondering what the
answer to this question is so I thought I would create an article on the difference between signal
strength/ quality and upload it to our blog for all you to enjoy.
The TV Signal Reader On The TV Should Be A Guide Only
When I install TV aerials and satellite dishes I use a Promax Ranger meter, if you look online you
will see that this is a very sophisticated piece of equipment. It gives me all sorts of measurements
on signal strengths, robustness, interference, signal information & information on signal
modulations and allows me to look at the signal constellations should I wish, along with a load of
of others things. It allows me to see a digital TV picture if I wish(demodulation), but this isn’t
necessary if you know how to read the information on the digital TV signal. I appreciate that this
may not mean a lot but the point that I’m making is that this is a suitable piece of equipment for
assessing how good a TV signal and how reliable the reception will be. The TV that you use to
watch the TV is actually not designed for reading signal strength and quality so the readings that
it may give you can be very misleading. The picture itself certainly can't be trusted.
The TV Doesn’t Tell You How It’s Reading The Signal/ Quality
The main problem with the signal information bar on digital TV’s, Sky boxes, Freesat boxes is
that it doesn’t actually tell you how its reading and measuring the signal. Most just give a
percentage reading or signal bars and most don’t even tell you what frequency that it is reading so
the TV could be tuned incorrectly and possibly causing poor TV reception and you wouldn’t
necessarily know. If it doesn’t tell you how it’s measuring TV aerial/satellite signal strength &
quality you not really going to know what it means and the results can be very misleading.
Some of the better TV’s will give you Bit Error Ratio (BER) information which is quite good
really, but in all honestly after error correction, which is built into the broadcast signal you
shouldn’t have any errors in your TV signal. If you do you will suffer effects like pixelation and
even no TV picture at all. But if you have a poor digital TV/ satellite signal you will already know
that you have a problem, so having a reading on your TV isn’t necessarily the biggest help in the
world.
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100% Signal Doesn’t Mean Anything Really

Believe it or not signals are not measured in percentages so it’s very misleading to give signal
information in this way. There isn’t really any such thing as a 100% signal. I will get to how signals
are measured shortly.To say that a signal is 100% implies that it cannot be improved upon. You
can always improve signal strength by installing a high-gain TV aerial or TV amplifier. Doing this
isn’t always a good thing as you could have too much signal, yes that is a thing! Which itself can
overload TV tuners, distribution equipment and cause TV picture break up. Which leads to if there
is a minimum and maximum signal strength, where in the middle does 100% sit? The answer is
that it doesn’t and it’s entirely down the TV software/ hardware and to what it determines and
100%. Like I said it doesn’t really mean anything.
Quality Is More Important Than Strength!
It really does depend on the TV manufacturer, but you should always expect your TV signal to be
100% or a full signal bar. This usually means that at that time the received signal after error
correction is fine and working as expected. If this is below 100% or jumping around you may find
that you will have trouble with your TV reception. This could just be that the TV has stored the
incorrect TV transmitter so I would check your TV tuning first. Also, it’s important to note that
just because he signal reading says 100% atone time, it doesn’t necessarily that it will always be
100% and you could experience intermittent TV reception. Likewise, on other pieces of equipment
like many Sky boxes, the signal quality may not be 100% or a full bar. This doesn’t mean that
there is anything wrong with the signal, it could be reading the signal before error correction, which
is actually a more reliable way of doing so. In conclusion, if you have a high percentage for quality
and not for signal strength. I wouldn’t worry anymore about it if the TV picture is otherwise fine.
TV’s & TV/ Sat Receivers All Read Signals Different
You may plug a TV into one TV and has 100% signal strength and 100% signal quality. (quite
common with the Humax Freesat boxes) and rightly think that everything is fine. Only to plug
another TV in and get a much lower signal reading or vice versa. This is nothing really to worry
about as it’s still the same signal going in but acts as any example of how different TV’s/ Set Top
Boxes read and display the signal information differently. Unless of course when disconnecting
one TV to fit the other you have inadvertently pulled the TV plug loose in which case you may
need to fit a new coax plug or fit a new F plug.
TV Signal Strength Reading – Correct
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To read a TV signal strength reading correct, you will need to know how these are measured. A
TV signal is actually a voltage but to calculate signals and design TV systems could be very
complex. Fortunately the dB with reference to micro-volts scale was introduced to greatly simply
this and make the implementation of TV systems a case of simple adding and subtracting. I say
simple, obviously there is far more to it than this. For you reference on the dB micro-volts scale.
The scale starts at 0dB which would be 1 micro-volt, 60dB would be 1mV or 1000 micro-volts,
120 dB is 1000 mV or 1V and 180 dB is 1kV or 1000V. You can see that double at approx. 3dB
increments, so 60dB is actually much, much more volts that double 30 dB. This means that when
dealing with weak or borderline signal measurements a small improvement in dB can often make
a big difference.
For you reference, suggested minimum signal strength levels are:
Terrestrial Digital TV – 45dB (Ideally no less than 50dB)
Analogue TV – 60dB
Satellite TV Signals – 47dB (Ideally no less no 52dB)
TV Signal Quality Reading – Correct
In regards to digital TV signals, the “quality” or robustness of a signal is measured in terms of
actual signal strength minus electrical noise which can come from a wide range of interfering
sources. The electrical noise will actually be present inside your signal so this is why relying on
signal strength alone is not always a reliable determining factor of signal quality. That being said,
the more signal that can be obtained from the TV transmitter the more protection you will have
against electrical noise and interference.
There are a few ways that the signal quality can be measured:
Signal to noise ratio (S/N) – This measures the peak signal reading and the reading of the noise
floor of the signal. Not be best way to measure signal quality as it doesn’t take into account noise
within the signal.
Carrier to noise ratio (C/N) – An improvement of the signal to noise ratio in that it measures the
noise of the signal floor immediately next to the signal being measured. This still doesn’t measure
the noise inside the signal but gives a better idea as to what this typically will be.
Modulation Error Ratio (MER) – This is the best measurement for reliability of digital TV
signals. This looks into the signal and measures noise inside the constellation. In effect this is the
C/N reading with the noise inside the signal also measured and taken into effect.
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Bit Error Ratio (BER) – Ultimately it all comes down the BER. There will always be errors in a
digital signal. This is literally 0’s mixed up as 1’s and vice versa. The more information being
compressed and carried inside a signal the more robust it needs to be. There is error correction
built into the signal (Viterbi Error Correction or FEC) and after this has been taken into account
(Post Viterbi Error Correction) there should be no errors inside the signal. Hence when you check
the signal quality on your TV, PVR or STB is says 100% because it is reading no errors after error
correction. If you have too many errors after error correction the TV picture will start to fail,
pixleate and becoming blocky. If there are too many you will not get a TV picture at all. Before
any error correction has been applied to a signal this is known as “channel BER” or CBER.
Will Adding A Amplifier Improve Signal Strength/ Quality?
In theory the addition of a TV aerial amplifier or booster should increase the signal strength reading
on your TV receiver as this will increase the signal strength when measured in dB, not easy if this
is already at 100%.
Amplifiers are a good idea for overcoming signal losses associated with cable lengths and the
splitting of TV signals and the closer the amplifier is installed to the aerial the better, providing
there is at least 1m cable length between the two. You may need a masthead amplifier to be able
to do this. The problem with adding a set back amplifier or TV aerial booster behind your TV is
that although you will boost signal levels you will also introduce a load of electrical noise into the
signal associated with the amplifier itself. Not only do amplifiers amplify the noise floor, which is
not a problem as they amplify the signals you want as well. They also introduce their own noise
figure which can reduce the carrier to noise or MER readings. Plus adding an amplifier could in
some instances actually overload the TV equipment with too much signal which again can cause
the digital picture to become blocky and pixelate.
❖ Basics of input/output functions and block diagram of the set top box
Inside Set Top Box (STB)
Set Top Box or STB has become an integral part of TV viewing in many parts of the world. We
commonly see this sleek looking device sitting on side of TVs. Though this device looks slim and
simple but it is one of the most complex embedded systems today. STBs are increasing their feature
set day by day. Few of the common features in current generation STBs are time shift mode
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viewing, recording, Internet based viewing, video on demand, Full High definition video output
etc.
STB is very complex embedded system; it consists of 30+ hardware blocks and similar number of
software drivers. STB has lot of computing power distributed across main processor and various
co-processors. In few of top end STBs if we add operating frequencies of all co-processors then it
would be in range of 3-4 GHz.
Hardware
A typical STB would look similar to one shown in following image. This is picture of standard
definition (SD) satellite based STB being used at my home. Number of components used is fairly
less compared to complexity of this system. This credit goes to the main STB decoder chip which
integrates a lot of hardware components required into a single chip.
Inside view of Satellite Set Top Box

STB blocks
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1. Power Supply
2. Smart Card Slot
3. RAM
4. STB Decoder
5. Flash
6. DVB-CI Slot
7. Satellite Front End
8. RF Modulator
The above picture shows STB circuit board and major components on the board. A more logical
relationship between various components is shown in following block diagram.
Set Top Box Hardware Blocks

STB Decoder: This is heart of the whole system. In current generation STBs most of the features
required by STB system are integrated in STB decoder chips. This level of integration is called
System On Chip (SoC). STB SoCs contain a large number of blocks ranging from de-multiplexer
to decoders and peripherals like USB, SATA etc.
Front End: Front End part of STB is responsible for receiving the broadcasted signal,
demodulating the signal and outputting digital data output for STB decoder chip. Depending upon
broadcasting environment terrestrial or satellite or cable front end will be used. Front end unit
consist of 3 main blocks tuner to tune correct frequency, demodulator to demodulate as per
standard and forward error correction (FEC) unit for data recovery.
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Power Supply: This is the main power source for board. This unit generates different voltage
required by various components on board. Input to this unit can be main line AC (220/110) or DC
12V via standalone power adapters.
Flash: This is used to store boot loader, main application and other user specific non volatile data.
Different STBs uses different sizes of flash ranging from 8MB to 64MB.
RAM: RAM is used to store all intermediate data (such as decoded video/audio buffers) and
application variables. In many cases main application is also copied to RAM and is executed from
RAM to speed up the operation (as RAM is faster compared to Flash). RAM size ranges from
32MB in standard definition STBs to 256MB in some top end Full HD STBs.
Video Interfaces: STB decoder chip outputs video data in analog or digital format. To make these
signals compatible with external devices, special circuitry like filter and physical connector are
required. Current generation STBs provide many video output formats such as CVBS, S Video,
Component video and HDMI.
Audio Interfaces: STB decoder chip outputs audio data in analog as well as digital format. In some
cases high quality DACs are used to convert digital data into analog format. Digital data is also
transmitted in digital format using SPDIF standard.
Storage: Few STBs also work as digital video recorders. To aid storage of programs some storage
device (HDD) is added via any of the interfaces (SATA, eSATA, ATAPI or USB) provided by
decoder chip.
Front Panel: This is STBs interface to external world. Front panels are different for different
boxes. But most of them provide IR input/output, Status LEDs, 7 segments or LCD and few
switches to configure set top box. These features are controlled by parallel IOs of main decoder
chip. In some cases a dedicated microcontroller is added to front end to reduce processing load for
main chip and also to reduce the number of wires going from front panel to main PCB.
DVB-CI Slot: This slot is provided to support various conditional access schemes. Conditional
Access providers provide compatible DVB-CI cards to be used with STB. The DVB-CI card
decrypts the channels encrypted by Conditional Access provider as per user’s subscription policies.
Smart Card Slot: This slot is provided to use smart card for Conditional Access implementation.
Unique subscriber ID is stored on each card. Smart card is also used in decrypting the channels.
RF Modulator: This is used to modulate Audio and video into RF signal. This is mainly to be
used with older TVs which have only RF input and no composite (CVBS) input.
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STB Decoder SoC

STB Decoder is one of the most complex system on chip (SoC). There is generally one main
processor and lot of co-processor doing dedicated processing.
A typical decoder SoC will have following blocks.
Set Top Box Decoder blocks

