UB Bochum

WOB16783:4
 HANDBOOKOF
HYDRAULIC RESISTANCE
4TH REVISED AND AUG~1ENTED EDITION

I. E. IDELCHIK
Moscow

4TH EDITION EDITORS

A. S. GINEVSKIY AND A. V. KOLESNIKOV
Central Aero-Hydrodynarnics Institute (TsAGI)
Moscow

GRETAR. MALYAVSKAYA and NATALIAK. SHVEYEVA

A V. Luikov Heat and Mass Transfer Institute
Minsk
ENGLISH EDITION EDITOR
WILLIAM BEGELL
NewYork

begeH house, inc.

New York' Connecticut· Wallingford (U.K.)
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance 4th Edition Revised and Augmented
Series Editors: A. S. Ginevskiy and A.V. Kolesnikov

Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance

I. E. Ide1chik

This book represents information obtained from authentie and highly regarded sourees.
Reprinted material is quoted with permission, and sourees are indieated. A wide variety
of referenees are listed. Every reasonable effort has been made to give reliable data and
information, but the author and the publisher eannot assurne responsibility for the validity
of an materials for the eonsequenees of their use.
Editor' s Preface
All rights reserved. This book, or any parts thereof, may not be reprodueed in any form Preface to the English Edition iii
without written eonsent from the publisher. Preface to the Second Russian Edition v

Direet inquires to BegeH House, Ine., 50 Cross Highway, Redding, CT 06896. Preface to the Third Edition vii
© 2007 by Begen House, Ine. Preface to the Fourth Edition ix
ISBN: 978-1-56700-251-5 Nomenclature xiii
Printed in the United States of Ameriea 1 2345 67 8 90
Useful Conversions of Units xvii
Reader' s Guide and Introduction xxi
1111111111111111111111111111111111111111
1. General Information and Elements of Aerodynamics and Hydraulies
WOB16783:4
of Pressure Systems

2._~Resist~cetoFlow inStraight Tubes_allcLConduits: Frietion Coefficients

and Roughness
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publieation Data
3. Resistance to Flow at the Entrance into Tubes and Conduits: 177
IdeLehik, I. E. Resistance Coefficients of Iniet Sections
[Spravoehnik po gidravlieheskim soprotivleniiam. English]
Handbook of hydraulic resistanee / I. E. Ide1chik ; editors, A.S. 4. Resistance to Flow through Orifices with Sudden Change in Velocity 223
Ginevskiy '" [et al.] ; translated by Greta R. Malyavska. -- 4th ed. rev. and Flow Area: Resistance Coefficients of Sections with Sudden Expansion,
and augmented Sudden Contraction, Orifices, Diaphragrns, and Apertures
p.em. 5. Resistance to Flow with a Srnooth Change in Velocity: Resistance 277
Inc1udes bibliographie al referenees and index. Coefficients of Diffusers and Converging and Other Transition Seetions
ISBN 978-1-56700-251-5 (alk. paper)
1. Fluid dynamies. 2. Frictional resistanee (Hydrodynamies) I. 6. Resistance to Flow with Changes of the Stream Direction: Resistance 391
Ginevskii, A. S. (Aron Semenovieh) Ir. Title. Coeffieients of Curved Segments - Elbows, Bends, ete.

7. Resistance in the Cases of Merging of Flow Streams and Division into Flow 483
TA357.I3413 2008 Streams: Resistance Coefficients of Wyes, Tees, and Manifolds
620.1 '064--de22
2008000963

20 0 g-/81t)
 8. Resistance to Flow through Barriers Uniformly Distributed Overthe Channel
Cross Section: Resistance Coefficients of Grids, Screens, Porous Layers,
and Packings
9. Resistance to Flow through Pipe Fittings and Labyrinth Seals: Resistance
Coefficients of Throttling Devices, Valves, Plugs, Labyrinth Seals,
and Compensators
10. Resistance to Flow Past Obstructions in a Tube: Resistance Coefficients
of Sections with Protuberances, Trusses, Girders, and Other Shapes
11. Resistance to Flow at the Exit from Tubes and Channels:
Resistance Coefficients of Exit Sections
12. Resistance to Flow through Various Types of Apparatus:
Resistance Coefficients of Apparatus and Other Equipment
Index
575 EDITOR'S PREFACE
617
663
705
779 The first edition of the Handbook oi Hydraulic Resistance has been used by know-
ledgeable engineers in English-speaking countries since 1966, whenan English trans-
lation sponsored by the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission became available.
863
Although the book was not readily available or publicized, its extensive coverage and
usefulness became known through citation, reference, and personal recommendations
to a limited body of engineering practitioners in the Western world.
Because there exists no English-Ianguage counterpart to Professor Ide1chik's
book, the translation and publication of the revised and augmented second edition of
the Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance has been undertaken. The extensive coverage
provided by this book becomes self-evident when one reviews the hundreds of illus-
trations of flow passages contained herein. Most of these are sufficiently basic to
allow application to nearly any shape of flow passage encountered in engineering
practice.
c"The~ditor of this translation has had extensive experienceilJu~iI1gtll~ fir~!~c!i-_
tion and has leamed to appreciate not only the extent of coverage of this book but
also its limitations. Based on this experience, the editor has tried to utilize American
terminology whenever necessary for clarity while trying to preserve the original
manuscript as faithfully as possible. Sometimes this resulted in ovedy detailed de-
scription, and the temptation always existed to rewrite or condense some of the ex-
planatory chapters and sections. However, since this is a translation, the original was
followed as faithfully as possible in order to maintain the author' s style and ap-
proach. In the text the flow passages of interest are variously described as pipelines,
ducts, conduits, or channe1s - all denoting an internal flow passage or pipe. Simi-
lady, there are references to gas, air, steam, and water, when the term fluid would
have been quite adequate in most cases. Since retaining the original translated terms
did not affect the technical correctness of the text, changes were made only in iso-
lated cases.
Section 1.1 provides general directions for using the book, allowing readers to
make their own interpretation. The majority of readers may wish to use this hand-
book primarily as a source book for pressure loss or hydraulic resistance coefficients,
applying these coefficients in their own accustomed way. The editor believes that
PREFACE TO THE ENGLISH EDITION
these users may benefit from the few observations that follow.
The many sketches, diagrams, and graphs are self-explanatory, with flow direc-
tions and areas indicated. The values of pressure loss coefficients may be used over
the limits indicated for the particular graph. The nondimensionality of the parameters
of most graphs allows them to be used in the English system as well as the metric
system. This permits interchangeable use of this book with other sources of pressure
loss coefficients.
It should be noted that, unless otherwise stated, the data apply to Newtonian flu-
ids considered as incompressible. It is also assumed, unless otherwise stated, that the
inlet conditions and exit conditions are ideal; that is, there are no distortions. Very
few experimental data exist on the effect of inlet flow distortion on the pressure 10ss
coefficient for most flow devices. The present edition of the Handbook 0/ Hydraulic Resistance, translated into English
Where friction factors are required to find the overall pressure loss coefficient of
from the second ~ussian edition of the book (Mashinostroenie Publishing House,
a component, the values obtained by the favored sources most familiar to the reader Moscow, 1975), dlffers markedly from its first edition (Gosenergoizdat, Moscow,
may be used in place of the data shown herein. Particular attention should be paid to
1960), translated into English in 1966 (Handbook 0/ Hydraulic Resistance, Israel
the limits of applicability of the data provided as weIl as to the reference flow area Pro gram for Scientific Translations, Jerusalem, 1966) and into French in 1969 OVfe-
used, when there is a flow area change. Much of the data are shown in tabular as menta des pertes de charge, Eyrolles Editeur, Paris, 1969).
weIl as graphical form. The former allows use of computers in the interpolation of
. The se.cond edition of the book has been substantially augmented by incorporat-
intermediate values. mg a conslderable body of totally new data on hydraulic resistances obtained as a
In any compilation of empirical data, the accuracy decreases with increasing
result of r~~earch work in recent years. By and large, as compared with the first, the
complexity of the component, due to analytical and experimental uncertainties. This
second edItIOn contains more than 40% new and revised data.
book is no exception. A good rule to follow is to check more than one source, if
When this edition was prepared, all of the misprints and errors discovered in the
possible. Russian edition were corrected, and some more precise definitions and changes were
Although there will be many flow configurations for which no explicit resistance
made.
va]ues are giveniJ:l this book,jt is entirely:" possible to make upcombinations pf sim-
~ebook is -baSed ort the litilization,systematization, and classification of the
ple shapes to simulate a complex component, provided suitable engineering judgment
results of a large number of studies carried out and published at different times in
is applied. The latter, of course, requires familiarity with the way the data are pre-
different countries. A large portion of the data was obtained by the author as a result
sented and with the effect of exit conditions from one component on the inlet condi-
of investigations carried out by hirn.
tions of the adjacent component. It is quite dear that the methods of investigation, the models used, and, conse-
The editor of this translation would be remiss if he did not acknowledge that
quently, the accuracy of the results obtained and reported by various authors differ
differences in engineering practice, nomendature, engineering standards, and training
markedly in many cases. Such differences in the results could also be due to the fact
may have an effect on the ability to fully utilize all that is presented in this work.
that the majority of local hydraulic resistance coefficients are greatly influenced not
One example is the difficulty in understanding the descriptive terms for some flow
only by the regime of flow but also by the prehistory of the flow, that is, conditions
system components. However, the graphical presentations of much of the material in
of supply to the section considered, nature of the velocity profiles, and degree of
this book will help the reader overcome most such difficulties.
turbulence at the inlet and in some cases by the subsequent history of the flow as
In a work of this nature, it is very probable that eITors of translation or data
weIl; that is, flow removal from the test section.
reporting have occurred. The editor and the publisher would be most grateful to the
. .Man~ complex. elements of pipelines exhibit great instability of flow due to pe-
readers and users of this handbook for information on such items.
nodlc ~Uld separatIOn from the walls, periodic changes of place and magnitude of
separatIOn, and eddy formation resulting in large oscillations of hydraulic resistance.
Erwin Fried
The author was faced with an enormously difficult task: to discover and where
necessary, discard experimental results of questionable validity in that diver~e body
ii üi
 of data compiled on the hydraulic resistance coefficients; to c1ear up cases where
lapre variations in the resistance coefficients of the sections are regular and corre- PREFACE TO THE 2nd RUSSIAN EDITION
C>

spond to the essence of the hydrodynamic pattern and those cases where they are
due to the experimental uncertainty; and to select the most reliable data and find a
successful format for presenting the material so that it is accessible and under-
standable to nonspecialists in aerodynarnics and hydraulics. It had to be taken into
account that, in practice, the configurations of sections of various impedances in pipe-
lines, their geometric parameters, the conditions of entry and exit of the flow, and its
regimes are so diverse that it is not always possible to find the required reported ex-
perimental data necessary to calculate the hydraulic resistances. The author has there-
fore incorporated in this handbook not only results that have been thoroughly verified
in laboratories but also those provided by less rigorous experimental investigations
and those predicted or obtained by approximate calculations based on separate experi-
There does not seem to be any branch of engineering that is not somehow involved
mental studies. In some cases, tentative data are shown and are so noted in the text.
with the necessity for moving liquids or gases through pipes, channels, or various
We think this approach is justified because the facilities used under industrial condi-
types of apparatus. The degrees of complexity of hydraulic or fluid systems can
tions, and consequently the conditions of flow passages in them, can greatly differ
therefore be widely different.
among themselves and differ from laboratory conditions, under which the majority of
In some cases these are systems that for the most part are composed of very
hydraulic resistance coefficients have been obtained. In many complex elements of
long straight pipes, such as oil pipelines, gas lines, water conduits, steam pipes, and
pipelines, these coefficients, as shown above, cannot be constant due to the nature of
air ducts of ventilation plants in industrial use. In other cases they are pipelines that
the phenomena occurring in them; thus, they can vary over wide ranges.
are relatively short but that abound in fittings and branches, various impedances in
The author hopes that the present edition will not only be useful for the further
the form of valves, orifices, and adjusting devices, grids, tees, etc. as found in air
development of engineering science and technology in the English-speaking countries
ducts of complex ventilation systems; gas flues of metallurgical works, chemical and
but will also aid in fostering friendly relations between the peoples of these countries
other factories, boiler fumaces, nuc1ear reactors, and dryers; fuel and oil pipes and
and the Soviet people.
various manifolds of aircraft and rockets.
I. E. Idelchik Most frequently the system through which a liquid or gas moves constitutes a
large single unit (e.g., bOilers, fllmaces;~lieat exchangers, engines, air- and gas-c1ean-
ing equipment, and chemical,· petrochemical, metallurgieal, food, textile, and other
manufacturing equipment).
In all cases, it is essential that the fluid resistance of these systems be properly
ca1culated. Furthermore, the adequate design of sophisticated present-day installations
consisting of complex-shaped parts of hydraulic and fluid lines is impossible without
insight into the principal physicomechanical processes occurring in them and consid-
eration of suggestions for the improvement of flow conditions and reduction in the
local fluid resistance of these elements. The requisite information is given in this
handbook.
A great body of new data on resistance coefficients accumulated since the first
edition of this book has required an extensive revision of the text to account for the
results of recent studies. But since it was not practically possible to incorporate all
the newly published data on such flow resistance, this gap has been supplemented by
an extensive listing of pertinent references.
The handbook consists of 12 chapters. Each chapter, except for the first one,
contains data on adefinite group of fittings or other parts of pipelines and fluid net-
iv
v
work elements having sirnilar eonditions of liquid or gas motion through them. The
first ehapter is a synopsis of general information on hydraulics of pressure systems
and aerodynamies needed for design ea1culation of the elements of air-gas pipelines
and hydraulic networks. All of the subsequent ehapters eontain:
" An explanatory part giving, as a rule, abrief aeeount of the subjeet matter of
the seetion, an outline of the main physieochernical processes occurring in
complex elements of pipelines, additional clarifying re marks and practical
recommendations for the ca1culation and ehoice of separate network ele-
ments, and recommendations on ways to reduce their hydraulic resistance.
" A computational part giving the coefficients or, in some instances, the abso-
lute values of the fluid resistances of straight sections and of a wide range of
complex-shaped parts of pipelines, fittings, various impedanees, and other
elements of the fluid networks. In each chapter the data are represented by
special diagrams that contain a schematic of the element considered, ca1cula-
tion formulas, graphs, and tables of the numerical values of the resistance
coefficients.
It is essential for the present-day design analysis of hydraulic (fluid) networks
with the use of electronic computers that the resistance coefficients be given in the
form of convenient design tormulas. Moreover, it is often practical to represent in a
concise form the functional dependence of the resistance coefficient on the main
governing parameters.
Graphical representation of this dependence is advantageous because, on the one
hand, it furnishes a rather vivid illustration of the nature of this dependence and, on
the other hand, it makes it possible to obtain intermediate values of the resistance
coefficients not listed in tables. The resistanee coefficients given in tabular form are
the principal values, which can be conveniently used in ca1culations.
The measurement units are given in the SI system. In selected cases, for conven-
ience of usage, some quantities are also given in the meter-kilo gram (force)-seeond
system.
I. E. Idelchik
vi
PREFACE TO THE 3rd EDITION
The 3rd edition of this Handbook is augmented with the most important results of
investigations earried out in recent years. Some of the seetions in the book have been
refined and changed.
The Handbook has been eomposed on the basis of processing, systematization,
and classification of the results of a great number of investigations published at dif-
ferent times. The essential part of the book is the outcome of investigations earried
out by the author.
The results of investigations (the aeeuracy with which the models and fittings of
pipelines were ereated, the aceuracy of measurements, ete.) carried out by different
specialists could differ among themselves. This rnight also be possible beeause the
majority of loeal fluid resistances experienee the influence of not only the mode of
flow, but also the flow "prehistory" (the conditions of its supply to the given section,
the veloeity profile, and the degree of flow agitation at the inlet, ete.) and in some
cases --also the subsequent "history"of· a flow (flow discharge from the-section). All
these eonditions could be different in the studies undertaken by various authors.
In many complex elements of pipeline systems, a great instability of flow is ob-
served due to the periodieity of flow separation from the walls, periodie variation of
the place, and magnitude of the zone of flow separation and eddy formation. This
results in different values of hydraulic resistances.
The author was faeed with a diffieult problem: when seleeting most variegated
information on hydraulie resistances, it was necessary to reveal and diseard the ques-
tionable results of experiments to get a deeper understanding in whieh cases the great
difference between the resistanee coeffieients of seetions is regular, eorresponding to
the essenee of the phenomena that oeeur during the motion of streams through them,
and in whieh they are not regular; to seleet the most reliable data and find the most
pertinent form of the presentation of information to make it aeeessible and under-
standable for engineers and teehnieians.
The eonfiguration of seetions and obstacles in pipeline systems, their geometrie
parameters, eonditions of supply and removal, and of the modes of flow are so di-
verse that one often fails to find out from literature the neeessary experimental data
vii
for the calculation of their hydraulic resistances. Therefore, the author incorporated
PREFACE TO THE 4th ENGLISH EDITION
not only the data thoroughly verified by laboratory investigations, but also those
which were obtained theoretically or by approximate calculations based on separate
experimental studies, and in some cases tentative data (specified in the text). This is
perrnissible because the accuracy of fabrication and mounting of the systems of pipes
and equipments in industrial conditions and, consequently, the conditions for the
flow of streams may greatly differ between separate installations and differ from
laboratory conditions at which the majority of fluid resistance coefficients were ob-
tained, and also because of the fact that for many complex elements these coeffi-
cients cannot be constant quantities.
The present edition of this Handbook should assist in increasing the quality and
efficiency of the design and usage of industrial power engineering and other con-
structions and also of the devices and apparatus through which liquids and gases Professor 1. E. Idelchik' s Handbook of Hydra~tlic Resistance has become widely
move. known: its 2nd and 3rd editions were translated into the English, French, Chinese,
and Czech languages. Each subsequent edition was enriched with new information
and data, as weIl as with new entries to the bibliography. The present, 4th, English
Edition of the Handbook, like the previous one, was prepared after the author' s
death, and appears only in its English version.
Weshall list here the most essential additions and changes that we thought
worthwhile to make in some of the chapters of this book. In particular, Chapter 2
dealing with stabilized steady-state flow in channels and tubes was supplemented
with the following experimental results: unsteady flows with a sharp change in the
turbulent velocity as weIl as on a smooth change in time and its resulting effect on
the hydraulic resistance. This chapter has a new section on the stabilized turbulent
flow in plane and annular channels when the flow is induced by longitudinal motion
of oTIe-Uf the walls (Couette flow) or whenthe flow is driven by longitmiinal motion
of one of the walls and longitudinal pressure gradient (Couette-Poiseuille flow). The
computed data and their agreement with experimental results are given. Such flows
are typical of the systems of container piping pneumatic- and hydrotransport in
which the containers move under the action of forced air or water flow (passive con-
tainers) or where a train moves in a tunnel due to the presence of draft (the so-called
active containers).
The results of computational and experimental studies of the characteristics of a
Couette forced turbulent flow in plane and annular channe1s (concentric and accen-
tric) in the presence and absence of surface roughness are given. Examples of com-
puted dependences needed to determine the velocity of motion of cylindrical passive
and self-propelled containers in a tubing for given longitudinal pressure gradients,
Reynolds numbers, length and their relative diameters and eccentricity are also fur-
nished. Together with the equation of the balance of forces acting on a container of
gi yen length, these dependences can be used to deterrnine the parameters of the con-
tainer motion.

viii ix
 Adescription is given of the hydrodynarnic paradox when the velo city of mo-
tion of a sufficiently long enough passive cylindrical container of neutral buoyancy
in a turbulent water flow may exceed the maximum water flow velocity along the
tube axis.
Chapter 3 presents the result of experimental studies of an oblique flow pa~t a
frontal air intake with a system of flow controls providing a separationlessflow m a
channel up to inflow angles of 90°. The problem will be of interest to ground-level
transport facilities and ships with frontal air intakes.
Chapter 4 describes the technique used to reduce the total pressure los ses m
channels with an abrupt expansion by breaking down vortices with the aid of trans-
verse partitions as weIl as by blowing a jet from a slit to create the so-called jet
diffuser. In the latter case, the loss coefficient with allowance for pressure losses on
injection is decreased 1.5 times. This effect is enhanced by using the Coanda eff~ct
in the course of creating a jet diffuser (the phenomenon of adherence of a plane Jet
to a convex plane surface) when a jet is blown from a curvilinear slit; the 10ss coef-
ficient is decreased here by a factor of 2-2.5.
Chapter 5 devoted to diffuser flows has been thoroughly revised in the present
edition. This chapter presents the experimental results of plane and conical diffusers
with different area ratios and divergence angles depending on Reynolds and Mach
numbers at subsonic velocities and at different parameters of the initial flow non uni-
formity and surface roughness. Examples of changes in the geometry of diffusers on
replacing rectilinear by curvilinear walls to increase the efficiency of diffusers are
given. The means of improving the characteristics of diffusers by installing different
kinds of partitions and screens, finning the diffuser surface or installing generators of
longitudinal vortices at the inlet to delay flow separation are also described.
In contFast {O- the-pfe,viouseditions of. the Handhook, . the .methDds. .ot C1!.lculatlI1g
a turbulent flow in diffuser channels and determining the total pressure los ses on the
basis of the boundary-layer approximation are briefly reviewed here. Moreover, the
use of these methods in solving direct and inverse problems in calculating the dif-
fuser channels is considered. In solving the direct problem, the coefficient of total
pressure 10ss in a diffuser of a given geometry at fixed Reynolds and Mach numbers,
initial flow nonuniformity at the inlet to the diffuser, surface roughness up to the
section where flow separation occurs are calculated.
The solution of an inverse problem for the starting length of diffuser flow is
aimed at determining the geometrical parameters of the diffuser at a fixed Reynolds
number from the apriori specified velocity distribution along the channel axis or of
the surface friction coefficient on its walls. Thus, for example, when specifying a
virtually zero surface friction on the walls of a diffuser, the so-caIled preseparation
flow develops in the latter. It appears that such diffusers possess a number of ex-
treme properties. Ca1culations and experiments have shown that in such diffusers, at
a given length, a marked decrease in the total pressure loss is ensured or, at a given
area ratio, a substantial decrease in the diffuser length is possible.
x xi
Additional information is also given on aerodynamic methods of controlling the
flow characteristics in diffusers with the aid of slit suction or tangential injection -
both enabling the increase in the efficiency of a diffuser with allowance for energy
losses in such cases.
Chapter 6 presents new data on the hydraulic resistance of pipe bends in the
presence of cavitation in a stream of water and gas-liquid rnixtures.
Chapter 8 contains results of calculations and describes experiments aimed at
. creating the initial flow nonuniformity in a channel with the aid of screens of vari-
able resistance across the flow and of an array of cylinders. It also suggests a tech-
nique of creating a high-turbulent flow with a section-uniform turbulence intensity
with the aid of a two-row array of cylinders with opposite motion of the rows.
Finally, Chapter 12 contains new data on heat transfer and hydraulic resistance
in an in-line bank of tubes. It is shown that according to experimental results and of
numerical simulation, the finning of their surface as weIl as indentation of staggered
dimpies on a smooth surface lead to a substantial enhancement of heat transfer that
overtakes an increase in the hydraulic resistance. The chapter also contains data on
the enhancement of heat transfer in round and annular tubes with the aid of different
kinds of swirlers with continuous twisting along the flow as wen as on the hydraulic
losses and heat transfer of rotating channels (rotation of a tube around its own axis
or around the axis which is perpendicular to that of the tube). These results are of
interest in their application to heat transfer problems.
By having prepared this edition for publication we are paying tribute to the
memory of Professor 1. E. Idelchik - the author of this Handbook with whom we
had the pleasure of first working in the same laboratory and then remaining all the
. time in elose contact when he took up work at another institute. One of us reviewed
the 2nd Ru'Ssian edition of this book (1975) aswell as his monographs "Aerohydro-
dynamies of Engineering Apparatus" and "Some of the Interesting Effects and Para-
doxes in Aerohydrodynamics and Hydraulies" (1982).
A. S. Ginevskiy and A. V. Kolesnikov
Central Aero-Hydrodynamics
Institute (TsAGI), Moscow
 NOMENCLATURE

Abridged
Symbol Name of quantity notation in
SI units
speed of sound mls
aer critical speed of sound mls
a* speed of sound in frozen flow mls
a,b sides of a rectangle m
Cp and Cv specific heats of gases at constant pressure and constant volume, respectively J/kg °c
Cx coefficient of drag
D, d cross-section diameters m

Dh = 4F/II; dh = 4f/II hydraulic or equivalent diameter (4 x hydraulic radius)

F,f cross-sectional areas

f=For/Fgr area ratio of a grid, orifiee, perforated plate, ete.

G mass flow rate of liquid(g~··
g gravitational acceleration
h height m
k= cp/cv specific heat ratio
length offlow segment, depth of channel, or thickness of orifice m
Ma=w!m Mach number

f
M = l/F (w/wo)2dF coefficient of momentum (Boussinesq coefficient)
F

mo wetting intensity
m exponent

f
N= l/F (w/wo)3dF coefficient ofkinematic energy (Coriolis coefficient)
F

power w
n polytropic exponent
area ratio (degree of enlargement or reduction of cross section); polytropic
exponent; number of elements

xiii
 Abridged
notation in Abridged
Symbol Name of quantity
SI units Symbol Name of quantity notation in
SI units
nel number of elements
coefficient oflocal fluid resistance
P. static pressure Pa
coefficient of friction resistance of the segment of length 1
total pressure of flow stagnation pressure Pa
Pf Pa s
11 dynarnic viscosity
pex excess press ure Pa
Tln c1eaning coefficient
t,.p overall pressure difference Pa
friction coefficient [friction resistanee of the segment of relative unit length
Pdr drag force (l/Dh= 1)]
Q volumetric flow rate
A.c=w/acr relative (reduced) strearn velocity
R gas constant
discharge eoefficient
. radIUS
hydrauhc . ("4
1 D)
h m
Rh !lcon mass concentration of suspended partic1es in flow

Ra, r radii of cross sections of a circular pipe or curved pipe length m v kinematie viseosity m2/s

Re =wD,,/v Reynolds number p density of liquid (gas) kgJm3

spacing (distance between rods in a bundle of pipes, between grid holes, etc.) m
S, s p' density of frozen gas flow kgJm3
Sfr length of a free jet kgJm 3
per density of gas at critical velocity
So surface area
TI cross-sectional (wetted) perimeter m
Sm frontal area of a body in a flow
velocity coefficient
T(t) thermodynarnic temperature K(C)
r' thermodynarnic flow stagnation temperature K
3 SUBSCRIPTS
specific volume m /kg; mls
vsp
mls
side discharge (inflow) velocity Subscripts listed for the quantities F, f, D, d, rr, a, b, w, p, Q, and p refer to the following cross
w stream velocity mls sections or pipe segments:
w' longitudinally fluctuating stream velocity mls
o - governing cross section orrninimumarea
dust content gJm3
larger cross section in the ease of expansion or contraction of the flow segment
dust capacity kgJm2
Zd
2 larger cross seetion after equalization of the stream velocity
central angle of divergence or convergence; angle of a wye or tee branching; deg k intermediate cross section of curved channe! (elbow, branch) or the working chamber of the
angle of stream incidence
apparatus
angle of turning (of a branch, elbow); angle of valve opening
con contracted jet section at the discharge from an orifice (nozzle)
thickness of a wall, boundary layer, or walllayer m
or orifice or a single hole in the perforated plate or screen
height of joint m
gr front of the perforated plate, screen, orifiee
equivalent uniform roughness of walls m br, st, ch side branch, straight passage, and comrnon channel of a wye or tee, respectively
mean height of wall roughness protuberances (absolute roughness) out oudet

Öo = ÖO/Dh; Ö =MDh relative roughness ofwalls velocity at infinity

10 = Feon/ Fa coefficient of jet contraction Subscripts 0, 1, 2, k, and d at l refer, respectively, to the inlet, straight outlet, intermediate (for a
10' porosity (void fraction) curved channel), and diffuser pipe lenghths.

Et = ~/wo degree of turbulence

Subscripts at Ap and 1;; refer to the following forms of the fluid resistances:

~ == öp/(p,h2) eoefficient of fluid resistanee (pressure loss coefficient) loc loeal

fr frietion

xiv xv
ov overall
USEFUL CONVERSIONS OF UNITS
d total resistance of a diffuser in the network

out total resistance of a diffuser or a branch at the outlet from the network

int internal resistance of a diffuser

exp resistance to flow expansion in a diffuser

sh shock resistance at sudden enlargernent of the cross section

br and st resistance of a branch and straight passage of a wye or tee (for the resistance coefficients reduced
to the velocity in respective branch pipes)

r.br., r.st. resistance coefficients of the side branch and of the straight passage of a wye or tee reduced to the
velocity in a common channel of a wye or tee

Givenin-;.. Multiplied by-;.. Gives Approximate or useful

Physical quantity
Gives -+-- Divided by -+-- Given in relationship

Length ft 0.3048 rn 3 1 ft""lrn

4
in 25.4 (exact) mm 1 in"" 25 mm
mil 0.0254 mm
yard 0.9144 rn
mile (mi) 1609.3 rn 1 mi "" 1.6 km
km 0.621388 mi
2
Area ftl 0.092903 m 100 ft2 "" 9 m 2
in2 645.16 mm2 2
1 in "" 650 mm
2

acre 4047.0 rn2

Volurne ft3 0.028317 rn3 35 ft3 "" 1 rn3
V.S. gal 0.003785 rn3 260 gal "" 1 rn
3

D.S. gal 3.785 liter(L) 1 gal"" 31,L

4
L(Hter) 0.2642 U.S. gal 1 L"" 0.26 gal
Brit. gal 0.004546 rn3
V.S.gal 0.13368 ft3
barrel (V.S. pet.) 0.15898 3
rn
barrel (V.S. pet.) 42 U.S. gal
a
Velocity ftJs 0.3048 mJs 10 ftls "" 3 mJs
m1s 3.2808 ftls
ftlmin 0.00508 m1s 100 ftlmin "" 0.5 m1s
mi/h 1.6093 kmJh 30 mi/h "" 48 kmJh
kmJh 0.6214 mi/h 50 kmJh "" 31 miJh
knots 1.852 kmJh
Mass Ibm 0.45359 kg 1 Ibm "".45 kg
kg 2.2046 Ibm 1 kg"" 2.2 Ibm
rnetricton 2204.6 Ibm metric ton =103 kg
ton (2000 Ibm) 907.18 kg

Reprinted from International System of Vnits (SI), 1. Taborek, in Heat Exchanger Design Handbook, pp. xxvü-
xxix, Hemisphere, Washington, D.C., 1984.

xvi xvii
 Temperature relations: Oe =1 [OF _ 32] oe - (oF + 40) 1_ 40 ~T(°C) =~ ~T(°F) mK =oe + 273.15 READER'S GUIDE AND INTRODUCTION
9 - 9 j

Prepared by WiHiam Begell, Fellow, A.S.M.E.

Dp =~ (0C) + 32 Dp = (oe + 40) ~ - 40 ~T(°F) =%&(0C) R =°F + 459.67

2
Miscellaneous: Acceleration of gravity (standard): g = 9.80665 mls

Gas constant: R = 8314.3 m N/K kmol

2 4
Stefan-Boltzmann constant: 5.6697 x 10-8 W1m K
2 4
1.714 x 10-9 Btulft h R

aEven though the abbreviations sand h were introduced only with the SI, they are used here
thraughout far cansistency.
bThe calorie and Btu are based on the International Standard Table values. The thermochemie al calo-
rie equals 4.184 J (exact) and is used in some oider texts.
Resistance to flow is an important engineering subject; it is applicable to every branch
of engineering where flows of liquids and gases take place. A few areas where the
knowledge of the resistance to flow is anormal requirement in the design and opera-
tion of fluid loops, circuits, and systems are air conditioning and ventilation, aeronau-
tical engineering, biochemical and pharmaceutical engineering, chemical engineering,
civil engineering, mechanical engineering, nuc1ear engineering, petroleum engineer-
ing, power engineering, as weIl as all hydraulic, agricultural, and space engineering
plants, systems, and equipment. The importance of exact and true values of flow re-
sistance is, primarily, a question of determining the pumping - or power - require-
ments for any apparatus or, eventually, for the entire plant involved in the motion of
fluid. Needless to say, energy requirements are equivalent to the size of the funding
capital, or operational, costs and are therefore of prime importance to the practice of
engineering.
Professor Idelchik' s Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance has gained worldwide
recögnition and reputation among engineers through usage over the last 35 years
when the fIrst edition was published in Moscow. The 3rd, posthumous, edition was
prepared and submitted to the publisher several months before the death of the
author in 1990. It was published in the English language by Begell House in 1996.
In the present, 4th, edition all the eITors and misprints that were found in the
Russian and English vers ions of the previous editions have been cOITected, and new
sections have been written for almost all the chapters of the Handbook (see Preface
to the 4th English Edition).
The use of this Handbook can easily be likened to the use of an illustrated cata-
log. Various pieces of equipment and flow components, inc1uding fittings and even
entire systems, have been assembled in separate chapters and catalogued, using illus-
trations, graphs, and tabular data. It is essential to note that the users, both old and
new, should acquaint themselves with Chapter 1 before succumbing to the appeal of
simply looking up specifIc values of resistance coeffIcients, drag values, friction fac-
tors, or other data direct1y in the appropriate chapters. The reading and understanding
of Chapter 1 will - in the fInal tally - save a tremendous amount of time in the
subsequent use of this Handbook.
x..'(
 CHAPTER 1 dures in Chapter 1, peruse the first part of the chapter that is being consulted, before
GENERAL INFORMATION AND ELEMENTS
getting into the second part with its detailed catalog of tabIes, graphs, equations, and
OF AERODYNAMICS AND HYDRAULICS illustrations.
OF PRESSURE SYSTEMS
The first part of each chapter - from Chapter 2 through Chapter 12 - will
At the outset, it should be noted that most of the values listed in the Handbook are provide the readers with the engineering and mathematical apparatus and background
dimensionless; however, the text is written using SI Units. of the given problem, configuration, flow regime, fluid properties and fluid velocity,
In the simplest of terms, flowing systems are set in motion by a difference in materials of construction, roughness, and other specifics within the chapter title topic.
pressure, and the resistance to flow is offered by friction and other mechanical flow- The Handbook has well over 1000 illustrations and almost tripie the number of
hindering aspects of the materials of construction of the conduits and equipment. The tables. The illustrations in the second part of each chapter, or the Diagram Sections,
dependencies of the hydraulic resistance on the dimensions, configuration, shape, sur- are intended as the catalog of various pieces of equipment, configurations, shapes,
face roughness, geometry, and other features and properties of the material of con- spacings, forms, and sequences. After a few perusals, the readers will easily become
struction, the relationships between the hydraulic resistance and properties of the acquainted with the Handbook and will find an efficient way to go through the pre-
flowing medium such as density and viscosity (in turn, these depend on temperature), sented material.
and the correlation between the fluid-flow regimes, turbulent, laminar, velocity, and The following Guide to Chapters 2 through 12 offers a non-alphabetized and not
boundary layer considerations are all lucidly explained in this chapter. necessarily sequential listing of the topics covered. This guide should be consulted
The salient features and descriptions in Chapter 1 are: when seeking a specific item, or configuration, for which resistance information is
needed.
• Pressure Drop
• Velocity Distribution
• Resistance Coefficient CHAPTER 2
" Tables of Hydraulic Resistance in Systems RESISTANCE TO FLOW IN STRAIGHT TUBES
• Tables of Units of Physical Quantities AND CONDUITS: FRICTION COEFFICIENTS
• Tables of Properties of AND ROUGHNESS
Liquids and Gases
Density and Viscosity forPure and Multicomponent Fluids
• Fluid Flow Regimes, Boundary Layers " Exponents in Equations
.. Equilibriaof -Liquids ~ and- Gases • Roughness of Materials
• Equations of Fluid Motion Metals
" Buoyancy (Net Driving Head) Cement
" Hydraulic Resistance of Networks Glass and Plastics
• Distribution of Static Pressure GI Growth of Asperities with Time (Fouling)
• Flows through Orifices Discharge Coefficients • Flow Regimes
• Pressurizers (Superchargers) • Unsteady Motion
• Methods of Ca1culating Fluid Resistance of Systems • Acceleration, Deceleration
• Forced Ventilation • Tube Bundles
" Scrubbing of Gases Arrays
• Wind Tunnel " Materials
• Joints
Of worthy note a..'1d special reading recoll1..mendation are the sections in Chapter Welded
1 that offer step-by-step examples of calculation of flow resistances. Recessed
• Channel Shapes
Each of the subsequent chapters in this Handbook is divided into two parts: EX-
Circular
PLANATIONS AND PRACTICAL RECOMMENDATIONS and DIAGRAMS OF Triangular
FRICTION OR RESISTANCE COEFFICIENTS. Again, it is strongly suggested that Square
the reader, who should by now be generally weIl versed in the concepts and proce- Starlike
Annular (Concentric and Eccentric)
xxii
• Flexible Tubes CHAPTER 4
Rubber Hoses RESISTANCE TO FLO"V THROUGH ORIFICES "VITH SUDDEN
Plywood Channels
CHANGES IN VELO CITY AND FLOW AREA:
Plastic Hoses
EIl Channels with a Moving Wall RESISTANCE COEFFICIENTS OF SECTIONS WITH SUDDEN
• Couette-Poiseuille Flow EXPANSION, SUDDEN CONTRACTION, ORIFICES, DIAPHRAGMS,
EIl Container Pipeline Transport AND APERTURES

• Perforated Plates
CHAPTER 3 • Diffusers
RESISTANCE TO FLOW AT THE ENTRANCE IN TUBES Straight
AND CONDUITS: RES IST AN CE COEFFICIENTS Angular
OF INLET SECTIONS • Ejectors
• Mixing Chambers
In using this chapter, the reader should be aware of the fact that the entry into a • Channels
vessel or channel is usually an exit from another vessel or channel. Thus, other chap- Stepwise
ters should be consulted to determine whether other resistance coefficients apply. For Thick-edged
example, the entry into avessei may be an elbow with an orifice or a screen. Data Sharp-edged
for these may also be found in other appropriate chapters. • Effect of Location
• Shapes
• Configurations
EIl Entrance Losses • Regimes
EIl Sharp Edges Turbulent
• Wall Effects Laminar
• Conical Sections Subsonic
• Angular Entries • Velo city Distribution
• Mountings • Resistance Reduction
EIl Sudden Contractions • Transverse Finning
• Side Orifices EIl Jet Diffusers
.. Annular Iölets • -Elbows
• Circular Orifices With Guide Vanes
• Square Orifices • Tubes, Circular
CI Inlets, Flush Mounted • Channels, Plane
Bellmouth • Jets
Baffled • Flaps, Hinged
Unbaffled GI Exhausts
Bevelled Edge Gratings, Elliptical
• Prevention of Separation
• Perforated Plates
• Shafts, Intake CHAPTER 5
With Louvers RESISTANCE TO FLO"V WITH A SMOOTH CHANGE
Without Louvers
IN VELO CITY: RESISTANCE COEFFICIENTS OF DIFFUSERS
• Fans
AND CONVERGlL'l'G AND OTHER TRANSITION SECTIONS
• Turbines
Diffusers
Resistance Reduction
Generators of V ortices
Shape of Walls
xxiv
xxv
 Preseparation Diffusers Round and Square
Transverse Finning With and Without Vanes
Suetion, Blowing Steps
•., Inlet Nozzles, Smooth • Bends
Elbows Cireular
., Throttling Deviees Z-Shaped
• Fittings Square
With Grids Downstream of Pumps
Without Grids Multi-element
Short 90°
Long S-Shaped
Curved Axis Same and Different Planes
., Guide Vanes Cylindrieal
Annular .. Guide Vanes
• Baffles .. Turns, Annular
I» Inserts .. Pump Outlets
I» Sereens .. Pulverized Materials
I» Perforated Plates • Dust
• Pumps • Bypasses, at Different Angles
I» Fans • Bends, Wire
., Turbines Tape Covered
• Nozzles " Vanes, Profiled
Converging Different Spaeings
• Transition Seetions Different Corners
• Branehing Pipes

CHAPTER 6 CHAPTER 7
RESISTANCE TO FLOW WITH CHANGES OF THE STREAM RESISTANCE IN THE CASES OF MERGING OF FLOW
DIRECTION~ RESISTANCE _COEFFJCIENTSoOlfCURVED STREAl\AS AND DIVISION INTO FLOW STREAMS:
SEGMENTS - ELBOWS, BENDS, ETC. RESISTANCE COEFFICIENTS OF WYES, TEES,
AND MANIFOLDS
.. Bypasses
.. Tubes, Helieal • Wyes
I» Flow Regimes Converging
.. Cavitation Diverging
I» Gas-Liquid Mixtures Different Veloeities
• Roughness Different Angles
I» Veloeity Distribution Different Materials
• Welded Bends 4-Way
• Joints, Threaded • Fittings
.. Gooseneeks Welded
4& Elbows Threaded
180° Seams
U-Shaped Butt-Joint
Sharp Corners Square
• Elbows and Turns Non-symmetrie
In Spaee With Partitions
xxvi xxvii
 Without Partitions CHAPTER 9
.. Straight Passages
RESISTANCE TO FLOW THROUGH PIPE
.. Partitions
.. Flow Regimes FITTINGS AND LABYRINTH SEALS:
.. Headers RESISTANCE COEFFICIENTS OF THROTTLING
Inlet DEVICES, VALVES,PLUGS, LABYRINTH
Outlet SEALS, AND COMPENSATORS
Different Angles
Z-Shaped
.. Devices
TI-Shaped
.. Crosses Flow Stopping
Throttling
Diverging
Contral
.. Valves
Globe
CHAPTER 8 Gate
RESISTANCE TO FLOW THROUGH BARRIERS UNIFORMLY Disk
DISTRIBUTED OVER THE CHANNEL CROSS SECTION: Butterfly
RESISTANCE COEFFICIENS OF GRIDS, SCREENS, Tray, with and without Bottom Guides
POROUS LAYERS, AND PACKINGS Conical
Spherical
Effects of Location
.. Grids Effects of Sequenee
Tray Throttling
Fouling Disk Throttling
Grating Check
• Perforated Plates Suction
Patterns Ball
Edges .. Faueets
Materials: Ceramics, Plastics .. Taps
I; Sereens .. -"""P1ugs
Circular Wire Conical
Silk Threads Spherical
Two-Plane Segmented
Other Materials Rollerlike
With Nonuniform Resistance .. Plungers
• Filters .. Labyrinth Seals
.. Porous Media Angle-Globe
Powders Dividing Walls
.. Packed Beds Gate, Plane-Parallel
Configurations .. Positions of Fittings
Raschig Rings .. Transitions, Asymmetrie
Packings .. Seals
Jets, in Gate
Lumped, Irregular Revolving
CD Flow Regimes Spherical
.. Pressure Levels Disks
Seats
.. Valves in Pipes
 Cylindrieal Annular
Reetangular Veloeity Distribution
• Stuffing Boxes '"
• Impingement Upon a Baffle
Lyre-Shaped .. Exit Edges
• Coils .. Fans, Diffusers at Outlets
.. Orifiees
Cireular
CHAPTER 10 Reetangular
RESISTANCE TO FLOW PAST OBSTRUCTIONS IN A TUBE: • Gratings
RESISTANCE COEFFICIENTS OF SECTIONS .. Louvers
WITH PROTURBERANCES, TRUSSES, GIRDERS,
.. Compressors
Operating
AND OTHER SHAPES Idling
.. Perforated Plates
111 Beams, Square .. Diffusers, Multiple
111 Spheres Exhaust Fans
'"
..•
111 Cylinders Gratings
Multiple Screens
Wires
'"
111 Ellipses
111 Triangles CHAPTER 12
111 Cones
. Roughness
RESISTANCE TO FLOW THROUGH VARIOUS TYPES
OF APPARATUS: * RESISTANCE COEFFICIENTS
111 Flow Regimes
.. Fins OF APPARATUS AND OTHER EQUIPMENT
111 Laths
• Spaeers, Braeers Gas and Air Scrubbers
'" Fairings
.. Dust Separators and Traps
• Wedges
.. Profiles,Shaped '"
111
Cyc10nes
Wet Serubbers
Drop-Shaped
111 Venturi Serubbers
• Angles
. Oetahedrons •
111
Perforated Plates
Scrubbers with W ood Packing
111 Tetrahedrons
111 Trusses 111 Scrubbers, Centrifugal
Beat Exchangers
'" Honeyeomb Radiators
CHAPTER 11 .. Finned Tube
RESISTANCE TO FLOW AT THE EXIT FRON! TUßES • Tubular Plate
AND CHANNELS: RESISTANCE COEFFICIENTS • Cross-Flow
OF EXIT SECTIONS '" Tube Bundles
Staggered
Variable Piteh
• Diseharge into a Larger Vessel
'" Free Diseharge into a Larger Vessel
'" Diffusers *Most of the equipment described in this chapter is of Soviet design and manufacture. However, the
Straight illustrations are clear and explicit enough so that the reader can identify configurations that are sirnilar
Conieal to equipment used in the West.

xxx xxxi
 In-line CHAPTER
Oval
Transverse ONE
• Rotating Channels
.. Plate
.. Two-pass GENERAL INFORMATION AND ELEMENTS
.. Shell-and-Tube OF AERODYNAMICS AND HYDRAULICS
.. Finned (Ribbed) Tube
• Notched Tube OF PRESSURE SYSTEMS
• Air Heaters
• Electric Heaters
.. Heating Fumace
.. Wire Fins
Filters
• Roll Filters
.. Bag
.. Frame Filters
• Laboratory Filters
• Ventilation Filters
.. Oil Filters
• Electrostatic Filters

Combined Effects of Bends-Wyes, Cross Seetion and Their Orientation 1.1 GENERAL DIRECTIONS
1. A portion of the total energy that is expended to overcome the resistance forces arising
William BegeH
from the flow of real (viscous) fluids through pipes and channels is irretrievably lost for a
given system or network. This loss of energy is due to irreversible conversion of mechanical
energy (the work of resistance forces) into heat. Therefore, the term fluid resistance, or hy-
draulie~toss, represents the irreversible -loss of total energy over a given -system length. The
ratio of the total stream energy (power) loss to the kinetic energy (power) or of the total
pressure loss, averaged over the mass flow rate, to the velo city (dynamic) pressure over an
arbitrary flow seetion is called the coefficient of hydraulic resistance. *
2. The total energy (pressure) loss is a substantially positive quantity. However, the differ-
ence in total energies (total pressures) over a given segment and, correspondingly, the coeffi-
cient of hydraulic resistance governed by this difference may sometimes take on negative
values as weIl. This occurs when external forces with respect to the given flow appear in the
channel. For example, when the fluid flow is aspirated through a side channel flush-mounted
into the pipe wall at an angle exceeding 90° (see Chapter 3) and external flow (with respect
to the side channel) takes place, the latter becomes the source of additional pressure. As a
result, the flow in the side channel acquires additional energy, which, at some values of the
ratio wJwo, can exceed the amount of energy expended for the mechanical work of the chan-
nel resistance forces.