Main CPU: This is the main CPU executing the STB application. It is a general purpose CPU
with lot of development tools available. Its speed range from 200MHz on standard definition
devices to near 1GHz on High Definition devices. The main CPU is generally based on industry
standard core such Super H or ARM to improve ease of tools and reusable stack availability.
Demux: Demux is a dedicated co-processor to de-multiplex the digital transport stream into audio,
video and other data. Demux checks the input stream for errors and protocol compliance and filters
the required data into desired buffers (Audio, video)
Video Decoder: This co-processor is responsible for converting compressed video (MPEG) data
into basic video format. Current generation decoders have programmable video decoders, so video
decoders can support a variety of formats such as MPEG2, H264, VC1 etc.
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Graphics Engine: This co-processor is dedicated to graphics acceleration. Its main task is to draw
pictures and menus for user interface (UI). This unit is becoming more powerful these days with
introduction of 3D menus.
Mixer: This block is responsible for mixing the video output and graphics output and producing a
final single image. This is also responsible for ordering of video and graphics plane and
transparency settings. As shown is image there are two planes one video in background on video
plane and other is rectangular window showing program information on graphics plane. These two
planes are mixed by mixer to generate a single image.
Video Output: Final result after mixing video decoder and graphics accelerator outputs is
provided to video output block. This block is responsible for outputting data as per required
standards (PAL, NTSC, SECAM, HDMI). This block generates output in analog format using
DACs. This block also generates output in digital format using HDMI convertors.
Audio Decoder: Audio decoder converts the compressed audio data into basic audio data. Audio
decoders are also programmable these days. They can be programmed to support any audio
standard. Audio decoder generally supports MPEG, AAC, Dolby formats.
Audio Output: Audio output is fed to audio output block. This block provides audio output in
analog format using internal DACs and in digital format using SPDIF convertor.
Peripherals: Other than main decoders and CPU a lot of peripheral devices are supported by STB
SoCs for providing various features.
USB: For record/playback on external storage
SATA: used to connect HDD for providing digital video recording facility.
Ethernet: Input source for IP based STBs
UART: Debug port. Sometimes also used for software upgrade in field
I2C: Used by main STB SoC to communicate with external peripheral devices such as front end,
SCART controller, HDMI controller etc.
SPI : Used for connecting to non-volatile storage on serial flash devices.
Software
STB Software is organized as layered architecture as shown in block diagram below. RTOS is
generally STB company proprietary or some industry standard OS such as Linux. Software drivers
are written for all hardware blocks and some software components. A typical STB has 30-40
different drivers. Middleware is generally used to standardize the interfaces from drivers to
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application so that device independence can be provided. Final application is on top of middleware
and it usually remains same for one service provider across different STBs.
❖ functions of the set top box and remote control
The term Set-Top Box (STB) refers to devices that connect to a television and some external
broadcasted signal source. The Set-Top Box demodulates the broadcasted signal into audiovisual
content that can either be displayed on a monitor or captured and recorded. The broadcasted signal
source can be sent via satellite, a cable connection, a telephone line, or an ordinary VHF or UHF
antenna. Content may include any combination of video and audio formats, internet web pages or
interactive games.
Evolution of the Set Top Box
The STB industry has its roots in the Table box legacy device, where a user can use a hand-held
remote control to communicate with this device to select among a wide range of analog television
channels. Over time, as the networks and service providers added additional digital channels,
satellite broadcast services, internet access and other options, the STB was introduced in the
market to support all of these new channels and services brought about, for the main part, by
technological advances. In recent years, the rise in digital consumer services is quickly
transforming the STB into a multifunction device. With the advent of digital television and high
definition TV, the broadcasting and reception of high quality video is now possible. Today digital
broadcasts use all three main media: cable, terrestrial antenna and satellite. Each medium has its
own scheme of transmission, reception, and error correction methods. Previously, communication
was unidirectional from the service provider to the STB, and an analog television was at the output
stage of the STB. Currently, it not only maintains legacy functionality but also provides a bi-
directional communication channel with the service provider, as well as outputting a digital
television signal for modern TVs. Some intended features of an STB include controlling home
appliances, using the television as a display monitor and the use of a data modem to carry control
commands from the Set-Top Box back to the service provider. To realize these advanced features,
today digital STB units are being equipped with powerful microprocessors and sophisticated
hardware.
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The STB Market

In the last decade, there has been an extremely rapid growth in cable and satellite STB market due
to the advanced features, supported media, and ease of billing. It can be observed that since 1998,
there has been tremendous popularity of satellite and cable boxes that has stimulated demand for
this technology. Statistics show, a clear trend that there is an increase in the unit sales while the
$/unit value of each STB has decreased significantly, further stimulating demand for this
technology. Demand for digital cable Set-Top Boxes continues to be strong in 2006. An increasing
number of cable TV operators around the world are ordering and deploying cable Set-Top Box
products, particularly in conjunction with digital cable video service and with new high-definition
and interactive TV services.
Rise in demand in 2006 comes after the digital cable Set-Top Box market experienced a record
year in 2005. Led by increasing demand from North American cable TV operators and new
deployments by Chinese TV cable operators, total worldwide unit shipments in 2005 reached 15.5
million, an increase of 44% over 2004.
Satellite Set Top Boxes
Today, basic satellite STB units are equipped with interactive features such as video-on-demand
(VOD), electronic program guide (EPG), and digital rights management (DRM). More advanced
units go a step further to provide a suite of interactive and multimedia services directly through a
user television system, for example Internet browsing, email, instant messaging (IM), and voice
over IP (VoIP) in addition to basic functionality. A typical satellite STB connection scenario is
depicted in Figure 1.
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Figure 1 – Typical Scenario for Satellite Set-Top Box Operation

Embedded Modem for Billing and Interactive Gaming
For interactive features such as VOD, the bandwidth of a satellite up-link is usually not available;
hence, an auxiliary device is used to communicate with the service provider to include an alternate
connection. Satellite Set-Top Boxes contain embedded analog dial-up modems that operate
through a conventional two-wire line. Such embedded modems provide for both low and high-
speed modem requirements and are suitable for deployment in any full line of satellite Set-Top
Boxes.
Satellite Set-Top Boxes that provide only standard services are usually equipped with a low speed
modem for cost optimization since data transmission is for relatively shorter duration and involves
only a small chunk of data. For more advanced services where more data needs to be transferred,
the use of high-speed modems becomes necessary. Since modems are a mature technology and
make use of the regular Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN) lines, the use of high-speed
modems becomes a viable, economical choice for STB manufacturers and service providers.
Capturing the STB Market
Disadvantage of using Hardware Modem Chipsets
A chipset is a group of integrated circuits that are designed to work together in performing one or
more related functions, and they are usually marketed as a single product. Traditional fax modem
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chipsets require a host processor, which itself may require a separate crystal as its clock, external
memory and other discrete electronic components. Additional circuitry will be required between
these extra components. A hardware interface will also need to be designed to interface the modem
chipset with the host processor. Each of these components takes up valuable space on the PCB,
adds to the overall weight, draws additional power and emits heat, and most importantly, adds to
the overall cost. By using a chipset for fax functions, the host processor is not being utilized
efficiently. Modern processors can handle multiple tasks concurrently such as running a fax
modem data-pump while simultaneously driving other features of the end device. This eliminates
the need for additional hardware components to provide fax functions and presents obvious
advantages of a smaller PCB footprint, lower weight, and lower power consumption.
Capturing Market Opportunity with GAO Softmodem
Set-Top Boxes feature modem connections for billing and verification of the subscriber as well as
for interactive features. As can be seen in a wide array of modem implementations provided by
GAO Research Inc., the GAO Softmodem is the ideal solution for satellite and cable STB units.
Lower speed modems, using V.22 or V.22bis standards, provide a speedy hand-shaking process
and because a typical data transaction such as a VOD authorization, EPG update, and DRM
controls require relatively low bandwidth, these standards provide a sufficient bit rate to complete
the user request within seconds. High-speed modem specifications offered by GAO include V.34,
V.90, and V.92, having maximum downstream data rates of 33.6Kbps and 56Kbps respectively,
with V.92 being capable of a higher upstream data rate of 48Kbps. These high-speed specifications
are suitable for the transfer of data for interactive STB applications that require real-time response
such as interactive gaming and Internet/email/IM access. GAO high-speed softmodems are
typically deployed in high-end satellite Set-Top Boxes in order to support those advanced
interactive features such as VoIP, IM, Web browsing and email which, in order to meet desirable
response times, require higher bit rates.
Soft-Modem Solution
GAO Modem solution is more economical, flexible and reliable than conventional chipsets.
Software as well as chipset solutions are generally designed to be compliant to a specific ITU-T
standard, and yield comparable reliability and quality. The advantage of GAO software is its
intention of being run on a DSP or processor along with other control software and only requires
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an analog front-end. In contrast, a chipset translates into additional hardware, which translates to
an increased per-unit cost and amounts to significant accumulated overhead.
GAO software solution provides flexibility in accommodating the ever-evolving communications
standards, changing command interfaces, the need for improved support and. This is not possible
in a chipset solution other than upgrading the hardware, which would have a significant cost
associated with it.
Versatility and Interoperability
GAO modem solution can operate within a multi-tasking environment or as a stand-alone task and
is optimized for fixed-point arithmetic. GAO Modem solution supports most commercial analog
front ends (AFE) as well as various discrete DAAs with codecs, depending on the application.
GAO software solutions are modular, re-locatable and reentrant to support multi-channel
capability and are optimized for all common embedded hardware platforms. By reducing the
processing and memory requirements of a process intensive modem scheme like V.92 for
interactive gaming, more features can be implemented on a less powerful processor. GAO code is
highly modular allowing for flexibility in customizing the desired capabilities. For example, extra
modulation capabilities, and telephony features can be added to higher-end systems, or a reduced
modem set can be chosen for a smaller memory footprint on lower-end systems.
❖ Structure of cable, parameters and the implications on signal

Cable TV
It is the older method than DTH and started from the small service providers which are later taken
over by the large rms and now cable distribution is also an organized business. There are several
developments in the Cable TV distribution.
A cable may be copper or ber but advantage lies in the availability of higher bandwidth in the
conned medium.
• No doubt, distribution of cable up to individual terminal is most unattractive part of Cable
signal distribution.
• In a cable TV system various signal inputs are received at the MSO (Multi System Operator)
end with the help of PDA (Parabolic Dish Antenna).
• These signals then multiplexed at MSO end and then transmitted to the customer via coaxial
cable. On this distribution of multiplexed signal it is amplied at various locations.
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• The cable distribution network is managed by various distributors which is authorised by the
MSO.
• At present most of the cable TV signal distribution is in analog form which is expected to be
in digital form in near future.
• So it is very likely to be infected by noise. So at the consumer end the analog signal quality is
not up to the mark. Also at various places people try to steal the signal by simply hooking the
cable.
• This also led to more noise on the signal and ultimately the user suffers. Now with the
introduction of Digital Cable TV the user get crystal clear video and stereo quality of sound.
• So the quality of picture and sound is much more improved in Digital Cable TV transmission
as compared to the Analog Cable TV transmission.
• In Digital TV user need to install a Set Top Box (STB) to get the digital signal.
• The Digital Cable TV distribution is very much similar to that of the Analog one except the
signal is encoded into digital before it is transmitted over the network.
• At the receiving end a STB is required to decode the signal before fed to the TV Box.
• There are various advantages of Digital TV over the Analog Cable TV system. The most
important is the quality video and stereo quality sound comparable to that of the DTH signal.
DTH (Direct to Home)
• This has been popular for the few years. It has the advantage of signal availability over a wide
region through satellite.
• In DTH TV the signal is received via satellite with the help of an antennaInstalled at the
customer premises. The usual size of disk ranges from 18 to 24 inches.
• One important aspect of DTH system is that it requires a clear line of sight to the satellite from
which the signal is received.
• In DTH the frequency band used is Ku Band (10 GHz to 12.5 GHz). Signal received from disk
antenna is fed to the STB through RG-6 coaxial cable.
• The signal received by the disk antenna is in the encoded form which is further decoded and
fed to the TV set. To work satisfactorily, the STB require certain quality level of signal which
is ne tuned at the time of dish installation with the help of signal meter.
• The content on DTH is in control of the broadcaster, so user need to pay and view the
channel/bouquets as per their requirements.
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• The main advantage of DTH service is that the user get TV signal for 24×7 without any
interruption because there is no intermediate mediator between the user and the broadcaster.
• In rainy season the DTH signal is affected due to poor signal strength caused by the rain drops.
The DTH signal can be received at any location like apartment and town villages
❖ basic functioning of tuners

TV Tuning Basics
A TV tuner for a computer does essentially the same thing that the tuner inside your television
does: takes the signal sent to you via a RG59 cable or though the air and converts it into a image
that can be displayed onto your computer display.
This may seem like a relatively easy task, and in fact, it is. All the TV tuner cards we have seen
make use of a a Philips TV tuner module. Shielded in a metal box to prevent interference, popping
the top off the TV tuner module shows that unit is fairly simple. The unit contains quite a few
filters and such as well as a Philips TDA9800T VIF-PLL demodulator that provides "a monolithic
integrated circuit for vision and sound IF signal processing in TV and VTR sets." This chip, which
takes the data sent to it by the coaxial source and converts it into data that a video card can use, is
the key to the whole TV tuning function.
From here, things get more familiar. The signal decoded by the TDA9800T next passes out of the
shielded box and into a sound processor of the manufacturer's choice that translates the coaxial
data into sound capable of being processed by a PC. Next, the video portion of the cable input is
sent to a decoder chip so that it may be displayed on a monitor. This chip treats the TV signal just
as it would treat any other form of input, be it from a DVD player or a camcorder. This provides
the final step in the data processing, allowing the cable input to now be displayed onto any display
that accepts a VGA or DVI connection.
One of the more difficult parts of bringing TV to the PC is producing software to control it all. All
the manufacturers we have seen use different programs to control access to the television channels.
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Even the most basic programs must include a channel selector (which tells the TDA9800T what
frequency to listen to), volume control, screen size selection, and more. Advanced features found
in some of these programs enhance the act of TV watching by including functions that allow for
time shifting, closed and caption logging, and video recording.
The decision to integrate TV tuner card onto a video card makes a lot of sense since the two interact
on the most basic level. The decision to go with a TV tuner video card, however, is a difficult one.
Video cards with a built in TV tuners are naturally more expensive than video cards without this
feature, making it hard to bite the bullet and get one of these cards if you are unsure if you will use
need TV tuning.
❖ function of Low Noise Block Down Convertor (LNBC)

Satellite television is a miracle of modern technology, delivering clear, crisp picture and sound
from satellites thousands of miles away, captured by a relatively small satellite dish. The
electronics that make this possible are designed to be weatherproof to withstand the test of time,
although they do sometimes need replacing. Other times, you may want to upgrade your dish’s
capabilities, and occasionally that can be done without replacing the entire dish. All you need to
do is replace the LNB.
What is an LNB?
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How an LNB works. Ever wonder what the difference is between an LNB and a LNBF? See
below…
Most of a satellite dish is just plain metal. The only part that contains any electronic components
at all is in the front of the metal arm. It’s generally referred to as an LNB or sometimes LNBF,
which stands for Low-Noise Block downconverter. (Depending on your satellite TV system, it can
also perform other tasks, too.)
An LNB has two important functions: it’s a low-noise amplifier, meaning that it takes the
extremely weak satellite signal and amplifies it. It’s also a block downconverter, meaning it takes
the signals on the super-high satellite frequencies and converts them to lower frequencies. Both
functions are important in order to deliver a satellite signal through a regular cable.
Satellite signals are very weak by the time they travel over 22,000 miles to your dish. The big,
round, “dish” part of your dish acts as a lens, focusing as much signal as possible onto the LNB.
The LNB amplifies that signal and sends it down the cable. There are other functions, too, but
they’re not as important as receiving the signal.
What’s the Difference Between an LNB and a LNBF?
Multicom stocks Single, Twin, Quad and Octo LNBFs

LNB = Low Noise Block down-converter
LNBF = Low Noise Block down-converter plus Feedhorn
A Feedhorn is basically a metal funnel that guides the incoming signal to the actual antenna stub
inside the throat of the LNB.
LNB’s and LNBF’s are both amplifiers used in satellite dishes. As with other signal amplifiers,
they take the very faint signal they receive and magnify it so that it is powerful enough to use. This
is the first step in taking the microwave signal coming from space and turning it into images and
sounds for televisions and computers.
DESIGN
A simple LNB attaches to the feedhorn of a satellite dish. An LNBF is a more highly developed
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piece of technology, being a part of the feedhorn itself. For this reason, an LNBF can be smaller
than an LNB with comparable capabilities.
FUNCTION
As you switch channels, the LNB switches polarity through the use of an exterior motor. With an
LNBF, the polarity changes when the receiver changes the voltage going into it. This voltage shift
causes it to switch back and forth between two different antenna probes (horizontal and vertical)
within the LNBF itself.
USE
Larger, older satellite dishes generally use the older LNB’s that are separate from the feedhorn.
Smaller, newer satellite dishes generally use the more compact LNBF’s. Because the industry has
shifted almost completely to the use of LNBF’s, many actually do not even make the “F”
distinction anymore, as LNBF’s are completely replacing LNB’s anyway.
❖ basics of digital signals and difference in analogue and digital

Analog and digital signals are different types which are mainly used to carry the data from one
apparatus to another. Analog signals are continuous wave signals that change with time period
whereas digital is a discrete signal is a nature. The main difference between analog and
digital signals is, analog signals are represented with the sine waves whereas digital signals are
represented with square waves. Let us discuss some dissimilarity of analog & digital signals. The
best example of an analog and digital is electrons because it deals with analog as well as digital
signals, input & outputs. In some way, electronics project mainly interacts by the real analog
world whereas digital signals with computers, microprocessors, and logic units. These two kinds
of signals are similar to different electronic languages. As some of the other languages can only
recognize as well as speak one of the two. This article discusses an overview of both analog as
well as digital signals, and comparison between them. Please refer the link to know
about Difference Between Analog Circuit and Digital Circuit
What is Analog and Digital Signal?
An analog signal is one type of continuous time-varying signals, and these are classified into
composite and simple signals. A simple type of analog signal is nothing but a sine wave, and that
can’t be decomposed, whereas a composite type analog signal can be decomposed into numerous
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sine waves. An analog signal can be defined by using amplitude, time period otherwise frequency,
& phase. Amplitude streaks the highest height of the signal, frequency streaks the rate at which an
analog signal is varying, and phase streaks the signal position with respect to time nothing. An
analog signal is not resistant toward the noise, therefore; it faces distortion as well as reduces the
transmission quality. The analog signal value range cannot be fixed.
Analog Signal
Similar to analog, digital signals carry the data although it is a bit different. These signals are
discrete or not continuous. A digital signal carries the data in the form of binary because it signifies
in the bits. These signals can be decomposed into sine waves which are termed as harmonics.
Every digital signal has amplitude, frequency, & phase like the analog signal. This signal can be
defined by bit interval as well as bit rate. Here, bit interval in nothing but the required time for
transmitting an only bit, whereas the bit rate is bit interval frequency.
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Digital Signal
Digital signals are more resistant toward the noise; therefore, it barely faces some distortion. These
waves are simple in transmitting as well as more dependable while contrasted to analog waves.
Digital signals include a limited variety of values which lies among 0-to-1. To know how analog
signal is converted into digital, please refer the link: How to Convert the Analog Signal to
Digital Signal by ADC Converter
Characteristics of Analog and Digital Signals
The analog and Digital signal characteristics mainly include adaptability, continuity,
representation, data type, signal type, medium of transmission, type of values, security, bandwidth,
hardware, data storage, portability, data transmission, impedance, power consumption, recording
data, use, rate of data transmission, examples and applications.
Adaptability
Analog signals are less adjustable for a range of use, whereas digital signals are more adjustable
for a range of use.
Continuity
Analog signals use a continuous variety of amplitude values whereas digital signal takes a limited
set of distinct values at consistently spaced spots in the time.
Type of Data
Analog signals are continuous in nature, whereas digital signals are discrete.
Type of Waves
Analog signal wave type is sinusoidal, whereas a digital signal is a square wave.
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Medium of Transmission
Analog signal medium of transmission is wire or wireless, whereas a digital signal is a wire.
Type of Values
Analog signal value type if positive as well as negative, whereas a digital signal is positive.
Security
The security of an analog signal is not encrypted, whereas a digital signal is encrypted.
Bandwidth
The analog signal bandwidth is low, whereas the digital signal is high.
Hardware
Analog signal hardware is not elastic, whereas digital is elastic in execution
Data Storage
The data storage of an analog signal is in the wave signal form, whereas digital signal stores the
data in the binary bit form.
Portability
Analog signals are portable similar to the thermometer and low cost, whereas digital signals are
portable similar to computers and expensive.
Data transmission
In analog, the signal can be deterioration due to noise throughout transmission, whereas digital
signal can be noise resistant throughout transmission devoid of any deterioration.
Impedance
The impedance of the analog signal is low, whereas the digital signal is high.
Power Consumption
Analog devices use more power, whereas digital devices use less power.
Data Transmission Rate
The data transmission rate in the analog signal is slow, whereas in the digital signal it is faster.
Examples
The best examples of the analog signal are video, human voice in the air, radio transmission waves
or TV transmission waves.
Applications
Analog signals can be utilized in analog devices exclusively, thermometer, whereas digital signals
are appropriate for digital electronic devices like computers, PDA, cell phones.
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Key Differences between Analog and Digital Signals

The key difference between analog and digital signals in tabular form is shown below.
Analog Signal Digital Signal
An analog signal signifies a continuous signal that A digital signal signifies a discrete signal that
keeps changes with a time period. carries binary data and has discrete values.
Analog signals are continuous sine waves Digital signal is square waves.
Analog signals describe the behavior of the wave Digital signals describe the behavior of the signal
with respect to amplitude, time period, & phase of with respect to the rate of a bit as well as bit
the signal. interval.
Digital signal is limited as well as ranges from 0

Analog signal range will not be set. to 1.
A digital signal has resistance in response toward

Analog signal is further horizontal toward the noise, therefore, it does not often face
distortion during the response to noise distortion.
An analog signal broadcasts the information in the A digital signal broadcasts the information in the
signal form. form of binary that is bits.
The example of an analog signal is the human The example of a digital signal is the data
voice transmission in a computer.
Advantages of Digital Signal Over Analog Signal

There are several advantages using digital signal over an analog signal.
• Digital signals are more secure, and they do not get damaged by noise.
• These signals use low bandwidth
• They allow the signals transmitted over a lengthy distance.
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• Digital signal has a higher rate transmission

• By using these signals, we can translate the messages, audio, video into device language.
• Digital signals enable the transmission of multidirectional concurrently.
❖ Transmission of television signals and functioning of television sets