*In what follows, the words "hydraulic" and "full" will often be ornitted for briefness; more simple
expressions "resistance of the section", "coefficient of section resistance", "pressure losses," or simply
"loss" will mean hydraulic resistance and full pressure losses, respectively.

xxxii 1
 2 Handbook 0/ Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition
Another example is provided by a eonverging wye (see Chapter 7), where at some values
of the ratio QbrlQch a portion of the flow energy in the ehannel is expended for aspiration
of the fluid through a braneh (ejector effeet); that is, the flow in the braneh aequires addi-
tional energy at the expense of the energy of the extern al (with respeet to it) flow in the
wye passage.
The negative values of the resistanee in the above examples indieate that there. is an in-
crease, rather than a deerease, of the energy.
3. The basic referenee data given in this book are the frietion eoefficients Sfr of straight
pipe (ehannel) segments of length I, the frietion eoeffieients per unit length (liD = 1) of the
segment, * and the loeal fluid resistanees for pipe fittings, flow impedanees, valves, and other
elements of pipelines, as weIl as of some industrial equipment and deviees.
4. When using this handbook and the weIl-known formula [Equation (1.65)] for evaluation
of the resistanee
2 straight (inlet) section, and also of some previous shaped portions; for some elbows. and
pw P [Q)2 (1.1)
!!:,pov=sovT=sov"2 F '
it is assumed that all quantities in this equation are given, including all geometrie parameters
of the system eomponent being caleulated, exeept for the overall eoeffieient of fluid resistanee
Sov = Sloc + Sfr (see Seetion 1.6). The unknown values are only those of Sov and, eorrespond-
ingly, of Sloc and Sfr.
5. In plots that refer to short pipes and ehannels whose Sfr is negligible ~~mpared with
Sloc, the loeal resistanee eoeffieient can be treated as the overall eoeffieient S.
In graphs that refer to relatively long pipes and ehannels (diffusers, eonverging seetions,
smooth outlet pipes, and other eomponents), the values of both the loeal resistanee coeffi-
cients Sloc and the friction coefficients Sfr are generally given.
The rcsistance coefficients, plotted on graphs containing tentative data, are to be consid-
ered as overall eoeffieients S. In adding the pressure drops for the network eonsidered, the
frietional los ses in the fittings are not to be taken into aeeount again.
6. The values of Sloc given in this handbook include not only the loeal pressure drops
(loeal resistanee ***) over a short segment adjaeent to a pipe element of variable area eonfigu-
ration, but also the pressure drop downstream of this element. This is done to equalize the
veloeities over the straight exit seetion of the pipe. Inasmueh as the loeal losses are arbitrarily
determined as the differenee between the total losses and frietional losses in the straight exit
seetion, the latter should also be taken into aeeount.
*The frietion eoeffieient Sfr is sometimes ealled the eoefficient of linear frietional resistanee.
Heneeforth the term "frietion eoefficient" will be used in a more general sense and will be understood
to represent both Sfr and sometimes A..
**Heneeforth, for simplicity the subseript "ov" to the resistanee eoeffieient 1;, and to the total resis-
tanee !1p will be omitted.
***Loeal resistanee here and further on refers to loeal losses of total pressure and not only to the
fitting in whieh these losses oeeur.
Aerodynamics and Hydraulics 0/ Pressure Systems 3
7. In the ease of a stream diseharged from a fitting or some other element into a large
plenum or into the atmosphere, the given coeffieients of local resistanee also take into ae-
count the velocity (dynarnie) pressure losses pW;x/2 at the exit. *
8. The values of the loeal resistanee coefficients given in this handbook assurne, exeept for
special cases, uniform velocity distribution in the inlet section of the eomponent. Such eondi-
tions are usually observed following a smooth inlet nozzle and for steady-state flows.
In the ease of unsteady-state motion of liquid, the loeal resistanee leads to the loss of flow
stability, eausing in it the formation of the unsteady-state eddies for the ereation of whieh a
eertain energy is spent. 24,26
9. The mutual effect of loeal hydraulic resistanees in some eases leads to an increase in the
values of Sloc of the eonsidered shaped portions of pipelines, and in other eases to their de-
erease. In separate sections, for certain shaped portions the values of the eoefficients of loeal
resistances are given with the mutual effeet taken into aeeount. In particular, the values of Sd
and Sfor diffusers (Chapters 5 and 11) are given as funetions of the length of the preeeding
branehes (Chapter 6) the values of Sloc are given for the interaeting separate elements (sepa-
rate bends), ete. The mutual effeet of loeal resistanees is considered (in the scope of the data
available) in Chapter 12.
10. In the general ease, the pressure drop ean be expressed as the sum of two terms, whieh
are proportional to the first and seeond powers of the velocity, respeetively?8
(1.2)
Correspondingly, the resistanee eoefficient is
_!!:,p 2kl 2k2 A A
S=--=-+-=-+B=-+k3Squ, (1.3)
pw2/2 pw p Re Re
where A is a eonstant; Squ is taken as S for the region of the square law of resistanee (simi-
larity region Re ~ 10 ). At very low Reynolds number (Re ::; 25), the seeond term of Equa-
4
tion (1.2) ean be negleeted, while at very large Re one ean negleet the first term of this
expression and assurne that k3 = 1, Equation (1.3). Within 25 ::; Re ::; 105, the proportionality
faetor k3 ean be equal to, higher than, or less than unity.
11. The dependenee of the Ioeal resistanee eoefficients on Reynolds number is given only
in those cases when its effeet is known or ean be evaluated approximately.
12. In praetiee, the effeet of Re on the Ioeal resistanee is mainly evident at its small values
(Re< 10\ Therefore, when Re ~ 105_2 x 105, the loeal resistanee eoeffieients may be as-
*The special literature often uses the expression "pressure losses for ereation of velocity". Aetually,
the nonreeoverable pressure is not spent at all to ereate "velocity" in the system; there oeeurs a transi-
tion of statie pressure into adynamie one (the transformation of the pressure energy into kinetie en-
ergy). Dynamie pressure is, for the given system, lost only in the case if the flow leaves the given
system (enters into the surrounding medium). In this ease, the dynamie pressure is determined by flow
velocity in the exit seetion of the system. For example, with the aid of a diffuser this velocity ean be
brought to a minimum and, eonsequently, the loss of dynamie pressure will be minimum.
 4 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition
Aerodynamics and Hydraulies of Pressure Systems 5

sumed independent of the value of Re. At smaller values of Re, its effect should be taken
Table 1.1 Units of the most important physical quantities and their relation of SI units *
into account.
13. When there is no indication of the Reynolds number at which the values of S were
Name and dimension
obtained, it may be assumed that the given resistance coefficient for turbulent flow (Re ;::: 2 of quantity Name and designation ofunit Relationship to SI units
x 103) is practically independent of Re even when it is small. In the case of a laminar flow Length (L) meter (m)
(Re < 2 x 10\ these data can be used only for a very rough estimate of the resistance and centimeter (cm) 1 cm= 10-2 m
only when Re ;::: 102 . millimeter (mm) 1 mrn= 10-3 m
14. Most values of the resistance coefficients given in this handbook, except when speci-
micrometer Cl.!) 1 llm = 10-6 m
fied otherwise, were obtained at Mach numbers Ma ::; 0.3. However, nearly all of the values nanometer (nm) 1 nm= 10-9 m
of S, Sloe' and Sfr mayaiso be used at higher subsonic veIocities up to about Ma = 0.8. In angström (A) 1 A = 10-10 m = 0.1 nm
some cases the dependence of S on Ma or Ac is given. cubic meter (m 3)
15. Most of the values of the Iocal resistance coefficients were obtained for commercial cubic centimeter (cm3 ) 1 cm3 = 10-6 m 3
smooth pipe or channel walls. Because the effect of roughness on the Iocal resistance has not liter 1 liter = 10-3 m 3
been studied extensively, the walls of fittings and of other flow components considered in the meter per second (mJs)
handbook should be assumed smooth unless otherwise specified. The effect of roughness,
4
kilometer per hour (kmJh) =
1 krnlh 0.277788 mJs
which begins to manifest itself only at Re > 4 x 10 , may be approximated by multiplying S centimeter per second (cmJs) 1 cmls = 10-2 mls
by a factor of 1.1-1.2 (higher for Iarge roughness). meter per hour (mlh) 1 mlh = 277.788 x 10-6 mls
16. The shape of the cross section of fittings and other parts is shown in cases where it meter per minute (mJmin) 1 mlmin = 16.667 x 10-3 mls
affects the resistance coefficient or where the values of this coefficient were obtained for spe- Acceleration (Lr 2 ) meter per second squared (mls 2)
cific cross sections. When the shape of the cross section is not indicated or no additional data centimeter per second squared (cml s2)
on the resistance of noncircular components are given, the resistance coefficient for a polygo- Angular velo city ( r1) radi an per second (radis)
nal or rectangular cross section having an aspect ratio of aolbo = 0.5-2.0 should be assumed Rotation frequency ( r1) reciprocal seconds (s-l)
to have the same value as for a circular cross section.
rotations per minute (rpm)
17. The graphs and tables of resistance coefficients given in this handbook are based on
either theoretical formulas or experimental data. In the latter case the values of S obtained rotations per second (rps)
from approximate formulas can differ somewhat from those given by the curves and in the Mass (NI) ldlogram (kg)
tabIes. In such cases the formulas can be used only for tentative ca1culations. gram (g) 1 g = 10-3 kg
3
18. The h~graulic resistance. coefficü~]ltsare in9:ependt?nt of the kind of fluid* flow!!1g_ ton (t) 1 t = 10 kg
through a pipeline system and are mainl)r govemed by the geometry of the network element ldlogram::förceseco!ürsquared per 1 kg-force s2/m = 9.80665 kg
considered and, in some cases, by the flow regime (Reynolds or Mach number). The data meter (kg-force s2 /m )
given in the handbook apply equally weIl for the ca1culation of the resistance of purely hydrau- Density (e3M) kilogram per cubic meter (kg/m3 )
lic lines and for the calculation of gas, air, in various networks and equipment installations. ldlogram per liter (kg/liter)
kilogram per cubic decimeter (kgl dm3 )
1 kg/liter = 1 g/ml = 1 kg/dm3
19. The hydraulic resistance of a network may be ca1culated by using tables such as Tables
1.14 to 1.16. gram per milliliter (gi ml )
20. The values of the resistance coefficients given in the handbook are for components of gram per cubic centimeter (gi cm3 )
pipes and channels of different shapes and parameters. However, in the design of new sys- ton per cubic meter (tlm 3)
4
tems one should choose optimum shapes and parameters that would yield minimum values of kilogram-force second squared per 1 kg-force llm = 9.80665
meter to fourth power (kg-force s2/ml kg/m 3
the resistance coefficients.
Specific volume (L 3M"-1) cubic meter per ldlogram (m3/kg)
The minimum values of S can be determined from the curves or tables of resistance plot-
cubic centimeter per gram (cm 3Ig) 1 cm3jg= 10-3 m3/kg
ted in the graphs or from the guidelines given in the explanatory pa,1: of each section of the
cubic meter per ton (m 3/t) 3
1 m Jt = 10-3 m3/kg
handbook.
Momentum (impulse) ldlogram meter per second (kg mls)
21. Table 1.1 shows the units of the most important physical quantities and their relation (LMT- )
1
ldlogram-force second (kg-force s) 1 kg-force s = 9080665 kg mJs
of SI units.

*If it is homogeneous and incompressible.

*Table compiled in collaboration with L. P. Stotskii.
6 Handbook oj Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition
Table 1.1 (continued)
Name and dimension
Name and designation of unit
of quantity
Moment kilo gram meter squared per second
ofmomentum
2
(kg m /s)
(moment of impulse) kilogram-force meter second
(L2MT- I )
(kg-force m s)
newton (N or m kg s-2)
Force (gravity force,
lift force); dyne (dyn)
weight (LMT-2 ) kilogram-force (kg-force)
gram-force (g-force)
ton-force Ct-force)
Specific weight newton per cubic meter (N/m 3)
(L- 2MT-2) dyne per cubic centimeter (dyn/cm 3)
kilogram-force per cubic meter
(kg-force1m 3)
Force moment; moment newton meter (N m)
of a couple; torque dyne centimeter (dyn cm)
(L2MT-2 ) kilogram-force meter (kg-force m)
Power impulse newton second (N s)
(LMT- I ) dyne second (dyn s)
kilogram-force second (kg-force s)
pascal (Pa or N/m 2 or rn-I kg s-2)
Pressure; mechanical
stress; moduli kilopascal (kPa)
of elasticity, shear, megapascal (MPa)
rigidity; bulk modulus gigapascal (GPa)
(r IMy-2)
dyne per square centimeter (dyn/cm )
kilo gram-force per square
centimeter or atmosphere
2
(kg-forceJcm or atm)
standard atmosphere (atm)
bar (bar)
kilogram-force per square meter
2
(kg-force1m )
millimeter of water column (mm H20)
kilogram-force per square
millimeter (kg-force/mm )
2
millimeter of mercury colurnn (mm Hg)
Pressure gradient pascal per meter (Pa/rn)
(C2My-2)
Work, energy (L My-2 2
) joule (J or m 2 kg s-2)
Aerodynamics and Hydraulics oj Pressure Systems 7
Table 1.1 (continued)
Relationship to SI units Name and dimension
Name and designation of unit Relationship to SI units
of quantity
kilowatt hour (kW h) 1 kW h =3.6 X 106 J
2 erg (erg) 1 erg = 10-7 J
1 kg-force m s = 9.80665 kg m /s
kilogram-force meter (kg-force m) 1 kg-force m = 9.80665 J
horsepower hour (hp h) 1 hp h = 2.648 MJ
5 liter atmosphere (liter atm) 1 liter atm = 101.328 J
1 dyn = 10- N = 10 !J.N
Specific work; joule per kilogram (J/kg)
1 kg-force = 9.80665 N
specific energy erg per gram (ergig) 1 erg/g = 10--4 J/kg
1 g-force = 9.80665 x 10-3 N
(L 2T- 2) kilogram-force meter per kilogram 1 kg-force mlkg = 9.80665 J
=9.80665 mN
3 (kg-force mlkg)
1 t-force = 9.80665 x 10 N watt (VV or m 2 kg s-3)
=9.80665 kN kilowatt (kW) 3
lkW=10 W
megawatt (MW) 6
1 MW =10 W
3
1 dyn/cm = ION1m
3
erg per second (ergIs) 1 erg/s = 10-7 W
3 3
1 kg-force/m = 980.665 N/m kilogram-force meter per second 1 kg-force rnIs = 9.80665 W
(kg-force rnIs)
Mass rate offlow (MT-I) kilogram per second (kgls)
1 dyn cm = 10-7 Nm
gram per second (gis) 1 gis =10-3 kg/s
1 kg-force m = 9.80665 N m
kilo gram per hour (kglh) 1 kglh =277.778 x 10-6 kgJs
kilogram per minute (kg/min) 1 kg/min 16.667 x 10-3 kg/s
1 dyn s = 10-5 N S
ton per hOUT (tJh) 1 tJh = 0.277778 kg/s
1 kg-force s = 9.80665 N s
Volume rate of flow cubic meter per second (m3/s)
3 (L3y-1) cubic meter per hour (m /h)
3
1 m 3/h = 277.778 x 10-6 m3/s
1 kPa = 10 Pa
6
1 MPa= 10 Pa liter per second (literls) lliterls = 10-3 m 3/s
liter per minute (literimin) 1liter/min ==16.667 x 10"-6 m3/s
1 GPa= 109Pa
2
2
1 dyn/cm = 10-1 Pa liter per hour (literlh) lliterlh = 277.778 x 10-9 m3/s
2 Dynarnic viscosity pascal second (Pa s)
1 kg-forceJcm = 98.0665 kPa
= 0.0980665 MPa (C 1My-l) millipascal second (rnPa s) 1 mPa s = 10-3 Pa s
poise (ps) 1 ps = 10-1 Pa s
1 atm = 101.325 kPa centipoise (cps) 1 cps = 10-3 Pa s = 1 rnPa s
2
= 0.101325 MPa kilogram-force second per meter 1 kg-force s/m =9.8066 Pa s
2
1 bar = 105 Pa = 10-1 MPa squared (kg-force s/m )
2 2
1 kg-force/m = 1 mm H20 Kinematic viscosity meter squared per second (m /s)
2 1 2
= 9.80665 Pa (L r ) centimeter squared per second (cm /s)
stokes (st)
2 2
2 6
1 kg-force/mm =9.80665x10 Pa millimeter squared per second (mm /s) 1 mm /s = 10-6 m 2/s
2
= 9.80665 MPa centistokes (cst) 1 cst = 1 mm /s = 10-6 m2/s
2 2
1 mm Hg = 1 torr = 133.332 Pa meter squared per hour (m 1h) 1 m /h =277.778 x 10-6 m2/s
Surface tension newton per meter (N/m)
(My-2) dyne per centimeter (dyn/cm) = 3
1 dynJcm 10- N/m = 1 mN/rn
kilogram-force per meter (kg-force/m) 1 kg-force/m = 9.80665 N/m
8 Handbook 0/ Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition Aerodynamics and Hydraulics 01 Pressure Systems 9

Table 1.1 (continued) Table 1.1 (continued)

Name and dimension Relationship to SI units Name and dimension

Name and designation of unit Name and designation of unit Relationship to SI units
of quantity of quantity
Thermodynamie Kelvin (K) kilogram-foree meter per kilo gram 1 kg-force mlkg °c
temperature (6) eentigrade degree (kg-foree mlkg 0C) =9.80665 kg K
Centigrade eentigrade degree (0C) Molar gas constant joule per mole kelvin (J/mol K)
temperature (6) e-
(L2MT-2 1lfl) joule per mole centigrade degree 1 J/mol °c =1 J/mol K
Quantity of heat; joule U) (J/mol°C)
3
2
enthalpy (L 2MT- ) kilojoule (kJ) 1 kJ = 10 J kilogram-force meter per mole 1 kg-force mlmol °c
6
megajoule (MJ) 1 MJ = 10 J centigrade degree = 9.80665 J/mol K
9
gigajoule (GJ) 1 GJ = 10 J (kg-force mlmol 0C)
calorie (cal) 1 eal = 4.1868 J Heat flux; heat power watt 0N)
3
kiloealorie (kcal) 1 kcal = 4.1868 kJ (L 2Mr 3) kilowatt (kW) 1 kW= 10 W
1 Meal = 4.1868 MJ 6
megacalorie (Meal) megawatt (MW) 1 MW= 10 W
gigaealorie (Gcal) 1 Gcal =4.1868 GJ calorie per second (caVs) 1 caVs = 4.1868 W
Specific quantity of heat; joule per kilogram (J/kg) kilocalorie per hour (kcal/h) 1 kcal/h = 1.163 W
3
specifie enthalpy kilojoule per kilo gram (kJ/kg) 1 kJ/kg = 10 J/kg megacalorie per hour (Mca1/h) 1 Mcal/h = 1.63 kW
2 2
(L 1 ) ealorie per gram (caVg) gigacalorie per hour (Gca1/h) 1 Gca1/h = 1.163 MW
kiloealorie per kilogram (keal/kg) 1 eaVg = 1 keal/kg Thermal conduetivity watt per meter kelvin (W/m K)
= 4.1868 kJ/kg (LMr3 e-1) watt per meter centigrade degree 1 W/m °C= 1 W/mK
Heat capaeity joule per kelvin (J/K) (W/m 0C)
of the system joule per centigrade degree (JlC) 1 J/oC = 1 J/K calorie per second centimeter 1 calls cm °c =418.68 Wlm K
(L2MT-26- 1) calorie per centigrade degree (eaV°C) 1 eaI;DC =4.1868 J/K centigrade degree (cal/s cm 0C)
kiloealorie per centigrade degree 1 keal/°C = 4.1868 kJ/K kilocalorie per hour meter 1 kcallh m °c = 1.163 W/m K
(kcaV°C) centigrade degree (kca1/h m 0C)
Specific heat joule per kilogram kelvin (J/kg K) Heat transfer coefficient watt per square meter kelvin
3 2
of the system kilojoule per kilogram kelvin 1 kJ/kg K = 10 J/kg K (Mr 3e- 1) (W/m K)
(L 2T- 2 6- 1) (kJfkg K) watt per square meter centigrade
calorie per gram centigrade degree =1 kcal/kg °c
1 eal/g °c degree (W/m C)
2o

(eaVg 0C) =4.1868 X 103 J/kg K kilocalorie per hour square

2
1 kcallh m °C=1.1163 W/m K
2

Volumetrie specifie heat joule per eubic meter kelvin Glm K)

3
meter centigrade degree (kca1/h m 2 0C)
2 2
(C 1MT-2 e-1) kilocalorie per eubic meter 1 kcal/m3 °c calorie per second square 1 caVs cm °C=418.68 W/m K
3 3 centimeter centigrade degree
centigrade degree (keal/m 0C) = 4.1868 x 10 J/kg K
(cal/s cm2 0C)
Entropy of the system joule per kelvin
(L 2MT- 2 e-1) kilocalorie per kelvin (keaVK) 1 kcaVK = 4.1868 kJ/kg
Specific entropy joule per kilogram kelvin (J/kg K)
3
e-
(L2T- 2 1) kilojoule per kilo gram kelvin (kJ/kg K) 1 kJ/kg K = 10 J/kg K
1.2 PROPERTIES OF LIQUIDS AND GASES
calorie per gram kelvin (caVg K) 1 callg K = 1 kcal/kg K
=4.1868 kJf1ß:g K Density of Flowing Medium
Specific gas constant joule per kilo gram kelvin (J/kg K)
(L 3T-2 6- 1) joule per kilogram eentigrade 1 J/kg °c =1 J/kg K 1. Values for the density of water and of some other commercialliquids at different tempera-
degree (J/kg 0C) tures are given in Tables 1.2 and 1.3, respectively.
Values for the density of some commerical gases under normal physical conditions (t =
oDe; p = 101.325 kPa), dry gas and for their relative density with respect to air, the density
of which is taken to be unity, are given in Table 1.4.
 10 Handbook oi Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition
Aerodynamics and Hydraulies oi Pressure Systems 11
Table 1.2 Density of water

t,OC 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
r, kg/m3 999.87 999.73 998.23 995.67 992.24 988.07 983.24
'00,V"l'00,"<T
......
IC'lC'lMN_N
".....q.-....e ~,......,.....

t,OC 70 80 90 100 120 140 160

r, kg/m3 977.81 971.83 965.34 958.38 943.40 926.40 907.50

~
Table 1.3 Densities of various liquids 35 ,36 OO"<TV"l"<T"<T -0 "<T"<T'O'OMOOOO 'OOONO\N O[--VlMMO
l! [--o\[--N-
..... MOM~
ca 00000
[-- N
I ~~ I ~'OV"lM!'IO"<T
[----oo~
0000000
..... I '0 [--"<T-'"
....... ......-'("t')('fj .......

00000
NV"lOOVlVlO
.-I...-.4o,.....j('t')('fj
ON 000000
J;l
Type of liquid t,OC p, kg/m3 Type of liquid t,OC p, kg/m3
Ammonia -34 684 Medium machine oil 10 898 .s
Aniline 15 1.026 20 892
Acetone 15 796 50 876 ~ ""'''''''''[--<'1 'ON
_«1 «1 [--<'1N '0 0 00 ""'V"lN'O~ N '0'0 " ' ' 0 00
~";--111<'1 -OO\r1l.fio\_'t"""'I 0,..;- ...... «10
Gasoline 15 680-755 Minerallubrication oil 15 980-960 l! [--'O<'1M[--
o....;o~~
I [--'-:
oS
1 ..... \ 0 \ 0 - 0 [ - - ' 0
,.,.; 0 0 0 0 "":'0
1 1.C?r-:~<')0C1 01l1111 ...... [--tr1
I V"l'O<"l'O"<TN
0000"":"":
~ 00--0
Benzene 15 884 Olive oil 15 920
60 836 Paraffin oil 18 925
Bromine 15 3.190 Turpentine oil 15 870
Butane (normal) -0.5 606 Cottonseed oil 15 930 ~
~~E~~~~~~~~~~8el~
.....,olMl.i1NeQ_
Water (see Table 1.2) Natural mineral oil 15 700-900 l! 0000000"";0"":000000
]
1
1110-0,-[--
~N"""'''''''"'T~
000000
Seawater 15 1.020-1.030 Liquefied ozone -5 537 ~

Glycerin (anhydrous) 10 1.264 Carbon bisulfide 15 1.270

20 1.260 Sulfuric acid (87%) 15 1.800
40 1.250 Sulfuric acid (fuming) 15 l.890
Coaltar 15 1.200 Turpentine 18 870
Dichloroethane 15 1.175-1. 200 Mercury 20 13.550
Nitrogen dioxide 3.2 1.484 Methyl alcohol (methanol) 15 810
Sulfur dioxide -10 1.472 Ethyl alcohol (ethanol) 15-18 790
Kerosene 15 790-820 Tetrabromoethane 15 2.964
Lignite oil --- 20 - 970- ChI6rifle' - -0 --lA69--
Woodoil 15 920 Methyl chloride 0 954
Castor oil 15 970 Ethyl chloride 0 919
Coconut oil 15 930 Chloroform 15-18 1.480
Linseed oil (boiled) 15 940 Hydrogen cyanide 0 715
Light machine oil 10 899 Ethyl ether 15-18 740
20 898
50 895

2. For multicomponent gases (blast furnace gas, coke gas, and others) the density of the
mixture is determined by the formula:

Pl'Ul + P2'U2 + ... + pn1)n

Prnix
100

where PI> P2, ... , Pn are the densities of the components of the mixture at oOe and 101.325
kPa (Table 1.4), in kg/m 3 ; 1)10 1)2, ... , 1)n are the volume fractions of the components accord-
ing to the data given by a gas analysis, in percent.
 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition Aerodynamics and Hydraulics of Pressure Systems 13
12

Viscosity
1. Viscosity is a characteristic of all real liquids and gases and is manifested in motion
through internal friction. First, one can identify the dynamic viscosity Tl, which is the ratio of
the shear stress to the velocity gradient (velocity variation per unit length of the normal to the
direction of fluid motion), that is,

where 1: is the shear stress; dw/dy is the velocity gradient in the direction of the normal y.
Second, one can identify the kinematic viscosity v, which is the ratio of the dynamic viscos-
ity of the fluid to its density: v = Tl/p· s~~§~ ~~
xxxxx_xx
2. Tables 1.5 and 1.6 contain conversion factors for the dynarnic viscosity 11 and the kine- 8888~ &:l~
"":"':-:""';r-i -=..q:
matic viscosity v.
3. The dynamic and kinematic viscosities depend on the physical state parameters of the
fluid medium. The dynamic viscosity of fluids is dependent only on temperature and inde-
pendent of pressure (for perfect gases). ..c
Ei
With an increase of temperature, the viscosity of gases and vapors increases, while that of ~
liquids decreases. For water vapor, an increase in the dynamic viscosity is observed with an
increase in pressure.
The kinematic viscosity of liquids and gases is a function of both temperature and pres-
sure.
4. The temperature dependence of the viscosity of gases can be approximated by Suther-
land's formula:

3 2
1/
273 + C... [. T
11 =110 T+ C 273)

where 110 is the dynamic viscosity of the gas at OoC and C is a constant that depends on the
type of gas.
Values of the dynamic viscosity 11 for various gases as a function of the temperature, the
constant C, and the temperature range over which the value of this constant has been experi-
mentally verified are given in Table 1.7.
The values of the kinematic viscosity v for the same gases as a function of the temperature
at apressure of 101.325 kPa are given in Table 1.8.
The values of v for air are also presented in Figure 1.1.
5. The kinematic viscosity of agas mixture can be determined by Mann's approximate
formula:

100
Vrnix

where VI, v2, ... , v n are the kinematic viscosities of the components and 1)1, 1)2, ... , Un are the
volume fractions of the mixture components (in percent).
The dynamic viscosity of the mixture can be determined by the approximate formula
 .....
""'
Table 1.7 Dynamic viscosity of gases Tl x 106 , Pa s, at apressure of 101.325 kPaas a function oftemperature and ofthe constant R
in Sutherland's formula 35,36,5Z,53

Temperature t, °C Temperalure
Gas Pormula range, 0C
-20 o 20 40 60 80 100 150 200 300 400 600 800 C
Nitrogen NI 15.75 16.60 17.48 18.35 '19.25 20.00 20.82 22.90 24.60 28.10 31.10 36.60 41.30 104 25-280
Amrnonia NHJ 8.60 9.30 10.05 10.78 11.45 12.15 12.80 14.60 503 2(}"300
Argon Ar 21.20 22.20 27.10 32.10 36.70 41.00 48.70 55.40 142 20-827
Acetylene C 2H 3 9.02 9.60 10.21 10.82 .11.45 12.02 12.60 215
Butane· C;H lO 6.90 7.40 9.50 358
Hydrogen HI 8.04 8.40 8.80 9.18 , 9.59 9.96 10.30 11.30 12.10 13.90 15.40 18.30 21.00 7[ 20-100
Watervapor HzO 8.20 8.93 9.67 lOAD 111.l3 11.87 12.60 16.04 20.00 23.90 31.45 38.65 961 20-406
Air 16.20 17.12 18.09 19.04 19.98 20.89 21.90 26.02 29.72 33.01 39.06 44.30 111 16-825
Helium He 17.50 18.60 19.55 20.40 21.35 22.05 22.90 27.00 30.70 34.20 40.70 46.50 o 21-100
Sulfur dioxide S0 2 11.60 12.60 16.30 20.70 24.60 306 300-825
Nitrous oxide NIO 13.70 14.60 18.30 22.50 26.50 260 25-280
Oxygen
Krypton
01
Kr
18.15 19.20
23.30
20.25
24.60
21.30 22.35 23.40 24.40
30.60
29.00 33.[0 36.90 43.50 49.30 125
188
20-280
~
;:s
Xenon Xe 21.10 22.60 28.70 252 ~
Methane C~ ·9.55 10.20 10.80 11.50 12.14 12.70 13.30 14.70 16.11J 18.60 164 2(}"250 C)
C)
Nitricoxide NO 17.90 18.80 22.70 26.80 [28 2(}..250
Carhon monoxide CO 15.95 16.80 17.68 18.55 19.15 20.24 21.02 22.90 24.70 '27.90 100 up to 130 "'"'
~
Pentane (p) CSHI2 6.20 10.00 10.30
~
383
Propane C3 Hs 7.00 7.50 S.OO 8.54 9.05 9.58 10.01 11.30 12_';0 14.40 278 2(}"250 ~
Propylene C3H6 7.g0 8.35 10.70 14.10 487 ~
Hydrogen sulfide H2S 11.60 12.40 15.90 33[. E..
Carbon dioxide COz 12.80 13.80 14.70 15.70 '16.70 17.55 18.45 22.60 26.40 29.90 36.20 41.35 254 (').
Chlorine Ch 11.45 12.30 13.20 14.10 15.00 15.90 16.80 18.90 21.00 25.00 350 100-250 ~
('()
Methyl chloride CHJC 9.80 10.60 13.60 17.50 454 t.,
C2HsCI
c::;.
Ethyl chloride 9.40 10.50 14.30 411
Hydrogen cyanide HC'N 7.40 901
~
;:s
Ethane
Ethylene
C2H 6
C2 H4 8.85
8.60
9.45
9.20
10.10 10.70 11.20 11.85
11.50
12.40
12.80
14.IJO
14.20
15.40
252
22S
20-250
2(}"250
"
~
-l:..
~

~
5·
;:s

~
('()

d
~
;:s
~
~.
6
Table 1.8 Kinematic viscosity of gases vX 10 , m2/s, at apressure of101.325 kPa as a function of temperature35,36,5Z,53 ~
;:s
~

oe
tt:
~
Gas Formula Temperature t,
-20 20 40 60 80 100 150 200 300 400 600 800 <:::
N2
~
Nitrogen 11.67 13.30 15.00 16. 85 18.80 20.65 22.30 28.30 34.10 47.20 61.40 93.50 130.00
Ammonia NH3 6.81 12.00 14.00 16.oq 18.10 20.35 22.70 29.30 36.00
Argon Ar 11.90 13.30 20.70 31.20 43.30 56.50 87.50 123.00
~
Acetylene C2H2 4.73 8.20 9.35 10.60 11.94 13.25 14.70 '"'0
Butane C.H IO 25.80 29.70 48.50
~
Hydrogen HI 84.00 93.50 105.00 117.30
t;
130.00 143.00 156.60 195.00 233.00 324.00 423.00 651.00 <:::
Water vapor H2 0 9.50 11.12 12.90 14.84 918.00
16.90 18.66 21.50 ~
Air 11.66 13.20 15.00 16.~8 18.85 20.89 23.00
Helium He 9.12 10040 11.74 14.55 15.97 17.50
30.00 48.20 48.20 63.20 96.50 134.00 ~
t.,
36.10 36.10 47.30 72.80 102.50
Sulfur dioxide SO, 4.00 4.60 7.60 17.60 ~
17.60
Nitrous oxide N20 6.82 7.93 ~
12.70 28.20 28.20 t.,
Oxygen 02 11.04 13.40 15.36 17.13 19.05 21.16 23.40 48.70 48.70 63.80 97.50 135.70
Krypton Kr 6.26 7.13 13.70
Xenon Xe 3.59 4.15 6.70
Methane CH. 12.57 14.20 16.50 18.44 20.07 22.90 25.40 31.8 54.50 54.50
Nitricoxide NO 13.30 15.10 23.20
Carbon monoxide CO 11.86 13.50 15.16 17.00 18.96 21.00' 22.70' 28.4 46.85 46.85
Propane C3Hij 3.04 3.70 4.26 4.90 5.52 6.18 6.76 8.70 15.10 15.10
Propylene C 3H" 4.08 4.70 7.70 11.4
Hydrogen sulfide H2S 7.62 8.70 14.10
Carbon dioxide 28.00 28.00 37.30 65.20 82.00
CO, 5.62 7.00 8.02 9.05 10.30 12.10 12.80
Chlorine CI, 3.09 3.80 4.36 5.02 5.66 6.36 7.15 9.10 16.25 16.25
Methyl chloride CH3CI 4.28 4.90 8.05
Ethane C 2H(, 6.35 7.28 11.60 14.70
Ethylene C 2H, 6.80 7.50 8.66 933 10.85 12.15 13.40 17.30

.....
UI
16 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition Aerodynamics and Hydraulies of Pressure Systems 17

<:> CQ " " <:>

0\ <'1 .,.., o~:::~
~ -M M
000 ~~dd

0\ N 01(') -
o.,..,-"<t"
o t - \,0
7IJ
... v
~~~~
""
'<I'Vlr-
S _MN
000 ~~dd
/0 , V
S/J /
<::>
~
0000\
MV>
°°
00"''<1'
V>
°
t- \.C
Or-\OM
./
;7
~~ci6 ~~~;; iIJ
_ N C"t
S 000
~
JIJ /:
.."".
0
;;lI"l~
0\"" N
o
00"'''''
1rI 00
o~~~ 20 L
C\ 0<'1 <'1
000 ~:::l;;; ~~~d ~
"....
....".
lri
~
11
""==
<n ~lIjln
o
<n
~ g 0\Vl \0
0,,",""
000
o:2~~
~~d;;; ~5$~ -NJ IJ #J I() fIfI l5IJ 2IJQ l#J 210 J2U lIIJ KHJ #I) IIQ ~I
""
Q.,
"C
-00

Temperature
==
~
~
0 ~~~ g!a~~ o~öö~
Figure 1.1. Kinematic viscosity of aif as a function of its temperature at apressure of 101.325 kPa.
""
:=
-;
r- 0"<1" ....
000 M~cici ~!::!:;d

""Q.,
C!.l

8
~:~~
00 Cl co

~ °\,0
C\r--r-
0";- '<I' ~~!~ 100
000 --"":00 -00 l1mix
~
~
I;f.l
c::
~ s:;
~~\D
C\"" 1rI ~~!a8 cg~~ where '111, 112, ... , l1n are the dynamic viscosities of the components and G b G2 , ... , Gn are the
C..l
000 -.I-co
0""""
~~~ci mass fractions of the mixture components (in percent).
==
oS 6. The dependence of the dynamic, T], and kinematic, v, Viscosltles of water on tempera-
<n
~

88ä:~
ture and pressure is given in Table 1.9. Moreover, the temperature dependence of v for water
""
,~
<::>
,"<t
00'<1'0\
0\\V)
0 0 \'0
"

.00'0 = 0·0-0-
0 000
\\0 "0"0-
C"'"'-i"""o"-- \0 0 -
~ociod at Pa~~'-101.325 kPa ispreserited in Figure 1.2.
~
~
~
I;f.l
oo-q-",
C!.l 00 N ""' 1 -"<t
- 00 -

~~~;
0 0 '_
>
-:;: g 0"\00
o <Xl 00
\0\0 _
'Cij 000 - 0 0 0
0
C..l
In
'S: 000-
C..l ;;;0<.0
ot!?:ga 000\<"'>
-.::
~
<::>
M
0\ - 0
0":": - o d d ~~dd
000 "1~_C"'4

8
C!.l
==
~
:2 ~8~
"C 0\,00-
o-r- 08~~
- 0 0 0 ~~dci
0"''''' "Id"('t"'1NC"l
d~~
==
~
~

'5 ~ Q;;ON 0-<"1

o~S~
0\ 0\ 0\ Or-N""
- 0 0 0 ~~;;d
o r- MNN~
==
.....
0
0":":
t-

Q
<:;\
.,...; U}{ ,.:;:z
~
,.Q
.. "''''~{
CI. CI. 0
:2;:2;-
&:&:'0
u:2;:2;-
~~~~
~~b
Ei

e: -" ~ " "x

<:>.1='"'"
o
..::
..

""'~'"
~ x _~r=' :a
~

Figure 1.2. Kinematic viscosity of water as a function of its temperature at 101.325 kPa.
18 Handbook 01 Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition 19
Aerodynamics and Hydraulics 01 Pressure Systems

1.3 FLUID FLO"V REGIMES
1. The flow regimes of a liquid or gas can be laminar or turbulent. Within the laminar re-
gime, the flow is stable, the stream layers move without mixing with each other and flow
smoothly past any obstac1es encountered in their way.
The turbulent regime is characterized by a random displacement of finite masses of a liq-
uid or <ras which mix strongly with each other.
2. The flow regime of a liquid or gas depends on the relationship between the inertia and
viscosity forces (internal friction) in the stream, which can be expressed by a dimensionless
group, the Reynolds number:
By the starting length we mean the length of the pipe over which the uniform velocity
profile, corresponding to the cross section at the inlet of the fluid through a smooth entry or
collector, passes gradually into the normal profile corresponding to stabilized flow.
6. Für the laminar flow regime, the stabilized velocity profile is established füllowing a
parabolic law (Figure 1.3b, 1), while for the turbulent flow regime, it follows approximately
logarithmic or exponential laws (Figure 1.3b, 2).
7. Für laminar flow, the starting length (i.e., the distance from the inlet section, just behind
a smooth entry, to the section where the axial velocity profile differs by ab out 1% from the
velocity profile of a fully stabilized flow) of a circular pipe or of a rectangular tube with an
aspect ratio alb = 0.7 to 1.5 can be determined from the formula

PWDh wDh
Re=--=--. Lst =B Re (1.4)
11 v Dh '

3. For each practical installation there is a certain range of "critical" Reynolds num?e:s at
which the flow passes from one regime into the other (transition region). The lower lImit of
the critical Reynolds number for a circular pipe is about 2300. The upper limit of Re depends
on the inlet conditions, the condition of the wall surface, and other parameters.
4. In the flow of areal (viscous) fluid past a surface, the layer that is in immediate contact
with the solid surface adheres to it. As a consequence, a velocity profile is established trans-
verse to the flow, varying from zero at this surface to the velocity w of the undisturbed
stream (Figure 1.3). This region in which the velocity variation occurs is called the boundary
or wall layer.
5. In the case of flow in straight pipes (channels), two regions are distinguished: the start-
ing length region of the flow and the region of stabilized flow (Figure 1.3a).
where B = LstlDh Re is the reduced length 0 f the startmg . sectlon. (accord'mg to B oussmesq
. 71
B "" 0.065, according to Shiller63 B :::: 0.029) and L st is the length of the starting section of
the pipe.
The length L st can be quite large; for example, at Re = 2000, L st = 130Dh.
8. In the case of turbulent flow the starting length of an annular pipe with smooth walls
can be determined from the formula of Solodkin and Guinevskiy:50
~s~ =b' log Re + (a' - 4.3b') , (1.5)
where a' = ft (DinIDex) and b' = h(DinlDex) are determined from the corresponding curves of
Figure 1.4, where Din and Dex are the diameters of the internal and extern al pipes, respec-
tively.
When DinlDex ~ 0 (Din ~ 0), the annularpipe transforms into thepipe of circular sec-
tion,-[ot""which Equation (1.5) takes the form- " " ~- "

Starting length h' dr-~--r-~--~~--,-~r--r--.--,

(a)
M~~-4--~~-+~~+-~-4--+-~
N~'\~--+-~-4--+-~-4--+-~~
z
"

fb)

Figure 1.3. Velo city distribution over the pipe cross section: (a) stream deformation over the starting
length; (b) velocity profile over the stabilized length; (1) laminar flow; (2) turbulent flow.
Figure 1.4. Coefficients a' and b' plotted against the ratio of annular pipe diameters Din/Dex .
 20 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition
Aerodynamics and Hydraulies of Pressure Systems 21

i:b-
(pi 1'"
8
7
r"'<
"- , ......
!
§ "-
f.
....
] " .... ....
......
Figure 1.5. Mixed inlet section of the pipe. ~
2 i\..

...
Lst
Do =7.88 log Re - 4.35 (1.6) fP
fP" 1 J 1 .f! 7 a9 tU' 2
""",Hf
When DinlDex -7 1.0, the annular pipe is transformed into a flat pIate, for which Equation
(1.4) becomes Figure 1.6. Dependence of Xi on Re.

Lst
Dh = 3.28 log Re - 4.95 . (1.7)
Eddy zone

It follows from Equations (1.4)-(1.7) that for a turbulent mode of flow the starting length
Lst is considerably shorter than for laminar flow; for exampIe, at Re = 5 X 105, L st = 35Dh.
According to Kirsten' s experimental data, the values of L st exceed those obtained from the
above formuIas by 40-50%.
9. When the fluid upstream of the entrance is undisturbed and the inIet of the fluid occurs
completely srnootfily through an enhy nozzle with very-"S"frloorrlwails, tne'f]:owpattern in thc
inlet section of the starting length is mixed ("mixed inlet section"). It is characterized by for-
mation of a laminar boundary layer at the walls even at large Reynolds numbers greatly ex-
ceeding the critical Reynolds number. This boundary layer downstream of the inlet becomes
thicker and at some distance from it Xt (at the "transition" point) becomes turbulent (Figure Figure 1.7. Flow separation and formation of eddies in a diffuser.
1.5). Farther along, this turbulent layer fills up the whole cross section of the pipe, with the
transverse velocity distribution asymptotically approaching that for a stabilized turbulent flow.
10. The relative distance Xr from the transition point to the inlet depends on the Reynolds
59 dium is deceIerated (on enlargement of the flow area) or accelerated (on contraction of the
number and can be approximated from a formula suggested by Filippov:
flow area).

- Xt 3.04 X 105 A too sudden expansion of flow area can initiate flow separation from the wall, which is
Xt=- accompanied by formation of vortices (Figure 1.7).
Da Re (1 +Tlt)

where Tlt = (w eor - wo)/wo is found from Shiller's63 data and Wo and w eor are the axial mean
velocity and the velocity in the core of the flow. At larger Re,llt -7 0 and Xr = 3.04 x
105/Re. The dependence of Xt on Re is given in Figure 1.6.
11. The thickness of the boundary layer at a given distance from the initial section of a
straight pipe (channel) can increase or decrease, depending on whether the flow of the me-
1.4 EQUILffiruUM OF LIQUIDS AND GASES
1. A liquid or gas is in equilibrium if, for each arbitrarily isolated portion of it, the result of
all the forces acting on this portion is equal to zero.
2. The equation of equilibrium of the same volume of a fluid at constant density has
the form
22 Handbook oi Hydra~tlic Resistance, 4th Edition Aerodynamics and Hydraulies oi Pressure Systems

pg=pa-gpgh (1.10)
z z
and

l&~~ p,

-
(1.11)
- ~~;~~~~~ Pa
N
where Pg and Pa are the densities of the gas and the air (averaged over the height h), in

~t 3
kg/m .
4. The pressure of a stationary hot gas in avessei at a level h = Zg - Za above that of the
o x 0 x atmospherie pressure of air at the same level h can be obtained by virtue of Equations (1.10)
a) b)
and (1.11) from:
Figure 1.8. Determination of the pressure at an arbitrary point in the liquid (gas) volume from the pres-
sure at a given point: (a) P > Pa; (b) Pg < Pa·

1.5 EQUATIONS OF FLUID MOTION

gzO+E2.=gZl +PI , (1.8)
Flow Rate Equation and 1Vlean Flow Velocity
P P
where Zo and ZI are the coordinates of two fluid particles in the given volume relative to the 1. The flow rate of a fluid (liquid or gas) is defined as the mass or volume of fluid passing
referenee plane (the corresponding geometrie heights, Figure 1.8), in m, and Po and PI are the a given cross section of the pipe (channel) per time unit.
Two types of flow rates are distinguished: the mass flow rate (for example, G kg/s) and
statie pressures (absolute) at the levels of the particles chosen, in Pa. 3
3. The pressure at any arbitrary point in the liquid or gas volume can be deterrnined if the the volumetrie flow rate (for example, Q m /s).
pressure at some other point of the same volume is known, as weIl as the difference between 2. In a generalized fonn, at any transverse distribution of the flow veloeities, the volumet-
the depth of immersion of one point relative to the other, h = ZI - Zo (see Figure 1.8): rie flow rate is expressed by the forrnula

=
PI pO - gp (ZI - ZO) = PO - gPh} (1.9)
f
Q = dQ =f wdP , (1.12)
PO =PI + gp (ZI - ZO) = PI + gph . F F

It is for this reason that, for example, the pressure exerted on the walls of avessei filied where w is the flow velocity at the given point across the pipe (channel) in mls.
with a stationary hot gas (pg < Pa) at a level h = Zg - Za, loeated above the surface that The mass flow rate is
separates the gas and air (Figure 1.9), is lower, on both the gas side (Pg) as well as the air
side (Ph), than the pressure Pa at the surfaee of separation: G=pQ= pwdP.f (1.13)
F

z 3. The trans verse distribution of the velocities in the pipe is hardly ever uniform. To
simplify the solution of practical problems use is made of a fictitious me an velocity of
the flow:

fWdP
F 0 (1.14)
wm=-p-=p

o x
from which

Figure 1.9. Determination of the pressure of a hot gas in avesseI at an arbitrary height in excess of
Q=wmP. (1.15)
atmospheric pressure at the same level.
 Handbook 01 Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition Aerodynamics and Hydrmtlics 01 Pressure Systems 25
24

4. The volumetrie flow rate and, eonsequently, the velocity of the gas flow depend on the
fluid temperature, pressure, and humidity. *
z
If under normal eonditions (Ooe, 101.325 kPa, dry gas) the vo1umetric flow rate of the gas
is Qne, m3/s, and the mean velocity is W ne ' mls, then under the operating conditions

T l?!JE..(
Qop = Qne 273 m
pop 1 + 0.804 J (1.16) 1

and, eorrespondingly,

T l?!JE..(
wop = Wne 273 m '
pop 1 + 0.804 J (1.17)

3
where m is the content of water vapor in the gas, in kg/m ; Pop is the operating gas pressure o x
at the given loeation F, in Pa, and Pne is the pressure of the gas under normal conditions,
Figure 1.10. Scheme of the flow and its basic parameters for two sections of a channeL
in Pa.
In the ease of a dry gas at apressure of 101.325 kPa (p = Pne), the volumetrie flow rate
and, aceordingly, the gas flow velocity under operating conditions are deterrnined from the
relations: where subscripts 0 and 1 refer to the appropriate eross seetion.
In the case of an ineompressible homogeneous medium the density across the pipe is a1-
T T ways eonstant, and therefore
Qop = Qne 273' wop =Wne 273 .