The various methods of TV transmission
Programming broadcast is the transmission of television stations’ programming (sometimes called
channels) that is often directed to a specific audience.
There are several types of TV broadcast systems:
• Analogue Terrestrial TV
• Systems for sound transmission
• Digital Satellite TV
• Cable TV: analogue and digital systems
• New technologies:
o Digital terrestrial TV (DTTV)
o High Definition Television (HDTV)
o Pay-per-view
o Video-on-demand
o Web TV
o IPTV
ANALOGUE TERRESTRIAL TV
Terrestrial television is a term which refers to modes of television broadcasting which do not
involve satellite transmission or via underground cables.
Terrestrial television broadcasting dates back to the very beginnings of television as a medium
itself and there was virtually no other method of television delivery until the 1950s with the
beginnings of cable television, or community antenna television (CATV).
The first non-terrestrial method of delivering television signals that in no way depended on a signal
originating from a traditional terrestrial source began with the use of communications satellites
during the 1960s and 1970s of the twentieth century.
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Analogue TV encodes the image and sound information and transmits them as an analogue signal
in which the message transmitted by the broadcasting signal is composed of amplitude and/or
frequency variations and modulated into a VHF or UHF carrier.
The analogue television picture is "drawn" several times on the screen (25 in PAL system) as a
whole each time, as in a motion picture film, regardless of the content of the image.
DIGITAL SATELLITE TV
Satellite television is television signals delivered by means of communications satellites and
received by satellite dishes and set-top boxes. In many areas of the world it provides a wide range
of channels and services, often to areas that are not serviced by terrestrial or cable providers.
Satellite television, like other communications relayed by satellite, starts with a transmitting
antenna located at an uplink facility which have very large uplink satellite dishes, as much as 9 to
12 meters (30 to 40 feet) in diameter what results in more accurate aiming and increased signal
strength at the satellite.
The uplink dish is pointed toward a specific satellite and the uplinked signals are transmitted within
a specific frequency range, so as to be received by one of the transponders tuned to that frequency
range aboard that satellite, which 'retransmits' the signals back to Earth but at a different frequency
band, a process known as “translation”, used to avoid interference with the uplink signal, typically
in the C-band (4–8 GHz) or Ku-band (12–18 GHz) or both.
The downlinked satellite signal, quite weak after traveling the great distance, is collected by a
parabolic receiving dish, which reflects the weak signal to the dish’s focal point where is a
“downconverter” device called LNB (low-noise block) that is essentially a waveguide that gathers
the signals, amplifies the relatively weak signals, filters the block of frequencies in which the
satellite TV signals are transmitted, and converts it to a lower frequency range in the L-band range.
The evolution of LNB was a need, so the designs for microstrip based converters were adapted for
the C-Band taking advantage of its central design that was the concept of a block for down
conversion of a range of frequencies to a lower, and technologically more easily handled block of
frequencies, the IF - intermediate frequency.
The advantages of using an LNB are that cheaper cable could be used to connect the indoor
receiver with the satellite TV dish and LNB, and that the technology for handling the signal at L-
Band and UHF was far cheaper than that for handling the signal at C-Band frequencies.
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The shift to cheaper technology from the 50 Ohm impedance cable and N-Connectors of the early
C-Band systems to the 75 Ohm technology and F-Connectors allowed the early satellite TV
receivers to use what were in reality modified UHF TV tuners which selected the satellite
television channel for down conversion to another lower intermediate frequency centered on 70
MHz where it was demodulated. This shift allowed the satellite television industry to change to a
far more commercial mass production one.
The satellite receiver demodulates and converts the signals to the desired form (outputs for
television, audio, data, etc.) and sometimes, the receiver includes the capability to unscramble or
decrypt; the receiver is then called an Integrated Receiver/Decoder or IRD.
The cable connecting the receiver to the LNB must be of the "low loss" type, RG-6 or RG-11 and
should not be used the standard RG-59 cable.
CABLE TV
Cable Television or Community Antenna Television (CATV) is a system for distribution of
audiovisual content for television, FM radio and other services to consumers through fixed coaxial
cables, avoiding the traditional system of radio broadcasting antennas (broadcast television) and
have widespread use, mainly through the pay-TV services.
Technically, the cable TV involves the distribution of a number of television channels received
and processed in a central location (known as head-end) to subscribers within a community
through a network of optical fibre and/or coaxial cables and broadband amplifiers.
The use of different frequencies allows many channels to be distributed through the same cable,
without separate wires for each, and the tuner of the TV or Radio selects the desired channel from
among all transmitted.
A cable television system begins at the head end, where the program is received (and sometimes
originated), amplified, and then transmitted over a coaxial cable network.
The architecture of the network takes the form of a tree, with the "trunk" that carries the signals in
the streets, the "branches" carrying the signals for buildings and, finally, the "arms" carrying the
signals to individual homes.
The coaxial cable has a bandwidth capable of carrying a hundred television channels with six
megahertz of bandwidth each, but the signals decay quickly with distance, hence the need to use
amplifiers to "renew" the signals periodically to boost them.
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Backbone trunks in a local cable network frequently use optical fibre to minimize noise and
eliminate the need for amplifiers as optical fibre has considerably more capacity than coaxial cable
and allows more programs to be carried without signal lost or noise adding.
Most of the TV tuners are able to directly receive the cable channels, which are usually transmitted
in the RF (radio frequency) band, however, many programs are encrypted and subject to a tariff
itself and in such cases, you must install a converter between the cable and the receiver.
NEW TECNOLOGIES
DIGITAL TERRESTRIAL TV
Digital Terrestrial Television (DTTV or DTT) is an implementation of digital television
technology to provide a greater number of channels and/or better quality of picture and sound
using aerial broadcasts to a conventional antenna (or aerial) instead of a satellite dish or cable
connection.
The technology used in Europe is DVB-T that is immune to multipath distortion.
DTTV is transmitted on radio frequencies through the airwaves that are similar to standard
analogue television, with the primary difference being the use of multiplex transmitters to allow
reception of multiple channels on a single frequency range (such as a UHF or VHF channel).
The amount of data that can be transmitted (and therefore the number of channels) is directly
affected by the modulation method of the channel.
The modulation method in DVB-T is COFDM with either 64 or 16 state Quadrature Amplitude
Modulation (QAM). In general a 64QAM channel is capable of transmitting a greater bit rate, but
is more susceptible to interference. 16 and 64QAM can be combined in a single multiplex,
providing a controllable degradation for more important programme streams. This is called
hierarchical modulation.
New developments in compression have resulted in the MPEG-4/AVC standard which will enable
two high definition services to be coded into a 24 Mbit/s European terrestrial transmission channel.
DTTV is received via a digital set-top box, or integrated receiving device, that decodes the signal
received via a standard aerial antenna, however, due to frequency planning issues, an aerial with a
different group (usually a wideband) may be required if the DTTV multiplexes lie outside the
bandwidth of the originally installed aerial.
In Portugal, as detailed in the information published by ANACOM in February 2008, Set Top
Boxes (STB) or TV receivers must be capable of decoding MPEG-4, H.264 AVC coded
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transmissions and also be suitable to display HD signals in at least 720p format, as this is the
format to be broadcast on the country.
In the case of STB’s, ANACOM advises that an HDMI connection should also be available and
that it should be version 1.3 and that the box should of course decode the transmitted HDTV
format.
HDTV
The high-definition television, also known as HDTV (High Definition Television) is a television
system with a resolution significantly higher than in the traditional formats (NTSC, SECAM,
PAL).
The HDTV is transmitted digitally and therefore its implementation generally coincides with the
introduction of digital television (DTV), technology that was launched during the 1990s.
Although several patterns of high-definition television have been proposed or implemented, the
current HDTV standards are defined by ITU-R BT.709 as 1080i (interlaced), 1080p (progressive)
or 720p using the 16:9 screen format.
The term "high definition" can refer to the specification of the resolution itself or, more generally,
the mídia capable of such a definition as the video mídia support or the television set.
What will be of interest in the near future is high definition video, through the successors of the
DVD, HD DVD and Blu-Ray (is expected that the last one will be adopted as a standard) and,
consequently, the projectors and LCD and plasma televisions sets as well as retro projectors and
video recorders with 1080p resolution/definition.
High-definition television (HDTV) yields a better-quality image than standard television does,
because it has a greater number of line resolution.
The visual information is some 2 to 5 times sharper because the gaps between the scan lines are
narrower or invisible to the naked eye.
The larger the size of the television the HD picture is viewed on, the greater the improvement in
picture quality. On smaller televisions there may be no noticeable improvement in picture quality.
The lower-case "i" appended to the numbers denotes interlaced; the lower-case "p" denotes
progressive: With the interlaced scanning method, the 1,080 lines of resolution are divided into
pairs, the first 540 alternate lines are painted on a frame and then the second 540 lines are painted
on a second frame; the progressive scanning method simultaneously displays all 1,080 lines on
every frame, requiring a greater bandwidth.
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PAY-PER-VIEW
Pay-per-view (often abbreviated PPV) offers a system by which a television audience can purchase
events to view on TV-monitors via private telecast of that event to their homes.
The broadcaster shows the event at the same time to everyone ordering it (as opposed to video-on-
demand systems, which allow viewers to see the event at any time) and can be purchased using an
on-screen guide, an automated telephone system, or through a live customer service representative.
Events often include feature films, sporting events, adult content movies and "special" events.
VIDEO-ON-DEMAND
Video-on-Demand (VoD) or Audio-Video-on-Demand (AVoD) systems allow users to select and
watch/listen to video or audio content on demand.
VoD systems either stream content through a set-top-box, allowing viewing in real time, or
download it to a device such as a computer, digital video recorder, personal video recorder or
portable media player for viewing at any time.
Download and streaming video-on-demand systems provide the user with a large subset of VCR
functionality including pause, fast forward, fast rewind, slow forward, slow rewind, jump to
previous/future frame etc., these functions are called trick modes.
For disk-based streaming systems which store and stream programs from hard disk drive, trick
modes require additional processing and storage on the part of the server, because separate files
for fast forward and rewind must be stored.
Memory-based VoD streaming systems have the advantage of being able to perform trick modes
directly from RAM, which requires no additional storage or CPU cycles on the part of the
processor.
It is possible to put video servers on LANs, in which case they can provide very rapid response to
users. Streaming video servers can also serve a wider community via a WAN, in which case the
responsiveness may be reduced. Download VoD services are practical to homes equipped with
cable modems or DSL connections.
WEB TV
Web TV, TVIP, or TV on the Internet is the transmission of a programming grid through the
Internet. It can be known "normal" TV channels or channels specifically designed for the Internet.
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Web TV, in a simplified form, is nothing more than the provision of video and audio over the
Internet; and the way to assist the transmission varies from the monitor of a computer through the
use of an iPod or a mobile phone to the TV set if one have the decoder.
IPTV (TV over Internet Protocol)
The recent introduction of Television over Internet Protocol technology, commonly known as
IPTV, made a revolution on the distribution networks for TV signals, allowing eliminate many of
the problems associated with a distribution network based on coaxial cables, in particular those
related with the degradation of signal, interference, signal levels, and capacity of the transmission
of the channel’s band.
Moreover, thanks to IP (Internet Protocol), will be possible the combination of several interfaces
in a multi-service unit and the broadcast and distribution of diverse and varied services on the same
network, which previously required differentiated infrastructure, including: TV signals, telephone
service and broadband Internet access, setting a platform we know today as Triple Play.
In essence, the triple play concept is not entirely new because, in terms of services, there are some
years ago that are available some solutions combining a mix of TV services, telephony and Internet
access.
Studies show that the churn rate (voluntary abandonment of service) of the offer triple play
subscribers is substantially lower than that observed when the voice, data and TV are sold on a
non-convergent way.
Another factor is the progress in access technologies and platforms for packet telephony and video.
A variant of ADSL (asymmetrical digital subscriber line), known as ADSL2+, represents a change
in the effective performance of Internet connection on the original format, not to mention the more
recent developments, such as VDSL (very-high-bit-rate DSL).
The access over optical fibre in its more popular form, known as PON (passive optical network),
reflects an even more daring way, resulted in significant investments in that technology, seeking
for high-speed Internet access, voice and multi-channel of high-definition TV union.
Progress in video distribution systems is on the way too. In recent years, a number of innovations
and developments in the industry of hardware and software systems for the TV industry have
started to TV over IP (also known as IPTV).
The main driver is integrated platforms consisting of set-top-boxes, servers and video content
protection system (DRM - digital rights management), together with appropriate tools, middleware
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and billing, allow the provision of a variety of TV services in several formats, such as streaming,
video on demand and time-shifted TV, based on a combination of underlying IP networks and
DSL or optical access systems.
In this context, the sophistication of algorithms for compression of video signals has a relevant
role. Techniques such as MPEG-4 AVC (advanced video coding), for example, enable the
transmission of signals in high definition TV over IP networks.
The search for a strategy to offer multiple play-based (dual, triple, quadruple etc.) is an irreversible
phenomenon in the communications industry but at the same time it impose enormous challenges
- particularly in terms of selection of technology platforms, control and regulation - opens a huge
horizon of possibilities, both supply and demand.
❖ specifications of different kind of inputs available on TV sets such as RF,

AV, RGB, VGA, USB and HDMI
TV there are various types of audio / video inputs available for customer convenience to
experience the varieties of connected devices.
• RF Input: RF (Radio Frequency) input is the technical term for a coaxial/antenna input on the
back of a television. This input is often referred to as simply 'cable' or 'cable vision'.
(RF Input)
• S-Video Input: Separate Video (2 channel), more commonly known as S-Video and Y/C. It is
an analog video transmission (no audio) that carries standard definition video typically at 480i
or 576i resolution.
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(S-Video)
• Component Input: Component video is a video signal that has been split into two or more
component channels. In popular use, it refers to a type of component analog video (CAV)
information that is transmitted or stored as three separate signals. Component video can be
contrasted with composite video (NTSC, PAL or SECAM) in which all the video information
is combined into a single line-level signal that is used in analog television.
(Component Input)
• VGA Input: A Video Graphics Array (VGA) connector is a three-row 15-pin DE-
15 connector. The 15-pin VGA connector is found on many video cards, computer monitors,
and some high definition television sets. On laptop computers or other small devices, a mini-
VGA port is sometimes used in place of the full-sized VGA connector.
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(VGA Input)
• HDMI Input: HDMI (High-Definition Multimedia Interface) is a compact audio/video

interface for transferring uncompressed digital audio/video data from a HDMI-compliant
device ("the source") to a compatible digital audio device and digital television.
(HDMI Input)
• Composite Video Input: Composite video (1 channel) is an analog video transmission (no
audio) that carries standard definition video typically at 480i or 576i resolution. Video
information is encoded on one channel in contrast with slightly higher quality S-video (2
channel), and even higher quality component video (3 channels).
(Composite Video Input)
❖ digital signal processing chain including CAS and SMS

What is CAS?
CAS stands for conditional access system, which is a digital mode of transmitting TV channels
trough a set-top box (STB). The transmission signals are encrypted and viewers need to buy a set-
top box to receive and decrypt the signal. The STB is required to watch only pay channels, not
free-to-air channels, like Door darshan.
The CAS Bill and what it means
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In the new system, Indian broadcasting companies will decide which channels would be 'non-pay'
(free-to-air) and which would be 'pay'. The viewer will now be able to select the pay channels he
wishes to watch and pay for only these. Each broadcasting channel will determine the rates for
buying the channel.
Currently, there is no segregation and subscribers pay a blanket rate for the entire service. There
will soon be two levels of segregation. The first will be a broad differential according to lower,
middle and upper classes of society across cable households.
The second differential will be amongst pay channels, like premium channels, which will include
focused news, entertainment, sports, music channels and niche channels like nature, health and
fashion.
When was it first proposed in India?
The idea of CAS was mooted in 2001, which was followed by a furore over charge hikes by
channels and subsequently cable operators. It was decided that it would be first introduced in the
four metros. It has been in place in Chennai since September 2003.
According to estimates, only 25 per cent of the people have subscribed the new technology. The
rest watch only free-to-air channels. The inhibiting factor is the cost of the STB.
What is a set-top box? How much does it cost?
The set-top box is the device that enables a subscriber view pay channels. This instrument decodes
signals from the cable operator for viewing a pay channel. It can also monitor the number and
duration of channels viewed by the subscriber.
Analog STBs cost between Rs 3,000-3,500, while digital STBs cost 5,500 to 7,000.
The Telecom Regulatory Authority of India (which also regulates India's cable television regime)
has asked cable TV service providers in CAS areas to offer digital set-top boxes on a monthly
rental scheme of Rs 30 and a refundable security deposit of Rs 999.
Subscribers will also have another option of not paying any security deposit but the monthly rental
will be higher at Rs 45 per STB.
For analogue boxes, the rent will be Rs 23 per month per STB. Multi-system operators, like
Hathway, now plan to give out STBs to their subscribers at a nominal rental of Rs 1 per day. If
you change your address, you may have to go in for a new MSO who covers your new location.
Will CAS be cheaper than cable TV?
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Yes, according to a TRAI order, if one opts for all the existing channels then the pay out will be
less. For example, the Star bouquet at present comes for Rs 67 for eight channels. Under CAS, if
one avails all the eight channels then the pay bill will be Rs 40 plus a 12.2 per cent service tax.
The new tariff order will reduce the cable bills in Delhi, Kolkata and Mumbai.
What will be the pricing of channels under CAS?
Broadcast regulator TRAI has fixed a ceiling of Rs 5 per pay channel per month under the CAS
regime, much to the disappointment of broadcasters.
TRAI has fixed Rs 77 cap on pricing of free-to-air channels. It has also laid out easy norms for
procurement of set-top boxes, which enable a subscriber to access pay channels in a CAS regime.
Under CAS, a subscriber can access to around 22 pay channels apart from the free-to-air bouquet
within the Rs 200 package monthly. However, broadcasters and multi-system operators can offer
a bouquet of channels, and discounts. One month's notice to subscribers before conversion of a
free-to-air channel to pay channel or vice versa is needed.
Advantages of CAS
For viewers: Under, CAS viewers can watch only what they would like to watch, than what the
cable operator has on offer. Subscribers save money they now spend on unnecessary channels.
They will get better transmission (because of the use of optic fibre instead of metal cables). The
cable operators will no longer have any control over the pricing of channels.
For broadcasters: It benefits broadcasters as they always had to grapple with the issue of cable
operators not declaring the actual number of subscribers, and hence suffering losses. With CAS,
they can find out the exact number of subscribers with a cable operator.
For cable TV operators: They need to pay a part of the subscription fees to the broadcasters only
for the actual number of end users who opt for the channel. This allows operators to price their
channels according to their popularity.
For advertisers: It gives a far more accurate indicator of programme popularity with only the
actual subscribers of each channel being accounted for.
So why has there been opposition to CAS?
Consumer activists were essentially opposed to the high cost of the STB. If more people subscribe
to CAS nationwide, the prices would come down. There were also apprehensions about fees being
charged for the bouquet of channels instead of individual channels. The latest ruling from the
Telecom Regulatory Authority of India has struck down bouquet-wise pricing.
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In simple terms, a person who wants to want only watch Star News, for example, will no longer
have to buy the Star bouquet, comprising, Star Movies, Star World, Star One etc.
Activists are also seeking a limit on the duration of advertising on air. Cable operators are opposed
to CAS because they become redundant and even if that didn't happen, they can no longer
understate the real number of subscribers and cheat the government of entertainment tax.
Service providers are opposed because they have to set up new digital machinery for CAS and
may even have to share the price of the STBs, to avert competition from direct-to-home
transmission.
What are the alternate options now?
The alternatives is DTH, a broadband transmission, which is more expensive. The latest TRAI
order, which limits the fee per channel per cable connection to Rs 5 (exclusive of taxes) is the
consumers' best bet.
What is DTH?
DTH stands for Direct-To-Home television. DTH is defined as the reception of satellite
programmes with a personal dish in an individual home.
DTH services were first proposed in India in 1996. But they did not pass approval because there
were concerns over national security and a cultural invasion. In 1997, the government even
imposed a ban when the Rupert Murdoch-owned Indian Sky Broadcasting (ISkyB) was about to
launch its DTH services in India.
Finally in 2000, DTH was allowed. The new policy requires all operators to set up earth stations
in India within 12 months of getting a license.
DTH licenses in India will cost $2.14 million and will be valid for 10 years. The companies
offering DTH service will have to have an Indian chief and foreign equity has been capped at 49
per cent. There is no limit on the number of companies that can apply for the DTH license.
Who are the DTH operators in India?
Zee group promoted Dish TV was the first to start DTH operations in India. The latest entrant in
India is Tata-Sky is a joint venture between the Tata group and News corporation's Star TV.
What is the DTH pricing?
Tata-Sky offers 58-channels to consumers at an introductory offer of Rs 200 per month. You will
have to pay Rs 3,999 for hardware (set-top box and installation), and a monthly charge of Rs 200.
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Zee group's Dish TV offers its hardware and installation at Rs 3,000 (excluding taxes) and three
months' free subscription. This Dish TV package of 75 channels costs Rs 180 per month.
DTH providers justify the prices as it offers high quality transmission which makes TV viewing a
pleasant experience. Dish TV also offers other packages.
The second DTH operator is government-owned DD-Direct Plus. This comes at a one-time cost
of Rs 2,000-2,500.
What are the concerns over DTH?
In the absence of regulation, DTH operators may hike their fees arbitrarily. They may force
consumers to pay for bouquets of channels, instead of individual channels. Also there could be
illegal redistribution of DTH feed through multiple distribution units, amounting to evasion of tax.
DTH versus CAS
DTH does not compete with CAS. Cable TV and DTH are two methods of delivery of television
content. CAS is integral to both the systems in delivering pay channels.
Cable TV is through cable networks and DTH is wireless, reaching direct to the consumer through
a small dish and a set-top box. Although the government has ensured that free-to-air channels on
cable are delivered to the consumer without a set-top box, DTH signals cannot be received without
the set-top box.
Besides, the monthly subscription cost for DTH and CAS on cable will vary. While you can opt
for a number of channels in CAS, under DTH you have a limited choice depending on the package
you opt for. The quality of the broadcast will be of high quality with big players in the fray.
DTH versus cable TV
In DTH, TV channels would be transmitted from the satellite to a small dish antenna mounted on
the window or rooftop of the subscriber's home. So the broadcaster directly connects to the user.
DTH can also reach the remotest of areas since it does away with the intermediate step of a cable
operator and the wires (cables) that come from the cable operator to your house.
DTH offers better quality picture than cable TV. This is because cable TV in India is analog.
Despite digital transmission and reception, the cable transmission is still analog. DTH offers
stereophonic sound effects.
Apart from enhanced picture quality, DTH has also allows for interactive TV services such as
movie-on-demand, Internet access, video conferencing and e-mail. DTH will not be able to be an
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alternative to cable if the initial investment is more than that for cable. DTH requires initial
investment for both a dish antenna and a TV-top box.
Will Star channels be available on Dish TV and Zee channels on Tata-Sky?
Dish TV offers Star channels. But Tata Sky is yet to offer Zee channels. On July 14, 2006, the
Telecom Disputes Settlement and Appellate Tribunal asked Star TV to allow Dish to broadcast all
Star channels. The telecom tribunal also asked Star TV to make available all its channels for not
more than Rs 27 per subscriber on the Dish TV platform.
❖ Quality of Service (QoS) and End of Line (EOL) parameters and optimum
range as specified by IS13420
End of Line Tester
End-of-line Tester (EOL) systems can measure and check the functionality of automotive
electronic control units, mechanical parts and related systems. Key factors considered are high test
quantity, test completion and low system with upgrade costs. Today it’s important to have a
flexible test platform with the growing intricacy of automotive electronics. TMCS has an End of
Line Testing platform which is flexible and offers complete consistency.
We undertake projects for(EOL)

Motor Test System: EOL testers are developed to control and log data of Motor under test.
Various tests like Voltage regulation, Temperature rise test etc can be carried out automatically.
Pass and Fail result will be displayed based on configured data.
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Alternator Test System: With identifying and selecting the apt NI resources, we were able to
finish the entire test 12 to 14 minutes earlier, reducing alternator's Test Cycle Time by 10+%" The
Challenge: Customer wanted us to develop a solution over the Alternator (End of line) Testing
System that shall CONTINUOUSLY MONITOR the temperature rise, during the heat-run test.
ECU Test Bench