The density of the gas at operating eonditions is

po JwdF= pd wdF .
Fa F]

273 pop (1.18) 2. On the basis of Equations (1.13)-(1.15), the equation of continuity (the flow rate equa-
pop = (pne +m) T 1 + m/0.804 pne '
tion) for a uniform compressible flow and for any incompressible flow can be written as:

where Pne is the- density of the dry gas a~ normal conditions, in kg/m .
3

For a dry gas at apressure of 101.325 kPa

powoFo= PIWIFI = pwF= G} . (1.20)
POQO=PIQI =pQ=G

273 where Wo and WI are the mean velocities at sections 0-0 and 1-1, respective1y, in mls.
pop=Pney.
If the density of the moving medium does not vary along the flow, that is, Po = PI = p,
the equation of continuity (flow rate) is of the form
Equation of Continuity of a Stream
G
1. The continuity equation is the result of application of the law of the conservation of mass WOFO=WIFI =wF or QO=Ql =Q=-.
p
to a moving medium (liquid, gas).
In the general case, the continuity equation can be written for any distribution of velocities
in two pipe sections 0-0 and 1-1 (Figure 1.10) as Energy Equation (BernouUi Equation) for Compressible
and Incompressible Fluids
JpowdF= JPIwdF , (1.19)
1. Aecording to the law of eonservation of energy for the medium moving through a pipe
Fa F] (ehannel), the energy of the liquid (gas) flow passing through seetion 0-0 per time unh (see
Figure 1.10) is equal to the sum of energies of the liquid (gas) flow passing through seetion
*A perfect gas is considered, which obeys the equation pu = RT and for which the intemal energy 1-1 per time unit plus the internal (thermal) and mechanieal energies dissipated along the seg-
is a function of the temperature alone. ment between these sections.
26 Handbook oi Hydra Ldic Resistance, 4th Edition Aerodynamics and Hydraulies oi Pressure Systems 27

2. In the general ease of an inelastie (liquid) and elastie (gas) flow with nonuniform trans- ~etot
verse veloeity and pressure distribution,* the eorresponding energy equation will have the form
A TJ
L.lI1 tot =- g
-
2 2
If(..E..... +-+z+-
=- w UJ pwdF - - ...L..-+-+
lf(n w z +-
UJ pwdF
G gp 2g g G gp 2g g'
Fo Fl

(1.21)
where

2
where z is the geometrie height of the eentroid of the eorresponding seetion, in m; p is the Ho=-
1
G
f(..E.....+-+
gp
w
2g
UJ
z +-
g
pwdF
statie pressure (absolute) at the point of the eorresponding seetion, in Pa, U is the internal Fo
specifie heat energy of the gas flow (whieh a frietionless flow would have had), in Jlkg; and
m tot is the total power lost over the segment between seetions 0-0 and 1-1, whieh eharae- and
terizes the value of the meehanieal energy dissipated into heat, in W.
3. By relating the energy of the flow to the mass flow rate (G = f pwdF), on the basis of
F
Equation (1.21) we obtain
are the pressure heads averaged over the mass flow rate in seetions 0-0 and 1-1, respeetively,

1 (I!..
~etot=-C=GFo
mtot f 2
w gz + U pwdF
p +2+ J in m.
4. By relating the energy of the flow to the volumetrie flow rate in a eertain seetion, for
instance, 0-0 (Qo = f wdF), then
Fo
(1.22)

where

or

2 2
1
~Ptot= Qo f (pw 01 1 f [pw
~+2+gpz+ pUJwdF - QO'Ql P+-2-+gpz+pUJwdF.
and Fo Fj

However,

are the specific energies averaged over the mass flow rate through seetions 0-0 and 1-1, re-
spectively, in Jlkg; ~etot = mtot/G is the total 10ss of the specific energy over the segment
because
between seetions 0-0 and 1-1, in Jlkg.
Having divided Equation (1.22) by g, we obtain
poQo= PIQl = G ,

therefore it is possible to write

*Assuming no heat transfer and shaft work over the given segment
28 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition Aerodynamics and Hydraulics of Pressure Systems 29

2 or, solving in M tot and taking into aeeount Equation 0.20), we obtain
~tot=Qo=GL
Mtot 1 (P+T+gpz+PU
pw JwdF
J3Nto t = po + No -2-
(
J
powb + gpozo + poUo Qo

po 1 ~P+7+gpz+pu
2
--cI w JpwdF=po-pi,
'" '" (1.23)
(Plwt
-~I+NI-2-+gPIZl+PIUI QI, J (1.24)
PI Fl

where where

NO=..L
Fo
f[~)3
wo
dF
Fo
and
is the total pressure averaged over the mass flow rate in seetion 0-0*

2
* po 1 (pw
PI=-'C f
P+T+gpz+PU pwdF J
PI Fl
are the kinetie energy eoefficients (the Coriolis eoeffieients) for seetions 0-0 and 1-1, respee-
is the total pressure averaged over the mass flow rate in seetion 1-1 and redueed to the volu- tively; they eharaeterize the degree of the nonuniformity of kinetie energy and velocity distri-
metrie flow rate in seetion 0-0, that is, to Qo; flptot = Mtot/Qo are the total losses of the total butions over these seetions.
pressure over the segment between seetions 0-0 and 1-1 redueed to the volumetrie flow rate 6. By relating the energy of the flow to the mass flow rate, we obtain the generalized
Qo· ~ernoulli equation, which is written for a real fluid aecounting for the specific 10ss of energy
5. In most praetical eases, the statie pressure P in straight-line flow is eonstant aeross the (mternal and external, that is, meehanieal) over the segment eonsidered,
flow, even when the veloeity distribution is greatly nonuniform. The variation of the gas den-
sity over the eross seetion due to varying velocities ean then be negleeted (with Ma = wlal
po wO PI wr
< 1.0). Therefore, in plaee of Equation 0.21) we can write -+No- + gzo+ UO=-+NI- + gZl + Ul +.6.etot (1.25)
po 2 PI 2
2
(PO + gpozo + poU) woFo + f p~ dF and eorrespondingly
Fo
po wO Uo PI wt UI
-+No- +zo+-=-+Nl-+ZI +-+bJ!tot (1.26)
2 gpo 2g g gpl 2g g
= (PI + gplZl + PI U) wIFI + I p~ dF + Mtot
Fl or

fletot- G --[PO
= Mtot wO + gzO+ Uo - [PI
-+No-
2
J
wr aZl + UI ]
-+Nl-+
PO PI 2 ö
*In the case of segments with nonuniform flow distribution over the cross section (when the stagna-
tion temperature remains constant along the flow and when the energy losses are calculated from the = eo - el (1.27)
total pressure measured at different points of the cross section) the total pressure logarithms should be
averaged rather than the total pressure itself: and

lnpm=C f
* 1 lnp*dG . - Mtot [PO
flHtot=-----z;-=
g
wO uo] - L+ N1 -+
-+NO?+zO+-
gpo -g g
[1
wr ZI +--.l
U ]
gp 1 2g g
G

However, for moderate nonuniformity of flow and at Ma < 1, the deviation from this rule does not
cause appreciable error.
41 =Ho-Hl .
30 Handbook 0/ Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition Aerodynamics and Hydraulics 0/ Pressure Systems 31

7. By relating the energy of the flow to the volumetrie flow rate (for example, to Qo) we
obtain the Bernoulli generalized equation in the form

powO PIWT Mlto t

po + No -2- + gpozo + POUO = PI + Nl-2 - + gplZl + PI UI + Qo _I!Q El _n_(po
- pO - PI - n -1 PO
PI)
-p; , (1.31)

PIwI 7) pO
= PI +NI--+ gplZl + PIUI p;+~Ptot (1.28)
3
where v = 1/p is the specifie volume of the gas, in m /kg.
( 2 On the basis of Equations (1.27), (1.30), and (1.31) we obtain

or
wO -NI-
~etot=g(zo-zI)+No-2 wr +--
n [PO
- -PI]
-
2 n-l po PI
Mltot =(POWO
~Ptot == Qo J
~o + No -2- + gpozo + poUo - (PIP
+INIW
T
-2- + gpiZI + PI UI po Jp; or

(1.32)
,* ,* (1.29)
=pO -PI,

where 10. In a number of cases, when performing approximate calculations, the process can be
considered isentropic. For this process the polytropie exponent n in Equations (1.31) and
(1.32) will be replaced by the isentropie exponent k.
'* poWO
PO = po + No -2- + gpozo + poUo 11. In some cases the state of the flow is changed, following an isotherm (constant tem-
perature). There the pressure is proportional to the gas density

is the total pressure in section 0-0; PO =PI =J!.. (1.33)

po po P

(1.34)
is the total pressure in seetion 1-1 reduced to the volumetrie flow rate in seetion 0-0.
All the terms of Equation (1.28) are given in pressure units, that is, in Pa and are gPOZO,
gPIZI> elevation pressure; Po, PI static pressure; No(PoW6/2), NI(PIWI/2), dynamic pressure; Then, on the basis of Equations (1.27) and (1.34), we obtain in the final form
~Ptot == MtotlQo, total losses of the total pressure (total hydraulie resistance) resulting from
the overcoming of the hydraulic resistance of the segment between seetions 1-1 and 2-2.
w5 wr po po (1.35)
8. A change in the internal energy, Uo - UI> depends on the thermodynamie process that ~etot=g(zo-zI) +No--NI---ln- .
2 2 po PI
the gas undergoes on its way from sections 0-0 and 1-1. In the case of a polytropic process,
the gas parameters change according to 12. Gubarev 20 in his experiments demonstrated that in parts of the system such as fittings
and converging wyes, the state of the gas follows a polytropic relation that is similar to an
po _PI _ P (1.30)
isotherm. Then, the polytropic exponent for air passing through a converging wye becomes n
pS - p1- pn ' "'" 1.0 and for air passing through impedances, n "'" 1015.
13. Formulas (1.32) and (1.35) can be used not only in the case of high gas flow velo ci-
where n is the polytropie exponent, which in many eases can be eonsidered to be approxi-
ties, but also in the ease of low velocities when they are accompanied by large pressure drops
mately constant for the short loeal resistanee segment in view of the limitation of the seetion
over the segments of local resistance.
and to be lying within the limits 1 < n < k (k = c/cv is the isentropie exponent, cf. Table
14. The basie similarity groups of gas flows are the Maeh number or the reduced veloeity
1.4).
9. Based on the laws of thermodynamies,68 with no heat addition from the outside Ac == w/acr-
32 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition Aerodynamics and Hydraltlics of Pressure Systems 33

The Maeh number is 16. Should an ideal gas jet with veloeity Wo = wand having no energy losses (L1etot = 0)
and no effeet of ~eat be retarded isentropieally (at n = k; Po = p; Po = p; Zo = Zl = 0; No =
(1.36) NI = 1; apl = P is the total or stagnation pressure) up to veloeity W2 = 0, then Equation
(1.32) will take the form

where al is the speed of sound;

w2
_=_12 L
k
-1
[( *J(k-l)lk 1
(1.37) 2 k-1 p p '

whenee
For air
* ( 2 Jkl(k-I)
al ~ 20.1 {f . L= l+k-l~
P k kp/p
15. The flow veloeity equal to the loeal speed of sound and ealled the eritieal velocity is
or, taking into aecount Equations (1.36) and (1.37),

2k
2k_ L = --RT'
acr= "-1 _
k+l p*
* "-1
k+l
, (1.38) p* ( k- 1 2]kl(k-l)
(1.42)
- = l+--Ma
p k
where p* is the pressure of the stagnated gas flow (total pressure); p* is the density of the
17. There is the following relationship between the numbers Ma and Ac:
stagnated gas flow; T* is the stagnated gas flow temperature (stagnation temperature).
The speed of sound in a stagnated medium is

Ma=
g k+ 1 ~
Ac
k-1
1---Ac (1.43)
(1.39) k+1

or
so that

acr=a
~~ .
* =-\f~--
k+l

For air
On the basis of Equations (1.42) and (1.43) the following equation is obtained:
a* ~ 20.1 -{iF. ,
kl(k-I)
rc(Ac) =P-=(1- k-1 tJ:] (1.44)
acr ~ 18.3 ff . (1.40) p* k+ 1

The reduced velocity is Taking into account the relation analogous to relation (1.29), i.e.,

Ac=-=W
w
acr
/"-1__ 2k L
e
n--
k+l p*
=w /"-1- - R~l .
2k
k+ 1
(1.41)
(1.45)

the density of a perfect1y stagnated gas will be given by

34 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition
Aerodynamics and Hydraulies of Pressure Systems 35

Table 1.10 Gasdynamic functions for a subsonie flow and the function X(A,v) at k = 1.4 Table 1.10 (continued)

1t v y Ma x v
0.9996 0.01577 0.01577 0.00913 8563.5
1t y Ma x
0.01 0.99998 0.99994 0.44 0.96773 0.89155 0.92127 0.63943 0.71722 0.40830 3.01999
0.02 0.99993 0.99977 0.99983 0.03154 0.03155 0.01836 2136.14
0.45 0.96625 0.88677 0.91775 0.65146 0.73464 0.41790 2.86393
0.03 0.99985 0.99948 0.99963 0.04731 0.04733 0.02739 946.367
0.46 0.96473 0.88191 0.91415 0.66333 0.75215 0.42753 2.71957
0.04 0.99973 0.99907 0.99933 0.06306 0.06311 0.03652 530.195
0.47 0.96318 0.87696 0.91048 0.67503 0.76974 0.43717 2.58590
0.05 0.99958 0.99854 0.99896 0.07879 0.07890 0.04565 337.720
0.48 0.96160 0.87193 0.90675 0.68656 0.78741 0.44684 2.46200
0.06 0.99940 0.99790 0.99850 0.09450 0.09470 0.05479 2.33.271
0.49 0.95998 0.86681 0.90294 0.69792 0.80517 0.45653 2.34705
0.07 0.99918 0.99714 0.99796 0.11020 0.11051 0.06393 170.368
0.50 0.95833 0.86160 0.89907 0.70911 0.82301 0.46625 2.24032
0.08 0.99893 0.99627 0.99734 0.12586 0.12633 0.07307 129.599
0.51 0.95665 0.85632 0.89512 0.72012 0.84095 0.47600 2.14113
0.09 0.99865 0.99528 0.99663 0.14149 0.14216 0.08221 101.692
0.52 0.95493 0.85095 0.89111 0.73095 0.85898 0.48576 2.04889
0.10 0.99833 0.99418 0.99584 0.150709 0.15801 0.09136 81.7669
0.53 0.95318 0.84551 0.88704 0.74160 0.87711 0.49556 1.96305
0.11 0.99798 0.99296 0.99497 0.17265 0.17387 0.10052 67.0543
0.54 0.95140 0.83998 0.88289 0.75206 0.89533 0.50538 1.88313
0.12 0.99760 0.99163 0.99401 0.18816 0.18975 0.10968 55.8890
0.55 0.94958 0.83438 0.87868 0.76234 0.91366 0.51524 1.80866
0.13 0.99718 0.99018 0.99297 0.20363 0.20565 0.11884 47.2209
0.56 0.94773 0.82871 0.87441 0.77243 0.93208 0.52511 1.73926
0.14 0.99673 0.98861 0.99185 0.21904 0.22157 0.12801 40.3612
0.57 0.94583 0.82296 0.87007 0.78232 0.95062 0.53502 1.67454
0.15 0.99625 0.98694 0.99065 0.23440 0.23751 0.13719 34.8430
0.58 0.94393 0.81714 0.86567 0.79202 0.96926 0.54496 1.61417
0.16 0.99573 0.98515 0.98937 0.24971 0.25347 0.14637 30.3405
0.59 0.94198 0.81124 0.86121 0.80152 0.98801 0.55493 1.55783
0.17 0.99518 0.98324 0.98300 0.26495 0.26946 0.15556 26.6212
0.60 0.94000 0.80528 0.85668 0.81082 1.00688 0.56493 1.51525
0.18 0.99460 0.98123 0.98655 0.28012 0.28548 0.16476 23.5153
0.61 0.93798 0.79925 0.85209 0.81992 1.02586 0.57497 1.45676
0.19 0.99398 0.97910 0.98503 0.29523 0.30153 0.17397 20.8966
0.62 0.93593 0.79315 0.84745 0.82881 1.04496 0.58503 1.41033
0.20 0.99333 0.97686 0.98342 0.31026 0.31761 0.18319 18.6695
0.63 0.93385 0.78699 0.84274 0.83750 1.06418 0.59513 1.36753
0.21 0.99265 0.97451 0.98173 0.32521 0.33372 0.19241 16.7609
0.64 0.93173 0.78077 0.83797 0.84598 1.08353 0.60526 1.32757
0.22 0.99193 0.97205 0.97996 0.34008 0.34986 0.20165 15.1139
0.65 0.92958 0.77448 0.83315 0.85425 1.10301 0.61543 1.29025
0.23 0.99118 0.96948 0.97810 0.35487 0.36604 0.21089 13.6836
0.66 0.92740 0.76813 0.82826 0.86231 1.12261 0.62563 1.25541
0.24 0.99040 0.99680 0.97617 0.36957 0.38226 0.22015 12.4345
0.67 0.92518 0.76172 0.82332 0.87016 1.14235 0.63537 1.22289
0.25 0.98598 0.96401 0.97416 0.38417 0.39851 0.22942 11.3378
0.68 0.92293 0.75526 0.81833 0.87778 1.16223 0.64615 1.19254
0.26 0.98873 0.96112 0.97207 - 0.39868 0.41481 0.23869 10.3704
0.69 0.92065 0.74874 . '·-6:81327 0.88519 1.18225 0.65646 1.16423
0.27 0.98785 0.95812 0.96990 0.41309 0.43115 0.24799 9.51321
0.70 0.91833 0.74217 0.80817 0.89238 1.20241 0.66682 1.13783
0.28 0.98693 0.95501 0.96765 0.42740 0.44753 0.25729 8.75071
0.71 0.91598 0.73554 0.80301 0.89935 1.22271 0.67721 1.11321
0.29 0.98598 0.95280 0.96533 0.44160 0.46396 0.26661 8.06987
0.72 0.91360 0.72886 0.79779 0.90610 1.24317 0.68764 1.09029
0.30 0.98500 0.94848 0.96292 0.45569 0.48044 0.27594 7.45985
0.73 0.91113 0.72214 0.79253 0.91262 1.26378 0.69812 1.06894
0.31 0.98398 0.94506 0.96044 0.46966 0.49697 0.28528 6.91153
0.74 0.90873 0.71536 0.78721 0.91892 1.28454 0.70864 1.04909
0.32 0.98293 0.94153 0.95788 0.48352 0.51355 0.29464 6.41722
0.75 0.90625 0.70855 0.78184 0.92498 1.30574 0.71919 1.03064
0.33 0.98185 0.93790 0.95524 0.49726 0.53018 0.30402 5.97035
0.76 0.90373 0.70168 0.77643 0.93082 1.32656 0.72980 1.01351
0.34 0.97958 0.93418 0.95253 0.51087 0.54687 0.31341 5.56534
0.77 0.90118 0.69478 0.77096 0.93643 1.34782 0.74045 0.99762
0.35 0.97958 0.93035 0.94974 0.52435 0.56361 0.32282 5.19738
0.78 0.89860 0.68783 0.76545 0.94181 1.36925 0.75114 0.98291
0.36 0.97840 0.92642 0.94687 0.53771 0.58042 0.33224 4.86253
0.79 0.89598 0.68085 0.75989 0.94696 1.39085 0.76188 0.96931
0.37 0.97718 0.92239 0.94393 0.55093 0.59728 0.34168 4.55665
0.80 0.89333 0.67383 0.75428 0.95187 1.41263 0.77267 0.95675
0.38 0.97593 0.91827 0.94091 0.56401 0.61421 0.35114 4.27717
0.81 0.89065 0.66677 0.74863 0.95655 1.49460 0.78350 0.94518
0.39 0.97465 0.91405 0.93782 0.57695 0.63120 0.36062 4.02120
0.82 0.88793 0.65968 0.74294 0.96099 1.45676 0.79439 0.93455
0.40 0.97333 0.90974 0.93466 0.58975 0.64826 0.37012 3.78635
0.83 0.88518 0.65255 0.73720 0.96519 1.47910 0.80532 0.92479
0.41 0.97198 0.90533 0.93142 0.60240 0.66539 0.37963 3.57055
0.84 0.88240 0.64540 0.73141 0.96916 1.50164 0.81631 0.91588
0.42 0.97060 0.90083 0.92811 0.61490 0.68259 0.39917 3.37194
0.85 0.87958 0.63822 0.72559 0.97289 1.52439 0.82735 0.90775
0.43 0.96918 0.89623 0.92473 0.62724 0.69987 0.39873 3.18890
0.86 0.87673 0.63101 0.71973 0.97638 1.54733 0.83844 0.90037
 36 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition
Aerodynamics and Hydraulies of Pressure Systems 37
Table 1.10 (continued)

JI.y 'L n: t V Ma A~ + 2 1ll AcJ

k+1(1
X(Ac) =2k l 1

Y X
0.87 0.87385 0.62378 0.71383 0.97964 1.57049 0.84959 0.89370
0.88 0.87093 0.61652 0.70788 0.98265 1.59386 0.86079 0.88770 which makes it possible to calculate friction losses over the segment 0-1 (over the length I =
0.89 0.86798 0.60924 0.70191 0.98542 1.61745 0.87205 0.88234 lIDh):
0.90 0.86500 0.60194 0.69589 0.98795 1.64127 0.88337 0.87758
0.91 0.86198 0.59463 0.68984 0.99024 1.66531 0.89475 0.87339 I

0.92 0.85893 0.58730 0.68375 0.99229 1.88959 0.90619 0.86957 X(Aco) - X(ACj) = f Afr di .
0.93 0.85585 0.57995 0.67763 0.99410 1.71411 0.91768 0.86662 o
0.94 0.85273 0.57259 0.67148 0.99567 1.73887 0.92925 0.86398
0.95 0.84958 0.56522 0.66530 0.99699 1.76389 0.94087 0.86381 18. The rate of mass flow is expressed in terms of the functions q(Xc) and Y(Ac):
0.96 0.84640 0.55785 0.65908 0.99808 1.76389 0.94087 0.86008
0.97 0.84318 0.55046 0.65284 0.99892 1.81469 0.96432 0.85876 G =m ffiJ:bl = m pFq(Ac) pFy(Ac)
0.98 0.83993 0.54307 0.64456 0.99952 1.84049 0.97614 0.85785
gR TC(Ac)g~ m g-{7
0.99 0.83665 0.53568 0.64026 0.99988 1.86657 0.98804 0.85731
1.00 0.83333 0.52828 0.63394 1.00000 1.89293 1.00000 0.85714
where m is the coefficient equal for air to 0.3965 K O.5 s-l.
19. Expanding Equation (1.42) in aseries by Newton's binomial rule, the following ex-
pression can be obtained for the total press ure:

p* ( k-l 2)lI(k-1)
E(J,d ==-=
p
l---A:;
k+1
(1.46)

(l.48)
Correspondingly, the stagnation temperature is
The correction for the effeet of gas compressibility is

(1.47)

The gas dynamic functions (1.44), (1.46), and (1.47) are presented in Table 1.10. This
table also eontains the funetions that eharaeterize the mass flux For a jet of an ineompressible fluid the total pressure is

2
1!Ck-I) lI(k-I) * pw
P =P+-2- (1.49)
==~= Ac(l-' k-1 tJ:)
q(Ac)
pcracr (k+2 1J k+ 1

(this funetion is ealled the redueed density of mass flux) and If the number Ma ==
w/al is very small, then Relation (l.48) is expressed in the form of
Relation (1.49).
20. Table 1.11 presents the values of Dcom , Dp ' and LlTl as funetions of the number Mao
and of the air flow velocity Wo (k = 1.41) at OOC and 101.325 kPa. 68
The eorreetion for density is given by

The quantity reciproeal to Y(A c ) eharaeterizes the change in the statie momentum in the isen- s: -- PI -
up
po
po -- PI
[ po )
lIk
- 1 "'"
2
?

- Maö (1 Mao
+- - + ...
7
J
tropic flow section depending on velocity.
Moreover, Table 1.10 contains also the function
and the correction for temperature is
 38 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition
Aerodynamics and Hydraulies of Pressure Systems 39
Table 1.11 Dependence of l\om, Öp ' and t1Tl on Wo and Mao
z
wo, mJs 34 68 102 136 170 203 238 272 306 340
Mao 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
dcom 0.25 1.0 2.25 4.0 6.2 9.0 12.8 17.3 21.9 27.5
dp , % 0.50 2.0 4.5 8.0 12.9 18.9 26.8 35.0 45.3 57.2
fiT!, °c 0.59 2.4 5.4 9.5 14.8 21.3 29.0 37.8 48.0 59.2

k-lIk ] k 1
t1Tl=Tl-To=To
[(;~J -1 =To ; Ma5 =59.2 Ma3 (1.50)

The subscripts 0 and 1 relate to sections 0-0 and 1-1 of the given flow, respectively.
21. For an incompressible liquid, to which gas at small flow velocities (practically up to w
'" 150 rnJs) can also be referred, Vo :::: VI. Then, on the basis of Equation (1.27) we obtain

pow3 ( Pl
gpozo + po + No -2-· = gPlzl + PI + NI -2- PO + t1Ptot wrJ Pr (1.51)

or fI

pow3J (
t1Ptot = gpozo + po + No -2- - gPIzl + PI + NI -2- P1wrJ Pr
po . (1.52)
(
Figure 1.11. Choice of the "self-draught" (driving head, buoyaney) sign; (a) P > Pa; (b) P < Pa; (e) P
22. In the case of a small pressure drop (practically equal to about 10,000 Pa), Po = PI = > Pa; d) P < Pa.
p; then instead of Equation (1.51) we have

pwo = (gpzl + PI + NI -pWfJ'

gpozo + po + No T -2- + t1Ptot (1.53) pw3 --- - Pw!
gpzo+ PO+ Pzo- Pzo+NoT=gpZl + PI + PZI - PZI +NI +t1Ptot , (1.55)
T
and with uniform flow velocity, when No = NI = 1, where PZo and PZI are the values of the atmospheric pressure at heights Zo and Zl, in Pa.
On the basis of Equation (1.11), we get
pw3 (
gpzo + po + -2- = gpzi + 2 pwrJ + ~tot
pzo = pa - gpaZO; PZI =pa - gpaZl ,
(1.56)
or
where Pa is the atmospheric press ure in the reference plane (Figure 1.11), in Pa, and Pa is the
average density of atmospheric air over the height z, in kg/m 3. In the present case, the density
( pw3] (
t1Ptot= gpzo+Po+2 - gpZl +PI +21·
pwn (1.54) is considered to be practically equal at the two-heights, Zo and Zb in kg/m 3.
\ " )
After performing suitable manipulation on Equation (1.55), we obtain

(p - Pa)gZO + (po - Pzo) + No 2

pw3
Buoyancy or Net Driving Head (Self-Draught)
1. If we add to, and subtract the quantities PZo and PZ I from each side of Equation (1.51),
respectively, we obtain =(p - pa)gZI + (PI - PZI) + NI
pwr
T + t1Ptot . (1.57)
40 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition
Aerodynamics and Hydraulics of Pressure Systems 41

2. On the basis of Equation (1.57), the loss of total pressure over the segment between 5. When the densities of the flowing medium, p, and of the surrounding atmosphere, Pa,
sections 0-0 and 1-1 is are equal and the pipes (flow channels) are horizontal, then the elevation pressure (net driving
head) is zero. Then Equation (1.58) simplifies to:
/j.Ptot = (po - Pza) - (PI - PZI) + No 2
pw5 - NI 2pWI + g(Pa - P)(ZI - ZO)
/j.Ptot = PO,tot - PI,tot .

or in a simplified form
/j.Ptot =(po,st - Pl,st) + (POd - PId) + ps =PO,tot - PI,tot + ps , (1.58)
where Pd = N(pw 2/2) is the dynamic pressure in the given section of the stream (always a
positive value), in Pa; Pst = P - pz is the excess static pressure, that is, the difference between
the absolute pressure P in the section of the stream at height Z and the atmoshperic pressure
pz at the same height, in Pa; this pressure can be either positive or negative; and Ptot = Pd +
Pst is the total pressure in the given section of the stream, in Pa.
The excess elevation pressure (net driving head for gases) is
ps = g(Z2 - Zr)(Pa - p) . (1.59)
3. The excess elevation pressure (net driving head) is produced by the fluid, which tends
to descend or rise depending on the medium (lighter or heavier) in which the fluid is located.
This pressure can be positive or negative depending upon whether it promotes or hinders the
fluid flow.
If at P > Pa the flow is directed upward (Figure 1.11a), and at P < Pa downward (Figure
1.11b), the excess pressure Ps will be negative and will hinder the flow. If, on the other hand,
at P > Pa the flow is directed downward (Figure 1. llc), and at P < Pa it is upward (Figure
1. l1d), the excess pressure Ps will be positive and will enhance the flow.
4. By solving Equation (1.58) in the drop of total pressures /j.Ptot = PO, tot - PI,tot whieh
determin~s th~ ~pressure developed by a superdiarger, then .
psup =/J,.ptot - g(ZI - ZO)(pa - p) =/j.Ptot - ps .
. When p > Pa and the flow is directed upward or P < Pa and the flow is directed down-
ward, there is a negative driving head (elevation pressure). Then
psup = /J,.ptot + ps .
Otherwise
6. In cases where both the statie pressure and the velocity are nonuniform over the cross
section and this nonuniformity cannot be neglected, the total hydraulic resistance of the seg-
ment should be determined as the difference between the total pressures plus (or minus) the
net driving head (if it is not zero):
f
/j.Ptot = ~ (Pst + Pd) wdF - ~ f (Pst + pd) wdF + ps ,
- Fa - Fl
f
where (l/Q) (Pst + Pd)wdF is the excess total press ure of the liquid (gas) stream passirig
Fa
through given cross section F, in Pa, and Pst + Pd is the excess total pressure in the given
cross section, in Pa.
1.6 HYDRAULIC RESISTANCE OF NETWORKS
1. In each flow system, as weH as in its separate segments, that portion of the total pressure
which is spent in overcoming the forces of hydraulic resistance is irreversibly lost. The mo-
lecular and turbulent viscosity of the moving medium irreversibly converts the mechanical
work of the resistance forces into heat. Therefore, the total energy (thermal energy inclusive)
of the flow over the given segment of the pipe remains constant in the absence of heat con-
ductiG!l t.hrough the walls. However, in thiscase, the state of the flow undergoes achange
because of the pressure drop. The temperature, on the other hand, does not change at constant
velocity. This can be attributed to the fact that the work of expansion due to apressure drop
is entirely converted into the work of overcoming the resistance forces and the heat generated
by this mechanical work compensates for the expansion-induced cooling .
At the same time, the energy acquired by the flow resulting from the work of a compres-
sor, fan, etc., in the form of kinetic or thermal energy, is lost for the given system during the
discharge of the fluid into the atmosphere or into another reservoir.
2. Two types of the total pressure (hydraulic resistance) losses in the pipeline are considered:
- Pressure losses resulting from friction (frictiona1 drag) , /j.Pff'
Local pressure losses (Iocal resistance), /j.Ploc'

The fluid friction loss is due to the viscosity (both molecu1ar and turbulent) of real liquids
psup =/J,.ptot - ps . and gases in motion, and results from momentum transfer between the molecules (in laminar
flow) and between the individual partieies (in turbulent flow) of adjacent fluid layers moving
In the general case, at different velocites.
3. Tbe local losses of total pressure are caused by the following: local disturbances of the
psup =/J,.ptot ± ps . flow; separation of flow from the walls; and formation of vortiees and strong turbulent agita-
tion of the flow at places where the configuration of the pipeline changes or fluid streams
 42 Handbook 01 Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition Aerodynamics and Hydraulies 01 Pressure Systems 43
meet or flow past obstructions (entrance of a fluid into the pipeline, expansion, contraction,
bending and branching of the flow, flow through orifices, grids, or valves, filtration through
porous bodies, flow past different protuberances, etc.). All of these phenomena contribute to
the exchange of momentum between the moving fluid particles (i.e., frietion), thus enhaneing
energy dissipation.
The loeal pressure los ses also include the dynamie pressure losses oceuring during liquid (1.60)
(gas) discharge from the system or network into another reservoir or into the atmosphere.
4. The phenomenon of flow separation and eddy formation is assoeiated with the differ-
ence of veloeities over the cross seetion of the flow and with a positive pressure gradient For the ease of uniform distribution of statie pressure and density over the seetion, but
along the flow. The latter develops when the flow velocity is retarded (for example, in an which are variable along the flow, the resistance eoefficient based on Equation (1.29) will
expanding channel, downstream of a sharp bend, when passing a body) in aecordance with aequire the form
the Bernoulli equation. The difference in veloeities over the cross seetion of a negative pres-
sure gradient (e.g., acee1erated motion in a eontraeted ehannel) does not lead to flow separa- S== Mlto t L1Ptot po - Pl*
tion. The flow in smoothly eontraeting segments is even more stable than over segments of poFow3/2 QopowÖ/2 powÖ/2 = powÖ/2
eonstant cross seetion.
5. The total pressure los ses in any eomplex element of the pipeline are inseparable. How-
ever, for ease of calculation they are arbitrarily subdivided, in each element of the pipeline, =--
POWo
POWÖ
22 [(po+No- -+gpozo+PoUo
2
J
into loeal los ses (L1P1oc) and frictional los ses (L1Pfr)' It is also assumed that the local los ses
(loeal resistance) are coneentrated in one seetion, although they ean oceur virtually throughout
the entire length, except, of course, for the ease of flow leaving the system, when its dynamie
(1.61)
pressure becomes immediately lost.
6. The two kinds of los ses are summed aceording to the prineiple of superposition of
losses and consist of the arithmetic sum of the frietional and loeal los ses: If the density is invariable along the flow (Po = PI = P = eonst)
L1pov = L1pfr + L1Ploc . S== !:,Ptot
pw3/2 .
In fact, the value of L1pfr should be taken into aceount only for relatively long fittings or
only for elements~(branch pipes, diffusers with small divergenee angles, ete.), or \'i}len this 9. The value of S depends on the velocity, and eonsequently on the flow cross section. In
value is eommensurable with L1Ploc. . a general case (Pi is Variable along die floW),crhe resistanee·coefficient Si == (L1Ptot)/(P{WT;2) -
7. Present-day hydraulic calculations use the dimensionless eoefficient of fluid resistance, based on the flow velocity wi in the ith seetion (Fi) is calculated for another seetion (for
whieh conveniently has the same value in dynamically similar flows, that is, flows over geo- example, F 0) using the formula
metrically similar regions and with equal Reynolds numbers or other pertinent similarity eri-
2
teria, irrespeetive of the kind of fluid or of the flow velocity (at least up to Ma = 0.8-0.9)
and transverse dimensions of the segments being calculated.
'r: >
= 0 -L1Ptot
- - - - '_
:> (WiJ
r.1Pi- -
(1.62)
powö/2 PO WO
8. The fluid resistance coefficient is defined as the ratio of the total energy (power) lost
over the given segment (0-0)-(1-1) to the kinetic energy (power) in the seetion taken (for sinee
example, 0-0) or (which is the same) the ratio of the total pressure lost over the same seg-
ment to the dynamic pressure in the seetion taken, so that on the basis of Equations (1.21) r POWÖ r prwt
D.Ptot =,:>0 -2- =,:>i -2- .
A
and (1.23) for the general ease, that is, for the ease of nonuniform distribution of all the flow
parameters over the seetion and of variable density along the flow, it is possible to write
Taking into account the flow rate equation PowoFo = P{WiFi' we obtain

S= L1Ntot L1Ntot L1Ptot po - pi

- poFow8/2 QOpow3/2 powGI2 = powGI2 r _ r, po (FO)2
,:>O-,:>Z- -
Pi Fi (1.63)

When Po = Pi = P,
44 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition Aerodynamics and Hydraulics of Pressure Systems 45

14. The prineiple of superposition of losses ean be realized by two methods: (1) by sum-
(1.64)
ming the total pressure losses in separate seetions (elements) of the system; or (2) by sum-
ming the resistanee eoeffieients of separate seetions (elements), whieh were first normalized
10. The overall fluid resistanee of any network element is to a eertain velocity and then expressing the total resistanee of the system through its total
eoefficient of resistanee.
2
pw2 pw In the first method, it should be taken into aeeount that in the ease of a great differenee
llpov =llPloc + llpfr = (Sloc + Sfr) 2 = Sov -2- , between the densitites of liquid (gas) over different seetions (elements), the values of the total
pressure losses, taken as the losses of energy (power) whieh are related to the volumetrie flow
or rate {).NtotlQ = llPtot through a formula analogous to Equation (1.23), depend on the fact to
whieh seetion of the ehannel this volumetrie flow rate is related. Therefore, the losses in dif~
A _ r Popw~p _ r pop
--2- - ':lOV 2
[~)2
F
(1.65)
ferent seetions should be summed only after their normalization to the same volumetrie flow
D.POV - ':lOV rate. Thus, when these los ses are normalized to the flow rate Qo in seetion 0-0, then the total
losses of the total pressure in the entire system will be
In aecordanee with the arbitrarily aeeepted principle of superposition of losses we have
n Mi n {).Ni Qi
Sov = Sloc + Sfr . llpsys = I.
-Q = Q.-Q
o i=1 _I
I. °
i=1
Here, Sfr == llPfr/(Popw~p/2) is the frietion loss eoeffieient in the given eleme~t of pipe (ehan-
nel); Sloc == llPloc/(Popw~pl2) is the eoeffieient of loeal resistanee of the ~lVen el~~ent ?f n n 2 n 2
pipe (ehannel); wop is the mean flow velocity at seetion F unde~ th.e operatmg ~Ond1tlOnS, 3m =I. llPi P~ =I. Si P!;I P~ = I. SiP~WI , (1.66)
mJs [see Equation (1.17)]; Qop is the volumetrie flow rate of a lIqmd or a working gas, m /s 1=1 PI i=1 PI 1=1
[see Equation (1.16)]; Pop is the density of a liquid or a working gas, in. kg/m [see Eq~ati0f
3

(1.18)]; and F is the eross-seetional area of the pipe (ehannel) element bemg ealeulated, 1ll m . where i is the number of the network seetion (element) being ealculated; n is the total number
11. The friction loss eoefficient of the element eonsidered is defined through the frietion of such seetions (elements); llPi = {).N/Qi are the total (overall) los ses of total pressure (resis-
faetor of hydraulies ')... as: tanee) in the ith seetion (element) of the system, * normalized to the volumetrie flow rate of
the medium Qi through this seetion (element); Si == 211p/((PiW[) is the resistanee eoefficient
')...·l of the given seetion (element) of the network normalized to the velocity Wi.
Sfr=n'
-- h In the~eeond method, the generalresistance C0efficient ofthe· network is

The coefficients ')... and, henee, Sfr at the eonstant value of l/Dh and incompressible flow is n n 2
a funetion of Re and of the roughness of the ehannel walls, Xo = llolDh or X = llIDh· - llpsys '\:"'
SO,sys = - - 2 - = k..S<jli = k.. '-;,i - :
'\:"' r PO [FO]
F (1.67)
12. The loeal resistanee eoeffieient Sloc is mainly a funetion of the geometrie parameters powo/2. . p! 1
1=1 1=1
of the pipe (ehannel) element eonsidered and also of some general faetors of motion, whieh
include: where
the velocity distribution and the degree of turbulenee at the entranee of the pipe element
_ llPi
eonsidered; this velocity profile, in turn, depends on the flow regime, the shape of the S<jlI=--2-
inlet, the shape of various fittings and obstacles, and their distanee upstream from the powo/2
element eonsidered, as weH as the length of the preeeding straight pipe;
the Reynolds number; and is the resistanee eoefficient of the given (ith) element of the network normalized to the veloc-
ity Wo in the adopted seetion of the network Fo [see Equation (1.63)]; Si is the resistanee
the Mach number, Ma == w/al'
eoeffieient of the given (ith) seetion (element) of the network normalized to the velocity Wi
13. The prineiple of superposition of los ses is used not only for ealculation of aseparate in the seetion Fi of the same seetion (element). Generally, the eoeffieient Si ineludes also the
element of the pipe (ehannel), but also in the hydraulic ealeulation of the entire network. This eorreetion for the mutual effeet of adjaeent elements of the network.
means that the sum of the los ses in separate elements of the pipe (ehannel) yields the total
resistanee of the system. Here it is understood, of course, that the mutual enhaneement or *Here, the subscripts "tot" or "ov" at IIp and ~ for individual sections (elements) of the network are
interferenee effeet of the adjaeent elements is taken into aeeount. omitted.
 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition Aerodynamics and Hydraulics of Pressure Systems 47
46

The total losses of the total pressure over the entire network are given by r (n-1)/n [
-=~(-J
Pi Pi-l
pa l pa
n- 1
+ - gpi-l(Zi-l-Z)
A _ r POWO2 _'\'n r . POWO2_'\'n r. po (J2
Fo POWO2 n
D.psys - ~O,sys 2 - k.J ~<l>l 2 - -'-' ':ll Pi FI 2
1=1 1=1 . '2 2] -lin }n/(n-l)
+ Ni-I PI-Iwl-1 - (Ni + Si) Pi-1 W i (Pi-1 J J.. (1.70)
2 2 pa pa
= ~ ~i poPi (F~J2 PO (QOJ2
F 2 Fo
k.J 1 In this case, all of the quantities with the subscript i-1 as well as Si, Ni, Zi, and wi are
i=l
known (assigned or calculated). Only the quantity PtfPa is unknown.
2. In the majority of cases, the process can be regarded to be isentropic. Then, the expo-
or nent n in Equation (1.70) can be replaced by k. For locking devkes n"" 1.15,20 and Equation
(1.70) acquires the form

il =~
k.J r.~(FOJ2
~l F' ~(~J2
(1.68)
psys ') F
°
(-J
•
~
i=l
PlP I
Pi
-= {
Pi-l 0.13 [
+0.13 gPi-l(Zi-I-Zi)+Ni-l-- -
Pi-IWt--l
~ ~ 2

and at Pi = Po = P
2] -0.87 }7.67
- (Ni + Si) Pi-IWi
2
(Pi-IJ
pa
J..
pa
(1.71)

ilpsys = :;
~ Si (FOJ2 Pp (QOJ2
Fi 2" Fo
(1.69)
. For T-joints and other analogous shaped elements, when n "" 1 and the pressure is propor-
tIOnal to the gas density [see Equation (1.33) in which, in a general case, the subscript will
. be i-I and i, respectively],

1.7 DISTRIBUTION OF STATIC PRESSURE OVER Pi 1 { Pi-1 W t--l

In- = - gpi-I(Zi-1 - Zi) + Ni-l - - -
THE SECTIONS OF A NETWORK OF RATHER .Pi-I Pi-I 2
HIGH RESISTANCE
1. The loss of specific energy over any (ith) segment in a network can be defined through the (1.72)
resistance coefficient of the given segment:
Then
2 2
A _LlNi,tot LlNi,tot Wi r Wi
D.e i ,tot=-C;-=--2-"T="i"T '
GWi/ 2

where i = 1, 2, 3, ....
From this, the equation analogous to Equation (1.23) for two seetions (i-l)-(i-l) and i-i or
takes the form
Pi Pi-l A (1.73)
Pi-I wt-l
Pi..
gZi-l +-+Ni-1--+ Ui-I =gZi+-+ U1 + (Ni + SI) ?
wt . -=-e.
pa pa
pw 2 ~-
3. Pressure distribution along the network is calculated in the following order: usin<r the
The latter equation, together with Equations (1.30), (1.31), and (1.32) for the ith and (i-
l)th seetions, leads to the following relation allowing the calculation of the statk pressure in
quantitites which are given for initial section 0-0 (i = 1) and which enter, in the case n > 0;
1, into the right-hand side of Equation (1.70), the value of pressure PI/Pa in section 1-1 is
seetion i-i if it is known for section (i-l)-(i-l): calculated. On the basis of Equations (1.20) and (1.30) the values of and are calculatedWl P1
48 Handbook oj HydrauZic Resistance, 4th Edition
and, correspondingly, the pressure P2IPa from Equation (1.71) for the sections 2-2 [Equations
(1.20) and (1.30) are used with subscripts i-I and i].
Analogously, ca1culations are also made for the case n = 1, using Equations (1.20), (1.33),
and (1.73).
1.8 GENERALIZED FORMULAS OF RESISTANCE
FOR HOMOGENEOUS AND HETEROGENEOUS
SYSTEl\IlS9 ,lO
1. The total resistance to the motion of a Newtonian fluid can be considered as a sum of
resistance forces:
1. Viscous forces that hinder the irrotational (laminar) motion of fluid.
2. Those opposing the change in the momentum of the system when secondary fluid flows
oriGinate in it under the influence of some external forces.
3. A ~oup of driving forces that involve the projections of extern al forces onto .the axis
of motion, so that it is possible to write that the resistance force per volume umt of the
system is
2
j),p _ kI1l w o
y--p-+-Z-+"::"
npwo ~F +~ F
1-"::" 2,
P
where kl11 w o/ is the viscous resistance force per volume unit of the system; Wo is the flow
velocity averaged over the channel seetion; npwÖ/Z are the additional resistance forces per
volume unit of the system that oppose the motion of fluid in the case of turbulent mode of
flow and also during the flow through individual obstac1es (Iocal resistances); L FI =
L mw';V is the resistance force which is numerically equal to the sum of extern al forces per
vol~U:e ur'Iif or-thesystem that develop and suppress internal flows in it; this force follows
from the momentum conservation law of the system (mi and Wi are the mass and velocity of
the volume element inside of which no internal motions originate any Ion ger; V is the volume
of region B [Figure 1.12]; L F2 is the sum of the projections, onto the pipe axis, of the p~­
tential part of external forces which act on the fluid and which are related to the volume umt
of the system; this sum of forces can be either a driving force (minus sign) or the resistance
force (plus sign); k1 is the coefficient of the shape (for a pipe of circular cross section kl =
32); I is the characteristic dimension (it is the diameter for a pipe and I = Dh = 4FITI for a
Figure 1.12. Scheme of intemal eddy motion of fluid and of the effect of extemal forces on it.
Aerodynamics and Hydraulies oj Pressure Systems 49
channel), L is the length of the system segment considered; n is the proportionality factor;
when the fluid flows through obstac1es, it is equal to the coefficient of local resistances Sloc.
2. The internal flows can be induced by the influence of Archimedean forces on a fluid
under the condition of heat (pgßtil7) or mass (ilpg) transfer (where ßt and ilT are the termal
coefficient of fluid expansion and the temperature head, respectively; ilp is the difference of
densities).
In electromagnetic fields, the internal flows in a system can originate under the action of
a group of forces; these are induction electromagnetic forces that suppress the internal flows;
conduction electromagnetic forces that resuIt from the interaction of electric current with a
current-conducting fluid and from the interaction of the magnetic field of the current with the
external magnetic fieId; eIectromagnetic forces that originate during the interaction of an elec-
tric Iayer at the phase interfaces with the extern al eIectric and magnetic fields. 16,57 Internal
fore es can also originate, for example, during the flow of a fiuid in a straight pipe rotating
around its axis. 66
3. In heterogeneous (nonuniform) systems, the phases of which have substantially different
densities, the internal flows originate due to a relative motion of phases. In this case, the
force per volume unit of the system that drives individual local particles is defined as
F=(pp - p)g ,
3
where Pp is the density of a partic1e, in kg/m .
This motion is hindered by the viscous forces kI'T"}WO/P and by the forces L FI that follow
from the momentum conservation law. Therefore, for one local particle these fore es are
In the case of the volumetrie concentration of the dispersed phase l1con, the fore es that induce
the intemaLflows in a volume 1,mit of thesystem are
L Fi = (pp - p)g - k11lWO] Ilcon .
-P-
[
4. Simple transformations of the expression j),p/L make it possible to obtain the frktion
coefficient
(1.74)
where
Re
B (1.75)
 50 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition
Aerodynamics and Hydraulies of Pressure Systems 51
Table 1.12 The function n = f(Re)
t..= 2k1
B ' (1.77)
Re n Re n
3 5
0-2 x 10 0 10 0.0087
6 where ß = alb is the aspect ratio of the channel; when ß = 1: 15 and ß = 1: 17, it was obtained
2.5 x 10 3 0.0042 10 0.006
3 7 that kl = 44 and for ß = 1:25 that k 1 = 32.7; (b) the flow in the ep-field, when the magnetic
4 x 10 0.0120 10 0.004.
4 8 induction vector is parallel to the large side of the MHD channel;5,64 for this case,
10 0.0128 10 0.003
2 x 104 0.0098 Re
B

Equation (1.75) is a generalized criterion of hydrodynamic similarity. It follows from

Equation (1.74) that the relationship between the resistance coefficient and the above-indi- whereas t.. can be found from Equation (1.77); when ß = 14.5, k1 = 44; when ß = 32, k 1 = 48.
cated criterion should be linear under any conditions of fluid motion in the system. The intermediate case is the MHD flow in a channel at ß = 1 or in a circular pipe when
In particular, for a turbulent flow in straight circular pipes (2: F I = 1 and L F2 = 0) Equa- t.. is determined from Equation (1.76).
tion (1.74) takes the form 7. When a fluid flows in a bent pipe, the system experiences the centrifugal inertia forces.
These forces bring about the redistribution of pressures over the section due to wh ich trans-
64(1 +-Re
n 64
) =-+2n verse (secondary) flows originate. In this case, t.. is found from Equation (1.77) and
t..=- ,
Re 32 Re
Re
B
where n can be found by equating the values of t.. from the latter relation to its values from
Diagram 2.1. The function n = flRe) is presented in Table 1.12.
5. When, during the fluid flow through pipes and channels, the external forces simultane-
ously contribute to and hin der the development of internal flows in the system (for example, where D is the diameter of the pipe cross section; R is the mean radius of the pipe bent
during the motion of fluids having appreciab1e electrical conductivity, in a longitudinal mag- 1
rounding; m = 1.76 x 10- for the laminar regime of flow; m = 1.57 x 10-2 for the turbulent
netic field,5,1l,14,32,61 the generalized criterion of hydrodynamic similarity is regime of flow.
In coiled pipes the fluid flow varies simultaneously in two directions with the rounding
Re
B radii R 1 and R2· For this case, the values of t.. are found from Equation (1.77) and

B Re
where Ha = Bol~C5/ll is the Hartman number (Bo is the magnetic field induction; () is the
electrical conductivity of the fluid; I = Dh is the hydraulic diameter).
In this case, the resistance coefficient is

'\ = 64
fI, B'
(1.76) For a fluid moving in a pipe the axis of which is normal to the rotation axis of this pipe,
the fluid experiences the action of the Coriolis inertia forces that redistribute the pressure in
66
the fluid and induce internal flows. For this case, the values of t.. are determined from
6. During the flow of conducting fluids in pipes or channels in the trans verse magnetic Equation (1.77) and
field, two cases are considered: (a) a plane-parallel flow in a channel when the magnetic field
induction vector is normal to the large side of the magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) chan- Re
nel; 11,14,37,61 for this case, B
n m roD R ro 2D2 '
1+-Re+-Re-+--Re--
Re
32 16 wo - 32D wO
B
n (n JO.5 ß0.25 Ha + ß H?.5a '
1 + k1 Re - Jq 0 .25
where R is the me an radius of pipe rotation and ro is the angular speed of pipe rotation.
k 8. In the case of nonisothermal flow in pipes and channels, in the flow core and near the
wall, the viscosities and densities of the fluid in the flow core and near the wall can be sub-
52 Handbook 0/ Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition Aerodynamics and Hydraulies 0/ Pressure Systems 53

stantially different due to the difference of temperatures of the fluid in these zones, and this For the pipe of gas-liquid mixtures, P » P2 (where P2 is the density of gas bubbles);
leads to the origination of internal flows (heat convection). therefore
For this case,
Re
B 2
B
Re n R [pg - k21l w2IBw.D
2 ' I +- e +-'--------
n R 28 pgßt~Tl 32 32T1 wa
1+- e + - - - -
kl kil T1wO
In all three cases, the resistance coefficient A. can be taken according to Equation (1.77).
where

1.9 LIQUID AND GAS FLOW THROUGH AN ORIFICE

Flow of an Incompressible Fluid

During the pipe flow of different oi1s the coefficient A. is found from Equation (1.77) and 1. The velocity Weon of jet discharge for an incompressible fluid passing from the exit section
for the channel flow A. = 77A/B. of a submerged nozzle or orifice in the wall of vessel A into vessel B (Figure 1.13), is ex-
In the case of nonisothermal flow of low-viscous fluids (for example, water), the thermal pressed, based on the Bernoulli and continuity equations, by the following formula: *
convection even at small temperature differences can substantially influence the resistance,
and, in this case,
Weon = <P ~~gP(Zl - Z2) + (PI - P2) ,
B- Re
- n + pgßt~TD2
1 + 32 Re_
32T1 wO where the velocity coefficient <p has the form:

9. The forces that induce intern al flows in a heterogenous system due to the relative mo-
tion of phases depend on both the difference of the densitities of the fluid and dispersed par- (1.78)
ticles and the characteristic dimension and shape of these particles and the velocity of their
motion in the fluid,
In the case of the flow of suspensions in straight hydraulically smooth pipes, the general- Here, zr and Z2 are the depths to which the center of gravity of the orifice (nozzle) is sub-
ized hydrodynamic criterion is defined as merged relative to the free liquid level in vessels A and B, respectively, in m; PI and P2 are
the pressures on the free surface in respective vessels (sections 1-1 and 2-2), in Pa; NI and
Re N 2 are the kinetic energy coefficients in sections 1-1 and 2-2; FI and F2 are the areas of these
B= 2 2'
n [(pp - p)g - k2T1 wV12]/lD cross sections, in m2; E = Feon/Fo is the coefficient of contraction of the nozzle exit section
1 + 32 Re + 32T1 wa (for an orifice in a thin wall it is the coefficient of jet contraction in the narrowest cross
section of the jet); F eon is the area of the jet (not of the nozzle) cross section at the exit from
where W2 is the velocity of the relative motion of a disperse particle in the fluid; k2 is the the nozzle; in the area of an orifice in a thin wall (Figure 1.14), F eon is the area of the con-
coefficient of the shape of the disperse particle (for a sphere, k2 = 12); 12 is the characteristic tracted cross section of the jet, in m2 ; Fa is the area of the exit cross section of the nozzle
(office), in m ; and S(1-2) = ~P(I-2)/(PW~on/2) is the resistance coefficient of the entire flow
dimension of the particle (for a sphere, 12 = dloe)' 2
For the pipe flow of dusted streams, when the density of solid particles Pp is much smaller path from section 1-1 to section 2-2 reduced to the velocity Weon.
than the gas density p, the latter quantity can be neglected. Then 2. In the general case of the flow from vessel A into vesse1 B (see Figure 1.13), the pres-
sure losses consist of the losses over the stretch from section 1-1 to the exit from the nozzle
Re or orifice (section c-c) and shock los ses at the jet expansion from the narrow section c-c at
B
the exit from the nozzle (orifice) to section 2-2, that is,

"In the case of agas flow, the quantities z and I are nealected.
54 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition Aerodynamics and Hydraulics of Pressure Systems 55

3. In the ease of the liquid flow from vessel A into vessel B of large volume, that is, at
Fo «F2

while at Fo « Fl

Figure 1.13. Diseharge from a submerged orifice. When the flow diseharges from vessel A through a nozzle in the bottom of the vessel, its
veloeity is

Weon = <p ~ -1gp(z + l) + (PI - Peon) ,

FOJ2 p
Seon(I-2) = Seon,noz - 1 + Ssh = Seon,noz -1 + 1- 10 F2
(
where l is the distanee from the exit orifiee to the referenee plane (Figure 1.14), in m, and
Peon is the statie pressure at the exit from the nozzle (or in a eontracted jet seetion behind the
= Seon,noz - 210
Fo + (FOJ2
F2 F2 orifiee in a thin wall), in Pa.
4. The volumetrie flow rate of an ineompressible fluid through a nozzle (orifiee) in the
where Seon,noz is the total resistanee eoefficient of the nozzle or orifiee, whieh also includes side wall of the vessel is
the dynmnie pressure losses at the exit, redueed to the velocity Weon'
The resistanee coefficient Seon(I-2) ean be expressed in terms of the resistanee coefficient Q =weoncFo =<p€FO -12/p[gp(ZI - Z2) + (PI - P2)]
SOO-2) = ~Pl_2/(pw6/2),reduced to the mean veloeity Wo at the exit from the nozzle (orifiee):
=JlFo -121p[gp(Zl - Z2) + (PI - p2)]

WO
Seon(I-2) = S0(1-2) Weon J2 = S0(1-2)C2=[SO,noz - 2€ Fo
F2 + (FOJ2]
F2 2
10,
and through the bottom of the vessel
(
Q = JlF0 -12/ P[gp(ZI + l) + (PI - Peon)]
whenee, having substituted into Equation (1.78), we obtain
When PI, P2, and Peon are equal to atmospheric pressure, the fluid flow rate through the noz-
zle in the side wall of the vessel is

Q =JlFo -12g(ZI + Z2) ,

thIOUgh the vessel bottom is

Q = JlFo -12g(ZI + l) .