EOL tester are usually used to test vehicle ECU. Operator needs to manually connect all electrical
cables, select model and start testing. Test sequence of different models of ECU can be set by
manager.
Outer Door Handle EOL Testing: Test bench is used to simulated different door handle actions
done by a driver to lock or unlock the car.
Spring Tester: EOL tester is used for calculating compression and tension values for different
sized springs.
EOL Tester to Test Signalling Group Relays: The sequence of testing the particular UUT
(Group) is defined in form of a excel table.
❖ parameters for digital signals, viz., MER, BER, C/N, CTV and CSO and
proper recording of these for future reference
Measurements and amplification of DTT (DVB-T) signals
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The benefits and possibilities offered by digital broadcasting have increased the interest in
receiving the programming by the users of analog TV.
In all countries changing the way television is broadcast from analog to digital there is a transition
period when both systems operate simultaneously. It creates considerable challenges for the
designers and installers of antenna systems. When designing and implementing the systems it is
necessary to take into account both kinds of signals, even if some of the systems are designated
exclusively for reception of digital terrestrial television channels. The quality of the signals can
only be verified by measurements, which in the case of digital signals requires increased
competence of the installer.
Minimum and maximum levels of DVB-T signals
The minimum signal level required for proper reception of digital terrestrial television is lower
than in the case of analog TV (e.g. by 6-12 dB in the case of 64-QAM modulation, depending on
FEC). It is due to the much greater efficiency of digital modulation, which is a combination of
amplitude and phase modulation of the RF signal. Digital modulation schemes complicate the
implementations of the transmitters and receivers, but the transmitters of the same power as the
older analog ones can cover larger areas.
When designing modern installations distributing DVB-T signals, the antenna installer should take
into account the recommended signal levels shown in the table below.
Minimum Maximum
Channel signal signal
Medium Standard Modulation
capacity level level
(dBµV) (dBµV)
D1/PAL AM-VSB - 57 80
1/2 26 74
2/3 28 74
Television DVB-T QPSK 3/4 30 74

COFDM 5/6 33 74
7/8 35 74
16-QAM 1/2 32 74
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2/3 36 74
3/4 39 74
5/6 42 74
7/8 45 74
1/2 42 74
2/3 45 74
64-QAM 3/4 48 74
5/6 51 74
7/8 54 74
Mono FM - 40 74
Radio Stereo FM - 50 74
DAB OFDM - 28 74
Recommendations for RF signal levels in subscriber outletsfor analog (D1/PAL, FM) and digital
(DVB-T, DAB) signals
As shown in the table, DVB-T technology imposes on the RF signals quite different limits than
those of analog TV. In Poland (64-QAM, FEC 3/4) the limits are 48 dBuV and 74 dBuV.
The parameters of the signal with a guard interval of 1/4 allow for total capacity of a multiplex of
22 Mb/s. It limits the bitrates of SD channels to 3 Mb/s, and of HD channels to 7 Mb/s.
Given that satellite channel bitrates range from 12-18 Mb/s, the above parameters of DVB-T signal
do not guarantee the highest quality - this modulation scheme imposes some limitations.
The measurements of television signals in transition period. Signal level.
The method of measuring the level of DVB-T signals is different than in the case of analog TV. It
is the result of completely different frequency spectrum of these signals. The vast majority of
analog TV meters measures in fact the level of video carrier, so a very limited channel segment.
Due to the fact that COFDM digital signal is actually containing several thousand QAM-modulated
orthogonal subcarriers, to properly measure its level it is necessary to take into account all of them,
in a whole 8 MHz channel. This basic difference is crucial when someone tries to measure the
level of a DVB-T channel with an meter dedicated for measuring analog signals. Such a device,
testing only a fragment of the channel (about the video carrier frequency of the corresponding
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analog channel) will give unreliable, biased result. At best, the result will be lower by several
decibels.
The spectrum of analog and digital signals. In this example, the first channel on the left (22) is a
DVB-T channel, having all spectrum components at the same level throughout its 8 MHz
bandwidth, whereas the adjacent channel (23) is an analog channel (two distinct peaks visible -
audio and video carriers). It is clear that the level of analog video carrier is greater than the
balanced levels of DVB-T subcarriers. The digital signals are not detected by analog receivers
(they are treated as noise).
View of DigiAir Pro R10510 meter. Possibility of measuring analog signals (using Constant
Wave)
and digital signals (using Channel Power) methods
Consequently, the measuring device should distinguish between analog and digital signals.
Anyone being interested in buying a DVB-T meter should also consider the possibility of
measuring analog channels. It is worth to make such measurements, even when antenna systems
are dedicated solely for digital channels, especially in the case of using broadband amplifiers. The
problem of amplifying TV signals in transitional period will be presented in the further part of the
article.
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A measurement of digital DVB-T channel level, performed in analog and digital modes. The
difference in the readings is as high as 7.8 dBuV. The result obtained in analog mode cannot be
accepted.
As seen in the pictures, the characteristic frequency for these modes of measurement is also
different:
in analog mode it is the of video carrier frequency of the channel 44 (655.25 MHz),
while in digital mode it is the center frequency (658 MHz) of the same channel.
The signal level is not the only parameter which must be taken into account in measuring DTT
signals. At least equally important are MER Modulation Error Ratio (MER) and Bit Error Rate
(BER).
Modulation Error Ratio
From the perspective of an installer or a viewer of DVB-T, an encyclopedic definition of the MER
parameter is not very interesting. However, it should be borne in mind that MER carries
information on the level and type of noise that interferes with the digital signal (phase noise,
amplitude noise etc.). To truly understand the importance of measuring the MER parameter, there
is the need to explain the phenomenon of so-called digital cliff.
In analog TV, the decline of the carrier to noise ratio (C/N) causes proportional decrease of image
quality, but some large elements of the picture can still be recognized even in the case of the lowest
C/N value allowing any reception. For example, the signal with C/N of 44 dB generally provides
a very good picture quality. A decrease in the C/N by about 10-15 dB will increase fine "grain" in
the image, but the majority of the viewers will consider it acceptable. Only with further drop of
C/N by next 10 to 15 dB will the image become unacceptable (although visible) due to high noise
level.
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The cliff effect in digital DVB-T. The quality of analog TV picture decreases gradually.
(source: en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_cliff)
In the case of a digital signal, the boundary between an ideal image quality and loss of reception
is very sharp. In DVB-T, similarly to other digital broadcasting, we have to cope with "digital
cliff" effect. This means a sudden jump from a normal reception to a complete lack of content.
Operation on the boundary is the reason that the picture appears to freeze up or show up like a
mosaic.
MER can be treated as a measure of the distance of the received signal to the digital cliff. Without
knowing this parameter, the antenna installer cannot guarantee stable reception in adverse weather
conditions or other situations when the signal can fluctuate (e.g. interfered by a passing truck). The
recommended and minimum values of MER required for proper reception depend on the
modulation technique. In the case of 64-QAM modulation, they are 31 dB and 26 dB respectively.
A MER measurement performed with DigiAir Pro R10510. In the presented situation, the MER
>31dB ensures a wide safety margin, practically eliminating the risk of accidental interruptions
caused by various interferences. The constellation diagram also shows very good quality of the
signal (the points are not scattered).
Bit Error Rate
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The third important parameter that should be taken into account when measuring DVB-T signals
is BER. This parameter is well known to all installers of satellite dishes and describes the quality
of the received signal. It informs about the proportion of erroneous bits (caused by interferences
occurring in the transmission channel) in relation to all transmitted bits. There are several types
BER. Although from the perspective of the installer only one of them is really interesting, we
should be conscious of the kinds of measurements meters can take (most measuring instruments
can measure two types of BER).
Digital signals transmitted via RF channels (DVB-S/S2 and DVB-T) are broadcast using
redundancy coding. This increases the bandwidth requirements for signal transmission, but allows
the receiver to correct errors arising in the transmission channel, by means of appropriate
corrective algorithms. It means that in addition to the necessary information the transmitter also
sends a number of correction bits. The proportion of the information bits to all bits is shown by
FEC (Forward Error Correction). It usually takes 3/4 or 5/6, which means 25% or 17% of
redundant data (respectively) in relation to to the total transmitted stream. Of course, better
correction leads to limitation of the capacity of the channel.
The redundantly encoded digital signal is received and decoded at the receiver using correction
algorithms. Due to a relatively simple hardware implementation, the preferred algorithm is Viterbi.
The principle of the algorithm is not important here, but the fact that the signals before and after
the decoding/correction are two different signals in terms of the number of errors. At this point we
can define two types of BER parameter:
• BER, bBER, Pre BER, channel BER - bit error rate measured after decoding and before Viterbi
correction. From the perspective of the installer, it is the most important parameter.
• aBER, vBER, or Post BER - after Viterbi Bit-Error-Rate - it is usually about 10 000 times
smaller than bBER. It is suitable rather for long-term evaluation of signal quality, and
practically not measured during installing antenna systems.
A good quality signal features BER of 1E-4 or less. Such signal is recognized as Quasi Error Free
(QEF).
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In the case of DigiAir Pro R10510, the BER rates before and after Viterbi correction are denoted
as "Pre BER" and "Post BER". It is perfectly visible that the number of errors after the correction
is 30 000 times smaller than the number of errors before correction.
Antenna amplifiers in transitional period (DVB-T and analog broadcasts)
The question that we face in the era of implementation of digital terrestrial TV is whether there is
a category of amplifiers specially dedicated for DVB-T. The most common answer is that there
are no such amplifiers and the RF equipment so far employed in analog TV systems can be
successfully used for receiving DVB-T broadcasts. Generally, this is true - only very old, low-
performance amplifiers with high noise levels may have problems with proper operation with
digital signals.
However, the amplification of television signals in the transitional period requires additional
attention. Awareness of the existence of certain phenomena, and the experience of countries where
DVB-T has been broadcasting for years, will allow for quicker diagnosis of problems that may
occur with the use of broadband TV amplifiers.
Due to the previously mentioned differences in the levels of analog and digital signals, we should
be particularly careful when they are simultaneously amplified. Intermodulation products,
resulting from the use of active components and interference of two or more channels, can interfere
or disrupt the reception of some of them. In particular, the interferences generated when amplifying
strong analog channels can significantly affect the reception of "weaker" DVB-T channels.
Consequently, the amplifiers should be carefully selected and adjusted, without excessive gain
levels.
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The above figure shows the spectral characteristics of the signals at the output of a broadband
amplifier. The level of the intermodulation products can, in extreme cases, exceed the levels of the
DVB-T signals. The greater the difference in the level of the received analog and digital signals,
the higher the likelihood of problems after their amplification. Therefore, it is extremely important
to measure input levels of all signals - even in situations where the installation is dedicated only
for DVB-T. In this situation, a good practice is to apply attenuators of the strongest analog
channels at the input of the amplifier.
Based on the previous information, the conclusion is that in the transitional period the most
effective devices are low-noise amplifiers with small and medium values of gain, possibly with
adjustable gain level. A special series of such amplifiers has been designed by Terra. The ABxxx
masthead amplifiers can be powered with 5 VDC or 12 VDC power source, so including the power
option offered by many DVB-T receivers. The parameters of the preamplifiers are shown in the
table below:
TERRA AB010 TERRA AB011 TERRA AB012