5. The eoeffieient of discharge, Jl, through an orifice in a thin wall depends on the shape
of its inlet edge, on the area ratio FoIF lo and on the Reynolds number (beeause 10, <p, and S
Figure 1.14. Discharge from avesseI through an orifice in the bottom or wall. depend on these parameters).
 Handbook ojHydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition Aerodynamics and Hydraulies oj Pressure Systems 57
56

P,rp.t' JI 111

, ~~
D.B
~ ~
0.90
0.80 /" ~
A
V/ /
.~ l.,....-o
/'" ;;;;.. Bill E
-
o.70~--+-~--+-+-~~
fJ.5
'V W, J I , V-
a60 i--.~t7;;;;;i:t::~J--JJ 11,11
I !I J IIf
I I; I 'I
0. 50 }--.;-~-'----l--+-­ N, 'I 'h ~J
o.40~--~---+~-
fJ.2
2.. Y ß,~5J~ /1 /.9
0.30 1"--.0:-..o-t---~f---..J:"-'+--.1~_""""'1.,..,.,..1 ~~ 0I:::::.-...../
./~
/

}/ 10
5 10 f 5 10 I
/l/O 2
5 10 I
1./0 J
5 10 I
x 1'0 y
5Rer
KlO' tJ
l
l-r~~ ~~
-
5101 5101
x 10 1
e
x70 Z
f101 SlO1
lflO J X70'l-
sm Ker
Figure 1.15. Velocity coefficient <p, coefficient of filling the section Get contraction) E, and coefficient
2
of discharge !l through an orifice in a thin wall plotted against the Reynolds number Re. Figure 1.18. Dependence of the discharge coefficient on the Reynolds number Re for dis charge from
outer cylindrical nozzles: 55 (1) dis charge coefficient for orifices in a thin wall; the length of the nozzle;

v (2) Id; (3) 1.5d; (4) 3d; (5) 5d; (6) IOd; (7) 20d; (8) 3üd; (9) Süd.

V 6. The coefficient of discharge, Il, through nozzle in the bottom or in the wall of avesseI
0.*
can vary over wide ranges (from zero to values above unity, since the shape and other pa-
Y
I} .. -
0.1 0.2
~
~

tJ.5
.....
1 2 5 10 20 Re{J
rameters of the nozzles can vary significantly). The coefficient of discharge is also a function
of the Reynolds number ReT, Froude number Fr = 2PdislgDo, and of the Weber number We
= 2PdispDo/a, where a is the coefficient of surface tension of the liquid. At Fr ~ 10 arid We
;::: 200, the influence of gravitational and surface forces on the discharge coefficient can be
Figure 1.16. Dependence of the discharge coefficient on Re number (small Re's) for discharge from
neglected.
orifices. 2 7. The dependence oftlle coefficients E, <p, and Il for an orifice in thin wal1 on ReT =
wTDo/v, where WT = "-i2/ p[gpz + PI - Peon] is the theoretical veloeity of diseharge through an
orifiee in the eontraeted jet seetion at Wl = 0 and Do is the orifiee diameter, can be deter-
mined at Fo/FI = 0 from the eurves of Figure 1.15. The funetion Il = j(Reo) at small Reo
(Reo = woDo/v = IlReT) is given in Figure 1.16.
8. The values of Il for orifices and nozzles of certain shapes (Figure 1.17) can be deter-
mined from Table 1.13 and from Figures 1.18 and 1.19.

v j.1.
jJ.
""";i
~ I· rr 'I III
0.78
.• 0.76 ~
iIIIl
c:: .... I
aGO
0.59 _
~ 0-1 ~

~ 0.7* J,
;::I
.-2
S-J
i-- 0,5G ~
u 0.72 0.5* ~
& 0.70 lJ I 0.52 &:
[l/,G3 I 0.50
Q 0.02 MG 0.10 0.14 0.13 tl/ti

Figure 1.19. Dependence of the discharge coefficient on the relative thickness of the wall for the inner
Figure 1.17. Discharge from avesseI through nozzles. cylindrical nozzle: 48 (1) d = 10 rnrn; (2) d = 15 mrn; (3) d = 3ü rnm.
 u,
Table 1.13 Values of the discharge coefficients ~ co

Formulas for calculation of 11

Shape of the orifice, nozzle
At different FolFl AtFo1Fl----70
Orifice in a thin (lIDo ~ 0.1) wall (bottom)
of a vessel 2,27 (Figure 1.17a)

Reo = woDo ;:::: 105 11 11 N 0.59

V 1 + 0.707 >11 - FolFI
~ I Reo
Reo~ 10
11 N \j 25.2 + Reo
Ret
10 < Reo~40 11
10 + 1.5 Ret
Ret
40< Ret~ 300 Il~
5 + 1.5 Ret
0.27
300< Ret ~ 104 11 N 0.59 + -v6
Ret ~
;:s
4
10 < Re! < 10
5 11
BI
0.59 + -{Re; ~
N co
co
?;-
BI =5.5 for a circular ~
section;2
~
= 8.9 for a rectangular
~
BI
60
section
~
Orifice in a thin wall with a thickened inlet edge (Figure 1.17) 0.925 r;'
~
D-Do ""c;;.
at DO =0.11 and IchlDo =0.5 (optimal parameters); v,

E!
;:s
Fo/Fl >4-5 (;

Re = 2.6 x 10 4
-;- 4 X 104
13
.""4::..
~

~
Orifice with a rounded inlet (rlDo > 0) Ccanoidal nozzle, 0.97
11 >11.07 - 0.07Fo1FI
(3'
;:s

:;t..
Figure 1.17c) Re;:::: 105 27
""c:;
External cylindriacl nozzle;31 sharp inlet edge (Figure ] .l7a,d);:! 11 = --./a5 + 0.463 - ao ~
;:s
\::)

Fol Fj > 4-5; liDo = 1-7 ao=~l/Do+ 5.8 ~

r;.
Ret Ret v,
2 \::)
Re! < 10 liDo 11 = -Jb5 + 0.588- bo ;:s
~
2
10 liDo < Ret < 3 x 10-3 liDo bo =~ liDo + 7.4 ~
Ret Re! t}
\::)
1 ;;::
11------- [
3 x 10-3 liDo< Ret< 105 ~ / 0.336
0.82
\j 1.5 + RetO.25 liDO ~
"tI

Ret;:::: 10 527
~
;;::
!l >11.5 - 0.5Fo1Fl ~
~
v,
Rounded inlet edge (rlDo > 0; Figure 1.17d); !l =--./a'2 + 0.5 - a2 Ca) (\i
~
v,
FolFj > 4-5 16 6.3
a2 = Ret (0.25rIDo + lo/Do) + Ret
Ret< 10 liDo for 101Do < 0.5

10 l/Do < Ret < 102 [/Do 1l=--./b~+0.714-b2 (b)

b2 = 3O. .4 (0.25r/Do + 101Do) + R90

R~ ,~

at 101Do > 0.5

2
10 1/Do < Ret < 103 liDo ~L by formula Ca)
3
Ret > 10 liDO 11 by formula (b)

11
A I I' 0.33
'JNo+",r+ ReP.25 (0.25r/Do+I/Do)

Ul
\0
 0\
o
Table 1.13 (continued)

Formulas for calculation of /-L

Shape of the orifice, nozzle
At different Fo/FI At Fo/FI ~ 0
No from Diagrams 4.2 and 4.3:
~r from Diagram 3.4

Üuter cylindrical nozzle, conical inlet (Figure l.l7e) /-L =~j + 0.476 -a3

31 15.2 6.0
Fo/FI > 4-5 a3 = Re;" (nll/Do + lo/Do) + Ret (a)
n - from the table
RetS; 1011D0 aO•.. O 10 20 40 60 80 100 120
n 0.63 0.46 0.26 ·0.13 0.04 0.02 0.01
At 101D0 < 0.05
c ... l.70 1.41 1.40 ].42 1.45 1.48 1.53 1.56
At 101D0 > 0.05
~
:::s
c ... 1.70 1.56 1.48 1.41 1.43 1.45 1.50 1.54 ~
Cl
Cl

At 10/Do S; 0.5l1Do
~""
2?
~l =
~ I 2 25.2
\f b3 + -c 2
R .-
et
b3 (b) ~
;S
;::;.
1Oll Do < Ret < 60ll Do 85 (i 25.2 ) !::\j
b3 = 2c Ret (lt/Do + lo/Do + 2c Ret
""
c..,
c:;.
n and c - from the table B'
:::s
C"J
At lo/Do > 0.5l/Do ,""
-4.
/-L - from formula (a) S.
~
3
60llDo< Ret < 10 liDo /-L - from formula (b)
~.
:::s

;:t.
""c:;
Re! > 2 x 103 /-L ~
:::s
~NO+S:+ R~}'~~ (nlI/Do+l/Do)
~
~
~.
~
:::s
No - from Diagrams 4.2 and 4.3 ~

~k - from Diagram 3.7 2?

External conical converging nozzle (a = 13°; Figure l.17e) ~
;S
Ret;:::: 105,27 /-L
-11.2 - 0.2Fo/Fl 0.92 ~.

~
External conical diverging nozzle; sharp inlet edge "ö
0.65-0.7 ~
FLfFo = 2; a = 15° (Figure 1.17i) c..,
c..,

Ret;:::: 10 5
~
~
c..,
~

External smoothly converging-diverging nozzle

~
(Venturi tube)
(a = 6-8°; FLfFo = 4-5 (Figure 1.l7k)27
Internal cylindrical nozzle:
inlet edge of different thicknesses (o/Do > 0);
Fo/FI > 4-5; liDo = 3 (Figure 1.17/)
Ret < 2 x 104 48
 Aerodynamics and Hydraulies of Pressure Systems 63
62 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

Discharge of a Compressible Gas

1. When agas (vapor, air) issues at high pressure into the atmosphere, a significant change
occurs in its volume. Therefore, it is necessary to take into account the compressibility of the
gas. Neglecting the nozzle losses for an ideal gas and the effect of its mass, the velocity of
0 the adiabatic discharge can be determined from the Saint-Wantzel formula as:
t
k:'
~ ~ k PI [(k-I)/k]
~
wo= 2__ l-(PO] (1.79)
k- 1 PI PI

'+-<
0
and the mass discharge G, with allowance for los ses in the nozzle Cu = v-{():
c:
.:g
0

;3
~
u A I ~ 11[(PoJ/~ (PO ](k+I)/kj
u G = /lFo \I k - 1 P P lPI PI (1.80)
~
1)
ro

§ ~
;3 where the subscript 1 indicates that the respective quantities refer to the section of the pipe
0 ~ (vessel) upstream of the constricted nozzle section, and 0, to the smallest section of the nozzle
~
c or to the medium into which the gas issues.
~
~
'+-< 2. At the given pressure PI and density PI in the vessel, the discharge velocity and the
:cl
mass discharge at the given Fo depend on the pressure of the medium into which the gas
~
issues, i.e., on the ratio Po/PI.
With decrease in Po/PI, the dis charge velocity Wo increases until this ratio becomes equal
to the critical pressure ratio:
11
::L

When Po/PI = (Po/PI)cr> the velocity in the nozzle throat Fo is equal to the speed of sound
in the given medium.
With a further decrease in Po/PI, the velocity in the smallest cross section remains equal to
1)
N the local speed of sound
N
0
c:
0'
u
~
'C
0
1)
.s
'+-< Thus, with decrease of the pressure ratio below the critical value the mass flow rate of the
~ 0
~
::
1)
0.. gas does not increase at constant values of Pi> Pb and Fo:
::: ro
:,c ..c:
<Zl
:::
~
0 2
G = /lFOpowo = /lFo - -
Jl!(k-I) ~---
7k
PIPI . (1.81)
~ ( k+l k+l
~
,..1

:Q
CJ
Equations (1.79) and (1.80) can therefore be used for the ca1culation of the velocity and,
~
~
correspondingly, of the flow rate only when Po/PI 2:: (Po/PI)cr- When Po/PI 2:: (Po/PI)cr> Equa-
64 Handbook oi Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition Aerodynamics and Hydraulies oi Pressure Systems 65

!ion (1.81) should be used. In this case, the mass discharge is independent of the extern al
pressure Po and is controlled by the pressure PI in the vessel, increasing with its rise.
1.10 WORK OF THE SUPERCHARGER'~ IN A SYSTEM**
1. To set a liquid or gas medium at the ends of a given piping system in motion, it is nec-
essary to create a difference of the total pressure means of a pressure-boosting device (pump,
fan, flue-gas fan, compressor).
2. In the most general case, the total pressure developed in the supercharger is spent: (1)
where Psuc is the excess pressure in the suction volume, Pinj the excess pressure in the injec-
tion volume, Ps the excess elevation pressure (buoyancy), i1psuc the pressure losses (resis-
tance) over the suction stretch of the system, i1Pinj the pressure losses (resistance) over the-
injection stretch, and W ex the flow velocity at the exit from the system, in mls.
3. In the case where the pressures of the suction and injection volumes are equal (Psuc =
Pinj) , we have
2
ptot = i1psuc + i1pinj + P~ex ± ps =i1psys , (1.83)

to overcome the difference of pressures in the intake and discharge volumes; (2) to overcome
excessive elevation pressure (negative buoyancy) that is, to raise a liquid or gas, heavier than
the atmoshperic air, a height z from the initial to the final section of the system (in the case
of positive buoyancy [self-draught***] the height z is subtracted from the supercharger pres-
sure); and (3) to create a dynamic press ure at the exit of the liquid (ga~tcrigure 1.20) from
the system (not from a supercharger); that is, the total pressure Ptot (Pa), developed in the
supercharger is comprised of
where i1psys is calculated from Equation (1.66) or (1.68) [or (1.69)] for the entire system as
a sum of the los ses over the suction and injection stretches of the system (including the dy-
narrnc pressure losses at the exit from the system), while the buoyancy Ps is calculated from
Equation (1.59).
4. Since at Ps = 0 the sum of all the los ses in the system is equal to the difference between
the total pressures upstream and downstream of the supercharger, then

Ptot = (Pinj - psuc)

PW~x
± ps + (i1psuc + i1pinj) + -2- , (1.82) (
ptot = lPst,inj PW~jJ - (pst,suc + -2-
+ -2- Pw?ucJ
* - psuc
= pinj * , (1.84)

where P;uc - pinj are the excess total pressures respectively upstream and downstream of the
supercharger, in Pa; Pst,suc and Pst,inj are the excess static pressures respectively upstream and
downstream of the supercharger, in Pa; and Wsuc and Winj are the mean stream velocities up-
stream and downstream of the supercharger, respectively, in mls.
5. Under normal operating conditions of the supercharger, Ptot is positive, that is,

ptot,inj > Ptot,suc

At the same time both the static and the dynamic pressure downstream of the supercharger
can be smaller than upstream of it.
6. In a specific case of equal cross-sectional areas of the suction and injection orifices,

and, therefore, the pressure created by the supereharger will be

Figure 1.20. A supereharger in the system.
ptot = pst,inj - pst,suc , (1.85)

*Supercharger refers to apressure enhancement device such as a booster pump; supercharge refers that is, the pressure created by the supercharger is equal to the difference between the static
to pressurization. pressures immediately downstream and upstream of the supercharger.
**The case of incompressible fluid is considered. 7. The power on the supercharger shaft is determined from
***The term "self-draught" can be considered as the net driving head or buoyancy.
- QopPtot,op Qopi1psys (1.86)
****In what follows, the quantity Ptot will be called simply pressure instead of total pressure. N sup-
11 tot 11tot
 66 Handbook oj Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition
Aerodynamics and Hydraulies oj Pressure Systems 67

where Qop is the volumetrie flow rate of the medium being displaeed under operating eondi-
1.11 EXAMPLES OF THE METHOD OF CALCULATION
tions, in m 3/s, taken for that seetion to whieh all the pressure losses are redueed by a formula
similar to Equations (1.66)-(1.69); Ptot,op is the pressure ereated by a supereharger under op- OF THE FLUID RESISTANCE OF SYSTEMS
erating eonditions, in Pa, equal to the total pressure losses f..Psys redueed to the same volu-
metrie flow rate. Example 1.1. Forced Ventilation System
8. Usually the volumetrie flow rate of the medium displaeed is a speeified quantity, while
the pressure ereated by a supereharger is ealculated from Equations (1.82)-(1.85) for the pre- A sehematie diagram for the calculation of the ventilation system network is presented in
seribed eonditions in the system, that is, for given differenee of pressures in the suetion and Figure 1.21.
injeetion volumes (Pinj - Psue), exeess elevation pressure (±pel)' The resistance coeffieients Sfr Given are:
and Sloe, the flow velocity in eaeh element, and, eonsequently, the value of Ptot depend on the
1. Total quantity of the air sueked from the atmosphere, Q = 0.89 m 3/s, under normal eon-
shape and dimensions of the system.
ditions;
9. To determine whether a given supereharger meets the required predietions of Qop and
2. Flow rate through lateral branehes, Q = 0.22 m 3/s, under normal eonditions;
Ptot,op' it is neeessary first to reduee these quantities to those eonditions (density) of the me-
3. Temperature of the external (atmospherie) air, t = -20oe;
dium for whieh the supereharger performance is given. Then if the flow rate of the medium
4. Air temperature downstream of the heater, t = 20oe, and
being displaeed is given in m 3/s for normal eonditions, it is reealculated for the operating
5. Material from whieh the duets are made: sheet steel (oil coated), roughness f.. "'" 0.15
conditions from Equation (1.16).
mm (see Table 2.5).
10. The redueed pressure of the supereharger is
Since the gas temperature in the system varies (due to a heater), we shall use the first
pper Tw pper method of the superposition of losses, that is, summation of the absolute losses in the separate
pred =
peal-- - - - - , (1.87)
pne Tper psup elements of the network, reduced in this case to the volumetrie flow rate of air through the
entry section of the fan (Figure 1.21, 7):
where PeaJ is the ealculated pressure of the supercharger, in Pa; Pper is the density of the
medium at which the performance of the supereharger is determined under normal conditions MVi P7wt
(t = oDe; atmospheric pressure B = 101.325 kPa), in kg/m 3, Pne is the density of the medium f..psys =L f..Pi =L Q7 = L Si -2- ,
for which the supercharger is chosen at normal conditions, in kg/m3 ; Tw is the working tem- i i i
perature of the displaced medium in the supercharger, in K; P sup is the working pressure (ab- 3
solute) of the displaced medium in the supercharger, in Pa; Tpen Pper are the temperature (K) where P7 = 1.4 kg/m .
and pressure (Pa) of the medium at whieh the supercharger performance was determined; in The calculation of the resistanee is given in Table 1.14. Aeeording to this table, for the fan
to be seleeted, we have
the ease of fans, Pper = :(01.325 kPa.
11. In the case of high-head superchargers, the density of the medium being displaeed is
related to the mean pressure on the rotor. Then Psup in Equation (1.87) is replaced by the Qopi =0.955 m 3/s and f..psys =f..Ptot = 225 Pa .
mean absolute pressure on the rotor:
The power on the fan rotor at a fan efficieney of l1tot = 0.6 is
pm = psup + (f..Pinj - 0.5f..psys) ,
Nsup = Qopptot Q7f..psys O.9~~6255 W = 0.36 kW .
where f..Pinj are the pressure losses in the injection seetion of the system, in Pa, and f..Psys are 11 tot 11 tot
the total pressure losses in the whole system, in Pa.
12. The rated power on the supereharger shaft is

QopPeaJ QopPtot,perpneTperPinj
N sup = - - -
11 tot l1totpperTwpper

_N pne Tper pinj

- per pper Tw pper '

where Ptot,per is the pressure ereated by the supercharger aceording to specifieation, in Pa, and
Nper is the power on the supereharger shaft aceording to specifieation, in W. Figure 1.21. Scheme of calculation of the ventilation system network.
\ --- I J;~ j' ~ \ ;,'" ?;I}~~"' \ I '" I} i " \ ! _

Table 1.14 Calculation of the resistance in the forced ventilation system (see Figure 1.21) ,~

ßasisfor
Re= sr"i= ;)Pi ~ determination
Elcmcntof Diagram and basic dimensions
Parameters
Qop,i.
3 oe
ti. pi, ViX 10', Wi.
p~vr.pa W~hiXIO-5 1;,,,; Ai s~= S'oo" Si p,ll? , of Si
tl1esYSlem of Ihe element m /s kglm3 2
m /s m/s Ai-!±' 1;ro;, 2 (reference
Pa,

I Supply ven!

W;h.»omm
7.5" O.
, IJo=IJ95 mm
~=0.6 0.S25 -20 1.40 1.17 4.27 1.2(4,27)/2,

= 10.94
1.80 0.30 0.30 3.28 3.1

Fo " O.19Jm2
~
~

2 Straight
sU'etch 0.825 -20 1.40 1.17 4.27 10.94
-k=S.O 1.80 0.018 0.144 0.144 1.58 2,5
(vcrtical)

fffi
- 8
lJo lJO ='I!l5mm
A=D;; ::t:
\::l
= 0.0003 ;:::
"" l " 'IOOOmm
~
C)
C)
?;;-

~
~
~

3 Elbow bend
0=90°; 0,825 -20 1.40 1.17 4.27 10.94 1.80 0.44 0.018 0.024 0.464 5.08 6.9 ~
E..

'~
{;P=0.2; C:;.
8=0,0003 ~
(\)

_J lJ.='I9Smm
r=/OOmm '"
C;;.
~
;:::
C"")
.(\)

-l::.
S.
~
6·
;:::

f-I-r;j ~-~;mm
-k=2.0; 0.825 -20 1.40 1.17 4.27 10.94 ~
I.S0 (J.OIS 0.036 0.036 0.40 (\)
(horizontal) 2.5 ....,
A= C)

. ~ , Z= lDDOmm 0.0003 ~
;:::
t >:l
2i
C:;.
'"\::l
;:::
~

•
pmlVO:; 3.86
5 Air healer
with Ihree kg/m's
9.90 12.26
~
~
rows of
smooth ~
~
pipes
~
'"
~
"1::1
~
'"'"
~
~
~
~ ~=0.5
'"~
Do .. lt95mm
0.955 +20 1.20 1.5 4.95 14.70 1.64 0.25 0.25 3.68 4.9
~
6 Sudden
sharp
~ ~~ fq-O,19Jm2 '"
contraction f,,,,O.J6Pm2
~

7 Straight
stretch
f-I-tE;f
,"'i
1
i D,'<95mm
t = lDOOmm
-k=2.0;

A=
0.0003
0,955 +20 1.20 1.5 4.95 14.7 1.64 0.0185 0.037 0.037 0.55 2.5

(horizontal)

Cl\
\0
 -l
o

Table 1.14 (continued)

8 Pyramidal
F, 3.25 0.19 0.19 43.0 5.77
1.5 19.5 23.8
diffuser DQ-Z50mm
n=Yo 0.955 +20 1.20
(reelangular !liK~ O,,-J7Smm
cross seetion) ~ (8) ~:~~:,~1 =2.25
"2 '-' u= 10"

9 Straight
stretch
(horizontal) -m,~.
I
0.6
BQ~J75mm
F .:;O.. 111 'l.
l
o
= qOOOmm
m
;0 10.7;

L'i=
0.0004
0.955 +20 UO 1.5 8.6 44.5 2.15 0.018 0.193 0.193 8.57 2.5

10 F10w
7.2
divider """::..~ BI -J75mm :K=0.5; 0.478 +20 1.20 1.5 8.6 44.5 1.5
W"~~""'III\\.F1
~
(Passage wHh Jl.t-255mm
division of ~ Ft-U.lI1ni
,it-O.05Qni %;-=0.5; ;::!
Oow)
~
\Vst_ I .O; ct = 15° C)
\VI C)

II Straight
fs;= 18.8 ~
""
~
0.478 +20 1.20 1.5 8.6 44.5 1.5 0.019 0.36 0.36 16.0 2.5
Da =255mm
,~
stretch
(horizontal) l =5UOOmm
l L'i= ~
0.00056 2l
~
C:;.
if=O.5; 0.239 +20 1.20 1.5 8.0 38.4 1.04 0.25 0.019 0.05 0.30 11.5 7.30 >;;J
12 Symmetrieal
'"'"
1";: .
Sll100th wye
~'-0.50; 1::;'

'~"1f-r
(dovetail) in
discharge S-
',~~
;::!

•
~
Bt ~
For=U.OJM
255mm
i;= 1.5 "-l::..
-~
of flow)
01 Ft = O.055ni s:.
~
g.
;::!

I ~
13 Straight 0;; = 20.5; 0.239 +20 1.20 1.5 8.0 38.4 1.04 0.02 0.41 0041 ~
15.7 2.5

~
su'etch Da =255mm C3
~
(horizontal) L'i=
_ I I -5UUOmm
0.00077 ;::!
~
0=90° ;3l
C:;.
'"
~
;::!
Ro ~
15;;= 2.0; 0.239 +20 1.20 1.5 8.0 38.4 1.04 0.24 0.02 0.065
14 90" be nd 0.305 1l.7 6.1

~~. $
. 0 = 195mm
R f o =O.OJm2 L'i= ~
". R = Mumm 0.00077 2l
00 ~
C:;.
'"
~
<.!' I
0;; = 20.5; 0.239 +20 1.20 1.5
'"Cl
8.0 38.4 1.04 0.02 0041 0041 15.7 2.5 ~

il
15 Straight
SO'ctch Du"" 195mm L'i= '"'"
.:::
(horizontal) 1 ==1I000mm 0.00077 ~
!Ju
~
""'
1\i
;3l
~ ""'
0=5" 0.239 +20 1.20 1.5 8.0 38.4 1.04 0.25
~i
16 Butterfly 0.28 10.8 9.17
valvc

JL 17o =f95mm

~ I

~ ',-",,,,,,
0;;=2.0; 0.239 +20 1.20 1.5 8.0 38.4 1.04 1.70 0.02 0.06 1.76 67.6 11.8
17 Intake
nozzle at ~=0.20;
the exit
from '_<::,j t = 'fOOOmm L'i=
the bond l r='IOmm
0.00077
i:; /',Pi = /',p", ~ 225 Pa

-l
I-'
72 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition
Aerodynamics and Hydraulies of Pressure Systems 73

Example 1.2. Installation for the Scrubbing of Sintering Gases

The sehematie of the installation is shown in Figure 1.22.
Given are:
3
1. Total volumetrie flow rate of the gas (at t = 20
D
e and p = 101.325 kPa), Q = 278 m /s;
3
2. Density of the gas at normal eonditions, p = 1.3 kg/m ;
5 2
3. Kinematie viseosity of the gas at normal eonditions, v = 1.32 x 10- m /s;
4. Internal eoating of the gas mains (eomparatively long): sheet steel, roughness taken to
be the same as for seamless eorroded steel pipes (after several years of service), Ll z 1.0
mm (see Table 2.5);
3 2
5. Gas c1eaning, done in a wet scrubber, rate of spraying A z 0.014 m /m ·s (see Diagram
12.11).

ce
o 11
'"ci ~I~
01 0
V]

0011
§
11

~I~ }
"1"

~f?;
,::I..€
ci
11 11
~I ~
giS
<l1..€ ""11"7
11
1<1
fl ~ .!2 11;eS
11
111
x .
11 "71'"
Ne-
fl~ 11
r.:'1k:

(a)

(bI

Figure 1.22. Scheme of calculation of the installation for scrubbing sintering gases: Ca) plan of an in-
stallation; Cb) side view.
 -...l
.j;;.
Table 1.15 (continued)

S Butterfly valve
x 105 m2/s J,f-=0.9 (Ö = 5°) 1~0 =50 120 0.90 2.7

~
Vi
(at 10% closing, '0

8 = So)
fq=lfm 2

6 Wet scrllbber (see Diagram 12.11); F = 32 m2 At the entrance t = l20°C; at (he exit 273 +85
50--- 120+50
--2-=85 1.0
t = 50°C; rate of liquid spraying A= 273 + 120
3 2
0.014 m ;m s = 50 x 0.91 = 45.5

7 Exit stretch of 273 + 50

~=~=0.33 45.5--- 50 1.0
F1~2b- F2b
- -
the scrubber- 2Fs 2x6.4 273 + 85
symmetrie tee W11J.
.ili.=05 =45.5xO.9=41

10:·""'1"'.~'"1
Qt .

it Ft .. 3500. 1200='1.2m
2

~
;:os
~

"'"
""aa
8 Straight ...!Q..=~=58

iL "'"
2x40=80 50 1.10 1.8
horizontal IWQ;f~ _J .."
Dh 1.800 . q,
stretch 118~0 = 0.0006 ~
i. tu • i
1200
X=
~
;;S
10 =10,500 mm ;S
Fo ""JSOOx 1200 = '1.2rrl (:).
n - ". '1.2 ~ 18 2
h -213.5+ 1.2) • m
::tI
""""0::;'
S
;:os
(J

--~IH500
,<I>
9 Inlet to the fllle Fo 4.2
F; = 15.8 '" 0.27 2x40=80 50 1.10 1.8 ~

• s..
V/o;fo rrt
Fo = !f.2
F1 :; 15.8 nl
~
c:;.
;:os

~
<I>
~
~
;:os
~
;:::
(:;.
""
~
;:os
10 First straight ~
~22.0 =49
stretch of the
flue rn -
Do 4.5
1.0
.

~ = 4S00 = 0.00022
313
80 323 = 77.5 40 1.13 1.7 ~
~
;;S
;S
(:).
""
q,
JjJ
1
Bo
J]o~~500mm
Fo =/5.0m2
lu= 22,1l00mm
'-tI
'"""
<I>

""~
~
~

t
!!!.= 7.0S =045 313
40 J.J3 1.7
11 Transition Fj 15.8 . 80 323 =77.5 ""~
passage-con- ;:::
lJt""'fSOomm ~2400=08
verging seetion
Ot./2 J) .:-;
lJQ-JOOOmm Do 3000 . ""
f , =15.8m2 - 1.0
.lJ, Fo '" 7.05m 2 a=34° .1. 3000 = 0.00033
lr=ZlJOOmm
~t
~ (){. = 3""

12 Second straight

ff
streich
of the flue ~ 41.S00 "" 14 313
40 1.13
Do 3000 80 323 = 77.5 1.7

Exit from - 1.0 313

~ 3000 = 0.00033 80 323 =77.5 40 1.13 1.7
the flue

~J
Driving head in 1.13
the entire flue D,",100Qmm
Fo:;:.7.(JSm1
lq='115nO mm
~
Ul
 Aerodynamics and Hydraulies of Pressure Systems 77
76 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

In the present ease, the gas temperature in the system varies due to eooling; therefore, as
done in Example 1.1, we use the first method of superposition of losses: summation of the
absolute losses in the separate elements of the network, redueed to the volumetrie flow rate,
0> "" '"
'OE '"
.,f 0
~~ ;::! c: for example through seetion 0-0, that is, through the seetion of entry into an elbow 1 (Figure
::: <I:j §c ~
" ~ ~
11 0
1.22), where P = 0.18 kg/m3.
.g bb
<I:j
::: :.:=
'§
~ g
<I:j

S os -0'" ~
r..:
r-
a\ ~ ~
An'E
0; 8 ~
,~~
§ So
~
trl
C'i
l"
trl
C'i
trl
C'i ~~
""'"
11
'"
~
-Tl'"
6:.8
l~
6i
'8
.E
~
11 The ea1culation of the resistanee is given in Table 1.15.
The self-draught ereated by the exhaust flue is equal to:
~
c:: trl 11

~ ~ i:g55 ~§ ~
~
,...; ~
a.
'"
0.1 g!
:::l

~
11

t8~ ';:j

~ -- a
"'0
.,f ,'§" ..,~ 11
:!H ps =Hfl(pa - pg)g ,
.~ g "" .0::
f-o
~
g. " ~
CQ

<I:j
where Hfl. = 62 m is the height of the flue; Pa is the density of the atmospheric air, in kg/m 3;
p...
pao is the density of the gas at the 7inlet to the exhaust flue, in kg/m 3; g is the gravitational
;;; '"C'i'I
co 0 trl C'l 0
11 N'_\" ce 0
.,f -T
-T
:=!
'D
g ;:! :i5 r-
S aeceleration, assumed to be 9.8 mls-.
~ ~ <'1 ~ C'l C'l
C'1
1
00 ci

0> At the temperature of atmospheric air fair = OOC we have

J::
11
>J'
+'-,. C'l
r-
co
C'l
'D co
C'l g 0 S '" 8
Vl
-T
C'l ce pa = 1.29 kg/m3 .
1 C'i ci
0> ci ci C'i ci ci ci ci
,3.
At the temperature tg = 40°C, the mean density of the gas is

!~~IQ '"8 sci -T

8 ~
pg = 1.13 kg/m3 ,
1 1 1
ci
ci
>J' « ci ci

co Vl -T
whenee
-T
c-< 1 Ci 1 Ci 1 Ci Ci
ci ci ci ci
ps = 62(1.29 -1.13) x 9.81 z 98 Pa .

co 0
This positive self-draught (buoyancy) favors the motion of the stream, therefore it should
g
,::;.
~ ~ 'D
ci ci C'i
1 C'l
ci g 'iii '"ci
Vl 1 :3 be subtraeted from the totallosses (see Table 1.15). The power on the shaft of the flue
blower intended only for this installation at 11tot = 0.6 is N sup = QopPtoJ11tot = Q 1fJ.PsyslO.6 =
'.0 430.13200.6 W "" 946 kW.
11
~ 0 Vl Vl
X 'D
C'i C'i
'D
C'i 1 '",...; 0;
'" C'i C'i
~ Q~I '_
0:::
I

~ >- Example 1.3. Low-Velocity, Closed-Circuit,

<I:j
Open-Throat Wind Tunnel
p...
~ ~
'D
00 :i5
'D
:8
trl
00
ci
-T
ci
-T ~
C'l
Vl -
S ~
ce
;;:; A layout of the wind tunnel (aerodynamic cireuit) is shown in Figure 1.23.
11<'1 Given are:
'"
c<i
1. Diameter of the working section (nozzle exit section), Do = 5000 mm;
~ ('<') ('<') ('<')
TL;< .,., C'l 0 0 ce ce 2. Length of the working seetion, lws = 8000 mm;
;! ;! ;! s:! 'C
00
a\ ~ ~ '"
.,f :: ::
;;0 'i 11
3. Flow veloeity in the working seetion (at the exit from the nozzle), Wo = 60 mls;
?
Q)
::l 4. Air temperature, t "'" 20°C; p = 1.22 kg/m 3 ;
c:
~e ~
..,
'€
{) -g
"on 'B" " .s 5. Kinematic viscosity, v = 1.5 mm 2/s; and
c:
~
2"
ü
.",
c ,.g g ..,> .~ö
..s
'0 E
"c0
N
.., ~
:::
r;;::
"
o

&
~
~
:::l

" 6. Material from which the tunnel is made: concrete with roughness of the internal surface,
~ "0-
.n .",
a ~ '§ fn
.D
~ gp e ';a> 'ü0 "
.D .0::
..s"
~
]
" 'Sb~"
'0
~
fJ. = 2.5 mm (see Table 2.5).
1~
.0::
\f) ö § gß .D »
4::: t<r ~ B
'8
t1
0

:~
,::
Ö .nco
i ~tl
~

1~
...-I 4..;
S
,..; ~ e'~ :~
0 trl
At low velocities, changes in the pressure and temperature along the tunnel can be ne-
..::
~
0.
>. i:2 eS i5 ....l .a ~tO
11
~ ';<
~ :s" ~
~ ,:: §~ Ci
,.Q f-< glected in hydraulic calculations. Therefore, it is convenient here to use the second method of
ce S ::
E-<
.- C'l ('<') -T trl
'" superposition of losses: summation of the reduced resistance coefficients of the separate ele-
ments of the system (see Seetion 1.6).
78 Handbook of Hydrmtlic Resistance, 4th Edition Aerodynamics and Hydraulies of Pressure Systems 79

Table 1.16 Calculation of the resistance of the wind tunnel (Figure 1.23) Table 1.16 (continued)

Type of element Diagram and basic dimensions of the element Parameters

Type of element Diagram and basic dimensions of the element Parameters
1 Circular open

W"~
7 Reverse channel
throat lws =~= 1.6 0:2 = 5.5 0 ;
Do 5.0 (second diffuser)

n = ~: = C8~OOJ = 2.25
f)o=5()(J(}mmj' tws=/JOOO mm Wrnax > 1.1 ; kl "" 1.8
wo
2
bs-BQUOmm
2 First diffuser Cf, = 7°' n = F2 =
, Fl
(~J
5.35
= 2.24 "f""'120eD mm
tch:JC '13500 mm
rnax
w > 1.12; kd"" 1.8
wo
-ß
ß75"" 0.0004 8 Elbow 3; same E2=
b6 1.0
conditions as for
- df F3 elbow 1 -.C.. = 013
D6 .
df = D2 = 0.5 ; n = Fr
3 Adapter (from an
annular section - F3
df=--')-
to a square (l-dnFf "g'"!J7 ,..12000 171m
2 r ... 16DO mm
8.0 t1""1500mm
df 2 1.7
1 - O.25(rc/4 )8.0
0:3 "" 15°; ~ "" 0.0004 k§.=10
9 Elbow 4; same b7 .
Wrnax > 1.2; kl "" 1.8 conditions as
wo for elbow 3, but
-'c"=0-13
Ds .
4 Elbow 1 with number of guide
reduced number ~=1
h3 .0 vanes is normal
of guide vanes
~=0.2; ~=0.0003
b3
bJ=!J~ '" /JODO mm
t,=2000 mm
r= IDOOmm

~
10 Honeycomb Ix - Fx
5 Cylindrical ~= 6.0 = 0.75 ; ~ =0.0003 (coated sheet
lx '" 1S00mm; dx"" 20Qmm 1;=7.5; f= Fs =0.9
b4 8.0

~~
stretch iran lacq11ered) - 0.2
b=j-i ß = 200 = 0.001

0,=8000 mm
L" =5000 mm

11 N ozzle (curvi-
!!.1=
b4
10
.
linear conver-
6 Elbow 2; guide
r
ging section) n=~=735
2
vanes as for (rc/4)5.0 .
Ds =0.2
elbow 1
DIj= 05=8000 mm
r=ltiOO mm
t, =2200 mm
 80 Handbook oj Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition
Aerodynamics and Hydraulies oj Pressure Systems 81

Table 1.16 (continued)

Type of element Diagram and basic dimensions of the element Parameters

Re= ~fr.;= ~o= Basis for

(~J
. Fo ~;=

((~J
Arearatl0F; w;,mls WiDh x 10-6 ~Ioc.; A; A' l; determination of S;
v 'V;; t;loc.i+t;fr.;
.' F; (reference to figure)
1.0 1.0 60 20 0.13 0.13 0.l3 4.25

(5.0
5.35 J =0.875
2
0.77 52.5 19 0.05 0.01 0.16 0.066 0.051 5.2

Fo 5.0
0.27 31 18 0.19 0.011 0.01 0.20 0.054 5.22
Fr = 0.75 x 8.1i
.!:Q=052
Fr .
0.096 18 10 0.155 0.011 0.015 0.17 0.016 6.21; inereased by 1.2
2
(7tl4)5.0 = 0.306 in order to allow for
2 influenee of diffuser
8.0
plaeed before it
0,306 0.096 18 10 0.011 0.008 0.008 0.001 2.5 Figure 1.23. Schematic diagram of a closed-circuit, open-throat wind tunnel (dimensions in m): Do = 5;
0.306 0.096 18 10 0.12 0.011 0.015 0.135 0.015 6.21 D 1 = 5.35; D2 = 8; din = 4; b3 = 8; b4 = 8; bs = 8; b6 = 12; b7 = 12; bs = 12; t1 = 2.2; t2 = 1.5;
0.306 0.096 18 10 0.046 0.011 0.011 0.057 0.006 5.4 Zwork,sect = 8; Zd = 13.5; Zf = 2; ltr = 5; Zeyl = 6; leI = 43.5; lh = 1.5; leh = 13.5; r = 1.6; (Xl = 7°.
~1t.=0.137
2 0.0181 8.2 6.5 0.15 0.011 0.015 0.165 0.003 6.21
4120
0.137 0.0181 S.2 6.5 0.17 0.011 0.015 0.185 -0.004 6.21
The aerodynamic calculations use the eoncept of the "quaIity" of a wind tunnel K, whieh
°O~;7 =0.152 0.0232 9.1 wid, =0.12
v
0.11 0.060 0.45 0.565 0.013 ~i=t;in+t;ex+t;fr,
is defined as the ratio of the velocity pressure in the working section of the tunnel to its total
where ~in '" 1 - f
(see Diagram 3.1); resistance.
t;ex =(I-fl (see For the present ease,
Diagram4.1)
srr= A(lx/dx)
7.35 54 60 20 0.008 0.003 0.003 0.003 5.23
K 0.5pwO =_1_ ~ 3 3
11
11 0.30 .
2,= 2,1;0;"'0.30
Osys i=l
0.5p w51 SOi

The ea1culation of the tunnel resistance is given in Table 1.16. Aeeording to this table the
REFERENCES
total resistance of the tunnel is 1. Abramovich, G. N., Applied Gas Dynamies, Nauka Press, Moscow, 1969, 824 p.
2. Altshul, A. D., Hydraulic Resistance, Nedra Press, Moscow, 1982,224 p.
11 2 3. Altshul, A. D. and Kiselyov, P. G., Hydraulies and Aerodynamics, Stroiizdat Press, Moscow,
~sys ="pwo 7' (1.22) 2 ~
SOi 2 = 0.30 l-2- 60 ~ 660 Pa . 1975, 327 p.
4. Mochan, S. 1. (Ed.), Aerodynamic CalcuZation 01 Boiler Equipment, Energiya Press, Leningrad,
1977,255 p.
The volumetrie air flow rate through the working seetion (nozzle) is 5. Branover, G. G., Gelfgat, Yu. M., and Vasiliyev, A. S., Turbulent flow in aplane perpendicular
to the magnetic field, Izv. Akad. Nauk Latv. SSR, Sero Fiz.-Tekh. Nauk, no. 4, 78-84, 1966.
6. Burdukov, A. P., Valukina, N. V., and Nakoryakov, V. E., Specific features of gas-liquid bubble
Q = woFo =60(19.6) = 1175 m 3/s .
mixture flow at small Reynolds numbers, Zh. Prikl. Mekh. Tekh. Fiz., no. 4, 137-139, 1975.
7. Burdum, G. D., Handbook of the International System 01 Units, lzd. Standartov Press, Moscow,
The power on the fan shaft at a fan effieieney lhot Z 0.7 is: 1971, 231 p.
8. Vakina, V. V., Discharge of viscous fluids at high pressure drop through throttling washers, Vestn.
;u Qt:"psys 1175(660) W ~ 1100 kW . Mashinostr., no. 8,93-101, 1965.
ivsup =
l)tot 0.7 9. Vitkov, G. A. and Orlov, I. I., Hydraulic calculations of systems from their overall characteristics
(heterogeneous systems). Deposited at VINITI 28.01.1980 under No. 337-80, Moscow, 1980, 16 p.
 82 Handbook 01 Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition
Aerodynamics and Hydraulies 01 Pressure Systems 83
10. Vitkov, G. A. and Orlov, I. 1., Hydraulic calculations of systems from their overall characteristics
(homogeneous systems). Deposited at VINITI 28.01.1980 under No. 338-80, Moscow, 1980, 30 p. 34. Lyatkher, V. M. and Prudovskiy, A. M., Hydrodynamic Modeling, Energoatomizdat Press, Mos-
11. Vulis, L. A., Paramonova, T. A., and Fomenko, B. A., Concerning the resistance to liquid metal cow, 1984, 392 p.
flow in magnetic fie1d, Magn. Gidrodin., no. 1, 68-74, 1968. 35. Makarov, A. N. and Sherman, M. Ya., Calculation of Throttling Devices, Metalloizdat Press, Mos-
12. Hartman, U. and Lazarus, F., Experimental study of mercury flow in a homogenous magnetic cow, 1953, 283 p:
field, in MHD-Flows in Channels, Garns, L. (Ed.), Moscow, 1963, 262 p. 36. Malkov, M. P. and Pavlov, K. F., Handbook of Deep Cooling, Gostekhizdat Press, Moscow, 1947,
13. GeIler, Z. L, Skobeltsyn, Yu. A., and Mezhdivo, V. Kh., Influence of rings on flow discharge 411 p.
from nozz1es and orifices, Izv. VUZ, Neft Gaz, no. 5, 65-67, 1969. 37. Mergertroid, V., Experimental MHD-flows in channels, in MHD-Flows in Channels, Garis, L.
14. Genin, L. G. and Zhilin, V. G., Influence of the longitudinal magnetic fie1d on the coeffieient of (Ed.), pp. 196--201, Moscow, 1963, p. 262.
resistance to mercury flow in a round tube, Teplojiz. Vys. Temp., vol. 4, no. 2, 233-237, 1966. 38. Mikheev, M. A., Filimonov, S. S., and Khrustalyov, B. A., Convective and Radiative Heat Trans-
15. Guizha, E. A., Stabilization of Forced Turbulent Flows Downstream of Local Resistances, Thesis fer, Moscow, 1960.
(Cand. of Tech. Sei.), Kiev, 1986, 186 p. 39. Monin, A. S. and Yaglom, A. M., Statistical Hydromechanics, Part I, Fizmatizdat Press, Moscow,
16. Gil, B. B., An approximate method for calcu1ating the velocity field in the MHD-separation prob- 1965,640 p.; Part II, Nauka Press, Moscow, 1967,720 p.
lems, in New Physical Methods for the Separation of Mineral Raw Materials, pp. 59-68, Moscow, 40. Nevelson, M. 1., Centrifugal Ventilators, Gosenergoizdat Press, Moscow, 1954, 335 p.
1969. 41. Petukhov, B. S. and Krasnoshchekov, E. A., Hydraulic resistance in viscous nonisothermal motion
17. Guinevskiy, A. S. and Solodkin, E. E., Hydarulic resistance of annular channels, in Prom. of fluid in tubes, Zh. Tekh. Fiz., vol. 28, no. 6, 1207-1209, 1958.
Aerodin., no. 20, pp. 202-215, Oborongiz Press, Moscow, 1961. 42. Petukhov, B. S., Heat Transfer and Resistance in Laminar Liquid Flow in Tubes, Energiya Press,
18. Guinevskiy, A. S. and Solodkin, E. E., Aerodynamic characteristics of the starting length of a cir- Moscow, 1967, 412 p.
cular tube with a turbulent boundary 1ayer flow, in Prom. Aerodin., no. 12, pp. 155-168, 43. Pisarevskiy, V. M. and Ponomarenko, Yu. B., Concerning variations in the gas density and pres-
Oborongiz Press, Moscow, 1959. sure in local resistances of pipelines, Izv. VUZ, Mashinostroenie, 66-70, 1979.
19. Grabovsky, A. M. and Kostenko, G. N., Bases of the use of SI units, in Thermal and Hydraulic 44. Prandtl, L., Fundamentals of Hydro- and Aerodynamics, McGraw-Hill, 1934, Russian translation
Calculations, Tekhnika Press, Kiev, 1965, 106 p. - GIIL Press, Moscow, 1953,520 p.
20. Gubarev, N. S., Local resistance of the high-pressure air-pipeline fittings, Sudostroenie, no. 3, 41- 45. Industrial Aerodynamics (Trudy TsAGl), no. 7 (Air Conduits), Moscow, 1954, 154 p.
46, 1957. 46. Rikhter, G., Hydraulies of Pipelines, ONTI Press, Moscow, 1936, 340 p.
21. Gukhman, A. A., Introduction to the Similarity Theory, Vysshaya Shkola Press, Moscow, 1963, 47. Sedov, L. 1., Self-Similar and Dimensional Methods in Mechanics, Nauka Press, Moscow, 1967,
254 p. 428 p.
22. Deich, M. E. and Zaryankin, A. E., Hydrogasdynamics, Energoatomizdat Press, Moscow, 1984, 48. Skobeltsyn, Yu. A., Mezhidov, V. Kh., and Geller, Z. I., Flow discharge from inner cylindrical
284 p. nozzles with incomplete contraction due to a baffle or tapering, Izv. VUZ, Heft Gaz, no. 9, 71-74,
23. Elovskikh, Yu. P., Concerning the calculation of the parameters of gas in a pipeline, in Pneumat- 1967.
ics and Hydraulies, no. 6, pp. 132-141, Moscow, 1979. 49. Skobeltsyn, Yu. A., Bashilov, E. B., and Geiler, Z. 1., Flow dis charge from external cylindrical
24. Zelkin, G._G., Hydnmlic i}l~ucti()I1 indischarging inc2lilpressible fluid into a full and empty pipe- capillary nozzles, Izv. VUZ, Heft GaZ,no. 10, 80-84, 1971.
line with Iocal resistances, Inzh.-Fii Zh., vol. 47, no. 5, 856-857, 1984. ." ".' ... " 50. Solodkin, E. E.. and Guinevskiy, A. S., Turbulent Flow of Viscous Fluid over the Starting Lengths
25. Zelkin, G. G., Unsteady-State Flows in Local Resistance, Minsk, 1981, 141 p. ofAxisymmetric and Plane Channels, Oborongiz Press, Moscow, 1957 (Trudy TsAGI No. 701).
26. Zelkin, G. G., The phenomenon of hydraulic induction in unsteady-state motion of incompressible 51. Kiselev, P. G. (Ed.), Handbook of Hydraulic Calculations, 4th ed., Moscow, 1972, 312 p.
viscous fluid, Inzh.-Fiz. Zh., vol. 21, no. 6, 1127-1130, 1971. 52. Handbook of Chemistry, Vol. 1, Goskhimizdat Press, Moscow, 1951, 1072 p.
27. Idelchik, I. E., Nozzles, in Large Soviet Encyclopedia, vol. 29, pp. 184-185, Sovetskaya Entsik- 53. Vargaftik, N. B. (Ed.), Handbook of the Thermal Properties of Liquids and Gases, Nauka Press,
lopediya Press, Moscow, 1953. Moscow, 1972, 720 p.
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Moscow, 1954, 316 p. Reclaimants, Kolos Press, Moscow, 1984, 207 p.
29. Idelchik, I. E., Some notes conceming hydraulic losses in motion of a real fluid in forced systems, 55. Stochek, N. P. and Shapiro, A. S., The Hydrmtlics of Liquid-Propellant Rocket Engines, Moscow,
Izv. VUz, Energetika, no. 9, 99-104, 1975. 1978, 127 p.
30. Kiselyov, P. G., Hydraulies, Fundamentals of the Mechanics of Liquid, Energoizdat Press, Mos- 56. Tananayev, A. V., The Flow in the MHD-Equipment Channels, Atomizdat Press, Moscow, 1979,
cow, 1980, 360 p. 364 p.
31. Komlev, A. F., Skobeltsyn, Yu. A., and GeIler, Z. I., Influence of the shape and dimensions of the 57. Blum, E. Ya., Zaks, M. V., Ivanov, U. I., and Mikhailov, Yu. A., Heat and Mass Transfer in the
entrance on the discharge coefficient of outer cylindrical nozzles, Izv. VUZ, Neft Gaz, no. 11, 59- Electromagnetic Field, Riga, 1967, 223 p.
61, 1968. 58. Fabrikant, N. Ya., Aerodynamics, Gostekhizdat Press, Moscow, 1964, 814 p.
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cally conducting liquid in a tube in the longitudinal magnetic field, Magn. Gidrodin., no. 4, 147- vol. 28, no. 8, 1823-1828, 1958.
150, 1966. 60. Frenkel, V. Z., Hydraulies, Gosenergoizdat Press, Moscow, 1956, 456 p.
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1978, 736 p. Tekh. Fiz., vol. 36, no. 1, 147-150, 1966. ' .
62. Jen, P., Stalling Flows, vol. 1, 298 p.; vol. 2, 280 p.; vol. 3, 300 p., Mir Press, Moscow, 1972.
84 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

63. Shiller, L., Flow of Liquids in Pipes, Tekhizdat Press, Moscow, 1936, 230 p. CHAPTER
64. Schlichting, H., Boundary Layer Theory, Nauka Press, Moscow, 1974, 711 p.
65. Shcherbinin, E. V., An electrically conducting liquid in the intrinsic magnetic field of the electric TWO
current, Magn. Gidrodin., no. 1, 68-74, 1975.
66. Shchukin, V. K., Heat Transfer and Hydrodynamics of Internal Flows in the Fields of Body
Forces, Mashinostroenie Press, Moscow, 1970, 331 p. RESISTANCE TO FLOvV IN STRAIGHT
67. Elterrnan, V. M., Air Screens, Mashinostroenie Press, Moscow, 1966, 164 p.
68. Yuriev, B. N., Experimental Aerodynamics, ONTI Press, Moscow, 1936, 315 p.
TUBES AND CONDUITS
69. Barach, A. L., The flow of heavy gases through small orifices, including comparison between oxy- FRICTION COEFFICIENTS
gen and perfluoropropane, C3Fs perfluorobutane, C4FlO, Am. J. Med. Sei., vol. 243, no. 1, 30-34,
1962. AND ROUGHNESS
70. Benedict, P. and Carlucci, A., Handbook of Specijic Losses in Flow Systems, Plenum Press, Data
Division, New York, 1970, 30 p.
71. Boussinesq, 1., Memoir sur l'influence des frotternents dans 1es mouvements reguliers des fluides,
J. Math. Pur Appl., no. 13, 377, 1868.
72. Forst, T. H., The compressible discharge coefficient of a Borda pipe and other nozzles, J. R. Aero-
naut. Soc., no. 641, 346-349, 1964.
73. Iversen, H. W., Orifice coefficients for Reynolds numbers from 4 to 50,000, Trans. ASME, vol.
78, no. 2, 359-364, 1956.
74. Jackson, R. A., The compressible discharge of air through small thick plate orifices, Appl. Sei.
Res., vol. A13, nos. 4-5, 241-248, 1964.
75. Kolodzie, P. A., Jr. and Van Winkle, M., Discharge coefficients through perforated plates, AlChE
J., vol. 3, 305-312, 1959.
76. Maa Yer., Ru., Gas flow through an annular gap, J. Vac. Sei. Techno!., vol. 5, 153-154, 1968.
77. Murakarni, M. and Katayama, K., Discharge coefficients of fire nozzles, Trans. ASME, vol. D88, 2.1 EXPLANATIONS AND PRACTICAL RECOlVlMENDATIONS
no. 4, 706-716, 1966.
78. Wielogorski, J. W., Flow through narrow rectangular notches, Engineer, vol. 221, 963-965, 1966. 1. The pressure losses along a straight tube (conduit) of constant cross section (linear or fric-
tion los ses) are ca1culated from the Darcy-Weisbach equation:

(2.1)

or

(2.2)

where Do i5 the perimeter; Rh 1S the hydraulic radius; So is the area of the friction surface.
2. The use of the hydraulic (equivalent) diameter Dh as the characteristic length in resis-
tance Equations (2.1) and (2.2) is perrnissible only in cases where the thickness 80 of the
boundary layer (within which the velocity changes from zero to nearly a maximum value) is
very small over the entire or alm ost the entire perimeter of the cross section comuared with
the dimensions of the channel cross seetion (80 « Dh)?8 •
3. In the case of a turbulent flow at large Reynolds numbers, Re = woDoIv, the velocity,
for the most part, changes within a thin boundary layer. Therefore, when Dh is used as a
characteristic dimension, the resistance law for tubes of different cross sections remains about
the same. However, even in turbulent flow individual geometries have different friction resis-
tance coefficients.

85
86 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition
4. The hydraulic resistance of a tube (channel) with a stabilized laminar flow cannot be
calculated through the use of Dh. For these flow conditions its use is permissible only for the
42
inlet portion of the starting length of the tube when the thickness Öo is still very smal1.
Appropriate corrections should be made for the effect of the cross-sectional shape of tubes
(channels) to allow the resistance to be ca1culated from Equations (2.1) and (2.2).
5. The resistance to the motion of a liquid or agas under conditions of laminar flow is
due to the force of internal friction (viscosity), which manifests itself when one layer of the
liquid (gas) moves relative to the other. Viscosity forces are proportional to the first power of
the flow velocity.
6. Due to the overriding effects of the viscosity forces in laminar flow, even flow past
surface asperities appears to be smooth. Therefore the roughness of the walls, unless it is very
significant, does not affect the flow resistance. Under these conditions of flow the friction
coefficient is always a function of the Reynolds number alone.
7. As the Reynolds number increases, the inertia forces, which are proportional to the ve-
locity squared, begin to dominate. Turbulent motion is then initiated, which is characterized
by the development of transverse velocity components giving rise to agitation of the fluid
throughout the entire stream and to momentum exchange between randomly moving masses
of fluid. All this causes a significant increase in the resistance to motion in turbulent flow as
compared with the case of laminar flow.*
When the surface of the walls is rough, separation occurs in the flow past roughness as-
perities, and the resistance coefficient becomes a function not only of the Reynolds number
but also of the relative roughness
- ~o(- ~J
~= Dh ~= Dh .
8. Pipes and channels can be either smooth or rough, with the roughness being either uni-
form or nonuniferm.~set~No- types of roughnessdiffer according to the shape of such pro-
tuberances, their dimensions, the spaces between them, etc. The majority oi commerical pipes
and tubes have nonuniform roughness.
9. The averaged height ~o of asperities, in terms of the absolute length units, is called the
absolute geQ.metric roughness. The.-!'atio of the average height of asperities to the tube diame-
ter, that is ~o = ~oIDo or ~oIDh (~ = j':1,IDh), is called the relative roughness. In view of the
fact that the geometrie eharacteristics of the absolute roughness cannot adequately determine
the flow resistance of the tube, the concept of the hydraulically equivalent uniform-grain
roughness ~ is introduced, whieh is determined by measuring the resistance.
10. Although the resistance coefficient for smooth tubes should decrease with increasing
Re, rough tubes show an inerease in the coeffieient A with inerease of this number with con-
stant geometrie roughness. This is explained by the effeet of a viseous sublayer. When the
*Nevertheless, since the resistance coefficient A is determined as the ratio of the overall pressure
los ses to the velocity pressure
A flpfr
(1/ Dh)(pW5/2)
it always increases with a decrease in Re.
Flow in Straight Tubes and Conduits 87
Figure 2.1. Flow past roughness asperities for different modes of flow: (a) 81 > fl; (b) 81 < fl.
thiekness of the viseous sublayer is larger than roughness protuberanees (Öl > ~, Figure 2.la),
the latter are entirely covered with this layer. At low velocities, typical of a laminar sublayer,
the fluid moves smoothly past surface irregularities and they have no effect on the character
of the flow. In this ease, A decreases with a rise in Re.
11. With an increase in the Reynolds number, the laminar sublayer becomes thinner and,
at Re attaining a certain value, it can become smaller than the height of the asperities (Öl >
~, Figure 2.lb). The asperities enhance the formation of vortices and hence increase the pres-
sure losses, which result in the rise of A with increasing Re.
Thus, tubes can be considered smooth as long as the height of asperities is smaller than
the thickness of the laminar sublayer.
12. The equivalent roughness ~ depends on:
• The material of tubular products and the method by which they were manufactured. For
example, iron pipes manufactured by centrifugal casting are smoother than welded
tubes. Tubes manufactured by the same method have, as a rule, the same equivalent
roughness irrespective of their diameter.
41 The properties of the fluid flowing in a tube; liquids may cause corrosion on the inner
surface of the tube, resulting in formation of protuberances and deposition of scale.
., The service life and his tory of the tubes.
13. In the dependence of the resistance coefficient (A) on Reynolds number (Re) for
smooth tubes, several characteristic values of Re can be separated. At Re ~ 1000 the values
of the resistance coefficient A for a steady-state (stabilized) laminar flow and steady-state
turbulent flow coincide if they are ca1culated from the Hagen-Poiseuille formula for a lami-
nar flow:
A=64/Re (2.3)
and from the Prandtl formula for a turbulent flow: 1/1f = 2 log 1fRe - 0.8. Therefore,
when Re < 1000, a steady-state flow can only be laminar. When Re > 1000, at a certain
Reynolds number, which depends on perturbations at the tube inlet, a steady-state laminar
flow is replaced by a steady-state turbulent one. On increase in the intensity of perturbations
at the in let, the minimum Reynolds number at wh ich a steady-state turbulent flow was ob-
served is decreased to a certain value. Different values are presented for this quantity in the
literature by different authors: from 1900 to 2320.168 It was shown by A. A. Paveliev et a1. 269
that the value of this quantity depends not only on the intensity but also on the structure of
perturbations at the tube inlet. Based on the available experimental data, this prevents the state-
ment that a steady-state turbulent flow cannot be realized at Reynolds values smaller that 1900.
88 Handbook 0/ Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition Flow in Straight Tubes and Conduits 89