R82002 R82003 R82004
Name AB010 AB011 AB012
Code R82002 R82003 R82004
Operating band UHF
Gain [dB] 15 27 22
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Number of inputs 1
Number of outputs 1 3
Noise level [dB] 0.8 <1
Max. output level [dBuV] 98 108 103
Gain switch [dB] - 14/27 7/22
Return loss [dB] > 10
Power [V * mA] 4.5-12 * 30 4.5-12 * 60
Operating temperature [°C] -20...+50
Dimensions/Weight
89x107x43 / 0.18
[mm/kg]
Another good practice is application of pre/amplifiers with gain control performed by switch/es
and not with potentiometers. The former method usually ensures better precision and stability of
the adjusted gain.
In the case of MATV/SMATV systems, with dozens or more outlets, the application of broadband
amplifiers at inputs of the systems is not a proper solution. Only channel amplifiers allow for
equalization of all channels and high output levels without a risk of interference.
Alcad ZG channel amplifiers are used in Europe for several years. The professional equipment
provides optimum results both in the case of analog TV channels and DVB-T multiplexes.
Analyzing the performance of an RF amplifier, one of the basic parameters is its internal noise
level, described by the noise figure. This parameter is particularly important in the case of DVB-
T antenna systems, in which the signal levels are considerably lower lower than those of analog
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TV. The majority of amplifiers dedicated for small building systems have noise figure within 3-5
dB. The representatives of a group with noise figure at the lower limit are the amplifiers from
the Terra HS series.
An important factor influencing the noise level is the location of gain control (in the structure of
the amplifier), especially taking into account amplifiers with two or more amplification stages.
Much better results (less noise added to the signal) are provided by amplifiers with interstage gain
control (instead of reducing input signal).
Block diagram of the HS-016 R82030 amplifier. Separate VHF and UHF paths and interstage
gain control ensure very good noise parameters of the device.
The amplifier is dedicated for small/medium antenna systems, with a few to a dozen outlets. It is
recommended for use in DVB-T systems, also in the transitional period (with continued analog
broadcasts)
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❖ output ports of all types of set top boxes and input/ output ports of
compatible products such as LCD/ LED TV, Projectors, PCs
A set-top box (STB), also colloquially known as a cable box, is an information appliance device
that generally contains a TV-tuner input and displays output to a television set and an external
source of signal, turning the source signal into content in a form that can then be displayed on
the television screen or other display device. They are used in cable television, satellite television,
and over-the-air television systems as well as other uses.
According to the Los Angeles Times, the cost to a cable provider in the United States for a set-top
box is between $150 for a basic box to $250 for a more sophisticated box. In 2016, the average pay-
TV subscriber paid $231 per year to lease their set-top box from a cable service provider.
TV signal sources
A consumer Palcom DSL-350 satellite-receiver; the IF demodulation tuner is on the bottom left,
and a Fujitsu MPEG decoder CPU is in the center of the board. The power supply is on the right.
The signal source might be an Ethernet cable, a satellite dish, a coaxial cable (see cable television),
a telephone line (including DSL connections), broadband over power lines (BPL), or even an
ordinary VHF or UHF antenna. Content, in this context, could mean any or all
of video, audio, Internet web pages, interactive video games, or other possibilities. Satellite and
microwave-based services also require specific external receiver hardware, so the use of set-top
boxes of various formats has never completely disappeared. Set-top boxes can also enhance source
signal quality.
UHF converter
Before the All-Channel Receiver Act of 1962 required US television receivers to be able to tune
the entire VHF and UHF range (which in North America was NTSC-M channels 2 through 83 on
54 to 890 MHz), a set-top box known as a UHF converter would be installed at the receiver to shift
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a portion of the UHF-TV spectrum onto low-VHF channels for viewing. As some 1960s-era 12-
channel TV sets remained in use for many years, and Canada and Mexico were slower than the
US to require UHF tuners to be factory-installed in new TVs, a market for these converters
continued to exist for much of the 1970s.
Cable converter
Cable television represented a possible alternative to deployment of UHF converters as broadcasts
could be frequency-shifted to VHF channels at the cable head-end instead of the final viewing
location. However, most cable systems could not accommodate the full 54-890 MHz VHF/UHF
frequency range and the twelve channels of VHF space were quickly exhausted on most systems.
Adding any additional channels therefore needed to be done by inserting the extra signals into
cable systems on nonstandard frequencies, typically either below VHF channel 7 (midband) or
directly above VHF channel 13 (superband).
These frequencies corresponded to non-television services (such as two-way radio) over-the-air
and were therefore not on standard TV receivers. Before cable-ready TV sets became common in
the late 1980s, an electronic tuning device called a cable converter box was needed to receive the
additional analog cable TV channels and transpose or convert the selected channel to analog radio
frequency (RF) for viewing on a regular TV set on a single channel, usually VHF channel 3 or 4.
The box allowed an analog non-cable-ready television set to receive analog encrypted cable
channels and was a prototype topology for later date digital encryption devices. Newer televisions
were then converted to be analog cypher cable-ready, with the standard converter built-in for
selling premium television (aka pay per view). Several years later and slowly marketed, the advent
of digital cable continued and increased the need for various forms of these devices. Block
conversion of the entire affected frequency band onto UHF, while less common, was used by some
models to provide full VCR compatibility and the ability to drive multiple TV sets, albeit with a
somewhat nonstandard channel numbering scheme.
Newer television receivers greatly reduced the need for external set-top boxes, although cable
converter boxes continue to be used to descramble premium cable channels according to carrier-
controlled access restrictions, and to receive digital cable channels, along with using interactive
services like video on demand, pay per view, and home shopping through television.
Closed captioning box
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Set-top boxes were also made to enable closed captioning on older sets in North America, before
this became a mandated inclusion in new TV sets. Some have also been produced to mute
the audio (or replace it with noise) when profanity is detected in the captioning, where the
offensive word is also blocked. Some also include a V-chip that allows only programs of
some television content ratings. A function that limits children's time watching TV or
playing video games may also be built in, though some of these work on main electricity rather
than the video signal.
Digital television adapter
The transition to digital terrestrial television after the turn of the millennium left many
existing television receivers unable to tune and display the new signal directly. In the United
States, where analog shutdown was completed in 2009 for full-service broadcasters, a federal
subsidy was offered for coupon-eligible converter boxes with deliberately limited capability which
would restore signals lost to digital transition.
Professional set-top box
Professional set-top boxes are referred to as IRDs or integrated receiver/decoders in the
professional broadcast audio/video industry. They are designed for more robust field handling
and rack mounting environments. IRDs are capable of outputting uncompressed serial digital
interface signals, unlike consumer STBs which usually don't, mostly because of copyright reasons.
Hybrid box
Lenovo A30 set-top box

Hybrid set-top boxes, such as those used for Smart TV programming, enable viewers to access
multiple TV delivery methods (including terrestrial, cable, internet, and satellite); like IPTV boxes,
they include video on demand, time-shifting TV, Internet applications, video telephony,
surveillance, gaming, shopping, TV-centric electronic program guides, and e-government. By
integrating varying delivery streams, hybrids (sometimes known as "TV-centric") enable pay-TV
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operators more flexible application deployment, which decreases the cost of launching new
services, increases speed to market, and limits disruption for consumers.
As examples, Hybrid Broadcast Broadband TV (HbbTV) set-top boxes allow traditional TV
broadcasts, whether from terrestrial (DTT), satellite, or cable providers, to be brought together
with video delivered over the Internet and personal multimedia content. Advanced Digital
Broadcast (ADB) launched its first hybrid DTT/IPTV set-top box in 2005, which
provided Telefónica with the digital TV platform for its Movistar TV service by the end of that
year. In 2009, ADB provided Europe's first three-way hybrid digital TV platform to Polish digital
satellite operator n, which enables subscribers to view integrated content whether delivered via
satellite, terrestrial, or internet.
IPTV receiver
In IPTV networks, the set-top box is a small computer providing two-way communications on
an IP network and decoding the video streaming media. IP set-top boxes have a built-in home
network interface that can be Ethernet, Wireless (802.11 g,n,ac), or one of the existing wire home
networking technologies such as HomePNA or the ITU-T G.hn standard, which provides a way to
create a high-speed (up to 1Gbit/s) local area network using existing home wiring (power lines,
phone lines, and coaxial cables).
❖ connectivity of STB via additional device/ PC

Ever since we started posting about DTH services, many people have asked us about
mysterious USB port available on these DTH set top boxes. People regularly ask us what is the
use or function of this USB port present in set top boxes?
So today we decided to write an article about the use of USB ports given in almost all DTH set top
boxes. Some DTH service providers provide USB ports on all kind of set top boxes whether its a
normal SD box or HD/HD+ box. But some DTH provide USB ports only on HD/HD+ boxes. Also
some set top boxes contain the USB port in front and some set top boxes contain it at backside.
Basically USB port on a set top box is used for recording purposes. It is provided to store
recordings of live programs telecasting via your set top box. Some DTH services allow customers
to attach their USB drives in this USB port to play videos, songs or view photos stored on their
USB drive.
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For example, Dish TV provides USB port on its True HD+ set top box so that users can record
TV programs on USB drives attached to the port. Dish TV provides this USB port because Dish
TV set top box doesn't contain any internal hard disk to store data.
Other DTH services such as Tata Sky, Airtel and Videocon also provide USB ports on their
HD/HD+ set top boxes but it doesn't allow you to record programs or view content stored on your
USB drive. If you insert your USB drive into this USB port, nothing will happen. So the question
comes why do they provide USB port if its not functional?
The answer is, Tata Sky and other DTH services have blocked the functionality of this USB port
available on their set top boxes via its firmware. Currently this USB port is used by their engineers
to reinstall STB software in case its not working properly. If the companies want, they can make
the USB port functional via a firmware upgrade in future and then you'll be able to use it to store
programs or to attach your USB drive to view its contents.
At the moment the only use of this USB port is to charge your USB devices such as mobile
phones, portable FMs, etc. You can attach your mobile phone to the USB port of your DTH set
top box using a USB cable and it'll start charging your mobile phone.
❖ safety precautions to be followed while using set top box by customer

Set top box is a commonly found device in people’s homes these days. This device helps us watch
our favourite TV channels through satellite transmission and works along with the dish that is
installed on our terraces or balconies. However in some cases when you are shifting or when you
need to change the position of your set top box, you may need to know the exact procedure or steps
of relocation. This is why we have brought you a list of tips and steps to follow for set top box
relocation and they are given as follows:
1. Contact the service provider
If you are someone who is moving to a new location or address then it is possible that you can get
your existing set top box connection transferred or relocated. However this may depend upon your
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service provider and also on the feasibility of relocation to the new location. This is why you must
contact your satellite TV service provider and talk to them about the relocation. You will have to
provide them with the details of your request and new address and they will then check the
possibility or feasibility of it.
For example, in cases where the provider doesn’t offer its services, he may not be able to help with
relocation and you may have to get a new connection altogether.
2. Moving the connection

In case the relocation is possible, the following steps may be followed:
• The service provider will check your previous dues and may ask you to clear them before
relocation.
• In some cases, this may not be required as you will be able to pay your bill at the completion
of the billing cycle itself.
• After this, when you move to the new location, then the service provider or technician will
visit you and install the set top box and the previous dish but with the same user ID.
• Thus make sure when moving out of your previous location, you let him remove the dish
connection as well as the set top box.
3. If the set top box relocation is not feasible
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In some cases, set top box relocation may not be possible, depending upon the new location and
other factors. This is what will happen in this case:
• In such a case, you will either have to pay your dues to disconnect your service or ask for the
refund amount for the days that you won’t be using the connection.
• You will have to contact the service provider to disconnect your service, remove the dish and
take the set top box.
• Moreover you can then contact a new service provider which provides services in the area that
you are moving to so as to install a new connection for you.
Now that you know the steps to take and the procedure to follow for set top box relocation, you
can easily shift base without having to worry about anything.
❖ Implementation Process For Engineering Change Order (ECO)

What is an engineering change order?
An engineering change order (ECO) is a documentation packet that outlines the proposed change,
lists the product or part(s) that would be affected and requests review and approval from the
individuals who would be impacted or charged with implementing the change. ECOs are used to
make modifications to components, assemblies, associated documentation and other types of
product information.
Where does an ECO fit in the engineering change management process?
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The change process starts when someone identifies an issue that may need to be addressed with a
change to the product. It ends when the agreed-upon change is implemented. ECOs are used in
between to summarize the modifications, finalize the details and obtain all necessary approvals.
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data. Paper, spreadsheets and email are often used throughout the product development and
engineering change management processes. These tools can wreak havoc when product
information is released into production. But there’s no need to settle for inefficient, frustrating
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The stages of the engineering change process are:
1. Issue identification & scoping:
Someone identifies a problem or issue and determines that it may require a change. The scope of
the issue and its possible impact are estimated.
2. ECR creation:
An engineering change request (ECR) is created to examine the necessity and feasibility of the
change, to identify parts, components and documentation that might be affected, to estimate costs
and to list the resources required to implement the change.
3. ECR review:
The ECR is circulated for review and discussion among key stakeholders and is modified as
needed.
4. ECO creation:
Once the ECR is approved, an engineering change order (ECO) is generated, which lists the items,
assemblies and documentation being changed and includes any updated drawings, CAD files,
standard operating procedures (SOPs) or manufacturing work instructions (MWIs) required to
make a decision about the change.
5. ECO review:
The ECO is then circulated to a change review board made up of all stakeholders (including
external partners when appropriate) who need to approve the change.
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6. ECN circulation:
Once the ECO has been approved, an engineering change notification/notice (ECN) is sent to
affected individuals to let them know that the ECO has been approved and the change should now
be implemented.
7. Change implementation:
Those responsible for implementation use the information in the ECO and ECN to make the
requested change.
While an engineering change order is used for changes that are executed by engineering, other
types of change orders may be used by other departments. These include the:
• Manufacturing change order (MCO) —
A change order describing modifications to the manufacturing process or equipment.
• Document change order (DCO) —
A change order detailing modifications to documents, specifications or SOPs.
ECO benefits
While you may groan at the prospect of pulling together another set of documentation, an ECO is
a critical part of keeping product development on track and making sure product information is
accurate. A good ECO contains the full description, analysis, cost and impact of a change, and a
good ECO process ensures that all stakeholders have bought in to the change. Having an organized
method of handling product changes reduces potential design, manufacturing and inventory errors,
minimizes development delays and makes it easy to get input from different departments, key
suppliers and contract manufacturers. Following good ECO practices also makes it easy to
document a full history of what changes have been made to a product and when they occurred. In
industries with regulatory requirements, like the medical device industry, having a full history of
every change to a product is mandatory. (Depending on the industry, change orders and even the
change process itself may be audited by a regulatory body.) Keeping a record of product changes
will also help you debug any problems that occur after your product launches. The task of
identifying and fixing the root cause of any problem is easier when you have a complete product
change history.
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versions of the product record, Arena reduced product design confusion and versioning. In
addition, Arena produced the following results:
• Reduced engineering cycles by 90%
• Eliminated need for costly five-person IT management team
• Boosted sales enablement processes
Without a clear ECO process in place, making a change to a product can set off a chain of costly,
time-consuming and avoidable events. Take a part switch that happens late in the development
process. Engineering may tell manufacturing to be aware of the new part, but if that information
is never conveyed to the purchasing department, the old part will be ordered. When the components
arrive, manufacturing will not be able to assemble the product, and its launch will be delayed until
the new part is obtained (most likely with some rush charges incurred along the way).
Engineering change orders make it possible to accurately identify, address and implement product
changes while keeping all key stakeholders in the loop and maintaining a historical record of your
product. Without them, miscommunications occur that lead to delays, incorrect purchase orders
and improper product builds.
❖ switch mode power supply (SMPS)

The SMPS or Switched Mode Power Supply electronic circuit converts power either with the use
of switching devices that turn on/off at high-frequencies or with the help of inductors or capacitors
to supply power when the switching device is in a non- conduction state.
SMPS power supply is widely used in electronic equipment namely computers and several other
devices that need an efficient and stable power supply. Besides overall performance, SMPS has
plenty of advantages that range from its size, cost, weight to efficiency.
Simply put, the SMPS circuit converts and regulates energy with power semiconductors that are
switched on/off with high-frequency.
Complete List of Different Types of SMPS (Switched Mode Power Supply) Available in the
Market
These are some of the well known and most commonly used Switched Mode Power Supply for
end customers.
#1)DC-DC Converter
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The power received from AC mains is rectified and filtered as a high-voltage DC. This high DC
voltage is then switched and fed to the step-down transformer at the primary side. At the secondary
side of the step-down transformer, the rectified and filtered output is collected which is ultimately
sent as the output to the power supply.
#2)Forward Converter
Irrespective of if the transistor is conducting or not the choke carries the current in the forward
converter. The diode inside the transistor carries the current during the OFF period to support the
energy flow through the load. During the On period, the choke stores the energy and also passes a
part of the energy to the output load.
#3)Flyback Converter
In a Flyback converter, during the On period of the switch magnetic field of the inductor stores
energy. When the switch is in the open state the energy is emptied into the output voltage circuit.
The Duty cycle in the Flyback converter is determined by the output voltage.
#4)self-oscillating Flyback Converter
It is based on the Flyback principle. During conduction, a current through the transformer primary
starts to ramp up linearly with the slope Vin/Lp. Due to the voltage induced in the feedback
winding and the secondary winding, the fast recovery rectifier starts to operate in reverse biased
and hold the conducting transistor ON. The core begins to saturate once the current reaches its
peak value. The result is a sharp rise in current is not supported by the fixed base drive supported
by feedback windings. Hence, the switching begins to come out of saturation.
Advantages Of SMPS (Switched Mode Power Supply) Circuit
• Highly-efficient with lower levels of energy being dissipated as heat.
• Useful in voltage step up and step down applications as they provide with high-efficiency
voltage conversions.
SMPS circuits are employed in various applications which include computers, servers and other
types of equipment that have their importance in domestic, security or at commercial places.
• Switched-Mode Power Supply (SMPS) is an electronic circuit which converts the power using
switching devices that are turned on and off at high frequencies, and storage components such as
indicators or capacitors to supply power when the switching device is in its non-conduction state.
It can be abbreviated as SMPS.
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• The switched-mode power supply is also called switch-mode power supply or switching-mode
power supply. Its efficiency is high. That’s why we use it in the variety of electronic types of
equipment which require a stable and efficient power supply.
• We can classify switched-mode power supply by the type of the input and output voltages.
The four major categories are as follows:
• AC to DC
• DC to DC
• DC to AC
• AC to AC
Working of switched-mode power supply
The working of a basic AC to DC switched-mode power supply is as shown in diagram:
• Input rectifier stage: we make use of this stage to convert AC into DC, and the circuit which
has DC input does not require this stage. In this, the rectifier produces unregulated DC. We pass
this unregulated DC through the filter.
• Inverter stage: This stage converts DC into AC by running it through a power oscillator. The
DC supply can come either directly from the input or from the rectifier stage which is explained
above. The output transformer of power oscillator is tiny with few windings at a frequency of 10
or 100 KHz.
• Output transformer: if we want to isolate the output from the input, the inverted AC is used to
draw the primary windings of a high-frequency transformer. It converts the voltage up or down to
the required output level on its secondary windings.
• Output rectifier: if we want the DC output, then the AC output from the transformer is rectified.
• Regulation: in this, the output voltage is monitored by the feedback circuit and then compares it
with the reference voltage.
Classification of the switched-mode power supply
We can classify the switched-mode power supply by circuit topology. It can be of two types:
isolated and non-isolated topologies.
• Isolated topologies: This type of topology includes a transformer. Thus, it can produce an output
of higher or lower voltage than the input by adjusting the turns ratio. For some topologies, we can
place multiple windings on the transformer so that it can produce various output voltages. While
77
some converters make use of a transformer for the storage of energy, while others make use of a
separate inductor.
Various isolated topologies are as follows:
• Flyback converter
• Forward converter
• Push-pull converter
• Half-bridge converter
• Full-bridge converter
• Non-isolated topologies: This type of topology make use of non-isolated converters, which are
the simplest. There are three basic types of non-isolated converters which make use of a single
inductor for storage of energy. In this, we assume the input voltage to be higher than 0. If it is
negative, we will negate the output voltage.
Various types of non-isolated topologies are as follows:
• Buck topology
• Boost topology
• Buck-Boost topology
• Split-pi topology
• SEPIC topology
• Cuk topology
Advantages of the switched-mode power supply
• Efficiency: in this, the little energy is dissipated in the form of heat as switching action is there
in this supply. That’s why its efficiency is high which is from 68% to 90%.
• Compact: the size of the switched-mode power supply is small. So, they can be made more
compact.
• Flexible technology: we can make use of this technology to provide high-efficiency voltage
conversions in voltage step up or “Boost” applications or step down or “Buck” applications.
• Its power density is high.
• It has regulated and reliable outputs instead of variations in input supply voltage.
• Their weight is also less as compared to other linear power supplies.
• It has wide ac input voltage range.
Disadvantages of the switched-mode power supply
78
• Noise: The biggest problem of the switched-mode power supply is the transient spikes that occur
in the switching action. These spikes can cause electromagnetic interference which can affect other
electronic types of equipment that are nearby.
• External components: we can also design a switch mode regulator using a single integrated
circuit, typically there is the requirement of external components. In some of the designs, the series
switch element may be incorporated within the integrated circuit, but where any current is
consumed, the series switch will be an external component. These external components require
space and add to the cost
• Expert design needed: There is the requirement of some experts so that it can perform the
necessary specifications.
• Prices: we have to make the careful considerations of the costs of a switched-mode power supply
before designing the system. If the additional filtration is required, then it adds to the value of the
system.
Applications of the switched-mode power supply
• It is used in machine-tool industries.
• It is used for security systems.
• It is used in personal computers.
• It is used in closed circuit cameras.
• It is used in mobile phone chargers.
• It is used to support supplies with PLC’s.
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DTH Set-top Box

Installer and Service

Chapters. Page No.

1. Install and repair DTH set-top box

❖ Basics of Geo stationery satellite and Other Communication Satellite

❖ Digital signal processing chain including CAS and SMS

❖ Connectivity of STB via additional device/ PC

Direct To Home (DTH) Technology – Working

Some of the common DTH providers in India are

❖ Basics Of Geo Stationery Satellite And Other Communication Satellite

Arthur C Clarke's Geostationary Orbiting Satellites Concept

Geostationary orbit can only be over the Equator

Geostationary satellite coverage

❖ Azimuth, Elevation and Polarisation

Fig 1. Satellite Antenna Elevation

Fig 2. Satellite Finder Meter

Fig 3. Sat Finder Connections

Fig 4. Satellite Antenna Polarisation

Fig 5. Antenna Elevation Measurement

❖ optimum signal strength/ signal quality for good reception

100% Signal Doesn’t Mean Anything Really

Inside view of Satellite Set Top Box

Set Top Box Hardware Blocks

STB Decoder SoC

Set Top Box Decoder blocks

❖ functions of the set top box and remote control

The STB Market

Figure 1 – Typical Scenario for Satellite Set-Top Box Operation

❖ Structure of cable, parameters and the implications on signal

❖ basic functioning of tuners

❖ function of Low Noise Block Down Convertor (LNBC)

Multicom stocks Single, Twin, Quad and Octo LNBFs

❖ basics of digital signals and difference in analogue and digital

Key Differences between Analog and Digital Signals

Digital signal is limited as well as ranges from 0

A digital signal has resistance in response toward

Advantages of Digital Signal Over Analog Signal

• Digital signal has a higher rate transmission

❖ Transmission of television signals and functioning of television sets

❖ specifications of different kind of inputs available on TV sets such as RF,

• HDMI Input: HDMI (High-Definition Multimedia Interface) is a compact audio/video

(Composite Video Input)

❖ digital signal processing chain including CAS and SMS

We undertake projects for(EOL)

ECU Test Bench

Television DVB-T QPSK 3/4 30 74

TERRA AB010 TERRA AB011 TERRA AB012

Name AB010 AB011 AB012

Code R82002 R82003 R82004

Operating band UHF

Noise level [dB] 0.8 <1

Max. output level [dBuV] 98 108 103

Gain switch [dB] - 14/27 7/22

Return loss [dB] > 10

Power [V * mA] 4.5-12 * 30 4.5-12 * 60

Operating temperature [°C] -20...+50

Lenovo A30 set-top box

❖ connectivity of STB via additional device/ PC

❖ safety precautions to be followed while using set top box by customer