log(;~A) 15. It has been found experimentally that with the wall roughness being somewhat organ-
• J-A/JJq-Q.OJ,J,J
~~~ C ........ 0.015.1
ized, the resistance coefficient for a turbulent flow can be lower than that calculated by the
!O
\\A_ fUfH
j) RetJ.H ··.. -
o Jf" " ,. O,ooB#
,." " ,.• 0.00f98
b ,.,...
(Jj)(}.1.9b
formula for smooth tubes. As an example of such an ordered roughness mention can be made
of longitudinal depressions in the tube walls called riblets,z70
16. The third regime is called the quadratic or square-law regime, the regime of rough
~\~~\\ ... .. alJlJlJ,J9a
Regime \I; A =='2 (Re,Äl \ /Regime 111; A== f 3 (4)
walls, and sometimes the regime of turbulent self-sirnilarity. It is characterized by the resis-
aa
r- 7~~ ~
~
~,....
....
~\-
\ .
tance coefficients for each value of the relative roughness becorning constant, independent of
Re .
r-r-~\~"
.

~ r
17. It follows from Nikuradse's87 resistance equations for rough tubes [see Equation (2.5)]
1\ • ~ - ~~ \
,~
0"<>'
and Filonenko 171 and Altshul's6 resistance equation for smooth tubes [see Equation (2.8)] that

\ I~ ~. ~~~ ........d ~
v
i\
\ ..
tubes with uniform-grain roughness can be considered hydraulically smooth provided that

IV iIS ~
~
'V""V

JI .- .....M"I ~F" '\~

,m

A. :J;.'

Ä"'§1." ~ ~ ,"'" ~~ \
Re 1\ .; 6
~
~ e .A~ ~
where

42
2.5 .J.IJ .1.4
\ .U 4.2 5.0
~
r-
i'.1f. 5,8
t'-
log Re L\"lim=(~J
DO !im
181 log Re - 16.4
Re

Figure 2.2. Dependence of the resistance coefficient A on Re for tubes with uniform-grain rough- For the range of Reynolds numbers up to Re = 105, the Blasius foimula gives
ness,190
L\"lim ~ 17.85 Re-O·875 .
As the intensity of perturbations at the tube inlet decreases, the maximum Reynolds num-
ber at which a steady-state laminar flow can be observed increases. With the flow at the tube From this, the boundary (limiting) values of the Reynolds number, at which roughness be-
5
inlet being specially organized, this Reynolds number can reach a value of 10 . gins to be important, can be defined as
At a high intensity of perturbations at the inlet with Re > 2000, the formation of a steady-
state laminar flow requires the starting length of the tube to be equal to about 200 tube di- I 26.9
fu-neters. 269 Over this length the initialperturbationsdamp out,and a velocity profile typical Relim=L\"U43 .
of a laminar flow is formed.
14. The dependence of the resistance coefficient 'A on Re and roughness has been estab- 18. For tubes with uniform-grain roughness the limiting value of the Reynolds number, for
lished in Nikuradse's experiments for a stabilized flow (see Sec. 1.3) in tubes with uniform- which the quadratic law of resistance will hold, is determined from
grain roughness* (Fig. 2.2). In Nikuradse's experiments with a laminar steady-state flow,
roughness does not exert its effect on the value of 'A. In the range of Re numbers correspond- 217 - 382 log ~
ing to a transient region between a laminar and a turbulent flow 'A increases with Re. The Reiim
~
greater the roughness, the less valid is the Blasius formula for a steady-state turbulent flow in
smooth tubes which follows from Nikuradse's87 formula for a stabilized flow in the transitional and quad-
ratic regions, Le., within the limits
'A- 0.3164 (2.4)
- ReO,25 .
26.9 R 217 - 38210g ~
L\" 1.143:;; e:;; ~
With increases in Re, the dependence of 'A on Re deviates from the dependence which is
described by the Blasius formula, and 'A tends to a constant value which is the higher the
This formula has the following form:
greater the relative roughness.

*A form of artitlcial sand uniform-grain roughness is meant here, as obtained by Nikuradse. The (2.5)
152
curves for other forms of artificial roughness can differ somewhat.
90 Handbook oi Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition
Flow in Straight Tubes and Conduits 91

where at 3.6::::; ~ Re -{f ::::; 10

A = Al am Plam + Asm Psm + Ar Pr , (2.7)

al = -0.8, b =+2.0, Cl =0 (smooth walls) ;

where Al am, Asm , and A, are the friction resistance coefficients in laminar (2.3) and turbulent
flows in smooth (2.4) and rough tubes (2.6);

Plam= I-pt
al =+0.068, b = 1.13, Cl =-0.87 ;

Psm =(1 - Pr.t)Pt

al = + 1.538, bl = 0, Cl =-2.0 ; Pr=Pr.tPt

are the probabilities for the appearance of laminar and turbulent regimes of flow in smooth
and rough tubes at the given Reynolds number; in this case,
al = +2.471, bl = -0.588, Cl = -2.588 ;
Pr.t =2<\>( U) ,
at ~ Re ff> 191.2
where
al =+1.138, bl =0, Cl =-2.0 ,
V_Re 275
Cir=~,
which* - Ci '
r ~

A=---- (2.6) where

(210g 3;;n'
19. Proceeding from the assumption that laminar and turbulent flows occur simultaneously
lOg(ft7tl
and applying the normal law of distribution to determine the probability of occurrence of re-
spective regiIoog, Kerensky50 suggested asingle_ formulafor the friction resistance of !ubes
_.
with uniform-grain roughness for the zone of the replacement of regimes
** \
:Y \ lief} Re! _ _ _ _
)),IJ
7,0.\
aß ~ lt-- ." 22
*Teplov,128 having made a more rigorous treatment of Nikuradse's87 experiments, has shown that
~~
,I ["--. t- r-- r -
for the quadratic region the following formula is more appropriate:

(1810g 8t)'
7

f16
,WJ~f--... i'--- :---
\~~ ~
'-
-- '" " j)
$/fo

"- 97
1"'-
Closely coinciding with this is the formula suggested by Altshul:
6 (J.5 ~ ~ f.3lJ"S3

\ ~ ~:::-:- 'I'-..

----
~ 279
A 1 .J5q
(1.8 log 10/L~l . A=09~ V ~ "",,507 A=iöj
However, taking into account that Equation (2.6) deviates from the experiment data by not more
ire
~
!--- ~
I A f

I '\
(t.81ogRe-f.6#)2 RaUm"" !.ff!!-I--""

"'"
than 5%, but to the side of adding to the safety margin, it can be used in practical calculations of
pipelines including the nonlined power conduits.
7
l 4.0J I ~ I ('
**Treatment of turbulent flows in a boundary layer and tubes utilizing the principle of superposition .1;2 log Re
of molecular and turbulent viscosities allowed Millionshchikov77 ,78 to find a general formula for the
friction resistance which is applicable for all flow regimes. About the same approach was used in the Figure 2.3.:, Dependence of the resistance coefficient A on the Reynolds number Re and the relative
107 and also in the work of Adamov. 4
work of Svirsky and Platon roughness ~ for nonuniform roughness. 100,106
 92 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition Flow in Straight Tubes and Conduits 93

u
u = _R_e-_Re_r = _R_e_-_2_8_5_0 $(U) = _~ f exp (-t /2)dt
2
at 600 '12n
° From this, the limiting Reynolds number at which commercial tubes cease to be hydrauli-
is the normalized Laplace function (the integral of probabilities; see Reference 56, Table 18.8-9). cally smooth is
20. The resistance curves A = fiRe, ~) for a stabilized flow in tubes with nonuniform
roughness (commereial tubes) show that for this case there also exist three main flow re- , 15
Relim ~-=- .
gimes: laminar, transition, and quadratic (Figure 2.3). However, unlike the case of flow in ~

tubes with uniform-grain roughness, here one should take into account the following two spe-
eific features:
41 For different degrees of roughness the resistance coeffieient is not the same over the
seetion related to the transition region between the laminar and turbulent flows (critical
zone or zone of change of regime) the resistance coeffieient depends on the relative
roughness and on the Reynolds number; pressure losses in this zone are proportional to
the veloeity raised to apower greater than two. lOO
.. The transition segment of a purely turbulent regime is free of a deflection typical of the
curves of A in tubes with uniform-grain roughness (see Figure 2.2). In this case, there
is a progressive and smooth decrease in the resistance curves with increase in Re, with
the lowest position being attained in the quadratic regime. 82,171
21. The curves of the friction coefficients for commercial tubes with relative equivalent
roughness ~ > 0.007 will, at some value of Re, depart from the Hagen-Poiseuille law to the
side of higher A'S, and the greater the relative roughness, the earlier this departure will occur
(see Figure 2.3). The Reynolds number corresponding to the onset of this departure can be
determined from the equation suggested by Samoilenko: 106
24. In the case of nonuniform roughness, the limiting Reynolds number at which the
quadratic law of resistance will hold can, within 3-4% accuracy, be written as (see Diagram
2.4):
" ~ 560
R elim ~-=- .
~
25. For a stabilized laminar flow (up to Re "'" 2000) the resistance coefficient A for circular
tubes, which is independent of the relative roughness of walls, is determined from Equation
(2.3) or from curve a of Diagram 2.1.
26. For the critical region of a stabilized flow (Re = 2000-4000), the friction coeffieient A
of a circular tube with hydraulically (commercially) smooth walls i8 determined from curve b
of Diagram 2.1.
27. For the region of purely turbulent stabilized flow (Re> 4000) the friction coefficient
A of circular tubes with hydraulically (commercially) smooth walls is determined from curve
b of Diagram 2.1 or i8 calculated from Filonenko 141 and Altshul's6 formula*

, 1
Reo = 754 exp (0.0065JlA . /1.,=-------;::-
(1.~Jn Re - 1.64)2 .
(2.8)

22. There is a transition curve with boundaries Re1 and Re2 which corresponds to each 28. The friction coefficient A for stabilized flow in the transition region where there occurs
a change of flow regime is determined from curve A = fiRe, A) of Diagram 2.3 or from for-
value of ~ in the region where a change in flow regime occurs in the range Re1 and Re2 (see
mula8 suggested by Samoilenko: 106
Figure 2.3). For tubes with ~ > 0.007 the following equation is obtained, based on the data
of Samoilenko: 106 at Reo < Re < Rel and ~~ 0.007

44 Re-0.595 exp---_--,
0.00275 .
Re1 = 1160 I1 J0.11 '
(
'I _
1'.-.
~

that is, Rel decreases with an increase in the relative roughness ~.

at Re! < Re < Re2
The Reynolds number that determines the Re2 boundary for tubes with any roughness is

1 JO.0635
Re2=2090 I
( where at ~ S 0.007, A* = Al, and at ~ = 0.0007, A* = Al - 0.0017.
The coefficients Al and A2, which correspond to Re! and Re2, are
23. At Re! > Re2' tubes with nonuniform roughness (commercial tubes) can be considered
hydraulically smooth (with an accuracy up to 3-4%) provided that *This formula is very similar to the formulas of Konakov 54 and Murin. 82
94 Handbook of Hydra~tlic Resistance, 4th Edition Flow in Straight Tubes and Conduits 95

at ~::; 0.007

0.0109 where Alam is deterrnined from Equation (2.3), At from Equation (2.9) or (2.10), and
at ~ > 0.007 Al = 0.0775 - ~ 0.286 '

_I[
p - 2 erf (Re. r;;-
- ReoJ + erf (Re
'12cr'l2cr
. r;;-
o
J~
at ~::; 0.007 A2 = 7.244 (Re 2)-0.643 ,

A _ 0.145
in which Reo = 1530(:;-)-0·08 and cr = 540. Here the tabulated function of errors is used in the
at ~ > 0.007 form
2 - ~ -0.244 '
z
Reo = 754 exp 0.0065J -y- , erf (z) = Jn J 2
exp (-t )dt
[ o
(see Reference 56, Table 18.8-10).
1]°·11
[X '
31. A single formula for ca1culating the friction coefficient in the zone with the change of
Rel = 1160
regimes was also suggest~d by SlisskiyllO

1 JO.0635
Re2=2090
[
X
where y is the intermittency factor;
29. For a stabilized flow and the region of purely turbulent flow (Re> Re2) , the friction
coefficient A of all commercially circular tubes * (with nonuniform roughness of walls), except
for special cases for which the values of A are given separately, can be determined from the
Y= sin3/ 2 (n12 Reup-Relow
Re - Rel ow J'
. ** 171
curves of Diagram 2.4 plotted on the basis of the Colebrook-Whlte formula:
Relow = 1000 exp ~0.00465J ,
(
1 (2.9)
A= ?
Re up =16~(~) -0.16 ,
[2 log (2.51/R~ fi:) + LV3.7]-

or for engineering ca1culations, from Altshul' s6 approximate formula *** where Relow and Reup are the lower and upper boundaries of the transition zone.
The coefficients Al am and At are ca1culated respectively from Equation (2.3) and from Te-
- 68)0.25 plov's128 formula
A = 0.11 (~+ Re (2.10)

30. For the region with a change of regime of a stabilized flow in commercial tubes, a
single formula can also be used to ca1culate the friction coefficient (as suggested by
Adamovich), viz.
*Induding steel, concrete, and iron-concrete pressure tunnels?
**The Colebrook-White curves lie somewhat above (by 2-4%) similar curves of Murin and
82
hence provide some safety margin for the calculations. Analogous formulas were obtained by Adamov?
Filonenko,141 and Frenkel. l44 The interpolation formula of Colebrook has now been theoretically sub-
stantiated6.
4
***The formula dose to Equation (2.10) was also obtained by Adamov ; at 68/Re < A it coincides
with the formula of Shifrinson: A = 0.11 (A)O.25. There is another simple formula convenient for appli-
cation in the transient region (within A = 0.0001-0.01) which was suggested by Lobaev: A == 1.42/(log
Re/A)2.
At = [1.8 log 8.25 _J-2
56/Re+i1
32. The friction coefficients A for circular tubes, except in special cases for which the val-
ues of A are given separately with any kind of roughness (both uniform and nonuniform) for
stabilized flow in the quadratic region, i.e., virtually when Re > 560/~, are determined from
the graphs of Diagram 2.5 plotted on the basis of Equation (2.6).
The specific feature of flow in channels with the complex geometry of cross sections is the
presence of convective transfer across the flow due to the motion of large-scale vortices and
secondary flows (Figure 2.4). * This fact and also the variable roughness of the channel walls
*It is imperative to distinguish between the secondary flows observed in straight channels of com-
plex cross section and those originating for other reasons in curvilinear channels.
96 Handbook 0/ Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition Flow in Straight Tubes and Conduits 97

where ASh and Al ong are the friction coefficients respectively on the short and long walls of
the channel; b and h are the halves of the width and of the height of the channel, respec-
tively.
The coefficients ASh and Al ong are ca1culated by the laws of resistance of a plane wall CA'pl)
112 114
depending on the characteristic Reynolds number and wall roughness: -

f[
(I.'pI)sh = (RepI)b' ~sh] '

(ApI)Iong = f[ (RepÜh, ~Iong] '

a b

where
Figure 2.4. Schemes of secondary flows: Ca) in a rectangular tube; (b) in an equilateral tri angular tube.

(RepI)b = Re (1 + blh) , (Re ) = Re

4 pI h 4
(1 +blhblhJ '
are responsible for the non uniform distribution of shear on the flow boundaries. Therefore,
the. friction coefficients can be calculated most accurately when replacing the flow charac-
teristics averaged over the channel cross section (mean velocity, Reynolds number, mean rela- WoDh
Re=-- .
tive roughness, mean shear stress) by the local characteristics (local relative roughness, local v
Reynolds number, local friction factors of hydraulics, local shear stresses).133 As the local
governing flow parameters, it is recommended to use the local characteristic dimension of For smooth walls
flow, the flow velocity averaged over this dimension, and the local roughness of walls. The
other local characteristics of the flow are expressed in terms of these determining quantities. Apl 2 '
33. The local shear stress 'tw at the point of the wetted perimeter is expressed in terms of (3.6 log Repl - 2)
the local velocity Ww averaged over the normal to the wall:
for commercial walls

pw~
'tw = Aloe -2- , 54
ApI=0.024 - + -
ßl0.25
( Repl 1
where Aloe is the local friction coefficient, bdng a function of the local Reynolds number and
for rough walls
local relative roughness

4 log I1ß + 3.48)2

I 1S the characteristic local dimension of the flow, depending on the shape of the channel
cross section (for example, for· a square channel I is the distance from the wall to the corner
bisector).
34. In the specific case of a rectangular channel, for which it is assumed that the shear
stresses on the long and short sides of it differ, but their distribution over the walls is uni-
form, Skrebkov 112,113 and Skrebkov and Lozhkin 114 suggested a formula which relates the
friction coefficient of the channel with its shape and roughness:
35. In many cases it is easier to determine the resistance coefficient of noncircular tubes
by the introduction into the formulas for circular tubes the corresponding correction factors
Auone = knoncA, where A is the friction coefficient of circular tub es at the same Reynolds num-
ber, Re = WoDh/V = woDoIv; Auonc is A for noncircular tubes; knone is the correction factor
al10wing for the effect of tube cross-sectional shape. *
36. For tubes with nearly circular cross sections (for example, a cirele with one or two
notches, starlike shapes, see Diagram 2.6), it can be assumed, according to the data of
Nikuradse 87 and Shiller,158 that knone "" 1.0 for all flow regimes.

blh ( 1 +-'\-[;
A=4--- Ash hJ AlOna '
1 + blh ""long
*A. G. Temkin 125 ,126 suggests calling the correction factor knone the criterion of Leibenson (Le), who
b

made an important contribution to the hydraulics of pipelines. In the works cited, Temkin gives corre-
sponding formulas to calculate the number Le.
 98 Handbook 0/ Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition Flow in Straight Tubes and Conduits 99

For reetangular tubes for laminar flow (Re ::; 2000), the eorreetion faetor, whieh depends
on the aspeet ratio aoJbo, lies in the range k none = krec = 0.89-1.50. When aoJbo = 1.0
(square), krec = kquad = 0.89 or
40. For an annular tube with spiral fins, the eorreetion faetor, whieh depends on the rela-
tive piteh of the winding of fins, T/d (see Diagram 2.7) ean approximately be determined for
all the flow regimes from the following formula: 120

57
Aquad = Re -1 + ~k'
k"ann- ? ann'
(T/d)-
and when aoJbo -t 0 (plane slot), krec = kpl = 1.50 or
where k:um is the eorreetion faetor for an annular tube with longitudinal fins.
41. The friction eoefficient of an eeeentrie annular tube (see Diagram 2.7) for both lami-
nar and turbulent flows depends on the eeeentrieity and the relative width of the annular
ehannel.
For turbulent flow (Re> 2000), krec = 1.0-1.1. When aoJbo = 1.0, kquad "" 1.0, and when 42. The eorreetion faetor for laminar flow is ea1culated from the approximate formula of
40,180 Gostev and Riman 30
aoJbo -t 0, kpl "" 1.1.
37. For elliptical tubes in laminar flow (Re::; 2000) the eorreetion faetor, whieh depends
on the ratio of the ellipse axes (see Petukhov95), is determined as 1
knone = keil --------=-2 kann ,
(1 +BIe)

e
where = 2eID0 - d is the eeeentricity (e is the distanee between the centers of the inner and
outer eylinders); BI is a eoefficient that depends on the ratio dlD o, obtained on the basis of
178
the data of Johnston and Sparrow (see Diagram 2.7, graph e); and kann is the eorreetion
where ao and bo are the major and minor semiaxes of the ellipse.
faetor for a eoneentrie ring.
For turbulent flow this faetor ean be approximated as keil "" 1.0.
43. The eorreetion faetor far turbulent flow is
38. For a eireular annular tube (a tube within a tube) the eorreetion faetor, which is a
funetion of the diameter ratio d/Do, (see Leibenson 68 and Petukhov95), ean be found for lami-
nar flow (Re ::; 2000) from

where k~1l = A/Aann is the ratio of the resistanee eoefficient of an eeeentric annular tube to the
resistanee eoeffieient of a eoncentrie annular tube.
The coefficient k~ll Jor narrow annular ehannc1s (dlDo ~ 0.7) isnearly independent of dlDo
and is a funetion only of eeeentricity (see graph d of Diagram 2.7 far d/Do = 0.5 and d/Do
~ 0.7).
where d and Do are the diameters of the inner and outer eylinders of the annular tube.
When dlDo ~ 0.7, the eorreetion faetor ean be determined from the formula of Koles-
In the ease of turbulent flow, kann depends only slightly on dlDo and lies in the range
nikov: 21
1.0-1.07. 29 The resistanee eoefficient Aann of sueh a tube ean also be ealeulated from the
following formula?9
k~ll = 1 - 0.9 (1 - 2/3e) e2 .
44. The eorreetion faetor knone for laminar flow in tubes with a cross seetion in the form
of an isoseeles triangle (see Miga/6) is

39. The inner eylinder of a eireular annular tube is eentered by means of longitudinal or 3 (1 - tan 2 ß)(B + 2)
spiral fins (see Diagram 2.7). A narrow annular tube (dlDo z 0.9) with three longitudinal fins
4 (B-2)(tanß+~1+tan2ß)2'
is approximately equivalent to a reetangular ehannel with aspeet ratio aoJbo "" 0.06, for whieh,
in the ease of laminar flow, the eorreetion faetor (based on the experiments of Subbotin
120 where
et al. ), is k:um = krec "" 1.36.
For turbulent flow, the eorreetion faetor ean be taken the same as that for an annular tube
with no fins (aeeording to paragraph 38).
100 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition
Flow in Straight Tubes and Conduits 101

is a parameter, and ß is half the apex angle of the isosceles triangle, in degrees.
For an equilateral triangle (ß = 30°)
,l= gJ/M· ~r:: ~
He4~ t=~
k~= 0.833 .

For a right triangle

0.02
"-
'-
"-
-
"\.
'\
r"-o....,
t---
~
l!)/llg

../1
Ist/Do

O.Q15
k~=l
2
(1-3tan ß)(B+2) >- \~ ~ I-
\~l}
2 (3/B - 4)(tan ß + ,/1 + tan 2 ß)2
0.010
J
"-(1)'
f p
? ,/

0.008
w
'"
~<lV .... ll!J
f" ~ / ICf
and for an equilateral rectangular triangle (ß = 45°) eOO6 f".... ~." 2 3
'~t:o

k~=0.825 .
'1005
flUU4 " '\
~
....).=51f!Re
"'0'< v
\ \: .Ll
1~
.""'!
~
,r
j
J.

aOOl '-" ~
45. In the case of turbulent flow, the correetion factor knone for an equilateral triangle var-
ies in the range k none = 0.75-1.0 depending on the angle ß: the larger the angle, the higher
5~ \ ,I
i
ktr . 170 For an equilateral triangle we may ass urne ktr = 0.95.
158 aUU2
"
46. The correetion factor for laminar flow for a tube with a cross seetion in the form of a (/,00/5 "r--.. '\ 1

circular see tor is knone = ksec = 0.75-1.0, depending on the angle ß;5 for turbulent flow ksec r
ean be assumed the same as for an equilateral triangle (paragraph 45). 0.001
'\ I
47. The resistance of the starting length of tubes (immediately downstream of a smooth '\NiI
inlet), which are characterized by a nonstabilized flow (see Section 1.3), is higher than in the o 0.1 0./5 11.2 0,.J 0.4 06 0.8 lO 1.5 2.0 1.0 1;.0 8.tJ Re x IO-J
seetions with stabilized flow. The doser to the inlet, the higher is the friction coefficient !..nonst
of the section of a nonstabilized flow. This is due to the fact that with a smooth entrance the
Figure 2.5. Dependence of the friction coefficient A on Re for a short starting Iength (lstlDO = 2) with
boundary layer in the initial seetions is much thinner than in subsequent ones, and conse- smooth walls.: (1) tes: section is instalied immediately downstream of a smooth inlet CZolDo = 0); (2)
quently the shear forces at the walls in these sections are higher. This refers to both nonsta- upstream stnught section of length loiDo = 0.4 is installed between the smooth iniet and the test section'
bilized laminar and nonstabilized turbulent flow if it is already entirely agitated at the inlet to ~~) ~~lat~~e !ength of. the. upstream~section is loiDo = 4.3; (4) the resistance curve is according t~
the tube~-- BlaslUs; ~5) Hagen-POlsemlle curve.
48. In the case of a very smooth entranee, when at Re > Re cr a "mixed" flow regime sets
in, the coefficient knonst of short tubes (whose length is much shorter than the starting length)
is, within eertain ranges of the Reynolds number, much smaller for a stabilized turbulent flow where
which is due to the laminar behavior of the boundary layer in the inlet seetion of the tube
(see Seetion 1.3). At Re = 2 x 105, the average frietion eoefficient for a short tube of length J ReO. 05
liDo = 2.0 is seven- to eightfold lower than A, for a stabilized flow (Figure 2.5, see also Filip- knonst ::::; 1.09 02 '
(x/DO) .
pov 138 ).
49. Creation of eonditions under which the flow beeomes turbulent in the boundary layer A is the friction coefficient of a stabilized flow; Ax = Xl - X2 is a small portion of the tube
at the inlet into the tube leads to an inerease in the eoeffieient !..nonst for short lengths as weIl length from Xl to x2.
(see Figure 2.5). Therefore, for short tubes in real devices (in whieh the flow at the inlet is The average value of the friction eoefficient ~onst over the entire aiven lenath I of the
very much perturbed as a rule), the loeal value of the friction eoefficient ~onst should be starting section ean be ea1culated for t.lJ.e conditions of a turbulent boundary laye; flow from
122
determined, for example, from the formula of Sukomel et al. for the eonditions of turbu- another equation of the same authors
lent boundary layer flow
I1p 0.43
')' _ I1p 0.344 !..nonst (2.13)
(2.11) PW6/2 x Ax/Da (Re x x/Da)a.2
'''nonst = 2
pwa/2 x Ax/Da (Re x x/Do)O.2
where
 102 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition
Flow in Straight Tubes and Conduits 103

" Reo.05
knonst ~ 1.36 °') ,
(x/Do) .-
(2.14)

Equations (2.11) to (2.14) are correct at least within the range 1.7 x 10 ~ Re ~ 10 . For
4 6
where d = d*/d;
practical calculations these equations can also be used in the case of noncircular channels;
moreover, the upper limit of Re can be raised. The values of ~onst and ~onst are listed in .. With cylinders located in the corners of the equilateral triangle (triangular array)
Table 1 of Diagram 2.21.
50. In the case of high sub- and supersonic velocities of agas flow, that is, in the case of
a compressible gas, both under the conditions of cooling and in an a~iabatic flow, the friction
coefficient for the conditions of a turbulent boundary layer flow is 12_

and accordingly
where 1:(~) is the gas dynamic function determined from Equation (1.47); ~onst and ~onst are
found from Equations (2.11) and (2.13), respectively.
51. The friction coefficient of the starting length for nonstabilized laminar flow is calcu-
lated from the equation similar to Equation (2.13) in which k nonst is a function of the parame-
ter X/(DhRe). It is determined from Table 2 of Diagram 2.21 obtained on the basis of
Frenkel' s data. 44
52. Flow channels made of bundles of circular cylinders (tubes or rods), such as are
widely used in many heat-exchanging systems (e.g., fuel elements of atomic reactors or tubes
in conventional heat exchangers), have flow cross sections of shapes other than circular. Usu-
ally, the cylinders (rods) in a bundle are placed either in an equilateral triangle or a rectangu-
lar pattern (Figure 2.6). The correction factor for the· crossc--sectional -shape of a longitudinal -
tube bundle depends on both the relative pitch of the cylinders s/d (s is the distance between
the axes of the cylinders) and the shape of the tube array and number of cylinders.
53. For laminar liquid flow along the bundle without support plates (i.e., an infinite space)
the correction factor knonst68 is:
In this case, the correction factor can be determined with the limits 1.0 ~ s/d ~ 1.5 from
an approximate formula kbun "" 0.89s/d + 0.63.
• With cylinders located in the corners of a square with side s
Dh = 4i/(nd) - d
and
s
kbun ;;,;; 0.96 d + 0.64 .
54. In the case of turbulent liqui<:l flow thrQugh a bundle of loosely arranged cylinders
(without baffle plates) in a triangular or square array with sld = 1.0, the correction factor
kbund = 0.64 (see Ibraguimov et al. 40).
For an array with a small number of cylinders held by a baffle plate the correction factor
increases and can exceed unity.
A relative spacing sld between the cylinders has different effects on the resistance coeffi-
cient, depending on the form of the array (see Diagram 2.9).
For a baffled bundle of finned cylinders at s/d = 1.05 the correction factor may be taken
the same as that for annular finned tubes (see paragraphs 39 and 40).
55. The shape (bulging) of the cross section of flat-rolled tubes (made from metallic strips)
depends on the extent to which they expand under internal pressure and is characterized by
the ratio of the cross-sectional semiaxes aolbo.
The friction coefficient of flat-rolled aluminum and steel tubes (see Maron and Roe/4) is:

at 4 x 103 < Re < 4 x 104

Figure 2.6. Arrangement of cylinders or tubes in the array of (a) an equilateral tri angle and eb) a
square.
104 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition Flow in Straight Tubes and Conduits 105

where A is determined as a function of Re and Ll from the graphs of Diagrams 2.1 through 2.5.
58. Arc and resistance welded joints have less effeet on the flow resistance than joints with
baeking rings, since the height of the joint is then smaller. On the average, it is possible to
take the "equivalent height of the electrieal arc and resistance of welded jOints"* to be Oeq =

where the coefficients Al and A2 depend on the ratio of the tube semiaxes aolbo and are de-
termined from the graphs of Diagram 2.10.
56. The resistance of steel tubes with welded joints on which there are metal upsets or
burrs is higher than the resistances of seamless tubes. When the weId joints are separated by
a relative distance l = Z/Oj ~ 50, the additional resistance of welded tubes may be assumed
constant and independent of I.
Within the limits l : :; 50, the effect of a single joint decreases with decreasing distanee
between them, so that
3 rnm, while the height of a joint with a backing ring is = 5 mm.°
59. In practice, the resistance of steel tubes with coupled joints can be considered equal to
the resistance of welded tubes.
In ca1culations of cast-iron piping, one may neglect the additional resistanee caused by the
presenee of bell and spigot joints.
60. Annular grooves on the inner surface of a tube also increase its resistance. The overall
resistanee of the segment with grooves is

where ngr is the number of grooves over the considered segment of the tube; 19r is the dis-
where S· and SO are the coefficients of resistanee of one joint at a distance land at a distanee tance between the grooves; Sgr is the resistance coefficient of one groove; when Igr/DO ;:: 4, l33
l;::: 50, ~espect{vely; k4 is the eorrection factor for the interaction effect of joints. This corree-
tion faetor can be determined approximately from the dependence of the resista~ee coefficient Sgr=0.046b/DO ,
for a longitudinal row of cylinders placed in a tube on the relative distance I = lcylldloc =
l8
Z/dloc between the cylinders in the form where b is the width of the groove; at IgrlDo = 2

-
Scyl = nj [2 log 1+ 1] (dloc/Do)
IA
, (2.15) Sgr =0.059b/D o '

where nj is the number of cylinders or, in the given ease, the number of joints over the tube at IgrlDo< 4
segment of given length. _
57. The interaction effect of cylinders in a longitudinal row manifests itself up to about I
= 50. The inferaction effeet of the joints is analogous tathe same effect of the cylinders in a
longitudinal row. Therefore, the eorrection factor k4 can be approximate1y determined as the is determined from the graph of Diagram 2: 12.
ratio SCyl/(Scyl)l = 50. This means that after corresponding cancellations Equation (2.15) will yield 61. The water conduits withdrawn from operation at State Eleetric Stations have the rough-
ness of walls which varies substantially. To take into account this factor 7 it is reeommended
k4 =0.23 [2 log 1+ 1] to introduce into Equation (2.10) the additional parameter (J,r (correction for the local rough-
ness), so that the indicated formula takes the form
The coefficient
6
S9
>]
is determined depending on o/Do from plot a of Diagram 2.1 or from
the formula - 68JO.25
A, = 0.11 Ll + (J,r Re (2.16)
(

The parameter (J,r can vary within wide ranges (see Table 2.5).
The overall resistance of the segment of tubes with joints is 62. The surfaces of concrete pipelines differ from the surfaces of other tubes by the pres-
ence of longitudinal and transverse seams, shuttering marks, cavities, and other irregularities.
The state of the concrete surfaces of pipelines varies in the proeess of service, that is, their
roughness inereases. In ea1culations of the resistanee of such pipelines the effect of the joints,
loeal resistances, blockings, and other eomplieating factors can also be taken into aeeount by

*Aceording to the experiments of Altshul,6 the coefficient ks = 8.26 for rectangular joints and ks = *This expression is understood to refer to the height of a joint with a backing ring, the flow resis-
4.14 for rounded joints. tance of which is equivalent to the arc (and contact) welded joints.
106 Handbook oj Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition Flow in Straight Tubes and Conduits 107

Equation (2.16), wh ich involves the correction factor Cl. r , the values of which are listed in Table 2.1 Values of the parameters ay, n, and ma
Table 2.5.
63. Formation of deposits in pipelines is a complex process wh ich depends on the physi- Water quality group Pipeline diameter Da, mm Cl.y , mmlyear n m
cochemical properties of the liquid transported (with regard to the method and the scale of its 150-300 0.005-0.055 4.4 0.5
cleaning), the pipeline material, and the coating characteristics, as weIl as on hydraulic pa- 400-600 0.025 2.3 0.5
rameters such as mean flow velocity, liquid pressure, and tube diameter.
64. Taking into account the tendency of water to form deposits in pipelines, Kamershtein 150-300 0.055-0.18 6.4 0.5
II
suggests that for water-supplying pipelines the natural waters be divided into the following 400-600 0.07 2.3 0.5
groups, each determining the character and intensity of the reduction in the transporting ca- 150-300 11.6 0.4
0.18-0.40
pacity of pipelines: III
400-600 0.20 6.4 0.5
• Group 1. Weakly saline, noncorrosive water with astability index from -0.2 to 0.2;
150-300 0.40-0.60 18.0 0.35
water with a moderate content of organic substances and free iron. IV
• Group H. Weakly saline, corrosive water with astability index up to -1.0; water con- 400-600 ~ 11.6 0.40
3
taining organic substances and free iron in quantities below 3 g/m . 32.0 0.25
• Group III. Very corrosive water with astability index from -1.0 to 2.5, but with a V 150-300 0.60-3.0
3 18.0 0.35
smaIl content of chlorides and sulfates (less than 100-150 g/m ); water with an iron
content above 3 g/m .
3 'The value of the parameter a y increases with a decrease in the pipeline diameter. The numerator
• Group IV. Corrosive water with a negative stability index, but with a high content of contains the limits of variation of a y and the denominator - the most probab1y average value.
sulfates and chlorides (above 500-700 g/m\ nontreated water with a high content of
organic substances.
• Group V. Water distinguished for appreciable carbonate and low constant density with 68. Moisture and hydrogen sulfide, carbonic acid, and oxygen, which are contained in
astability index above 0.8; heavily saline and corrosive water. gases, cause corrosion of the metal of tubes, which is accompanied by changes in the size,
shape, and distribution of asperities on the inner surface of the duct. The transporting capacity
65. The dependence of the roughness asperity height Llt (mm) on number of years of serv-
of gas conduits is sometimes reduced with time by 15% or more due to corrosion and con-
ice is determined from a formula derived by Mostkov on the basis of Kamershtein's experi-
tamination.
ments: 69. Growth of asperities on the inner surface of ventilation air ducts during service may be
taken into account through a formula similar to Equation (2.17):62
(2.17)

where Ll is the initial height of the roughness aspenues (see Table 2.5); Cl.y is the rate of
increase in the number of asperities (millimeters per year), which is dependent on the physi-
where Cl.m is the rate of growth of asperities, in millimeters per month (see Table 2.2) and tm
cochemical properties of water (see Table 2.1). is the duration of service, in months.
66. The dependence of the fluid transport capacity of water-supplying pipelines on the time
of their service, properties of the transported water, and pipeline diameter is expressed as
Table 2.2 Growth of surface asperities in air pipelines during service62

Limits of
where Q is the predicted transporting capacity of a pipeline, ty is the duration of service Region of use of air pipelines or ducts Kind of Iocal suction variation of am,
mm1month
(years), and n and m are parameters that depend on physicochemical properties of the trans-
ported water (see Table 2.1).* Conveyor soldering of small ratio Aspirating (sucking) funnel or hood
2.3-4.4
components with application of the KST flux
67. Because they have higher flow rates, gas pipelines are less subjected to mechanical
contamination than water pipelines. Dry gases that do not cause corrosion of the inner surface Impregnation of abrasive disks with bakelite Bakelitization chamber 0.92-1.36
of the tube may even somewhat reduce the roughness as the tubes are slightly abraded by the Cooking on a kitchen range Circumferential suction 0.34-0.49
dry gas. Chrome-p1ating of artic1es in a galvanic bath Suction from two sides of the bath 0.49-0.80
*The increase in the resistance of water-supp1ying pipelines in the process of service has been re- Exhaust section of air pipeline instalied
0.03
fined in Reference 128. outside a building
108 Handbook 01 Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition
70. According to Datochnyi,31 motion of gas in low-pressure gas pipelines is possible in
all flow regimes, except the quadratic one, while in gas pipelines with moderate and high
pressures it occurs under transition and quadratic conditions. All gas pipelines operate princi-
pally under transition conditions. For refined formulas for calculating gas pipelines of low
6
and high pressure, see Altshu1.
71 . The resistance of flexible tubes made of metallic strips (metallic hoses; see Diagram
6 than a nominal diameter of the hose be multiplied by the correction factor k, which is found
2.12) substantially (by a factor of 2-2.5) exceeds that of smooth tubes. At Re = 5 x 10 to
4.10 , the friction coefficient of such tubes changes only slightly (A = 0.025-0.0285). It de-
5
pends on the direction of the flow along the hose; at pi aces where the flow runs off the edges
of the inner strip it is somewhat smaller than at places where the flow impinges on the
146
edges.
72. High hydraulic resistance is also exhibited by a flexible air conduit made by winding
a glass fabric strip round a steel-wire framework. The resistance of such air conduits is pri-
marily determined by the crimpness of their surfaces (rather than conventional roughness).
The friction coefficient of glass-fabric air conduits with a regular crimpy surface can be de-
termined from an approximate formula of Klyachko and Makarenkova,53 which reflects the
structural dependence of A on the air conduit diameter and the strip width b:
'1
'" '1 ' D'/D
~ "'o(DoIDo) 0 0 (bi ° ,
b)m
where Ac, Da, and bo are the friction coefficient, diameter, and width of the strip of an air
conduit; AO = 0.052; Da = 0.1 m; bo = 0.02 m; m is the coefficient which takes into account
the change in the winding pitch; for the construction considered m = 1/5. Air conduits of
diameters Do :s; 0.2 m have glass-fabric strip width b = 0.02 m and those with the diameters
Do > 0.2 m, b = 0.03 m. .. . 53
More accurate values of A obtained experimentally for glass-fabnc alr condmts are pre-
sen ted as a function of the diameter Do and the Reynolds number in the respective table of
Diagranr2.13.
73. The resistance of flexible corrugated tubes to turbulent flow depends on the ratio of
the height of the crimp crest h to its length Zer and depends only slightly on the Reynolds
number.
74. The friction coefficient A of reinforced rubber hoses, whose characteristics are given in
Diagram 2.14, does not depend on the Reynolds number in the range ~4000, owing to the
appreciable roughness of such hoses. The value of A increases with increasing diameter of
. . . then aso
l 'mcreased . 131,132
hoses since the height of the mner seams IS
When determining pressure losses from Equation (2.2) it is necessary that the nominal
hose diameter dnom be replaced by deal determined from curve b of Diagram 2.14, depending
on the mean inner pressure.
75. The friction coefficient A of smooth rubber hoses, whose characteristics are given in
132
Diagram 2.15, can be determined from the Toltsman-Shevele formula:
A
A= Re O.265 '
where, at Reynolds numbers (Re = wodnom/v) from 5000 to 120,000, the value of A = 0.38
to 0.52 (depending on the quality of the hoses).
Flow in Straight Tubes and Conduits 109
If pressure los ses are determined from Equation (2.2), the diameter should be calculated
based on the mean internal pressure (according to curve b of Diagram 2.14).
76. The friction coefficient A of smooth reinforced rubber hoses is determined from the
curves of Diagram 2.16, depending on the average internal pressure and d nom .
In determining pressure losses from Equation (2.2) it is necessary that the ca1culated rather
from curves c and d of Diagram 2.17, depending on the average internal pressure.
77. For large-diameter (300-500 mm) tubes made from rubberized material, such as may
be used for ventilation of shafts, and the connections made with wire rings c10sed at the ends
by pipe sockets (see Diagram 2.17), the total resistance is composed (according to Adamov)
of the friction resistance and the resistance of joints
2 - = nc [z.
S=- öp
pwo/2
A jy
°
+ ScJ,
where nc is the number of connections; A (see Diagram 2.17) is determined for different de-
grees of tension: small (with extensive crimping and fractures), medium (with minor crimp-
ing), and large (without crimping); 0 is the distance between the joints, in m; and Sc is the
resistance coefficient of one connection (see Diagram 2.16).
78. The friction coefficients A of plywood tubes (made from birch plywood with fibers
running lengthwise) are determined according to the data of Adamov and Idelchik 1 given in
Diagram 2.18.
79. The friction coefficients of tubes made from polymers (plastic) can be determined from
formulas of Offengenden,91,92 which are given in Diagram 2.19. Indicated there also are the
regions of the applicability of these formulas. As a rule, plastic tubes relate to tubes with
slight roughness (.6. :s; 30 11m). Tubes made from fluoroplastic have the smallest absolute
roughness and those made from glass-reinforced plastic, and from phaolete the greatest rough-
ness. ·The plastic tübesalso have micro- and macrowaviness. 92 When 5 x 104 :s; Re :s; 3 x 105,
to make hydraulic calculation of plastic tubes, it is possible to use in the first approximation
(with an error up to 25% and above) the formula of Colebrook-White (2.9) or sirnilar formu-
las (see above) with the substitution of the values of .6. given in Table 2.5. For polyethylene
(nonstabilized), fluoroplastic, and polypropylene tubes the value of .6. is not determined, as the
coefficient A for them can be determined from formulas for smooth tubes. 92
80. The Iocal resistance coefficients for different types of joints of plastic tubes can be
determined from corresponding formulas 92 given in Diagram 2.20.
81. All the values of A recommended above refer to an incompressible fluid. In order to
approximate the effect of gas compressibility for a section of very large length, one may use
the formula derived by V oronin: 22
-O.47
k-1 2
Acom =A 1 + -2- M
[ J
,
where A and Aeom are the friction coefficients, respectively, for incompressible and compress-
ible liquid (gas).
 110 Handbook oj Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition Flow in Straight Tubes and Conduits 111

Aloe =32 (3 + ao/[Reo (1 - aOX)] ,

Here vs = aowolf is the average velocity of outflow (inflow) through side orifices; f = L.f/F 0
is the ratio of the overall area of the side surfaces (branches) of the porous segment of the
tube; ao = 1 - WI/WO; x = xll; Reo = woDoIv; ao is determined by the velocity profile at the
{a) inlet to the discharge collector (for the parabolic profile ao = -0.17; for the cosinusoid profile
ao :::: -0.33); Wo and WI are the average velo city in the initial (x = 0) and final (x = I) sections
o I-o&-_::"X _ _-i of the porous segment of the tube.
The resistance coefficient of the porous tube segment of length z44 is

o Q4J v v
s== ~=
p 6/
l/Do[32 (3 +ä) (1- 0.5ao)] .
W 2 Reo

84. The Iocal friction coefficient Aloe under the same conditions as those in paragraph 83
is ca1culated in the case of turbulent flow and 20 ::; LID ::; 125 from the formula: I8

at E' ::; 0.2

Al oe =A+5.54E'V/W;
v v
when E' > 0.2

, Nv ( 1 -
Aloe=A+5.54EV/W+-,-- v/wo]
-- .
{cl (2.19)
EV/w v/w
Here A is the friction coefficient of a smooth tube determined from the graphs of Diagram 2.1:
Figure 2.7. Diagram of flow with a change in the flow rate along the path: (a) collector with perforated
v
walls; (b) collector with a longitudinal slot; (c) collector with side branches. (1) = 1.0 = const. (2)v Nv =O.0256B(E'V/W)0.435 ,
with variable discharge.

Ac-A
B=--
The formuIa shows that up to Ma = 0.6, the effect of compressibility may be negIected 0.2-A'
within 3% or less error. An appreciable decrease in the coefficient Aeom is observed only in
a narrow transomc .regIOn
. and a1so at supersomc oCltles (by about 15 70.
. fl ow ve1" m ) 121,122
Ac is determined from the expression
82. When a liquid (gas) moves in a pipeline (conduit) of constant cross section and there
is an outflow or inflow through porous side walls, slots, or side branches (Figure 2.7), the log Ac = log A exp (-6.63E'3) ,
resistance coefficient A varies along this path due to a change of the average flow velocity
(Re) along the flow path. where E' is the porosity factor of the tube walls.
83. The local resistance coefficient Aloe of a cyIindrical tube with porous walls and uni-
Within the range 20 ::; lID ::; 125, the resistance coefficient of the porous segment of the
form and circular (over the whole perimeter) outflow, that is, when tube of length l is

v==vlv s =l and w==w/wo=l-aOX at 10' ::; 0.2

. . 18*
in the case of laminar flow, is ca1culated from the formula of Bystrov and Mlkhmlov.
/).P
~==-?-=D aBJ . -
l [ A ( l - a o+"3 +5.54ECXo/j(1-0.5ao) . ]
pwö/2 0 '
*The coefficient ao introduced by the author into this formula extends it also to the case of transit
flow rate (ao < 1).
at 10' > 0.2
112 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition Flow in Straight Tubes and Conduits 113

Table 2.3 The values of h -h

I; = aö) ,..:..
ßp - = - I { A [ 1 - ao + 3" + 5.54E a lf(l - 0. 5ao)
-2 o
pwo/2 Do v
aü
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 004 0.6 0.8 1.0
o00157a0.435FO.565 ~- - - I
+ . 0 J [1- 4.565 (1- aO),,·)6) + 3.565 (1 - ao)4.)65Jr . 0.1 0.042 0.040 0.038 0.036 0.035 0.031 0.028 0.027
(E')O.565 J 0.2 0.070 0.067 0.064 0.061 0.059 0.053 0.048 0.042
0.3 0.086 0.083 0.080 0.077 0.074 0.068 0.061 0.54
85. The local friction coefficient Aloe of a discharging collector with one-sided and uniform
I8 004 0.093 0.091 0.088 0.085 0.083 0.077 0.070 0.061
outflow and with turbulent flow is
0.5 0.094 0.092 0.090 0.088 0.086 0.081 0.074 0.065
Aloe = A+ 8E'vI w , 0.6 0.090 0.089 0.088 0.087 0.086 0.082 0.076 0.067
0.7 0.084 0.084 0.084 0.084 0.083 0.080 0.075 0.067
whereas the resistance coefficient of the entire section of the collector of length f4 is 0.8 0.076 0.077 0.078 0.079 0.079 0.078 0.074 0.066

ßp
1;=-2-=-
pwo/2 Do
a )
I [ A [ 1-ao+3" , - ö
+8Eaolf(1-0.5ao) . 1 0.9
1.0
0.068
0.061
0.070
0.064
0.072
0.066
0.073
0.068
0.074
0.070
0.074
0.071
0.072
0.070
0.065
0.063

86. With a circular and uniformly variable outflow from a cylindrical tube, when the rela-
tive velocity of the outflow v varies linearly from vo = 1 - ßv to VI = 1 + ßv and accordingly
W =w/wo = 1 - ao(l - ßV)X - aot1v:XZ,
V =vlv = ao (1 - ßV + 2ßvx) ,
s
at E > 0.2

where ßv = ßV/vs is the departure of the relative velocity from its average value (from unity, ßp ao
lID o{A[ l-ao+3"
1;=-2-=
see Figure 2.7). pwo/2
The local resistance coefficient in the case of laminar flow is

32(3 +iiü)-
Alam = - aot1v- -x 2] '
Reo [1 - aO (1 - ßV)x -
where
The resistance coefficient of a porous segment of length f4 is

S =pwßpo/2 = 32 (3Reo+ uo) liDo [1- 0.5ao + 1I6aot1VJ .

-2-

87. In the case of turbulent flow under identical conditions as those in paragraph 86, the 0.0256B }
- 0 565 (h -lz) ,
local friction coefficient Aloe is determined approximately from Equations (2.18) and (2.19). (Eaol!) .
The resistance coefficient of the porous segment of length f4 is
hand lz are the first and second integrals in the expression for M.
at E ::;; 0.2 The value of ßA can be determined numerically on a computer. The calculated values of
the difference h - lz are presented in Table 2.3.
S=- 2
ßp - = liDo {A[ 1 - ao
ao +-
88. In the case of turbulent flow and one-sided nonuniform outflow (see Figure 2.7), the
local friction coefficient is determined according to Reference 18 as:
pw o/2 3

at E' ::;; 0.2

 Flow in Straight Tubes and Conduits 115
114 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

The Ioeal frietion eoeffieient is determined approximately from Equation (2.20), whereas
the resistanee eoeffieient of the porous segment of length I is

at E' > 0.2 r tJ.p ,- -

~ == - 2 - = 1.5E aolf liDo (1- 0.5ao - 0.17aQtJ.v) .
pwQ/2

91. The resistanee eoeffieient of the side branehing of eolleetors 15, 16 is:
where
in the ease of outflow (diseharging collector)

_ tJ.p -2 2
~br =- 2 - =0.25f + (fslfa) + ~ap + ~seg ,
(~br == tJ.pl(pv;/2) is the overall resistanee eoefficient of the side branch of the collector re- pvs/2
dueed to the velocity vs)·
The resistanee coeffieient of the porous segment of length [44 is in the ease of injection (intake eollector)

at E' :::; 0.2 ~br = 1.5f-2 (1 2"1-

- -
n s ns
0.125 J+ 0.75 + ifslfa) 2 + ~ap + ~seg ,
~ == - tJ.p {
? - = liDo A [1 - ao + ao/3 for paired colleetors (TI-like or Z-like)
pw ö/2
-2
~br =O.2f + 1.75 + ~ap + ~seg .

Here fs and fa are the areas of the side orifice and of the final cross section of the entire
at E' > 0.2 branehing (exit into an infinite spaee); ~ap is the resistanee eoeffieient of any apparatus in-
volved in the system of the side branching and redueed to the veloeity V s ; ~seg is the resis-
~ tJ.p- = liDo {A [1- ao+a /3
== - 2 tance coeffieient of all the segments of the side branehing upstream and downstream of the
o
pw o/2 apparatus reduced to the velocity V s; n s is the number of side branehings.
92. The introduetion of macroscopic partieIes into the flow of a liquid or gas, or the addi-
tion üf polymer molecules with a very large molecular mass relative~to the liquid, substan-
tially reduces the frietion coeffieient in tubes (Thomas effect)?64
89. In the case of a turbulent flow and uniform inflow (injection), the Ioeal frietion coef- Addition of polymers to a liquid or solid partic1es to a gas leads to a notable decrease of
fieient is the trans verse velocity pulsations and of the turbulent friction expressed in terms of the
Reynolds stresses, and as a result the resistance coefficient decreases. These additives do not
(2.20) decrease the resistance eoefficient of laminar flow and do not eontribute to its preservation.
Aloe = 1.5E'vlw .
The maximum decline in the resistance coefficient is observed in the region of low
44
Then the resistanee coeffieient of the parous segment of length 1 is Reynolds numbers of a fully developed turbulent flow (Figure 2.8).
93. The frietion coefficient also varies depending on the concentration and kind of polymer
tJ.p ,- (in water) and, eorrespondingly, on the size of suspended solid particles (in an air flow). The
t; == - 2 - = 1.5EaolfilDo (1- 0. 5ao) . higher the concentration of the polymer (polyacrilamide, PAA) in water at the given Reynolds
pwo/2
number (Figure 2.9), the more appreciable is the decrease in the eoeffieient A (similar results
90. For a turbulent flow and uniformly variable inflow (injection), when the relative veloc- can be observed also from the data of other works (see References 11, 12, 97, 98, 111).
ity of inflow varies according to the linear law from vo = 1 + tJ.v to VI = 1 - tJ.v and accord- The coefficient A is determined 210 from the formula
ingly w= 1 - ao(l + tJ.v)x + aotJ.v x 2,
e*thr ~o/5.75 2.51

J
- ~
tJ.
1
-===-2100- - -
VA e Re, [(R --+-
lRe0: 3.7 J'
 116 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition Flow in Straight Tubes and Conduits
117

o.001r-~~~~--~----+---~
D~ ______ ~ ________ ~ ____
6 8 10 12
Figure 2.8. Friction coefficient of a smooth plate in a dust-laden air flow (Gm = 3.7 g/s)?14 (1) pure
air; (2) 1680 11m; (3) 840 11m; (4) 200 11m; (5) 100 11m.

where Re* = (w~/Do)/v is the dynamic Reynolds number; Re*thr = (w*thrDo)/v is the threshold
Reynolds number corresponding to the start of the decrease in hydraulic resistance; [w* =
-Y'Co/p is the dynamic velocity ('Co is the shear stress on the wall); w*thr is the threshold dy- Figure 2.9. Function 1I-Y'f =.f(Re-Y'f) for water with surfactants of different concentrations: 210 (1) for
namic velocity]; apo! is the parameter, depending on the kind and concentration of polymer smooth tubes; (2), (3), and (4) by formula of paragraph 93 at different concentrations of surfactants at
(it can be determined from experimental data). Clpol = 11.5, 7.1, and 4.2, respectively: +) tap water; 0) water + PAA (e = 0.0053%); 0) water + PAA
94. With the rise of concentration of solid particles 11 (Figure 2.10) the friction coefficient (e = 0.008%); ,1) water + PAA Ce = 0.012%).
A first falls very sharply or, which is the same, the ratio ('Ao - A)/'Ao reaches a maximum,
after which it begins to decrease until at 11 = 2-3 it becomes equal to zero. The smaller the
fraction of suspended partic1es, the larger is the maximum of ('Ao -A)/'Ao and the earlier this where Arton and ~s are the frietion coefficients in the case on nonisothermal and isothermal
maximum occurs, but at the smaller values of 11 the friction coefficient starts to decrease. m~tion, respectively (in calculations of ~s the density and viscosity are taken for the average
95. In the case of pneumatic transport, when density and dimensions of solid particles sus- flUId temperature); l1w and l1fl are the dynamic viscosities, respectively, at the temperature of
pended in the flow are nearly always substantial, the effect of the cross-current velocities of the tu?e wall Tw and average fluid temperature Tfl; n =fil1w/l1fl, Pe·dll), see Table 2.4; Pe =
turbulent flow on the mechanism of partic1e suspension and the friction drag becomes negli- wl/at IS the Pedet number; at is the thermal diffusivity, m 2/s.
gible. In~thisccase'csuch adqitjpnal factors as the dragof l2artic1es, the lift exerted on them, When the fluid is cooled, l1w/l1fl > 1; it folIo ws from Equation (2.21) that the friction co-
and the gravitational force and other factors, wh ich in~~~ase resi~iance~to-the transporting efficientincreases. ,when the fluid is heated, l1wlYJfl < 1; Anon becomes smaller than A;s.-
flow motion, are of prime importance (see the list of references to Chapter 2). 100. To determme the friction coefficient of hydraulically smooth tubes with turbulent
96. When the flow in a horizontal tube is steady (far from the inlet, absence of transported fluid flow the following formula can be used: 75
material effects), the difference between the densities of suspended particles and air is sub-
stantial and the dimensions of particles are such that individual particles periodically strike
the tube wall and bounce off it, thus executing a continuous bouncing motion.
97. The loss of energy during impact on the wall is responsible for a decrease in the trans-
lational velocity of particles, which subsequently recovers again due to interaction of particles
with the flow. This causes an additional expenditure of energy by a transporting flow.
98. In the presence of heat transfer through the tube walls the liquid (gas) temperature
varies over both its length and cross section; the latter leads to a change in the fluid density
and viseosity and as a result, in the velocity profile und fluid resistance. 51
99. The friction coefficient of a nonisothermal flow of a liquid is ca1culated from the
equation

Arton = ( Fjgu~~42.10. Friction resistance on the surface of a circular tube at different ratios of the mass flow
l1wJ n (2.21)
rates: (1) 60 11m ; (2).15 11m ; (3) 100 11m; (4) 200 11m; (5) 840 11m; (6) 1680 11m; Ao is the value of
~s l1fl
A at 11 = O. G and Gm 1S the mass flow rate without and with particles, respectively.
 118 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition Flow in Straight Tubes and Conduits 119

Relr-________~{a~)________
Table 2.4 The values of n in Equation (2.21) Re2 = 104
-~ Re) ::: 5 x Hj3
llwlT1fl llw/llfl
Pe·d/l Pe·d/l
0.1 1.0 10 100 1000 0.1 1.0 10 100 1000
60 0.78 0.67 0.58 0.51 0.44 1000 0.33 0.29 0.25 0.22 0.19
o
100 0.67 0.58 0.50 0.44 0.38 15000 0.36 0.26 0.22 0.19 0.17
150 0.59 0.51 0.45 0.39 0.33 2500 0.28 0.25 0.21 0.18 0.16
200 0.54 0.47 0.41 0.35 0.31 5000 0.26 0.23 0.20 0.17 0.15 070--~----2~--~--~4--~5
Re

q~4-. *fr----.,\
400 0.44 0.38 0.33 0.29 0.25 10,000 0.25 0.21 0.19 0.16 0.14
600 0.39 0.34 0.29 0.25 0.22 30,000 0.22 0.19 0.17 0.14 0.l3 (b) -I Re,.::: 2 X 10"'
Re;'l =10"'
o

~[
.,::=J
1 0
Anon =
[1.82 log (Re -Yllw/llfl) -1.64] 2
; !I---------........Q...-.
101. The friction coefficient for a nonisothermal turbulent flow of a heated gas can be
o 0.5 t, s LO 1.5
ca1culated from the approximate formula of Kutateladze-Leontiyev which is valid within the
ranges Re = 105-6 x 106 and Tw/Tg = 1-3:
Fi~re 2.~1. Experimental values of the coefficient 91;> on jumpwise change in the flow rate in time t:
4 a) lllcreaslllg flow rate; b) decreasing flow rate.
Anon/~s = ,
(-YTw/Tg + 1) 2

where Tg is the mean-mass gas temperature.

4
102. In determining the equivalent roughness of the walls of the calculated segment of the
tubes (channel), one may use the data given in Table 2.5. 3
103. A change in the flow rate and, correspondingly, in the Reynolds number in time ex-
2
erts a direct etlect on the characteristics of turbulent transfer in 'ä tube. Therefore, thc effect
of the hydrodynamic instability on the resistance turns out to be differentfrom the case of
laminar flow. Below the cases are considered where the Reynolds number over the entire
range of the flow rates lies substantially above the critical value that characterizes transition o 0.5 1.0 1.5 t, S
from the laminar to the turbulent mode. The review of the state-of-the-art of experimental and
theoretical investigations of the friction drag in stabilized unsteady turbulent liquid flow in ~igure 2.12. Friction coefficient ?during retardation. Experimental data. Initial, section-average velocity
circular tubes is given in References 271 and 272. 1S w = 2.92 rnJs, dwldt = 1.46 m-/s.
Consider some of the results· of the corresponding experimental investigations. The friction
coefficient in unsteady turbulent flow in a circular tube S is compared with the quasi-station- 4»

ary value S* determined from the well-known dependences on the Reynolds number for
Q~* 4»
10.0
steady flow at a given time.
4»
Figure 2.11 presents the results of an experimental study of the friction coefficient273 on
1.0
the stepwise increase in the flow rate in time on Rel = 5 x 103 to Re2 = 104 (a) and on the ~
• 4»
decrease in the flow rate from Rel = 2 x 104 to Re2 = 104 (b). Hence it follows that an •
increase in the flow rate causes the curve depicting the dependence of the friction coefficient
on time to pass through a minimum at which the friction coefficient S is lower than the
quasi-stationary value S*, whereas on stepwise decrease in the flow rate S is larger than
With time stationary values of the friction coefficient are established.
0.1

- ~

Figure 2.13. Friction coefficient during acceleration.

10 t, s
 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition
Flow in Straight Tubes and Conduits 121
120
Table 2.5 (continued)
Table 2.5 Equivalent roughness of the surfaces of tubes and channels
Type of tubes,
Type of tubes, Group material State of tube surface and conditions of use Amm Ref.
Group State of tube surface and conditions of use b.,mm Ref.
material
A. Metal tubes
A. Metal tubes
0.0015-0.0100 Water pipelines previously used 1.2-1.5
Seamless tubes Commercially smooth
made from 0.015-0.06 187 Poor condition ;.:::s.0
brass, copper, lead III Welded steel New or old, but in good condition 0.04-0.10 179,187
Aluminum tubes tubes
a 42,152,
II Seamless steel tubes New, unused 0.02-O.lO
New, bituminized -0.05 186
(commercial) 185, 197
Used previously, corroded, bitumen -0.10 197
Cleaned after many years of use Up to 0.04 187
partially dissolved
Bituminized Up to 0.04 187
Used previously, uniformly corroded -0.15 197
Superheated steam pipes of heating 0.10 82
Without noticeable unevenness at joints; 0.3-0.4 182
systems and water pipes of heating lacquered on the inside layer (l0 mm
systems with deaeration and chemical thick); adequate state of surface
treatment of running water
Gas mains after many years of use -0.5 197
After one year of use in gas pipelines 0.12 42
With simple or double trans verse riveted 0.6-0.7 179
After several years of use as tubing in 0.04-0.20 7
joints; lacquered 10 mm thick
gas weHs under vanous conditions on the inside or with no lacquer,
After several years of use as casings in 0.06-0.22 7
but not corroded
gas weHs under different conditions Lacquered on the inside, but rusted; 0.95-1.0 179
Saturated steam ducts and water pipes of 0.20 82
soiled when transporting water,
heating systems with minor water but not corroded
leakage (up to 0.5%) and deaeration Layered deposits; gas mains after 20 years 1.1 197
of water supplied to balance leakage ofuse
Pipelines of water heating systems 0.20 With double trans verse rivetedjoints, 1.2-1.5 152, 197
independentof the. S01!rc~ Qf supply not corroded, soiled during transport
Oil pipelines for intermediate operating 0.20 82 ofwater ..
conditions Small deposits 1.5 197
Moderately corroded -0.4 197
With double trans verse rivetedjoints, 2.0 179
Small depositions of scale -0.4 197 heavily corroded
Steam pipelines operating periodically 0.5 82 Appreciable deposits 2.0-4.0 197
and condensate pipes with the open Used for 25 years in municipal gas mains, 2.4 197
system of condensate nonuniform deposits of resin and
Compressed air pipes from piston- 0.8 82 naphthalene
and turbocompressors Poor condition of the surface :::::5.0 179
After several years of operation under 0.15-1.0 7
IV Riveted steel Lateral and longitudinal riveting with one 0.3-0.4 179
different conditions (corroded or tubes line of rivets; 10 mm thick lacquered on
with small amount of scale) the inside; adequate state of the surface
Condensate pipelines operating 1.0 32
With double longitudinal riveting and 0.6-0.7 179
periodically and water heating pipes
simple lateral riveting; 10 mm thick
with no deaeration and chemical lacquered on the inside, or without
treatment of water and with lacquer, but not corroded
substantialleakage from
the system (up to 1.5-3%)
 Flow in Straight Tubes and Conduits 123
122 Handbook 0/ Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition
Table 2.5 (continued)
Table 2.5 (continued)

Type of tubes, Ref.

Group TY:a~:::~es, State of tube surface and conditions of use b.,mm Ref.
Group State of tube surface and conditions of use b.,mm
material A. Metal tubes
A. Metal tub es
Moderately corroded or with slight deposits 0.30-0.70
With simple lateral and double longitudinal 1.2-1.4 179
Heavily corroded 0.80--1.5
riveting; from 10 to 20 mm thick
Cleaned of deposits or rust 0.15-0.20
lacquered or torred on the inside
2.0 179 Formerly used
With four to six longitudinal rows
(mounting in industrial conditions)
of rivets; long period of use
With four lateral and six longitudinal rows 4.0 179 All welded, up to 2 years of service, 0.12--0.24
of rivets; joints overlapped on the inside without deposits

~.O 179 Same, up to 20 years of service, 0.6-5.0

Very poor condition of the surface;
without deposits
uneven overlapping of joints
With iron-bacterial corrosion 3.0-4.0
V Roofing Oiled 1.10-0.15
(heavily rusted)
steel sheets Not oiled 0.02-0.04
Heavily corroded, with incrustation 3.0-5.0
Bright galvanization; new 0.07-0.10 197
VI Galvanized (deposits from 1.5 to 9 mm thick)
Ordinary galvanization 0.1-0.15 197
steel tubes Same, wirh deposits from 3 to 25 mm thick 6.0-6.5
New 0.15 185
VII Galvanized Used, coated on the inside
Used previously for water 0.18 171
sheet steel Bituminized (coal-tar varnish, coal tar), 0.1-0.35
VIII Steel tubes Coated with glass enamel on both sides 0.001-0.01 up to 2 years of service
New 0.25-1.0 171 Note: For new water conduits
Cast-iron
tubes ar = 1.3-1.5
New, bituminized 0.10-0.15 197 For new bituminized water conduits
IX
Asphalt-coated 0.12-0.30 185 ar= 1.3
Water pipelines, used previously 1.4 152 For used water conduits the value
1.0-1.5 197 ',. of a r may vary within wide limits
U sed previously,cnrroded
1.0-1.5 185,197 Cup to 85), depending on the time
With deposits
2.0-4.0 197 of service, properties of water,
Appreciable deposits
0.3-1.5 171 kind of deposits, etc.
Cleaned after use for many years
Up to 3.0 179 B. Concrete, Cement, and Other Tubes and Conduits
Heavily corroded
Concrete Water conduits without surface finish 7,26
X Water New, clean
Seamless (withoutjoints), weH fitted 0.015-0.04 7,26 tubes New, pIaster finish, manufactured with 0.05-0.15
conduits of
0.03-0.012 the aid of steel formwork with excellent
electric power Welded lengthwise, weil fitted
Same, with trans verse weldedjoints 0.08-0.17 quality (sections are mated thoroughly,
stations,
New, clean, coated on the inside joints are prime coated and smoothed)
steel
Bituminized when manufactured 0.014-0.018 (ar = 1)
Same, with transverse weldedjoints 0.20-0.60 Used, with corroded and wavy surface; 1.0-4.0
Galvanized 0.10-0.20 wood framework (ar> 3.0)
Roughly galvanized 0.40-0.70 Old, poorly manufactured, poorly fitted;
0.10--1.4 the surface is overgrown and
Bituminized, curvilinear in plan
has the deposits of sand, gravel, clay
Used, clean
0.10-0.30 particles (ar> 3)
Slightly corroded or with incrustation
 Flow in Straight Tubes and Conduits 125
124 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition
Table 2.5 (continued)
Table 2.5 (continued)
Type of tubes,
Type of tubes, Group State of tube surface and conditions of use Ll,mm Ref.
Group State of tube surface and conditions of use Ll,mm Ref. material
material
B. Concrete, Cement, and Other Tubes and Conduits
B. Concrete, Cement, and Other Tubes and Conduits
II Reinforced New 0.25-0.34 26
Very old with the surface heavily damaged 5.0 and above
concrete Nonprocessed 2.5 187
and overgrown for years of service
tubes
(o:r>3)
Water conduits with subsequent finish III Asbestos- New 0.05-0.10
of the surface (plastered, smoothed) cement Average 0.60
New, with a very smooth surface, 0.10-0.20 tubes
manufactured with the aid of steel or IV Cement tubes Smoothed 0.3-0.8
oiled steel casing with excellent quality N onprocessed 1.0-2.0 187
of work; hand-smoothing with trowels; Joints not smoothed 1.9-6.4 179
joints are prime coated and smoothed
V Conduit with Good pIaster made of pure cement with 0.05-0.22 179
(without asperities) (ar =1) a cement- smoothedjoints; all asperities removed;
New or previously used, smooth; also 0.15-0.35
mortar metal casing
monolithic (steel casing) or sectional
tubes with sections up to 4 m long pIaster Steel-troweled 0.5
of good quality; cement finish hand- VI PIaster over a 10-15
smoothed;joints are smoothed (ar> 1, metallic
but <1.5) screen
Previously used, without deposits, with 0.30-0.60 VII Ceramic salt- 1.4
moderately smooth surface; monolithic glazed
(steel or wooden casing), asperities conduits
removed, joints are prime coated,
VIII Slag-concrete 1.5
but not smooth (ar> 1.5, but ::;2.5)
slabs
Prefabricated and monolithic (fabricated 0.50-1.0
IX Slag and Carefully made slabs LG~-l-:5 171
on site), previously used, with cement
alabaster-
pIaster wood floated, joints are rough
(ar> 2.5, but ::;30) filling slabs

Water conduits with concrete sprayed C. Wood, Plywood, and Glass Tubes
sUrface or of sprayed concrete Wood tubes Boards very thoroughly dressed 0.15
Carefully smoothed air-placed concrete 0.50 Boards weIl dressed 0.30
or sprayed concrete on concrete surface Boards undressed, but weIl fitted 0.70
(ar = 2.5) Boards undressed 1.0 197
Brushed air-placed concrete or sprayed 2.30 Staved 0.6
concrete on concrete sUrface (ar> 3.0) II Plywood Of good-quality birch plywood with 0.12
Nonsmoothed air-placed concrete or 3.0-6.0 tubes transverse grain
sprayed concrete on concrete surface Of good-quality birch plywood 0.03-0.05
(ar> 3.0) with longitudinal grain
Smoothed air-placed concrete or sprayed 6.0-17.0 III Glass tubes Pure glass 0.0015-0.010 185
concrete on concrete surface (ar> 3.0)
 126 Handbook oj Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition Flow in Straight Tubes and Conduits 127

Table 2.5 (continued) r

Type of tubes, State of tube surface and conditions of use Ll,mm Ref.
Group material
D. Tunnels
o x
Tunnels in Rocks (Rough)
Blast-hewed in rock mass wirh little 100-140
jointing

~
Blast-hewed in rock mass with appreciable 130-500 ...
jointing I
. f
'P
Roughly cut with highly uneven surfaces 500-1500
II Tunnels Unlined J b
Rocks: r

gneiss (D =3-13.5 m) 300-700

Figure 2.15. Scheme of an armular tube with an inner and outer moving cylinders.
granite (D = 3-9 m) 200-700
Shale (D =9-12 m) 250-650
quartz, quartzite (D = 7-10 m) 200-600 container increases and that behind it decreases. Therefore, the pressure drop does not accel-
sedimentary rocks (D = 4--7 m) 400 erates but rather decelerates the container and together with the sliding friction on the tube
nephrite-bearing (D - 3-8 m) 200 wall (rails, guides) or rolling friction of the wheel undercarriage it create the resistance force.
A self-propelled container, wh ich acts like a piston, creates a flow of a liquid or gas in a
pipeline and plays the role of a kind of a pumping plant. The pressure drop appearing in the
forward and hinder parts of the container is counterbalanced by the aerodynamic drag of the
Figure 2.12 presents experimental data of Reference 274 on the friction coe~ficient for a
pipeline walls offered to the induced flow. Equating these drops, one obtains an equation of
slow motion of water in a tube with d = 25 mm. It follows then that on retardatlOn 111;* > 1.
the balance of pressures in a transport pipeline. Thus, in calculating the motion of self-pro-
Fio-ure 2.13 presents experimental dependences of the ratio 1;11;* on time in an accelerated
fl;w 274 . This dependence passes through a minimum at which 1;11;* < 1 an~ it is the more
pelled containers the pressure balance equation plays the same role as that of the charac-
teristics of the system and of the pumping plant in calculating pipeline transport systems with
substantial the higher the acceleration. Here d = 25 mm, dvldt = 0.097 m-/s (1) and 1.46
2 passive containers.
m /s (2). ___ _ _ ___ _. .. ____ .. _ _.__
The ~ends noted should be kept in mind when analyzing an unsteady turbulent flow in tubes. L05. In the case of passive or self-propel1edcylindrical containers moving in a pipeline,
the character of liquid or gas flow differs substantially from a forced flow in a round or an-
104. In a number of practically important applications one has to deal with the motion of
nular tube (Poiseuille flow). Here another type of flow is realized, that is, flow in an annular
a liquid or a gas in a pipeline inside which there are passive cylindrical containers mo~ing
channel, one of the cylindrical surfaces of which moves along the main flow or apposite to it
under the action of apressure drop in a carrying medium and self-propelled ones (contamer
pipeline pneumo- and hydrotransport, pneumopost, motion of trains in a tunnel, subway) (see - the so-called Couette flow. In the absence of the longitudinal pressure gradient one deals
with a Couette flow in a plane or annular concentric or eccentric channel. In the presence of
Figure 2.14).
a longitudinal pressure gradient the so-called generalized (forced) Couette flow is realized or,
When a passive container moves in a flow of liquid (or gas), the pressure drop that acts
in other words, the Couette-Poiseuille flow. Figure 2.15 presents velocity profiles in an annu-
in the pipeline on the end surfaces of the container is directed to the side of motion; corre-
lar Couette flow for the cases where the inner cylindrical surface (a) or outer one (b) is mo-
sponding to the positive values of velocity are positive pressure drops (negative pressure gra-
dients). Conversely, during motion of self-propelled containers the pressure before the bile . The variants a and b correspond to the cases of passive and self-propelled containers.
Here, rp and rc are the radii of the outer and inner cylindrical surfaces, h is the height of the

.-
annular channel, 1(y) and u(y) are the profiles of the tangential shear stress and velocity , U
c
and Um are the velocity of motion of the cylindrical surface and mean velocity of liquid in
the annular channel. At Uc = 0 the pattern of a stabilized Poiseui11e flow in an annular tube
obtains, and with rc -700 - a plane Couette flow.
I 106. With the aid of the simplest algebraic models of turbulence basic characteristics of a
forced turbulent Couette flow in annular concentric tubes were calculated275 in the form of the
Figure 2.14. Scheme of container pneumotransport:- - 1) contamer; 2) undercamage; 3) pneumod nver
')8')· . .
with collars. dependences UcCA, e, Rem) and ::Cc(A, e, Rem) in application to the motion of passive and self-
 Flow in Straight Tubes and Conduits 129
128 Handbook oj Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

propelled containers. As an example, Figure 2.16 presents such dependences for one Reynolds
number Rem at different values of the ratio of cylinders radii e = rclrp and Figure 2.17 - at ()= 0.75 f - Re,.=/O"
--(.=0 2 fOS'
a fixed value of e and at different values of the Reynolds number Rem and of the relative 0,5 J 10 6
eccentricity 2 (the ratio of the distance between the centers of the cylinders to the difference - - - 0.95 /01
between the radii h = rp - rc). Tbe solid curves correspond to passive containers, the dashed
curves - to the self-propelled ones. Similar dependences for other parameters Rem, e, and
2 are given in Reference 275 in application to the motion of passive containers. Also consid-
ered there are cases where one of the cylindrical concentric surfaces or both are rough.
Tbe above-mentioned dependences can be used for calculating the parameters of motion of
passive and self-propelled finite-length containers on the basis of the balance of the forced
acting on a container with allowance for the influence of intercontainer gaps and mechanical
friction. 275 Tbe monograph also presents a method of numerical investigation of laminar and
turbulent motion of a succession of passive concentric cylindrical containers on the basis of

Figure 2.17. Dependences UAA, Rem E) and 1c(A, Rem E) at 8 = 0.75 for a turbulent forced flow in an
eccentric annular tube.

stationary Navier-Stokes equations (laminar flow) or Reynolds equations c10sed with the aid
of the two-parameter model of turbulence (turbulent flow).
107: .Below the results of experimental . inv~stigation are presented for the hydrodynamic
characteristlcs of turbulent flowin ,m
anm.ilm:- tube (Poiseuille flow) (Figure 2.18), plane Cou- .
ette flow (Figures 2.19 and 2.20), in a plane forced Couette flow (Figure 2.21), as weIl as in
an annular forced Couette flow (Figure 2.22a and b). Tbe figures also present the correspond-
ing results of calculation based on the use of the simplest algebraic and differential models of
turbulence. Here Rem = umhlv, p = 2plpu'fn, ;; = 2't'/pu'fn, A = -dp/dx, x = x/h, e = rc/rp .
The results of calculation agree satisfactorily with experimental data.

f.~r---.---,-----,----.--r----rO~-~8==~aO=5~~~}~------~
-LOg(f) ;J -
Q -
0.200
0.400
a
2.0 f---f-----I,o.-:::~f_f__::,;:.;,.:-d----.J---+I>. - MOO} b
ä - 0.800
c
Z25r---~---+----.J---4----+--

4 Figure 2.18. Dependence A(Re m) for a turbulent flow in an annular tube: a, b) experimental data; c)
Figure 2.16. Dependences ue(A, 8) and 1e(A, 8) for an annular forced Couette flow at Rem = 10 and
results of calculations with the use of various models of turbulence.
Re~ = 10 .
4
 130 Handbook ofHydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition Flow in Straight Tubes and Conduits 131

~-------'--------~--------~---------'2

o 0.25 0.50 0.75 !J 1.0

2 4 6 8 tl, m/s /0
Figure 2.19. Comparison between experimental and calculated velo city profiles in aplane forceless
289
a
Couette flow: 1) calculation; 2) experiment.
oe - 3
;:} 4
r--~'\itr-+--_+---li----l 1.6 x-
-5
0.012
cfm

0,008 r---4'----,rl-~~'v1''+-----+_-+_---------___I
1.6 r---k:-'___-+--=----l-~--Ii----f 0.8

1.2 t----+---'r..-e:r--+---4----/
" 0.004 r------'k:--+----=~~

0.8 r---j-----ld-':.:--"rl--+---l
o
0.4 r---t---t----!l~i_-~t__--f

Figure 2.20. Comparison between experimental and calculated values of the coefficients of friction in a
plane turbulent Couette flow: 1) laminar flow; 2) calculation for a turbulent flow using various models o
of turbulence; 3) experiment. 284,285 b

108. Attention should be paid to one, at first glance paradoxical, fact which follows from
the calculations of motion of a long passive container in an allllular concentric channel with
a turbulent mode of flow and which is supported by experiments. Investigation of the hydro-
dynamic characteristics of a container of neutral buoyancy moving in an axisymmetric turbu-
lent flow of water in the pipeline has shown that if the container has a sufficient length, when
the influence of the end effects is insignificant, at rc/rp ::::; 0.7 the velocity of the container
exceeds the maximum velocity of the liquid in the pipeline at the same Reynolds number Rem
but which is obtainable in the absence of a cylindrical container.
Figure 2.21. a) Comparison between experimental and calculated velo city profile in aplane forced Cou-
ette flow: 1) calculation with the use of various models of turbulence; 2) experiment;283 I) A = -0.028;
II) A = -0.1; III) A = -1.006; IV) A = 0; V) A = 0.005; b) comparison between the results of calcula-
tions of the parameters of aplane forced Couette flow with experimental data; 3) experiment;284 4)
calculation wirh the use of various models of turbulence for Rem = (1.4-10) x 104; 5) calculation at
Rem = const.
 Flow in Straight Tubes and Conduits 133
Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition
132
2.2 DIA GRAMS OF FRICTION COEFFICIENTS
Circular tube with smooth walls; stabilized flow 6,175,193 Diagram 2.1

1. Laminar regime (Re ~ 2000):

64
A /),p Re j(Re) see graph a,
[(pw5/ 2)(l/Do)]
2. Transition regime (200 ~ Re ~ 400):
A=j(Re) see graph b,
3. Turbulent regime (4000 < Re < 105);
Re= woDo 0.3164
v A = Re O,25 see graph c,

4, Turbulent regime (Re> 4000):

A 1 see graph c,
(1.8 log Re - 1.64)2

Re 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
A 0,640 0,320 0,213 0,160 0,128 0.107 0,092 0,080 0,071 0,064
Re 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000
A 0,058 0.053 0,049 0.046 0,043 0,040 0.038 0,036 0.034 0,032

A
j {al
/16
\. I
I
o.s I
(/,9-
.....
ttJ
25
(/,2
b
{l.f
-
Figure 2.22. Scheme of an experimental setup for studyin~ an annu~ar forced Couett~ flowi~:6 b) com-
I

Q I
tU 2 2 J Re
parison between experimental and calculated dependences uc(ARem , ucRe m): 1) expenment; 2) calcu- ---.-'
3 3 3 3 3 3 3 -, 1.5 X 10-4--- - -
lation. Re 2x 10 2,5 X 10 3 x 10 4x 10 5 X 10 6 X 10 8"10 104
A- 0,032 0,034 0,040 0.040 0.038 0,036 0,033 0,032 0.028
Re 2x 104 3 X 104
This effect is weH described by ca1culations275 and is due to the weakening of turbulent A 0.026 0,024 0,022 0.021 0,020 0.019 0.018 0.017 0.016 0.015
mixing in the vicinity of the solid body surface as compared to the case where the container Re 4x 105 5 X 105
immersed in a fluid is replaced by the fluid. This explanation was given by L. Prandtl when A 0,014 0.013 0,013 0,012 0.012 Om1 0.011 omo 0.010
he analyzed a similar effect arising on the surface of a river-bed stream after motion of a ship Re 5 x 106 8 X 106
A- 0009 0.009 0,008 0,008 0,008 0,007 0,007 0,006 0,006
(or of any other streamlined body) which outruns the carrying stream - the velocity of the
ship with a cut-out engine is approximately 1.5 times higher than that of the stream on the
water surface. 279 ,280 Note that in a hypothetical laminar bed stream a ship does not outruns
the flow but rather lags behind it.
..l
t/Q21
dOf6 11020
40flt 0.0111
2 IP+ qi'e
4012 , ......
'"!- 2
lcl
!-..
tZPfP
11M!;
I1llllß
,zgll7
121706
ftJo 2 6 fO~ 2 <I 6 10 Re
IP' 2 ~ 6 <-
 Flow in Straight Tubes and Conduits 135
134 Handbook of Hydrmtlic Resistance, 4th Edition

Circular tube with walls of uniform roughness;

Diagram2.2
Circular tube with walls of uniform roughness; Diagram 2.2 stabilized flow; Re> 2000 87 ,190
stabilized flow; Re > 200087 ,190
Values of A
t s=-~='A~
pW 5/2 Da - 8 Re
8=-
~ 'A= 8p D
~
_\ - (pw5/2)(lIDa) [m + brlog (Re 1):) + Ci log 8]2 0.05 0.032 0.052 0.060 0.063 0.069 0.072 0.072 0.072 0.072 0.072
~;.; --~ - 'A =- f (Re) see graph; the values of at, bI, and cr 0.04 0.032 0.044 0.052 0.055 0.060 0.065 0.065 0.065 0.065 0.065
0.03 0.032 0.040 0.044 0.046 0.050 0.056 0.057 0.057 0.057 0.057
~
/
} are given below:
0.02 0.032 0.ü40 0.040 0.041 0.042 0.044 0.048 0.049 0.049 0.049
t 0.015 0.032 0.040 0.040 0.038 0.037 0.039 0.042 0.044 0.044 0.044

For the single formula for calculating 'A, see paragraph 19 of Seetion 2.1.
omo 0.032 0.040 0.040 0.038 0.033 0.032 0.035 0.036 0.038 0.038
0.008 0.032 0.040 0.040 0.038 0.033 0.030 0.032 0.033 0.035 0.035
0.006 0.032 0.040 0.040 0.038 0.033 0.028 0.028 0.029 0.030 0.032
0.004 0.032 0.040 0.040 0.038 0.033 0.027 0.025 0.025 0.026 0.028
3.6-10 --D.800 2.000 o 0.002 0.032 0.040 0.040 0.038 0.033 0.027 0.023 0.021 0.021 0.021
10--20 0.068 1.130 --D.870 0.001 0.032 0.040 0.040 0.038 0.033 0.027 0.023 0.021 0.018 0.017
20-40 1.538 0.000 -2.000 0.0008 0.032 0.040 0.040 0.038 0.033 0.027 0.023 0.021 0.018 0.016
40--20 2.471 --D.588 -2.588 0.0006 0.032 0.040 0.040 0.038 0.033 0.027 0.023 0.021 0.018 0.016
>191.2 1.138 o -2.000 0.0004 0.032 0.040 0.040 0.038 0.033 0.027 0.023 0.021 0.018 0.016
0.0002 0.032 0.040 0.040 0.038 0.033 0.027 0.023 0.021 0.018 0.016
0.0001 0.032 0.040 0.040 0.038 0.033 0.027 0.023 0.021 0.018 0.016
0.00005 0.032 0.040 0.040 0.038 0.033 0.027 0.023 0.021 0.018 0.016
- 8
8=-
Do _
for 8 see Table 2.5 (Seetion 2.1); for v, see Seetion 1.2. At 8 < 8limDo, for the values of 'A,
, - -D 875
see Diagram 2.1, where 8lim = 17.85Re .

Values ofA

- 8 Re
8=-
D
aMQHH+r~~\~~~~++H*-+~~
0.05 0.072 0.072 0.072- - . 0.012 0.072 -~--:-O.Ö/2 0.072 0.072 0.012
-ä07() \ aOi{.O
0.04 0.065 0.065 0.065 0.065 0.065 0.065 0.065 0.065 0.065

aQ~~~ii~~~~~~\~o.~~;~Q~~~~
0.03 0.057 0.057 0.057 0.057 0.057 0.057 0.057 0.057 0.057
(JIJSP (J,020-r- 0.02 0.049 0.049 0.049 0.049 0.049 0.049 0.049 0.049 0.049
Q.1J1S- 0.015 0.044 0.044 0.044 0.044 0.044 0.044 0.044 0.044 0.044
0.010 0.038 0.038 0.038 0.038 0.038 0.038 0.038 0.038 0.038
~O ao~

~st~~=r~l$~~~~,~a~~a(}pN;!ITLJnllmlL~-rnTrr~~TllTnI~m
0.008 0.035 0.035 0.035 0.035 0.035 0.035 0.035 0.035 0.035
0.006 0.032 0.032 0.032 0.032 0.032 0.032 0.032 0.032 0.032
0.004 0.028 0.028 0.028 0.028 0.028 0.028 0.028 0.028 0.028
0.002 0.022 0.023 0.023 0.023 0.023 0.023 0.023 0.023 0.023
0.001 0.018 0.018 0.D20 0.020 0.020 0.ü20 0.020 0.020 0.020
0.0008 0.016 0.017 0.018 0.019 0.019 0.019 0.019 0.019 0.019
0.0006 0.015 0.016 0.017 0.017 0.017 0.017 0.017 0.017 0.017
0.0004 0.014 0.014 0.014 0.015 0.016 0.016 0.016 0.016 0.016
0.0002 0.014 0.013 0.012 0.012 0.013 0.014 0.014 0.014 0.014
0.0001 0.014 0.013 0.012 0.011 0.011 0.011 0.012 0.012 0.012
0.00005 0.014 0.013 0.012 0.011 0.010 0.010 0.010 0.010 0.011
 Flow in Straight Tubes and Conduits 137
Handbook oj Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition
136
Circular tube with walls of uniform roughness; stabilized flow;
Diagram 2.3
Circular tube with walls of uniform roughness; stabilized flow; Diagram 2.3 critical zone (Reo < Re< Re2) 100,106
oo
critical zone (Reo < Re < Red ,106
Values ofA

S=~=A~ Re x 10-3
pW5/2 Do ~
2 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3.2 3.4 3.6 3.8 4
A I1p
(pwB/2)(I/ Do) 0.025 0.049 0.053 0.057 0.059 0.059 0;059 0.059 0.059 0.060 0.060 0.060
0.017 0.044 0.047 0.051 0.053 0.054 0.054 0.054 0.054 0.054 0.054 0.054
I!' 0.0125 0.040 0.043 0.046 0.049 0.050 0.050 0.050 0.051 0.051 0.051 0.051
0.0100 0.037 0.039 0.043 0.046 0.047 0.048 0.048 0.049 0.048 0.050 0.050
0.0800 0.035 0.037 0.040 0.043 0.045 0.046 0.046 0.047 0.047 0.048 0.048
1. Reo < Re < Re]; Li: ~ 0.007
0.0070 0.033 0.035 0.038 0.041 0.044 0.045 0.045 0.045 0.046 0.046 0.046
0.00275J =f(Re,/1)
A=4.4Re-D·595exp -~ - 0.0060 0.033 0.035 0.038 0.041 0.043 0.044 0.044 0.044 0.045 0.045 0.045
( 0.0050 0.033 0.035 0.037 0.039 0.042 0.043 0.043 0.043 0.044 0.044 0.044
2. Re] < Re< Re2 0.0040 0.032 0.034 0.036 0.039 0.041 0.042 0.043 0.043 0.044 0.044 0.044
0.0030 0.032 0.033 0.035 0.038 0.040 0.041 0.042 0.043 0.043 0.044 0.044
A= (A2-A*) expl- [0.0017 (Re2-Re)]2)+A* =f(Re, Li:)
0.0024 0.032 0.033 0.035 0.037 0.039 0.040 0.041 0.042 0.043 0.043 0.043
at Li::o; 0.007, A* = A] Z 0.032, A2 = A2 = 7.244 Re~·643 0.0020 0.032 0.033 0.034 0.036 0.037 0.038 0.040 0.041 0.042 0.042 0.042
- * 0 58 0.0109
at 11 > 0.007, A = A] = 0.0017 = O. 7 - Li:0. 286 '
A
o on 0.145
and "'2 = "'2 = Li: 0.244 0(}62

at Li: > 0.007:

R",:7540>P(0";5] R,," 1160 [±]'' 0.051

at any 11:
1 0.0635 a046 flIJt25
Re2 = 2090 (XJ , tWfOO
tAOOIJO
Für Lhe values of Reo, ReJ.•. Re2, 11,_1-,2, and st:e the. table; (J,(J(J6tJ ,-
0.038 ClJfJ50
Re= woDo Li:=~, 0iJI0.W
v Do _ QOO25
j
where for /1, see Table 2.5, Seetion 2.1; for v, see Seetion 1.2. aos JlIllf1.IJD2f}
3. For the single forrnula to calculate A, see paragraph 30 of Section 2.1. (0 1.4 1.8 2.5 Re X 10-3

Values of A.
Intermediate values of Re and I.,
Re x 10 3
~ 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 ~ Reo Re) Re2 /...] /...'] Ä;
1 1.1 1.2 1.3
0.056 0.053 0.051 0.049 0.046 0.00125 2000 2000 3190 0.032 0.0406
0.025 0.65 0.061 0.058
0.055 0.053 0.050 0.048 0.046 0.043
0.017 0.064 0.068 0.00197 2000 2000 3100 0.032 0.0412
0.050 0.048 0.046 0.044 0.040
0.0125 0.053 0.0028 2000 2000 3029 0.032 0.0417
0.049 0.046 0.044 0.042 0.039
0.0100 0.037 0.0036 2000 2000 2987 0.032 0.0420
0.043 0.040
0.0080 0.036 0.0063 2000 2000 2880 0.032 0.0431
0.0070 0.0072 1850 1995 2860 0.0329 0.0436
0.0060 0.0185 1070 1799 2690 0.0437 0.0547
0.0050
0.0270 960 1725 2630 0.0469 0.0600
0.0040
0.0450 870 1633 2548 0.0510 0.0673
0.0030
0.0024 0.0600 830 1575 2500 0.0532 0.0730
0.0020
138 Handbook 0/ Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition Flow in Straight Tubes and Conduits 139

Circular tube with walls of nonuniform roughness; Circular tube with walls of nonuniform roughness;
Diagram2.4 stabilized flow; Re> Re2 1O,17I Diagram 2.4
stabilized flow; Re > Re2 1O,I71

Re= waDa For Re2, see Diagram 2.3 Values of A.

v
r,=~=A~ Re
pW 5/2 Da
A- /::,.p
0.05 0.077 0.076 0.074 0.073 0.072 0.072 0.072 0.072 0.072
(pw5/2)(l/Da) [2 log (2.51/Re f5: + &3.7)]2
0.04 0.072 0.071 0.068 0.067 0.065 0.065 0.065 0.065 0.065
or within the limits of /::,. = 0.00008-0.0125: 0.03 0.065 0.064 0.062 0.061 0.059 0.057 0.057 0.057 0.057
0.02 0.059 0.057 0.054 0.052 0.051 0.050 0.049 0.049 0.049
A"" 0.11 (~+ ~! f25 see graph a 0.015 0.055 0.053 0.050 0.048 0.046 0.045 0.044 0.044 0.044
omo 0.052 0.049 0.046 0.043 0.041 0.040 0.039 0.038 0.038
- /::,. 0.008 0.050 0.047 0.044 0.041 0.038 0.037 0.036 0.035 0.035
/::,.= Da 0.006 0.049 0.046 0.042 0.039 0.036 0.034 0.033 0.033 0.032
for /::,., see Table 2.5, Seetion 2.1; for v, see Section 1.2. 0.004 0.048 0.044 0.040 0.036 0.033 0.031 0.030 0.030 0.028
0.002 0.045 0.042 0.038 0.034 0.030 0.027 0.026 0.026 0.024
At /::,. < /::"limDa, for A, see Diagram 2.1; 0.001 0.044 0.042 0.037 0.032 0.028 0.025 0.024 0.023 0.021
for ~lim, see graph b as a function of Re. The manner in which the roughness of the tube walls during their use is 0.0008 0.043 0.040 0.036 0.032 0.027 0.024 0.023 0.022 0.020
taken into account is considered under paragraphs 63-69 of Seetion 2.1
0.0006 0.040 0.040 0.036 0.032 0.027 0.023 0.022 0.021 0.018
0.0004 0.036 0.040 0.036 0.032 0.027 0.023 0.022 0.020 0.018
For Re2, see Diagram 2.3.
0.0002 0.036 0.040 0.036 0.032 0.027 0.022 0.021 0.019 0.017
0.0001 0.036 0.040 0.036 0.032 0.027 0.022 0.021 0.019 0.017
0.00005 0.036 0.040 0.036 0.032 0.027 0.022 0.021 0.019 0.016
0.00001 0.036 0.040 0.036 0.032 0.027 0.022 0.021
..l 0.019 0.016
0.000005 0.036 0.040 0.036 0.032 0.027 0.022 0.021 0.019 0.016
/J. (J7fJ J...W.~m~~=Fci-;;±;~I=f=R=t1

1J.()5()llllilii~11
Values of A..

- /::,. Re
/::,.=-
5
DIl 4x10 6x105 106 2X106 4X106 6x106 107 2x107 >108
"-.--.--••-~-.--c----~-~~~...,.-~~~"'==--"~__.,.-=..;~~~~~~~
0.05 0.072 0.072 0.072 0.072 0.072 0.072 6.im 0.072 0.072
0.04 0.065 0.065 0.065 0.065 0.065 0.065 0.065 0.065 0.065
0.03 0.057 0.057 0.057 0.057 0.057 0.057 0.057 0.057 0.057
0.02 0.049 0.049 0.049 0.049 0.049 0.049 0.049 0.049 0.049
(,,) 0.015 0.044 0.044 0.044 0.044 0.044 0.044 0.044 0.044 0.044
0.010 0.038 0.038 0.038 0.038 0.038 0.038 0.038 0.038 0.038
0.008 0.035 0.035 0.035 0.035 0.035 0.035 0.035 0.035 0.035
0.006 0.032 0.032 0.032 0.032 0.032 0.032 0.032 0.032 0.032
0.004 0.028 0.028 0.028 0.028 0.028 0.028 0.028 0.028 0.028
0.002 0.024 0.023 0.023 0.023 0.023 0.023 0.023 0.023 0.023
0.001 0.021 0.020 0.020 0.020 0.020 0.020 0.020 0.020 0.020
0.0008 0.020 0.019 0.019 0.019 0.019 0.019 0.019 0.019 0.019
0.0006 0.018 0.018 0.017 0.017 0.017 0.017 0.017 0.017 0.017
0.0004 0.017 0.017 0.016 0.016 0.016 0.016 0.016 0.016 0.016
0.0002 0.016 0.015 0.015 0.014 0.014 0.014 0.014 0.014 0.014
0.0001 0.015 0.014 0.013 0.012 0.012 0.012 0.012 0.012 0.012
0.00005 0.014 0.013 0.013 0.012 0.011 0.011 0.011 0.011 0.011
0.00001 0.014 0.013 0.012 0.011 0.010 0.009 0.009 0.009 0.009
0.000005 0.014 0.013 0.012 0.011 0.009 0.009 0.009 0.008 0.008
140 Handbook of Hydrmtlic Resistance, 4th Edition Flow in Straight Tubes and Conduits 141

Circular tube with rough walls; stabilized flow; Tubes of rectangular, elliptical, and _other types
Diagram 2.5 of cross section; stabilized flow. 87 ,l:l8 Diagram2.6
regime of quadratic resistance law (Relim > 560/:1)99,190

_ /),p 1
~ = - 2 - = Anonc -
pwo/2 Dh

Re= woDh /),p

/),p V
Anonc knoncA ,
feil) (pw3/2)(l/Dh)
(pw3/2)(l/DO) [2log(3.7/;'~W
where A is determined as for circular ,tubes from Diagrarns 2.1 through 2.5
~=~
Do
for /)" see Table 2.5 of Section 2.1; for v, see Section 1.2.
Shape oftube (conduit)
cross section and schematic Correction factor knone

The manner in which increase in the asperities on tube walls during use is taken into account is considered under
paragraphs 63-69. Laminar regime (Re< 2000, curve 1)
ao
0 1.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Rectangle: bö
knone = krec 1.50 1.34 1.20 1.02 0.94 0.90 0.89

d
- il Turbulent regime (Re> 2000, curve 2)
/),=- 0.00005 0.0001 0.0002 0.0003 0.0004 0.0005 0.0006 0.0007 0.0008
Do knone =krec 1.10 1.08 1.06 1.04 1.02 1.01 1.0
A 0.ü10 0.012 0.013 0.014 0.015 0.016 0.017 0.018 0.018 .,/f
il
/),=- 0.0009 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.005 0.006 0.008 0.ü10
Do
0.019 0.ü20 0.023 0.026 0.028 0.031 0.032 0.035 0.038 k rec

"\
A
Dh= 2aobo
{a}
/),
/),=- 0.015 0.020 0.025 0.030 0.035 0.040 0.045 0.050 ao+bo
f
Do !2
A 0.044 0.049 0.053 0.057 0.061 0.065 0.068 0.072 ~
2 ....
to r--.,...
!'--

.-
- ."

11.3
c' c,
r-... "-
--
11 11.2 (l-i IM aB bg/(lu

~ Trapezoid:
-~ ""'"
I--"~ I tft 1
~ ..... I '1

A~ ~Ä
~/"""
knone is determined in approximately the same way as for a
t..,..~
..::: rectangle
-f-- - .-
c:~
~
- I - f-~_
.1- -f-- - tr tfZ i I
,.I. ""
IiF--I--I--
aUf
1-1-' 1-- .- l-- - I - I- 1-- f-.-I--
h
Dh=2h/[1+-
aI a2 sin <PI + (_1 +_1J] sin Cjl2

tJ ({Oll'; ({ooe aUf! tJ.O(6 tJ.(l?O tl.U2IJ P.fJ18 {)OJ2 Q.OJ6 aOl;fJ (J.OM -
ß
 I-'
CI:l()
~ ~.
p:> lZl o >-l +;..
~
::l ::r' ""'c l-->
:\? ,n., n er

~
~
p"p:>
:\? 'fi'8
,...,
o
(D

~
&ct U>
fil Il' ::e ::r'O ~ 0
o
v. '8.& (D ...., C/> ....,
:.0
~
3
1- ! \. .
g.
()
[~
0

g
8 2
§.
0,--.
g
o
~ ~
g' g
+ ';';
"" 5
ct
o
. . (Jq
C/> C
~\;q '1 o ""

~
0 @ g.~
o

~
..... "'
~
~~

~~
C I=!
o"" 0
"" N
(D _.
+ 0 o p..'"Cl
o
~ ~ i:!l
o
g.
--J C/>
(D
~ .e?..
""
~..) o
g. .~§
;....p.
5 ::l ~~
ff
Q"
'"Cl
f);

~I.51~
-I r ,.
11
t""

~
;:s
"I :=' g- %:
~
>-l
c::
~~ ~ ~
~ i

;....
1-"

o
iv
11
00\ .....
i·
ct
C)
C)

""
g- 0\
o ~ ~ g"'"' ~
~ ct
n
~
;.... W
" - - - - - "N
i1
g ~ ,-------, 1/\ 11 o
fil
a,s.
t<.v
o :; ~
f11 @
~
..
~ o
~
Co
§ 00
~N"
-9 o
~.
~
~ o ~ ::l ri'
V.
~ ~ pr v ~
V o Co °Q ~. ~
~ ct c;;.
Iv
o ~ 8 ct
S E
o o
~ f ;:s
f? ß ~
::>"
Fi N
Ü'"I
<'")
.(1:)

f 3:::.
~
o
00
er
;I:::
8 ;:s-
~
~
o
Co
$- 8~ :.0

-' ..... 5"

;:s
0: Co
f

~
r'
~
Circular tubes; stabilized flow 29 ,30,39,65,95,120,205 2.7
C)
:;S
S·

~
Dh=Do-d

~ 4Fo
Dh=rr;;-
Re= woD" e;,==~=A
pw~/2 none D II
I Anonc
I'lp
(pwÖl2)(lI D II)
knoneA. ,
OQ"
~
;;?

UF.=lJ where A. is determined in the same way as for circular tubes from Diagrams 2.1 through 2.5. \::r"
(1:)

'">:l
~
~
Shape ofthe tube (conduit) cross section Schematic Correction factor, k none

1- (d/D o)2 §-
Laminar regime (Re< 2000): k none = kir
1 + (d/Dri + [1 - (d/Do)2]/(ln d/Dn)' a-
see curve kir of graph a.
Concelltric allnulus:
DJz=Do-d
d/Do o 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 "2.0.7
kir 1.0 1.40 1.44 1.47 1.48 1.49 1.49 1.50

Turbulent regime (Re > 2000): Anone == Ar = C~~ + 0.98)( -i - 0.27 ~o + 0.1 )
k,r
k none = k2,., see curves of graph a

"
IJ
Va lues of kZ r

~
Ql Q2 03 M 0.5 M ~ ns l~

a I~ 1~ Im 1~4 lili lili 1~ 1~ 1m 1m 1m

I~ 1~ 1m 1m IM 1ili lili I~ I~ 1~ I~
tf
w6 1~ Im 1m 1M 1M lili lili lili 1~5 l~

~
Concentric Ilarrow annulus (dlD o "" 0.9) with lon- Longitudinal fins (dlD o "" 0.9)
gitudinal fins Laminar regime at Re ::;; 3 x 103
k none = k;: = 1.36
(1 - d/D o)(1 + d/Do - 6b/rcDo)
il o Turbulent regime at Re > 3 X 103 ; I-'
D = D (1 + d/Do) + (3/n)(1 - d/Da) - 6b/nDo
for k;, see k2r or a concentric annulus without fins
"""
W
 Flow in Straight Tubes and Conduits 145
Handbook of Hydra~tlic Resistance, 4th Edition
144
Circular tubes; stabilized flow 29 ,30,39,65,95,120,205
Diagram2.7 Diagram2.7
Circular tubes; stabilized flow 29 ,30,39,65,95,120,205

Shape of the tube (channel) cross section Schematic Correction factor knonc

Spiral fins
{c}
Laminar regime (Re::;: 2000):
- D0 {[1 -d-
Dh- J[2 (Tlnd)(dID o) (A-B)--
6b ]
k none =keIl =__ 1__ kl
{4
V-
Do 1 -dlDo nD o
(1 + Ble)2 r,
/'
/.!!...L(l+ dIDoJ+l[l-.!!...J-~} where for BI =f(d/Do), see graph c; for kIr,
tO
Do nd A B n D o nD o
see concentric annulus without fins
lJ.5
o
LI 11.2

dlDo o 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.8 1.0

BI o 0.65 0.90 1.10 1.22 1.30 1.39 1.45 1.48

B=~
Do
~1+(TJ2
nd

Turbulent regime (Re> 2000):

=
k;n = keIl'k2r; for ~I1 at d/Do 0.5,
see curve 1 of graph 2; at d/Do ;;:: 0.7,
Eccentric annulus see curve 2 of graph 2
or ~ll = 1 - 0.9(1 - 2/3eye 2
Dh =Do-d
- 2e
e=--
Do-d
Values of keil

dlDo
Correctiofi factor knonc 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 "'1:0

0.5 (curve 1) LO 1.0 0.95 0.87 0.80 0.77

?0.7 (curve 2) 1.0 0.98 0.90 0.80 0.73 0.70

(b)
Spiral fins for all values of Re
\
\
k"r"" knone= ( 1 + (Tld)2
20 J'kr=Alkr, Tubes of triangular (and similar) cross section'
stabilized flow 76,95,158 ' Diagram2.8

for Al' see graph b; for k~, see concentric ~

annulus with fins
'\"~
8
- 20 2~ Titl -.--
W'I/Q
~
1
1
i
~-~ I-I-
D;'=n
4Fo

o
Re= waDh
v

Tld 3.5 4.5 6.0 8.0 10 25 ~

1.31 1.20 1.03
2.63 1.98 1.56
Al
 Flow in Straight Tubes and Conduits 147
Handbook 01 Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition
146
Tubes of tri angular (9-l1d similar) cross section;
stabilized flow 76 ,95,1)8 Diagram 2.8
Tubes oftriangular (and similar) cross section; Diagram 2.8
stabilized flow 76,95,158
Correction factor knone
Shape ofthe tube (charmeI) cross section Schematic
Laminar regime (Re :0; 2000):
2
3 1 - tan ß (B + 2)
knonc==R:;r 4 ~ see curve 1.
(B - 2)(tan ß + 1 + tan ß)2
Isosceles triangle:

ß, deg 0 10 20 30 40 60 80 90
k;r 0.75 0.81 0.82 0.83 0.82 0.80 0.75 0.78
Turbulent regime (Re> 2000), see curve 2

irr 0.75 0.84 0.89 0.93 0.96 0.98 0.90 1.0

Laminar regime:

kuone == k~
2
3 (1 - 3 tan ß)(B + 2) see curve 4.
2
2
41(3 tan ß)/[2"4 tan ß + 5/2 (1 - tan ß)] - 2) (tan ß + "1 + tan2 ß )2

Right triangle:
ß, deg o 10 20 30 40 60 80 90
for Dip see isoseeles triangle ktr 0.75 0.78 0.80 0.81 0.82 0.81 0.77 0.75

Turbulent regime: for k;~, see k~ of isoseeles triangle (curve 2)

Laminar regime: kuonc =: ~ == 0.835

Turbulent regime: knone =: k~ == 0.95

Laminar regime: ksec - ktr ; see curve 3

ß, deg 0 10 20 30 40 60 80 90
knone == ksec 0.75 0.82 0.86 0.89 0.92 0.95 0.98 1.0
Equilateral triangle (ß ::: 30°):
tor D h , see isoseeles triangle
Turbulent regime: fork sec , see irr of isoseeles triangle (curve 2)

:s
11

Sector of a circle:

D 21tDoß/1800 2J. Bundles oftubes, rods; parallel interstitial flow 40,41,68,119,120,157 Diagram 2.9
h 1 + 1tß/1800

(ß in 0) 4Fo Re-- woDh

Dh==-n
o v
~­
':::::::::....
-~.

_ /::,.p 1
S::: pWo2/2 ==AnoncDh Anone .-1----
where A is determined in the same way as for circular tub es
+--- _~i---.

from Diagrarns 2.1 through 2.5.

where Ais determined in the same way as for circular tubes from Diagrams 2.1 through 2.5.
 Flow in Straight Tubes and Conduits 149
148 Handbook oi Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

Bundles of tubes, rods; parallel interstitial flow 40 ,41,68,119,i20,157 Diagram2.9

Bundles of tubes, rods; parallel interstitial flow 40 ,41,68,119,120,157 Diagram 2.9
Shape of channel cross section
Shape of channel cross section Correction factor kbun
Correction factor kbun and schematic
. and schematic
Triangular array with shroud;
Triangular, loose array (without z is the number of rods
shroud, equilateral triangle) (cylinders) in a bundle; for D",
see triangular loose array
Laminar regime (Re::; 2000); 1.0 ::; sld ::; 1.5;
kbuD "" 0.89sld + 0.63 or see curve 1 of graph a (Table 1).
Values of k bun
s/d 1.0 1.05 1.10 1.20 1.30 1.40 1.50
kbun 1.52 1.56 1.61 1.70 1.79 1.88 1.97 s/d

Turbulent regime at s/d = 1.0: kbun =0.64 Curve 1.0 1.05 1.10 1.20 1.30 1.40
Shaped shroud, Z = 19 and 37
0.85 1.0 1.12 1.25 1.29 1.30
Hexahedral shroud, z = 37
2 0.70 0.84 0.95 1.06 1.13 1.15

(al Triangular z = 3
1.30 1.25 0.95 0.72 0.57
Rectangular loose array
(without shroud)
(bl
b) Array with helical fins: kt,un =[1 +~] (T/ d)2 k
bunA
= k
I bUD'
Laminar regime; at 1.0 ::; sld :5 1.5;
kbun '" 0.96sld + 0.63 or see curve 2 of graph a (Table 2). where for k bun , see graph b; for Al' see graph c; for T, see Dia-
gram 2.7

s/d 1.0 1.05 1.10 1.20 1.30 1040 1.50

kbun 1.59 1.64 1.68 1.78 1.88 1.98 2.07
Turbulent regime at sld = 1.0: kllUD =0.64

T/d 3.5 4.5 6.0 10

Al 2.63 1.98 1.56 1.20

Turbulent regime (Re > 2000)

a) Array without fins: kbun = j(sld), see graph b.
Rectangular four-tube array;
for D", see rectangular loose array

Turbulent regime;
a) Array without fins:
1) At sld = 1/45, k bun = 0.97
2) When a rod is in contact with walls, kbun :: 0.71;
3) When rods and walls are in contact, kbun = 0.68.
b) Array with helical fins: for k bun , see triangular array with shroud.
 Flow in Straight Tubes and Conduits 151
Handbook 0/ Hydra~tlic Resistance, 4th Edition
150
Welded tube withjoints; stabilized flow 6,194 Diagram 2.11
Tubes made from aluminum or steel strips (plane-welded). Diagram 2.10
74
Stabilized flow
r, == t..f = no (Ä ~ + r,jJ '
r,==~=Ä~ °
pW 6/2 Dlz

a) 4 x 103 < Re < 4 x 10

4
~ _. 'I:!
""\
pwQl2
where no is the number of joints over the seetion; for Ä, see Dia-
grams 2.2 through 2.6; Sj is the resistance coefficient of one joint:

_. 1) at
I·
t<50

Sj == d t..
---t- = 0
k 4 S' where S·°= 13.8 (8. J
..::L
3 2
/
where Al = J(aofb o), see graph a; pwö/ 2 1 1 D °
b) 4 X 104 < Re < 2 x 105 see graph a; k4 = 0.23 (2 log Ij8j + 1), see graph b;

4Fo 2) at J.~50
Dh = - 8d
IT o _ t..p
Sj = - 2 - ' see Table 3.
pwQl2
Dlz is determined in the same way where A 2 = f(aofb o), see graph a.
as for an ellipse (see Diagram 2.6) ReO. 25 and Reo. 12, see graph b.

rj T[.;) Table 1
.. flid
A
{al

ao 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8

flIP
flOß
/
/ 4-
I
8j
Do
~7
0.01

0.017
0.02

0.039
0.03

0.075
0.04

0.115
0.05

0.15
0.06

0.20
bo (1{)4
Al 0.250 0.275 0.300 0.310
0.185
0.316
0.185
---~I I
Al 0.165 0.17 0.18 flOf a02 (J.()J a04 a051/pp
0

M 0,6

::btRff-ff'
Table 2

Ij
4 12 16 20 24 30 50
8j
k4 0.51 0.65 0.73 0.78 0.83 0.86 0.91 1.0

() ~ 8 12 16 20 211 I/Da
Kelf.t1 Re M2

2U 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 Table 3 Values of Sj for welded joints of different types
Re x 10-5 0.4 0.6 0.8
ReO. 25 14.1 15.7 16.8 17.8 18.6 19.3 20.0 2.06 21.1
Tube diameter Do, mm
18 ReO. 12 3.57 3.75 3.88 3.98 4.07 4.15 4.21 4.27 4.33 Type of joint
200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900
With backing rings (Öj =: 5 mm) 0.06 0.03 0.018 0.013 0.009 0.007 0.006 0.005
f~ JJ Made by electroarc and contact
0.026 0.0135 0.009 0.006 0.004 0.0028 0.0023 0.002
(resistance) welding (Öj = 3 mm)
.11J
aß 1.2 1.6 ReX H.r..s
 Flow in Straight Tubes and Conduits 153
152 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

Flexible circular tubes; stabilized turbulent flow 53 ,146,194 Diagram 2.13

1. Tube made of metallic strip (metallic hose);146 for A, see gTaph a.

Values of A,

Re x 10-4
Curve
0.5 0.8 1.2 1.6 4
a) Flow running over the edges
0.0250 0.0254 0.0256 0.0257 0.0257
b) Flow entering the edges
~ 2 0.0250 0.0262 0.0275 0.0284 0.0285
8
J:l
~~ 2. Cormgated tube;194 for A, see graph b.
::is '"
.• i1-i~ (:!!.c == 0.420_ ~ ~fbl
e~L:-- 11~
a~~
Q

!!

-
..<::> Ö
8.12
~~
3O>J'tc; all/ -8.~ _I--
IN!
!! 11 11
111/.
J~J
I1llf
~~~ !1(1~

- -
AI 11 V
INJ
~~~ c =: cormgation
..... ~
:::.:::::: flllt ~
• fl. j
• 8!P a a f..1 <'11
1

Re X 10.0

Values of A,

h Re x 10-5
Tc 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.4 2 2.5
0.421 0.150 0.155 0.162 0.168 0.175 0.180 0.185 0.190
0.083 0.082 0.088 0.090 0.092 0.098 0.103 0.105 0.110
0 0.022 0.023 0.024 0.025 0.026 0.027 0.028 0.029

3. Tube made from glass cloth53 (see paragraph 72 of Seetion 2.1) A '" 0.052 (10D o)o.lIDo (50b)o.2, see the Table b
is the width of the band wound around the wire tramwork of the tube made from glass cloth (when Do ::; 0.2 m, b
=: 0.02 m; when Da > 0.2 m, b 2: 0.03 m).

Values of).

Do,m 1.0 1.1 1.4 1.6-1.7 1.8 1.9 2.3 2.6-2.7 2.8 2.9 3.3
0.100 0.053 0.53 0.051 0.05
0.155 0.063 0.063 0.064 0.064
0.193 0.070 0.072 0.072 0.073
c:)
<::f 0.250 0.085 0.077 0.82
IS4 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition Flow in Straight Tubes and Conduits ISS

Steel reinforced rubber hoses; stabilized flow 132 Smooth-rubber hoses; stabilized flow 132 Diagram 2.15
Re = wodnom > 4 x 104 Diagram 2.14
v

.. '" ..., ..,

W",fp
-----_._- gE -
w",fo
---._----JE
-
'l:l

~
'" ~
t
/,

r,=~=A~, W
h '
ere EI. =
AIR 0.265
e .' see curves EI. = .f{Re) of graph a: A = 0.38-0.52 within the limits of Re = wOdcal/v = 5000-
,
pW(j/2 deal
120,000 and dependmg on the hose quality; dcal is the calculated diameter detennined as a function of the interna!
where A is detennined from graph a as a ftmction of the nominal diameter dnom ; dcal is the calculated diameter de- excess pressure Pex' see graph b; for v, see Seetion 1.2.
terrnined as a function of the internal excess pressure Pex at different d nom ; see graph b; for v, see Seetion 1.2.
Characteristics of the hose
Characteristics of the hose
Internal nominal diameter dnom , mm 25 32 38 50
Internal nominal diameter d nom , mm 25 32 38 50 65 65
Rubber layer (internal), mm 2 2 2
Diameter of the helix, mm 2.8 2.8 2.8 3.0 3.4 2.2 2.2
Cloth insert 1.1 mm thick, nos. 2 2 2
Pitch, mm 15.6 15.6 17.6 20.0 20.8
Rubber layer (external), mm 0.9 0.9 0.9
Cloth insert 1.1 mm thick, nos. 1 1 1.2 1.2
Rubber layer, mrn 1.5 1.5 2.0 2.0 2.0
Diameter of cotton helix, mm 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8
Values of A
Rubber layer, mm 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5
Cloth insert 1.1 mm thick, nos. 2 2 2 2 2 3
A Rex 10--4

dnom"mm 25 32 38 50 65 0.4 0.6 2.0 4.0 6.0 10 20

A 0.051-0.057 0.053-0.066 0.072-0.090 0.083-0.094 0.085-0.100 0.52 0.057 0.052 0.046 0.038 0.031 0.028 0.025 0.020
0.38 0.042 0.038 0.033 0.028 0.023 0.020 0.018 0.015

I I
(.0)
d nom =38 mm
r-- 92
~ U

- :---- 40

--
.J8 i
(a}
7~
Jß
"'~ r--~
0.01 (a)
E J6 iS E
V tl,us
/' ~
E
E
E ~ ]!
t2P9 ~ A"o.52
~ 3~ 18 63
I ~f .14
0.07

0.05

Q.fJ5
V
J
~
11

"
E
.Jl

g JorgSJ
fiS" 6f
11

"I)
E -- J2
ao]
r--.. . . .
........
~~ .......
i"'........ ~ ........ 1'- ~
- r--~
....
U'J-

~ J2
§c 30
1:1
28
2f JS 1;5 55 d nom , mm 29 57
25 20
Zb

29 l
5J

5J
~ -
,...----
t) ao; tJ.t(J
d nom -50mm

afS 0.2(1 Pe><, MPa

24
flllJ' a1fJ flf5 alP Pax. MPa
 156 Handbook 01 Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition Flow in Straight Tubes and Conduits
157

Steel reinforced smooth-rubber ho ses; stabilized tlow

132
Diagram 2.16 Tube made from tarpaulin-type rubberized material;
stabilized flow [according to Adamov] Diagram 2.17
Ö==~==Alollt ,
pw~12 deal
where A == f(Re, dnom' PeJ, see graphs a and b, s== pw/'o/2
,f = nj (A ..:LDl-
0
+ l,jJ ' where nj is the number of
~,fu E deal is the calculated diameter, which is deter-
-'-- ------ g I-f- rnined as a function of the ave~age interna!
pipes Goints); ~ is the distance between joints;
"l:I
pressure Pex' see graph c; IOllt == kl; k is deter- A- ? /',P fIeRe), see graph a for different
mined as a function of the average interna! ex- (pw(j/2)(l/D o)

~I
cess pressure Pex' see graph d; Re == wOdnom/v; degre~JoB~ the tube tension; l,j = fz(Re), see graph b;
for v, see Seetion 1.2. Re == - - ; for v, see Seetion 1.2.
v
Values of '}... at d nom =65 mm
Values of'}...
Re x 10-5
pex,MPa
0.4 0.6 0.8 1.4 2 2.5 4 Degree of tube Rex 10-5
0.025 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 tension
0.05 0.04 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 2 4 5 6 7
0.10 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.03 Good 0.024 0.020 0.018 0.016 0.014 0.013 0.012 0.011 0.011
0.015 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.06 0.06 0.05 Moderate 0.064 0.042 0.034 0.028 0.025 0.023 0.021 0.020 0.019
0.20 0.09 0.09 0.09 0.09 0.09 0.08 0.08 0.07 Poor 0.0273 0.0195 0.139 0.110 0.091 0.074 0.063 0.054 0.048
0.25 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.11

l d nQm == 65 mm p - 0.25 MPll (al d nom = t- -_. f=~ex == O.2~ MPa. (b)
alP !/g'O-f- 100mm -r-
tltJ8 ~~~f-'
(jOg ~~-f-
I-
-...;; t:-i-
~::::-:~
s~c:-~
-- ,
1--'- j. .......:..,.
a()9
o.5=F""-f-
f}IJJ ...bJ
"i""H--
-~~ I-
"_~ -Pax 0:025 MPa
p"" - 0.025 MPa I Li
a()Z (J(}t f
3 ~
~

2 3 -# 2 J" 6 91?e

Values of ), at dnom =100 mm

Rex 10-5
pex, IvIPa
0.25 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.4 2 2.5 4 6
0.025 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.02
0.05 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02
0.10 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02
0.15 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.02
0.20
0.25
0.05 0.05
0.06
0.04
0.06
0.04
0.05
0.04
0.05
0.04
0.05
0.04
0.05
0.03

##1 1
;:~- ~I ; 11 ~
fit
,-:----
d =65mm
oom
1 I

/'
~ .... 100m
{cl

fll5

flN
d nom ". 1.00 mm
k
!fJ6

to4

tot
V
d nom =65mm/ (dl

I
V
/
V

0.8 2.4 4.0

I/I

5.5
I
Z2
I
8.8 ReX10- s
I
V-
:CFEm
r---- iDIJ
/ ftJ3
Re x 10-5 2 4 5 7
ltJ2 10
(NS tJ.15 ~,MPa
f} (Hf)
~j 0.20 0.17 0.14 0.12 0.11 0.10 0.09 0.08
1/ IJI)§ tHO 1J.1S Pax. MPa 0.08
158 Handbook 0/ Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition Flow in Straight Tubes and Conduits
159

Tube made from birch plywood with longitudinal grain; Plastic tubes; stabilized flow 91 ,92
Diagram 2.18 Diagram 2.19
stabilized flow 1
t1D
~=~=Al/Do
t- - - - - < 0 0 1 A ? t1p , see curves A = fiRe) for different ~; pWQ/2
(pw'"cl 2)(IIDh )
1. Polyethylene (stabilized), rigid-vinyl plastic
- 1'1 woDlz at 40 mm ::; D o ::; 300 mm and
Ll= D,,; for 1'1, see Table 2.5; Re=-v-' for v,.
8 x 103 ::; Re= woDo ::; 7.5 x 105
see Seetion 1.2. v

A 0.29 - 0.00023Do , see Table 1

Reo. 22

(D o, in mm; the coefficient at Da, in mm- 1)

4FO 2. Glass cloth
Dh=rr;;-
at 100 mm ::; Da::; 150 mm and 104 ::; Re ::; 3 x 105

Values of A. A 0.282 - 0.000544Da

Re O.19 ' see Table 2

Rex 10-5 3. Faolite

~
0.2 0.3 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.5 at 70 mm ::; Da ::; 150 mm and 104 :s: Re ::; 2 x 105
0.00140 0.030 0.028 0.027 0.025 0.024 0.023 A 0.274 - 0.000662Do
0.00055 0.021 0.21 0.019 0.018 Re o.2 ' see Table 2
0.00030 0.018 0.017
0.00015 0.018 0.017
0.00009 0.018 0.017

Table 1 Values of A. for polyethylene and rigid-vinyl plastic

(continued)
Re x 10-4 Do,mm
Re x 10-5
~ 40 100 160 200 250 300
2 4 6 10 20 0.8 0.039 0.037 0.035 0.034 0.032 0.031
0.00140 2 0.031 0.030 0.029 0.028 0.026 0.025
0.00055 0.017 0.018 0:018- 5 0.026 O,Q25 0,024 0.023 0.022 0.021
0.00030 0.017 0.016 0.016 0.016 10 0.022 0.021 0.020 0.020 0.019 0.018
0.00015 0.016 0.015 0.014 0.014 0.014 0.013 50 0.016 0.015 0.014 0.014 0.013 0.012
0.00009 0.016 0.014 0.014 0.013 0.012 0.012 0.011 80 0.014 0.013 0.013 0.012 0.012 0.011

Table 2 Values of A. for gIass cloth and FaoIite

Rex 10-4 Do,mm

60 80 100 120

'"
140 160
Glass cloth
"-"- ......... -' f
.1 ,..tJ.(J~flf() 0.043 0.041 0.040 0.038 0.036 0.034
f"':t-- 5 0.032 0.031 0.ü30 0.028 0.026 0.025
~r.... 10 0.028 0.027 0.026
r-..... 0.024 0.023 0.022
IlOttJ "'iö;~) /J.OtJ055 30 0.023 0.022 0.021 0.020
~IJ.()!J()J(}
0.019 0.018
(J.()f6 Faolite
It
~
!"'" afJfJ015 0.037 0.035 0.033 0.031 0.029 0.027
I I 5 0.027
afJf2 0.025 0.024 0.022 0.021

O,QO/J r I I II l;r ()J}()(}{}9

I J I
10
20
0.023
0.020
0.022
0.019
0.021
0.018
0.019
0.017
0.018
0.016
0.019
0.017
0.015
2 ] 4 5 Q B fO'; Ke
 Flow in Straight Tubes and Conduits 161
Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition
160

Tubes made from plastics ~olrthylene or rigid vinyl) Diagram 2.20

with joints; stabilized flow 1,9
0 q q q q
t"-
A weId glued f

JI=~= ~ 2
c d 6
~
0
11'1
q q t"-
q q

a b i ,';.<'i:
';.<'i:

No. Joint Material

Polyethylene
JI
'"
s::
<'i - (t)
11
'" 0
::ö
(t)
0
"<t
(V)
0
,....;
0
,....; ~ q

~
~
Welded 0
~
Vinyl plastic (V)
~ -Eb E-< (V) ~
Funneled "<t ;::l
ci
b ci ~ 8
~
(t)
~
Coupled
Polyethylene
N
C'i
(t)

es
-S es 0
0\ q 00 q
d Flanged E <'i
(V)
3
~ ~
s ~ S- ~
1, funnel; 2, circular recess; 3, coupling; 4, flange; 5, flanged end of the tube; 6, gasket (rubber ring) 15 x 4 mm
6
bIJ
<1:1

-leS ~
S
s
bIJ
0(t)

~ I"..:>eS
"-
o
C'1
<'i
B ~ 0i'
~
0(t)

~ ~ I"eS
«
~ 0i' i5 'Cl
"-
0\
q
?=l ~ q 00
C'1
(V)

3
_ c"p JI ii0
",'ö
::: ~ :: C'i Nf ,....; ,....;

S= - 2 - = n/Al/Do+ S) , s S 11
I~"" «
g ~
t;
pwo/2 ""-."'0 c= JI JI g
<l
....
"E:: ~ ~ ~ ~=
Cl..
where nj is the nurnber of joints over the section; for A, see Diagrams 2.1 through 2.5; Sj is the resistance coefficient (t) <2 ~c:
111 -a ,) ~
~ 6 ,«" ~ :'!
t"-
C'l
C'1
q
00
:: ~
of one joint; at 50 ::; D o ::; 300 mm: -e (t)
oe ..c: (t) oe
E-<
;::l
a: a: 1;l a:
a) welded joint
at 1.8 x 105 = Re ::; 5 x 10
5 ~

0.0046
:2 S
JI
(t)
: 0\
q x
if)
11
t"-
3 ~
l,j = D6.75 ; see the Table ~ (t)
~
I'lI.c
(D is in rn; the coefficient at D o is in rn-I); "<t (V)
o (V)
:'! if)
C'l
3 ,....; ,....;
b) welded joint
~rt
5
at 2.4 x 105 :;; Re ;,; 5.6 x 10
(V)
N
l,j=(0.I13-0.225)DO (see the Table); 'Cl 0 ,....; 'c:
::
c) joint with the help of coupling
I'~
at 1.8 x 105 ::; Re::; 6 x lOS
l,j = (0.045 - 0.156)Do (see the Table);
)(
~W ~I
"<t t:::::
11
'" "<t
"<t
'Cl
,....;
(V)
,....;
00
l':
C'1
"<t
,....;

d) joint with the help of flanges Q""

at 2.8 x 105 ::; Re ::; 5 x 105 ~ gg 0 "<t (V)
v: 0 'c:

-/. -
C'1
,....; <'i
l,j=O.l48 -0.344D o (see the Table);

I
Values of ~j for different types of joints and D o ff if)
C'i
(V)
t"-
..f
~
<'i
~
1
Joint
0.05 0.075
0.224
0.l0
0.046
Do,rn
0.15
0.079
0.20
0.057
0.25
0.037
0.30
0.028
,/ c::.
~
,... B
(t)
E
Welded 0.411 0.046
~
<l.I
0.068 0.570 1:; 1:;
0.096 0.091 0.079 :c 1:;
g
1:;
,,.,;fg g
Funned 0.102
0.033 0.029 0.022 0.014 0.006 0.002 ~
Eu<
0..
~J ,.,;f ,.,;f
Coupled 0.044 0.045
0.096 0.079 0.062
0.131 0.130 0.114
Flanged
 Flow in Straight Tubes and Conduits 163
162 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

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kls J
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228. Zorina, E. F. and Styrikov, A. S., Effeet of loeal resistanees on the laws governing hydraulic
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239. Laats, M. K., Experimental investigation of the dynamics of an air-dust J·et Inzh.-Fiz. Zh vol 10
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drorruxture m tubes, Izv. Akad. Nauk SSSR, Mekhanika, no. 5, 182-184, 1965.
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243. P~~yakov,. B. A. and Ryndin, G. N., Determination of the resistanee eoefficients of a' helieal
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263. Toms, B. A., Some observations on the flow of linear polymer solutions through straight tubes at 284. EI Telbany, M. M. M. and Reynolds, A. 1., Turbulence in plane channel flows J. Fluid. Mech.
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Kolesnikov, A. V., and Shub, N. V., Introduction to the Aerodynamics of Container Pipeline
Transport, Nauka Press, Moscow, 1986, 232 p.
276. Belov, 1. A., Guinevskiy, A. S., and Shub, L. I., Numerical investigation of a cylindrical Couette
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nostroenie Press, Moscow, 1988. ,-
277. Kolesnikov, A. V. and Sokov, V. N., Modeling of the aerodynarnic characteristics of pneumo- and
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278. Kolesnikov, A. V. Some problems of the aerodynamics of self-propelled containers moving in a
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1987.
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280. Guinevskiy, A. S. and Kolesnikov, A. V., Toward the theory of motion of rafts in a river bed
streams and of containers in a forced pipeline. Prandtl's paradox, Izv. Akad. Nauk SSSR, Mekh.
Zhid. Gaza, no. 6, 88-98, 1980.
281. Guinevskiy, A. S., Kolesnikov, A. v., and Podolnyi, 1. N., Toward aerodynarnic calculation of
capsule pipeline transport systems, lzv. Akad. Nauk SSSR, Energ. Transp., no. 6, 127-135, 1975.
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Moscow, 1979, 264 p.
283. Cheung, A. C. and Thorpe, 1. F., An experimental and numerical study of the combined Couette
and Poiseuille flow, in Developments in Theoretical and Applied Mechanics, vol. 9, Proc. 9th
Southeastern Conf Theor. Appl. Mech., Nashville, Tenn, 1978, S 1, s.a., pp. 103-112, 1978.
 CHAPTER
THREE
RESISTANCE TO FLO-VV AT THE ENTRANCE
INTO TUßES AND CONDUITS
RESISTANCE COEFFICIENTS
OF INLET SECTIONS

3.1 EXPLANATIONS AND PRACTICAL RECOM1MENDATIONS

1. Resistance of the flow at the entrance into a straight tube or conduit of constant cross
section (Figure 3.1) is governed by two parameters: the relative thickness bl/Dh of the inlet
tube wall edge and the relative distance b/Dh from the tube edge to the wall in which the
tube is instalied.
2. The resistance coefficient ~ of the straight inlet section is a maximum when the edge is
very sharp (6 1/J5 h = 0) and when the tube edge is at ~n infinit~-(fistan-ce- i~~m the ~all in
which the tube is mounted (b/Dh = 00). In this case, ~ = 1.0.
3. The minimum value of the resistance coefficient ~ is 0.5, and it can be attained by
thickening the inlet edge. The coefficient ~ has this same value when the tube is mounted
flush with the wall (b/Dh = 0).
4. The effect of the wall on the inIet resistance coefficient virtually ceases at blDh ~ 0.5.
This case corresponds to the condition where the tube entrance inlet edge is at an infinite
distance from the wall.
5. When the flow enters a straight tube or conduit, it separates by inertia from the inner
surface close behind the entrance if the inlet orifice edge is insufficiently rounded. This sepa-
ration of the flow and the induced formation of eddies constitute the major sources of the
inIet pressure losses. Flow separation from the tube walls leads to a decrease in the jet cross
section (jet contraction). For a straight inlet orifice with a sharp edge, the jet contraction co-
efficient E = Fcon/Fo is equal to 0.5 for turbulent flow.
6. When the inlet wall is thickened, beveled, or rounded or when the edge of the tube or
conduit is adjacent to the wall into which the tube is mounted, the flow passes the inlet edge
more smoothly and the flow separation zone becomes shorter, thus decreasing the inlet resistance.

177
 178 Handbook 0/ Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition Flow at the Entrance into Tubes and Conduits
179

Figure 3.1. Flow pattern at the inlet into a straight tube from an infinite space.

7. A substantial decrease in the resistance occurs when the flow enters the tube through a
smooth inIet, the cross section of which forms an arc of a cirele, etc. (Figure 3.2a). Thus, for
exarnple, for a circular nozzIe or collector having a relative value of the radius of curvature
of r/Dh = 0.2, the resistance coefficient S decreases to 0.04-0.05 as compared to a value of
S = 1.0 at r/Dh = 81/Dh = 0, a sharp edge.* Figure 3.2. Schematic diagrams of smooth inlet sections.
8. A relatively low resistance is also observed when the flow enters the tubes through in-
lets with straight boundaries shaped like a truncated cone (Figure 3.2b and c) or in the form
of contracting sections with a transition from rectangular to circular, or from circular to rec- 10. When ~e inlet ~ection ~s mounted into the end-face wall at an angle (see Diagrams 3.2
tanguIar (Figure 3.2d). The resistance coefficient of such inlets depends on both the contrac- and 3.3), the ml~t res1stance mcreases. The resistance coefficient in the case of circular or
tion angle a and the relative length lIDh of the contracting section. For each length of the square cross sect10ns and W oo = 0 can be calculated from Weisbach's formula 49
conical inlet there exists an optimum value of a at which the resistance coefficient S is a
minimum. Practically, the optimum value of a for a fairly wide range of l/Dh (of order 0.1 t;; == t1.f ~ 0.5 + 0.3 cos (5 + 0.2 cos 2 (5 .
to 1.0) lies within the limits of 40-60°. For such angles and, for example, the relative length pwo/2
lIDh = 0.2, the resistance coefficient is equal to 0.2.
9. Pressure losses in a conical inlet are mainly associated with flow separation in two 10- For other shapes of the channel cross sections the resistance coefficients are given on Dia-
cations: clirect1y d.ownstream of the inlet section and over the straight section following this gram 3.2 (rounded off to 10%).20
entry (Figure 3.2b and- c). The losses- in the firs'docati6n domÜlilte -wheri"tne cÜ1itfactioffa:n:gte 11._When. a flow with velocity W oo passes the wall into which a tube is mounted (see
a of the conical entry is relatively small (Figure 3.2b). The losses in the second location start schem~ on Dlagrarn 3.3), the behavior is, in most respects, similar to that occuning when the
to dominate at large values of a and increase with increases in this angle (Figure 3.2c). For flow discharges through an orifice in the wall under the same conditions (see Chapter 4, para-
a = 0°, this reverts to the conventional case of a straight inlet for which S= 1. For a = 180°, gra~hs 40--47). However, there are some differences. Thus, when the flow is sucked into a
the inlet channel is flush mounted into the wall and S= 0.5. stralgh~ channel, there are no velocity pressure los ses in the aspirated jet, with the result that
the reslstance coefficient is much lower than in the case of discharge from an orifice. More-
over, when the a~gles of inclination (5 of straight sections are greater than 90°, the coefficient
*When the tube inlet is smooth, the only losses are those of the total pressure in the boundary layer.
These are not observed in the core of the flow. Therefore, the resistance coefficient of a favorable or
S takes on negative values, owing to an increase in the rarn effect at certain velo city ratios
wJwo > 0 (see Diagram 3.3).
smooth inlet (collector) can be determined most accurately by experiment, through measurement of the
total pressure distribution and the velocity in the outlet section of the inlet collector. The measurements 12. A baffle or wall (Figure 3.3) placed in front of the inlet section at a relative distance
in the boundary layer should then be made with the use of a microprobe. In this case, the resistance h/Dh ~ 0.8-1.0 ~ill increase the iniet resistance. This increase becomes greater the eIoser the
coefficient is baffle 1S to the mIet orifice of the tube, that is, the smaller hlDh iso
l3. ~e resist~ce coefficient of iniet sections, which are not flush mounted with the wall
J(Po - Po)wdF and WhlCh have dlff~rent thic~nesses of the rounded or beveled entrances with a baffle placed
~ == b.; _Fo
_ -.,,-_ _
before the entrance, 1S determmed from the author's approximate formula 12,13
pwQl2 (p w 812)F0
where w is the velocity in the outlet section of the collector; po, PO is the total pressure upstream of the
collector entrance and at its outlet.
Editor's note: The term "collector" is used to denote an entry to a pipe or conduit, such as a nozzle.

Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition
180
Figure 3.3. Inlet seetion with a baffle in front of the entrance.
where S' is the coefficient which accounts for the effect of the inlet ed.ge shape an~ which
is determined in the same way as S in Diagrams 3.1, 3.4, and 3.6; Cil IS the coeffiCIent ac-
counting for the effect of the baffle or screen, where Cil = j(hlDh)' shown in the curve of
Diagram 3.8. .
The resistance coefficient of smooth collectors mounted flush with the wall, wlth a baffle
placed before the entrance, is determined from the curves S= f(hlDh' rlD.h) of Diagram 3.5.
14. In inlet sections with a sudden transition from a Iarger cross sectlOn of area FI to a
smaller one of area Fo (Borda mouthpiece, Figure 3.4), the resistance coefficient at large
Reynolds numbers (Re = WoDhlv > 104 ) depends on the area ratio FoIFl and can be ca1cu-
lated from the formula
(3.1)
where;'oois aocoefficient 'Nhich depends on the inlet edge shape of. the sma~ler channel (se~
Diagram 3.9) and which is deterrnined in the same wayas Sfrom DIagrams -'.1, 3.2, ~nd 3:6,
on the inlet conditions; for values of blDh = 0-0.01 It varles
m is an exponent depending
' . 12,13
from 0.75 to 1.0, while for blDh > 0.01 1t can be assumed equal to 1.0.
When the inlet edae of a narrow channel is mounted flush with the end-face wall of a
=
wider channel (blDh 0), this represents a typical case of sudden contraction, which is con-
sidered in Chapter 4, paragraphs 22-24.
Figure 3.4. Schematic diagram of flow with sudden contraction.
Flow at the Entrance into Tubes and Conduits 181
Figure 3.5. Entrance through a circular bellmouth.
15. The resistance coefficient of in let sections depends also on the Iocation and the manner
in which they were mounted into the wall. Thus, a Iowered resistance coefficient can be at-
tained by installing an annular lip or an annular step ahead of the inlet section enclosing the
orifice (Figure 3.5). If the edge of the Hp or of the step is sharp, the flow, upan entering this
seetion, separates from its surface. The resulting recirculation favors smooth inflow of the
fluid into the main inlet seetion of the tube without separation. As a result, the inlet resistance
decreases consideröbly.
16. The optimum dimensions of theenlarged section, over which the recirculation bell-
mouth is formed, must correspond to the vertical dimensions of the region adjacent to the
contracted cross section of the stream at the straight tube with sharp edges and, similarly, in
a tube mounted flush with the wall. In fact, Khanzhonkov 30 has shown experimentally that
the lowest resistance coefficient S= 0.10-0.12 is obtained with the use of a lip of liDo"'" 0.25
and DIlDo"'" 1.2 and with the use of a step of liDo"" 0.2 and DIlDo :== 1.3.
With a rounded inlet edge, the lowest resistance coefficient in these cases would be 0.07-
0.08.
17. The values of S in the case of other modes of mounting the inlet sections (in the end-
face wall or between the walls) are given in Diagrams 3.10 and 3.11.
18. The resistance coefficient for the flow entering into a straight seetion through a single
orifice or an orifice grid (entry with sudden expansion, Fl = 00; see Diagram 3.12) at Re =
word4v> 10 for the general case (inlet edges of any shape and of any thickness) is ca1culated
from the author's approximate formula l3 ,14
~
!::"p
== - 2 [/ - 2 - I] 1
- = S + (1 - J) + 1: (l - J) + Iv -d -7' (3.2)
pwo/2 h r
 Flow at the Entrance into Tubes and Conduits 183
Handbook 01 Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition
182
20. For transition and laminar flow regions (Re = WoDh/V < 104_10 5) and conventional
where ~' is the eoeffieient whieh aeeounts far the shape of the inlet and whieh is determined entranee of flow (without orifiees or grids), the resistanee eoefficient can be determined from
in the same way as ~ for inlet seetions with the end-face wall from Diagrams 3.1, 3.2, 3.4, the fonnula analogous to Equation (1.3):
and 3.7; 1: is the eoefficient aeeounting for the effeet of the grid (orifiee) wall thickness, inlet
_ Llp A
edge shape, and eonditions of flow passage through the orifiee; A, is the friet~n eoeffieient ~= ---r-2 ~ Re + ~quad ,
over the length (depth) of the grid orifiees, detennined as a funetion of Re and Ll ==Ndh from pwo/
1
Diagrams 2.2 through 2.6; == Fo/Fo == Fo/Fgr is the area ratio. .. . .
where ~quad is taken as ~ for the quadratie region (Re> 10 _10\ A = 30. 2
4
19. The general ease of the flow entry through an orifice or an onflee gnd eonslsts of a
21. For transition and laminar regions with entranee of flow through an orifice or a grid,
number of partieular eases: the resistanee eoeffieient can be ca1culated from the following approximate forrnulas (aceord-
a) Sharp edO'es of orifiees (f == IIdh "'" 0), for which ~' = 0.5 and 1: = 1.41; in this case, ing to paragraphs 30-36 of Chapter 4):
b 1'713
Equation (3.2) is reduced to the following fonnula derived by the author: -,

2
Llp- = (1.707 - f)
~ == - 2 - 2
-2
1 == (1.707
-_--1 J (3.3)
_Llp ~q>-
pwo/2 I I ~ = - 2 - == -2 + EOR~uad ,
pwo/2 f
b) Thiekened edges of orifiees for which the eoefficient ~' == 0.5 and
at 10 < Re < 30
(3.4)
33 1 -
~ == Re 12 + EOReSquad' and
where
at Re < 10
cp{i) == 0.25 + 0.535t 8/(0.05 + ( 7 ) . (3.5)
33 1
e) Beveled or rounded (in the flow direetion) edges of orifices for which it is assumed that ~=Re 12 '
A,IIDh == 0 and 1: "'" 2-{C the ease in which
where ~cp == fl(ReFoIFl), as shown in the graph of Dia~am ~.19 (it is postulated that f=:;
/),p
S== - 2-
« .r:; _)2 1
== 1 - 'i ~ -I -2'
Fo/Fo eorresponds to the ratio FoIFl); foR~=72tRe)-:-In Diagraffi 4.19. Squad is the 'res{st~mce
pwo/2 f coefficient of the iniet seetion with an orifice (grid) of the given shape which is determined
similarly to ~ from Equations (3.2)-(3.8).
In the ease where the edges of orifices are beveled in the flow direetion, ~' is determi~ed 22. With lateral (transverse) entrance into the end seetion of the tube (Figure 3.6) the re-
similarly to ~ for a eonieal eollector with an end-laee wall from Diagram 3.7 as a fune;lO~ sistanee is much higher than that with straight entranee and sudden expansion (through an
of the eontraetion angle IX and the relative length l == IIDh' For the values of IX = 40-60 , 11 1
orifiee, grid), partieularly at > 0.2, sinee more eomplieated eonditions for the flow of liquid
is determined from the formula (air) are observed in the ease of lateral entrance.
23._On the basis of visual observations, Khanzhonkov and Davydenk031 showed that at
- -:1.3 (3.7) small f the jet, wh ich enters through an orifiee into the tube, moves to the opposite wall, over
~/=0.13+0.34x10-(3.451+88.41 ).
whieh it spreads in all direetions. Part of the jet moves toward the c10sed end of the tube,
In the ease of orifices with rounded edges, the eoefficient ~' is determined in the same rotates through 180°, and flows into the other end of the tube in the form of two rotating
way as ~ for a eircular colleetor with the end-face wall as a function of r == rlDh from Dia- streams (Figure 3.6a).
gram 3.4 or from the formula
1
At some ("eritieal") values of air inflow into the c10sed spaee of the tube nearIy eeases,
while the jet in the form of two rotating strearns flows eompietely into the opposite end of
(3.8) * the tube (Figure 3.6b).
~ == 0.03 + 0.47 x 10 -7.7r .
24. This type of a flow is not only responsible far the inereased resistanee of the side inlet,
but is the reason for the eomplex dependenee of the resistanee eoeffieient ~ on the area ratio
*Calculations according to paragraphs b and c can be performed virtually starting from the values Re
5
= 104 and higher.
 Handbook 01 Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition Flow at the Entrance into Tubes and Conduits 185
184

E I!
L ~
~
1
~
a~'
t92 '9
1)
E / V

,~ I;~. ~
/
(al ~ ~ I
i~Va /16 V \
4' '--- lL
~ IY
)I
~

V
t:.
l.P / v- -- ~~- - --
Ä ~ ~, ~ 1/ ./ ;'
"rl Iil V /
Glf ~ lP""~ V
r
~IY V ~: ..l;~
(~
". •
• I ,/
(b)

J l~ r.,i, ~r Y~~);fi'.,-M9.f Iii ~

"; ......
/
Figure 3.6. Schematic diagrams of flow entering into a side orifice in the end section of a tube: Ca) at
small values of fand Cb) at large values of f II
Ir ~~ &r--...:. /
"I. ').,G / ~~t26f6

1 (Figure 3.7). A sharp decrease in S corresponds to the "critical" value of 1 at which the
above rearrangement of the flow occurs after entrance into the tube.
-I/ /j ~ a2i~
~(
'"
l;/1Jq =-af!J
a#J

11J1# -$-
.+- ,
4~F.-L-..L
8 "
/ /

F-
'\.er
~!--
r---
r---

25. According to the author's data, flow entrance into the tube through two side orifices, I \ r---
located one opposi~ the other, increases the inlet resistance, which becomes greater the 2
.p
I (),5
I I I
h
I

f.5
higher the value of f f.()

26. Entrance through side orifices is often utilized in ventilating shafts of rectangular cross
section. Such orifices are furnished with louvers to prevent the entry of particulate matter.
The resistance coefficient of such shafts also depends not only on the relative area of the
orifices, but on their relative arrangement. Diagram 3.17 presents the resistance coefficients of
intake shafts with differently positioned side orifices. The values of S are given here for ori-
fices with. .<J,l1d wi!hollt fixeß J0l!vers.
27. The resistänce of intake shafts with straight entrances, bht: ptovid~d· with~canÖpies(see
Diagram 3.18), is similar to the resistance of conventional inlet sections with baffles. For ven-
tilating shafts of circular cross section, for which the relative thickness <h of the inlet edges
lies within 0.01-0.002, the effect of this parameter may be neglected and the resistance coef-
ficient S assumed to have values similar to those for shafts with sharp inlet edges.
The relative distance hlDh between the canopy hood and the inlet edge of the shaft can be
assumed equal to 0.4. Larger distances would require extremely large canopy hoods,. other-
wise atmospheric contaminants might enter the shaft.
Of all the available constructions of intake shafts one should recommend the one with a
conical entry section at the inlet. This shaft has the minimum resistance coefficient, S =
8 have the optimal values of lIb': (lIbl)opt "" 11(1 -
0.48.1
28. When the flow enters the tube through a screen, the total resistance coefficient can be
approximated as the sum of the separate resistance coefficients of the screen and of the inlet,
that is,
Figure 3.7. Dependen~e of the inlet resistance coefficient of a side orifice in the end section of the tube
on the relative area f. solid lines, experiments of Khanzhonkov and Davydenko 31 with one orifice;
dashed lines, experiments of the author 15 with two side orifices opposite each other: 1; =~.
pW 2 5/
,,:here ~' is the res~stance coefficient of the inlet, without a screen, determined asS for- the
g1ven sh~pe of the miet edge from the corresponding graphs of Diagrams 3.1 and 3.4 through
3.8; Ssc 1S ~e resistance coefficient of the screen, determined as ~ from the corresponding
graphs of D1agram 8.6; n = FIIFo is the area ratio of the cross section in the place where the
screen is mounted to the minimum cross section of the inlet length.
29. The resistance coefficient of a fixed louver grating depends on both its open area co-
efficient f = F 0/Fgr and the relative depth of the channels lIbl' For each open area coefficient
of the grating there is an optimum value of the relative depth (Zlbi)opt at which the resistance
coefficient is minimal. It is therefore recommended that, as a rule, gratings be used which
fl.*
30. In the case of standard gratings with fixed louvers, the in let edges of the fins are cut
along the vertical (see scheme of a Diagram 3.19). However, it is more beneficial that the
inlet edges be cut along the horizontal (see scheme b). This provides a 40% decrease in the
resistance.

r= b.p ~r' Ssc

':>---')-~':> +2'
pwQl2 n *This formula was obtained by the author on the basis of Bevier' s37 data.
 Flow at the Entrance into Tubes and Conduits 187
Handbook 0/ Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition
186

S-=~_ 2
pwQl2
k [ 0.85 + (-&J2
- 1- f F + SfJ.l(FOJ2
0
F + j,S '
-2
/ gr
v

where j,1; = 0.5[11(1 - fl - 7

l/bI]; Sfr = Al/bI; = Fo/Fo, see Diagram 3.19; k = 1.0 for a
standard grating (inlet edges cut vertically); k = 0.6 for an improved grating (inlet edges cut
horizontally); and A is the coefficient of hydraulic friction along the length (depth) of the
louver channels, determined depending on Re = worbl/v from Diagrams 2.1 through 2.5.
32. The primary requirement for inlet pipes to axial flow turbo machines (Figure 3.8) is
that the total pressure losses should be minimal and the velocity profile in the outlet section
of the inlet collector, which supplies air directly to the blade rims of the machines, should be
almost undistorted.
33. As demonstrated by the experiments of Dovzhik and Kartavenko,lO for inlet pipes de-
signed on the basis of the use of a collector with two curvilinear surfaces (Figure 3.8a), these
conditions are best fulfilled for a high degree of pipe constriction (np ;::: 3.5, where np =
Fin/FO' Fin = HB is the area of entrance into a scroll or volute). In this case, the degree of
collector constriction should be cl~e to th~ degree of pipe constriction (neol = np' where neol
= Feol/Fo = 2heol/ho[Deol/Do(1 + d)] and d = dlDo) , while the radial dimension of the pipe
(b) should be large (Dser = Dse/Do > 1.3). Sloping of the back wall in the bottom of the scroll
(Figure 3.8b) insignificantly, within certain limits, decreases the pressure losses in the pipe.
With the above optimization parameters, the resistance coefficient of the pipe is S =.
j,p/(PoW6/2) = 0.12-0.15 (where Wo = Ca is the average axial velocity in the outlet seetion
of the circular collector [in section Fo] and Po is the gas density in the same cross section).
34. It is advisable to use the above collector (Figure 3.8a) in cases where the pipe has a
large degree of contraction (axial compressors, turbines). When the degree of contraction
needs not be large (fans) and the available radial dimensions of the pipe are substantially lim-
ited, it is advisable to use a pipe in wh ich the circular collector is formed by the one curvi-
linear surface (Figure 3.8c). In this case, the pipe will have the minimum resistance
coefficient at np ~ 3.5, RlDo?:. 0.95 andDsn == L15-l:25~ At larger values of Dsn(>i.O) it 1S
{c}
advisable that the front wall of the seraIl be inclined up to a/R "" 0.4. This inclination of the
Figure 3.8. Inlet pipes ofaxial stationary turbo ma~hines: (a) circular annular ent~ (coll~ctor) forme~ wall provides additional reduction in the resistance coefficient.
by two curviliner surfaces; (b) the same with a slopmg bottom of the annular entry, (c) clrcular coHec 35. Nonuniform velocity distribution both in the radial direction and circumferentially
tor formed by a curvilinear outer surface and a center body. about the outlet section of the collector, obtained at the above optimum parameters of the
pipes (departure from the average velocity Ca of the order of 15-20%), does not influence the
* characteristics of thecompressor stages. However, velo city nonuniformity leads to a periodic
31. The resistance coefficient of gratings with fixed louvers at the entrance to the channel
is determined as: change in the aerodynamic forces acting on the blades of the rotor, which adversely affects
19
the fatigue strength of the machine.
36. Fans or engines of ground transport facilities and vessels are usually instalied in
channe1s that are furnished with forward intakes that ensure uniform velocity fields and total
pressure with a low total pressure loss coefficient at the inlet to a fan or an engine. 6 During
slip motion or in the presence of a side wind at the inlet to the fan or engine, circumferential
or radial nonuniformity of flow is formed resulting in the occurrence of aerodynamic losses. 50
There were attempts to increase the efficiency of an air intake by installing guide vanes
at the inlet to the channel. Testing of these vanes at angles of flow incidence of 900 51 has
. 37 40
*The formulas agree satisfactorily with the experimental data of Bevler and Cobb.
 Flow at the Entrance into Tubes and Conduits 189
188 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

il
t/////J//JJ///I//(//////// ~
c.c=50"i r=o
] [ v!lIz=t.o
"'" .1 O:-f-
i .::k i-M.o;f$.-:;

~ --- fa2':

~ . --'if
·,1"'1 V
Vjuz-D.7
I
fj.J!J!!~ U.8

I
~=gOol if-u
/ ~i'\
5
1'/1f2~l.Oj'#" ..!
[lo.fZ ~~

'.1
.... ~ ..... Ir~
r. U.1D i'.
V/V.'t..O.7 "'~ ..
0.8
~r-f
0.0 0..4 0 alt fJ.8 i' alJ 0.4-
r;t[
0,8 (! 0,8 r
a b c
Figure 3.10. Velocity profiles in the horizontal section of the air intake: a) with oblique flow incidence
without injection; b) at inflow angle a = 75° and radial injection; c) at inflow angles a = 60° and 90°
and radial injection.

Figure 3.9. Schematic diagram of an experimental setup.
shown that the range of working regimes which is determined by the ratio of the incidence
flow velocity V to the channel flow velo city U2 can here be enlarged only up to V/U2 = 0.5.
A more effective way to increase the efficiency of air intakes consists of controlling a
boundary layer to prevent its separation at the inlet to the channe1. ,53 An exper~mental in-
52
vestiaation of an air intake with a jet inlet device employing the Coanda effect, l.e., adher-
ence ö of a fine jet to a convex curvilinear surface, plane or axisymmetric, was carried out in
Reference 54. The schematic diagrarn of an experimental setup is presented in Figure 3.9. The
experiments were carried out in a wind tunnel, the velocitY V varied within 10-30 mls, the
4
Reynolds number Re = U2 d/v was equal to (0.8-2.4) x 10 .
The experiment was aimed at determing the velocity fields inside the channel (at differ-
ent anales a and at V/U? = 0.7 and 1.0) as weIl as the total pressure loss coefficient St with
allow~ce for energy los~ in blowing and the blowing intensity q = q/(Q - q), where Q is the
air flow rate in the channel and q is the injected air flow rate.
Figure 3.lOa presents the velocity profiles in the horizontal seetion of the air intake with
oblique flow incidence (a = 45°_90° at V/U2 = 0.7 and 1.0. The figure illustrates formation
of a separating flow. Similar velocity profiles in radial air injection at q = 0-0.11, a = 75°,
V/U2 = 0.7 and 1.0 are given in Figure 3.10b and at a = 60° and 90°, V/U2 = 0.7 and 1.0,
and q = 0-0.12 - in Figure 3.10c. It follows from Figure 3.lOb and c that flow separation
in the channel is entirely eliminated when q = 0.1. This is evidenced also by the flow spectra
shown in Figure 3.11.
37. In the engines of aircraft, ships, and also of subway cars, air intakes are in§talled (in-
take pipes, Figure 3.12). The aerodynarnic characteristics of these devices depend on the op-
erational and constructional parameters.
Detailed investigations of the aerodynamic characteristics of intake pipes of aircraft engines
are described in Reference 11. The results of the investigations of the aerodynamics of air
intakes of gas-turbine ships are given in Reference 6.
38. The inlet conditions into an intake pipe, the in let section of which is arranged on a
solid surface (wing of an aircraft, hood of an aircraft engine, fuselage of a helicopter, body
of a ship, top of a car, etc.), depend on the velocity ratio Win at the entrance to the pipe or,
which is the same, on the velocity Wo at the exit from the pipe to the velocity Woo of the free
strearn (flight velocity, ship motion velocity, car velocity). When the irilet area is selected so
that at the given flow rate through the pipe the ratio Win/woo is smaller than unity, one ob-
serves retardation (expansion) of the jet accompanied by an increase in the static pressure.
The formation of the positive pressure gradient along the jet in the presence of a relatively
thick boundary layer on the solid surface leads (as in a conventional thick-walled diffuser) to
flow separation from this surface (Figure 3.12a). With an increase in the pressure gradient
and, consequently, with a decrease of the ratio Win/Wco, the separation becomes more inten-
sive, and the inlet pressure losses increase.
 Flow at the Entrance into Tubes and Conduits 191
190 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

40. At Win/wo<> > 1, the flow enters a pipe with acceleration (the jet is contracted) and,

cr~ r=O.08
consequently, this is accompanied by a fall in the pressure. Therefore, flow separation from
the solid surface is even more impossible. However, in the case of a very appreciable jet
V ,
\ contraction, such inflow may lead to flow separation from the inner edge of the pipe (Figure
3.12c). This separation can be eliminated by using rather a smooth (thick) in let edge.
41. The values of the resistance coefficients of the entrances to the intake pipes (~in ==
~p/pW6/2) with different versions of the loeation of in let seetions with respect to the solid
surfaee (in the given ease the surfaee of the aircraft engine hood) and at different veloeity
ratios wo/wO<> are given in Diagram 3.22. This diagram also contains the sehemes of the ver-
A-A sions of testing of pipes. The pressure los ses associated with the entranee of flow into an
intake pipe are smallest when the pipe is loeated direetly near the front edge of the hood

ID (version 1). In this case, there is no flow separation before the entranee, whereas the substan-
tial increase in 10ss with a decreasing velocity ratio at wo/woo < 0.3 is due to the flow sepa-
ration after its entranee to the pipe (see paragraph 39).
42. The influenee of the flow separation from the solid surface before the entrance to the
pipe on the inlet resistance can be considerably decreased or entire1y eliminated by increasing
the distance h of the protruding portion of the pipe from the solid surfaee, especially if the
neck of the pipe could be streamlined for the overflow of the boundary layer (see version 6
on Diagram 3.22). However, it is necessary here to take into account the increase in the drag
of the pipe with an increase in the indicated distance from the solid surface.
43. The total energy losses in the intake pipe (air-intake deviee) are composed of the inIet
pipe energy losses and internal losses over the entire pipe from the entrance to exit of flow
from it. The general (total) resistance coefficient of the intake pipe is
A-,4 A-A

+D e
Figure 3.11. Spectra of flow past objects with oblique inflow toward an air intake.
39. The pipe can have such an area of the inIet orifice at which the velocity ratio wü/weo
for the given flow rate will be equal to, or higher than, unity. When Win/Wo<> = 1, the cross-
sectional area and correspondingly the velocity, and, consequently, the static pressure along
the jet remain virtually constant up to the entrance into the pipe. In this case, no flow sepa-
ration from the surface can occur (Figure 3.12b) and air enters the pipe virtually without loss.
where ~in == ~p/pw6/2 is the resistance coefficient of the entrance depending on the velocity
ratio wo/woo and -ön-the -iocation of the pipe (air-in take device) on the -gi'venobJeet; ~ex~
~p/pW6/2 is the coefficient of internal resistance of the entire section of the air-intake device
from the entranee to the exit of flow from i1.
44. The drag of the pipe is eomposed of two values: the "hydrau1ic" Cxh and external fron-
tal resistance Cxo . The hydraulic frontal resistanee originates due to the 10ss of momentum by
the flow entering the pipe. The external frontal resistance is induced by the extern al flow past
the pipe and its interference onto the adjacent part of the aircraft (helieopter, ship, ear).
45. Diagram 3.23 depicts some schemes of the inlet elements of industrial axial fans. This
diagram also gives the resistanee coefficients of the inlet elements ealculated aeeording to the
reeommendations of Bychkova3,4 for different inlet and operational conditions of the fans.
46. Diagram 3.24 presents the schemes of the inlet elements of radial (eentrifugal) fans and
the values of the resistance eoefficients of these elements according to the same reeommen-

Woo
" ~~woo~ dations as given in paragraph 45.

a b C

Figure 3.12. Different cases of flow inlet into the pipeY a, at small discharge coefficients (Wi/Win is
much smaller than unity); b, at large discharge coefficients; c, at Win/W"" ;;:: 1.
 Flow at the Entrance into Tubes and Conduits 193
192 Handbook ojHydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

Entrance into a strai~ht tube of constant cross section'

Diagram3.1
3.2 DIA GRAMS OF RESISTANCE COEFFICIENTS Re =woD/iv > 104 I ,13 '

Entrance into a straight tube of constant cross seetion; Diagram 3.1

Re == WODh/V > 104IL,13
1) Entrance into a tube at a distance
(b/Dh < 0.5) from the wall in which
it is mounted.
2) Entrance into a tube mounted flush
with the wall (b/D h == 0).
3) Entrance into tube at a distance
2. from the wall (b/D h < 0.5) in which
!.
D h == hydraulic diameter it is mounted.
Fa == area
I10 == wetted perimeter of cross section

1) and 2) tw , see
S== -2-
pwQl2
curve (8
S= f D1 Jat the
Iz
given D'
b
h

t +_w:_~,_Fo___ ___ ~I_ 3) s== ~ , see curve s=l~lJat;

pWii'/2 llz Iz
20.5.

For computer calculations at 8/D" < 0.05 and 0.01 < b/Diz < 0.05.
3
S== -2-.L
bp 31.L [adb/DIz)J]
PWa/2 i=ü i=ü
'j (Ö/D/;J,
Entrance from an infinite space (w= - 0) into a tube mounted flush
into a wall at any angle 8; Re =woDwv > 10420,49
Diagram 3.2

where for ai,j' see the Table.

Values of aiJ For circular and square orifices

~ == -zi[;- = 0.5 + 0.3 cos 8 + 0.2 cos2 0 .

2 3 4 ptVö/2
0
9.22856 -79.0065 258.742 -268.925 For orifices of any shapes
0 0.549356
-681.756 7,189.72 -24,896.6 26,416.2
1 -4.93702
2 160.273 17,313.6 -212,416.0 766,932 -827,816 ~==~=f(8).
3 1,650.38 -139.018 1,930.080 -7,239.530 795.042 6/
pW 2

Values of t; 4F
blDh D,,=iloo
SIlD" 0.005 0.010 0.020 0.050 0.100 0.200 0.300 0.500
0 0.002
0.68 0.73 0.80 0.86 0.92 0.97 1.00 1.00 Values on; (rounded up to 10%)
0 0.50 0.57 0.63
0.63 0.67 0.74 0.80 0.86 0.90 0.94 0.94
0.004 0.50 0.54 0.58
0.58 0.62 0.68 0.74 0.81 0.85 0.88 0.88
0.008 0.50 0.53 0.55 8, deg
0.012 0.50 0.52 0.53 0.55 0.58 0.63 0.68 0.75 0.79 0.83 0.83 i
0.58 0.64 0.70 0.74 0.77 0.77 a 20 30 45 60 70 80 90
0.016 0.50 0.51 0.51 0.53 0.55
0.52 0.53 0.55 0.60 0.66 0.69 0.72 0.72
0.020 0.50 0.51 0.51 1.0 0.96 0.90 0.80 0.70 0.63 0.56 0.50
0.51 0.25 0.53 0.58 0.62 0.65 0.68 0.68
0.024 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.2---0.5 0.85 0.80 0.70 0.62 0.56 0.50 0.45
0.51 0.52 0.52 0.54 0.57 0.59 0.61 0.61
0.030 0.50 0.50 0.50 2.0 1.04 1.00 0.90 0.80 0.70
0.51 0.51 0.52 0.52 0.54 0.54 0.58 0.45
0.040 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.51 0.51
0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 5.0 1.58 1.45 1.20 0.95 0.78 0.60 0.45
0.050 0.50 0.50 0.50
194 Handbook 01 Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition Flow at the Entrance into Tubes and Conduits 195

Entrance from an infinite space (w"" = 0) into a tube mounted flush Entrance into a tube mounted flush into a wall in the presence
Diagram 3.2
420
into a wall at any angle 8; Re =woDJzlv ;::: 10 ,49 of a passing flow (w"" > 0); Re = woD,/v > 10420 Diagram3.3

r 0-30"
\" V V(biJ Values of ~ (rounded up to 10%) at [la = 0.2-
p 0.5 (see graph b)
~V I
--
P' 45
....V I.- I..- 7ffi: w~

-- --
!....--
0, deg Wo
~
t,u
V V ~-
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5

~~
~ !lU 30 0.80 1.30 1.85 2.20 2.50 2.75
45 0.67 1.10 1.43 1.65 1.83 2.0
~
Entrance into a tube mounted flush into a wall in the presence 60 0.58 0.92 1.25 1.45 1.60 1.75

-r' ~
a5'~
of a passing flow (w"" > 0); Re = woDhJv ;::: 10
420 Diagram 3.3
~ ~-t~ ~'--
!.fJ wQ>~ 90 0,45 0.45 0.60 0.67 0.75 0.85
........... 120 0.53 0.15 -0.10 -0.30 -0.40 -0.50
t'--.... I---. l- 150 0.80 0.13 -0.50 -1.00 1.35 1.70
.........
s=~, see curves S=f(W~J -2.fJ O'",,{50" ........... r--
p~12 lwo

~~
r j (c)
- ..

! ~
9.-U o13U " Ir--
{eI
t/
\1/ Values of ~ (rounded up to 10%) for circular
r': ~ t.-o' Values of ~ at l/a =2.0 (see graph c)
V and square cross sections, i.e., at l/a =1.0 ./ 511_
..... ~ ~
~..-
~I-
./ (see graph a)
l0 w~
.........
V M. l.,....---
th V ~ !..-

-
§fI 0, deg wo

,
w~
..,V V

:~ '-
~
zu v V ~~
0, deg wo ~ 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5

V -'" ~ !-- I...- 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 j f.S 2Jl W",/~
30 1.00 1.68 2.22 2.78 3.32 3.80
J} 45
/~~ i---
0.88 1.46 1.90 2.30 2.77 3.20
30 0.90 1.55 2.18 2.85 3.50 4.00
tO 1911, 120 60 0.60 1.02 1.35 1.60 1.75
~---- 45 0.80 1.30 1.72 2.08 2.30 2.60 1.87
~~ ~ ißi 90 0,45 0.55 0.75

"", --
60 0.65 1.04 0.87 0.95 0.95
1.35 1.58 1.70 1.86
'-.. !o..... tU
I
90 0.50 0.56 1.62 0.66 0.70 0.70
120 0.60 0.10 -0.13 -0.20 -0.23 -0.30
U 1J.5~
~
-
1 -r-!:f-- (20 w."jwlJ 150 1.00 0.15 -0.60 -1.30 2.00 2.5
~ 120 0.65 0.15 -0.15 -0.30 -0.50 -0.60
1--..
~
-@ ~ I""- I-- fJ,
150 0.85 0.15 -0.60 -1.22 -1.70 -2.0
'$- 'rsfl- f'..
C"'~ I--
........... l
~

-zo ~
 Flow at the Entrance into Tubes and Conduits 197
Handbook 0/ Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition
196
Circular bellmouth inlet (collector) without baffle·
Diagram 3.4
Entrance into a tube mounted flush into a wall in the presence Diagram 3.3 Re =WODh/V;::: 10412, 1 3 . '

of a passing flow (w= > 0); Re =woDrJv ~ 10

420
Values of I;

r
r ~:tS~ (d) Bellmouth (collector)
D"
!JJ characteristics
X 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.08 0.12 0.16 >0.20
V Values of I; at [la =5.0 (see graph d)
)/ Je,,- ". a) Free Standing 1.0 0.87 0.74 0.61 0.51 0.40 0.32 0.20 0.10 0.06 0.03
w= b) Wal! mounted 0.5 0.44 0.37 0.31 0.26 0.22 0.20 0.15 0.09 0.06 0.03
/ V wo
8, deg
/ /',/
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
0
A /1 9O_~
4.85 5.50
2.40 3.30 4.12
I /7 i---'" r-1"1 45 1.20
1.72 2.47 3.08 3.60 4.10
60 0.90
I.; ",,1/
1.18 1.78 1.88 2.10
90 0.45 0.60
~ i2tJ V
- ~
/'
L ~5
/f:
2.U W+~
120
135
0.80
1.20
0.12
0.12
-0.23
-0.53
-0.10
-1.05
-0.35
-0.88
-0.80
-0.45
Of
'" i'l 1"'""'"
~~

Circular bellmouth inlet (collector) without baffle; Diagram 3.4

Re =woD,Jv ~ 10 ,13
412
Circular bellmouth, wall mounted (collector) with a facing baffle'
Diagram3.5
Re =woDrJv > 10418 '

Baffles

4Fo
Dh = -
110
r=~
'-,-
2 ' see curves
pwo/2
~=f-- (hD" DrJ
h

~ == öl; , see curves a and b as a flmction of ~h

PWQ12 D

For case c: ~ = 0.03 + 0.47 x 10 -7.1, r= r/D h 4Fo

D,,=-
110

Values of ~

h
r
D"
D"
0.10 0.125 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.80
0.2 0.80 0.45 0.19 0.12 0.09 0.07 0.06 0.05 0.05
0.3 0.50 0.34 0.17 0.10 0.07 0.06 0.05 0.04 0.04
0.5 0.65 0.36 0.25 0.l0 0.07 0.05 0.04 0.04 0.03 0.03
 Flow at the Entrance into Tubes and Conduits 199
Handbook ofHydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition
198
Converging conical nozzle (collector) without wall mounting'
Circular bellmouth, wall mounted (collector) with a facing baffle; Re = woDIJv:2: 10412 ,13 ~, Diagram3.6
Diagram 3.5
418
Re =woDIJv :2: 10

r
9.7

(J,ff

Pi
11 I I
\\ I I 1 I
\, -11 t I
1\ 't\rlDh- tZz aJ r!0h=fJ.5

fU
\l~ I V/ I I
~ i I Converging conical nozzle (collector) wall mounted'
Diagram3.7
I I Re =woDh/v > 10412,13 '
()

Converging conical nozzle (collector) without wall mounting; Diagram3.6

412
Re = woDh/v:2: 10 ,13

r- I1p I
'0 =-2-' see curves r, =j(a) für different-
pwQl2 D"

D _ 4Fo
.~ - HG
r, ==~, see curves r, =f(a) for different ~
pwQl2 D" Values of ~ (approximate)

a,deg

4Fo
D" 0 10 20 30 40 60 100 140 180
Dh = - 0.41 0.40 0.42
Do 0.025 0.50 0.47 0.45 0.43 0.45 0.50
0.050 0.50 0.45 0.41 0.36 0.33 0.30 0.35 0.42 0.50
0.075 0.50 0.42 0.35 0.30 0.26 0.23 0.30 0.40 0.50
0.10 0.50 0.39 0.32 0.25 0.22 0.18 0.27 0.38 0.50
0.15 0.50 0.37 0.27 0.20 0.16 0.15 0.25 0.37 0.50
Values of ~ (approximate) 0.60 0.60 0.27 0.18 0.13 0.11 0.12 0.23 0.36 0.50

a,deg
Dh 30 40 60 100 140 180
0 10 20
0.90 0.86 0.80 0.69 0.59 0.50
0.025 1.0 0.96 0.93
0.80 0.75 0.67 0.58 0.53 0.50
0.050 1.0 0.93 0.86
0.65 0.58 0.50 0.48 0.49 0.50
0.075 1.0 0.87 0.75
0.55 0.48 0.41 0.41 0.44 0.50
0.10 1.0 0.80 0.67
0.43 0.33 0.25 0.27 0.38 0.50
0.15 1.0 0.76 0.58
0.30 0.22 0.17 0.22 0.34 0.50
0.25 1.0 0.68 0.45
0.18 0.14 0.13 0.21 0.33 0.50
0.60 1.0 0.46 0.27
0.14 0.11 0.10 0.18 0.30 0.50
1.0 1.0 0.32 0.20
 200 Handbook oj Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition Flow at the Entrance into Tubes and Conduits
201

Various inlets with facing baffle; Inlets with different types of mounting of a straight tube to an end wall'
Diagram3.8
Re = waDIiv> 10412 ,13 inlet thickness 81 =0.03-0.04ao; Re - woao/v > 10412,13 ' Diagram3JO

Resistance coefficient
Saffles Wet conditions Configuration
7) ~=~
Pw5/2

Entrance with the end wall

~=~~S'+5.2 on one side of the tube 0.58
p~/2 n ' (conduit)
where 1) for ~/, see curve S = j(0IID,,) at blD" ;::: 0.50 on Diagram
3.1; 2) for ~/, see curves S = I(rlD,,) on Diagram 3.4; 3) for ~/, see
curve S = j(u., lID,,) on Diagram 3.6; for 0'1' see curve 0'1 = j(hlD,,).

\
\
I
I
Entrance with end walls
on two opposite sides of
the tube (conduit)
-+- ~ 0.55

I
I
h
t2 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80 1.0
\ Dh
\ 0'1 1.60 0.65 0.37 0.25 0.15 0.07 0.04 0 o
0.9 I\.

.."
Entrance with end walls
...... \-.. on two adjacent sides of 0.55
- the tube (conduit)

Entry from a limited volume (Fo/Fl > 0) at blDh > 0;

Diagram3.9
Re = WoDh/V > 10412,13

Entrance with end walls

f -
on three sides of 0.52
t§'
Wet edge Scheme Coefficient ~' the tube (conduit)

l~' 11r;

Sharp or thick From curves S= I ( D01 D b) of Diagram 3.1

g h

Rounded (bellmouth)
From curves S=
(graphs a and c)
I(; J h
of Diagram 3.4
Entrance with end walls
on four sides of the tube 0.50
(conduit)

Beveled (conical)
From curves S= I(u., ~" Jof Diagram 3.6
 Flow at the Entrance into Tubes and Conduits 203
Handbook oi Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition
202
E~trance into a straight tube through an orifice or a perforated plate (grid);
512 Diagram 3.12
In1ets with different mounting of the straight condiut between the wall; Diagram 3.11 wlth sharp-edged orifices (l/dh - 0-0.015); Re Word,JV> 10 ,13
412
in1et edge thickness 81 = 0.03-0.04ao; Re = woao/v > 10 ,13
Perforated pIste (F or-free areal
Resistance coefficient

Inlet conditions Configuration s= pwo/

11-;
2

Entrance into a tube (channel) o 0.10 0.20 0.30 0040 0.50 D cr

ao
with a visor projection Orifice pIste fFo,free areal
on one side at lIa a = 0.5 0.60 0.63 0.65 0.67 0.68 0.68

0.82
Entrance into a tube (charmel)
with visor projection on two
sides at l/aa = 0.5

0.63
Entrance into a tube (channel)
mounted on top of a wall 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0040 0040
f
1100 258 98 57 38 24 15 11 7.8

f 0.50 0.55 0.60 0.65 0.70 0.75 0.80 0.90 1.0

5.8 404 3.5 1.7 1.3 0.8 0.5

0.71
Entrance into a tube (channel)
mounted between two walls

( .......-...--.----
180 I'--t----,---!.---J
tofl !--1I~~-ls 1\
f4fl ~t-H
\-t-s-eg-Lm-e-nLt-A'+--l
0.77 fPO \
Entrance into a tube (channel)
mounted in an L-shaped mo 1r-~,+-+-4-~-l
~
angle (between two walls) OfJ \ 2 r-+-~~~-+-4~
\ il """'-1--
:; \ d? 05 all 07,118, 497
1

0.92
!IJ \J Segment A
Entrance into a tube (channel)
c1amped between three walls
I~Jjl
making a U-shape
III at es 45 117 IM 11.9 f
tl.1 0.1
 204 Handbook oj Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition Flow at the Entrance into Tubes and Conduits 205

Entrance into a straight tube through an orifice plate or a perforated plate Entrance into a straight tube through an orifice plate or a perforated plate
Diagram 3.13
(grid); with differently shaped orifice edges; Re == word;Jv ~ 10412.13 (grid); with differently shaped orifice edges; Re - wordiJv > 10412 ,13 Diagram 3.13

Resistance coefficient ([_21

Characteristics of plate, grid,
or orifice edge
Configuration ~==~.
1; == ( 1 + 1; - i) f2' where for 1;', see
pW5/2 graph c or 1;' = 0.03 + 0.47 x 10-7.71'

1; ::::;[0.5 + (1 -]) 2+'t (1-]) + Ai,] x ~2 ' Orifices with rounded edges

where for 1:, see graph a; Dor

Thick orifices
<p(1)
-I)
= 0.26_+ 0.5357/(0.05 + '/1; or 1: = 2.4
x 1O-<jl(l), see Diagrams 2.2 through 2.6;

1;0 = 0.5 + (1 - ]) 2 + 1: (1 - ])
r --
Wo. Fa
r'
0.4 ~ r-
I-~
. (c)

~
tJ.2 ..........
-. --I--
-r--. ~
;::::--- -- ~
(al fJ tU)/) ((fJ8 (UZ af8 rldh
'-1- I-
" r---
r= rld" 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
,.... 1\ ....- - r - - r--- I- --
\ ~' 0.50 0.44 0.37 0.31 0.26 0.22
\~ ,-- .-r--
--
1---
I-.
l=lldh 0.06 0.08 0.12 0.16 0.20
() a# aB 1.2 1.6 2.°lldh 1;' 0.20 0.15 0.09 0.06 0.02

1 == lldh 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8

1: 1.35 1.22 1.10 0.84 0.42

I==lldh 1.0 1.2 1.6 2.0 2.4 Entrance into a straight tube (conduit) through an orifice plate
1" 0.24 0.16 0.07 0.02-- 0 or a perforated plate (grid) with differently shaped orifice edges;
transition and laminar fiow regions (Re = worDiJv > 104_10 5)16

(1 + >/f _7) fz ' where at a. = 40-60

2
0
1; =
for ~', see graph b or 1;' == 0.13 + 0.34 x
10-(3.451+ 88.41)-2.3, at other d' s, 1;' is determined
y_ flp y I -
Orifices with beveled edges as 1; from Diagram 3.7 '" =-?-=S$=z+EoRe~uad ,
pWö/2 f
2) 10 < Re < 30 : 33 1 -
r'~-
y y
.-Ibi·
'" == Re ji
+ 100 Re Squad '

&J ._. - . 33 1
ta) 3) Re < 10 : 1; == Re ji ,
at
IJ (J.Ol; aos (J.f2 J/dh
':y here 1;<1> ==fJ(Re, FoIFj), see Di~gram 4.19 (it should be kept in rnind that
f = Fo~Fo corresponds to F~Fj; sEoRe =h(Re), see the same graph; 1;Quad is
T=lid" 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 determmed as 1; at Re > 10 -10 , see Diagrams 3.12 and 3.13.
1;' 0.46 0.42 0.38 0.35

1= lid" 0.06 0.08 0.12 0.16

1;' 0.29 0.23 0.16 0.13

 Flow at the Entrance into Tubes and Conduits 207
206 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

Entrance inta a straight circular tube thraugh the fIrst side arifIee;
Diagram 3.16
Entrance inta a tube with a screen at the inlet Diagram 3.15 Re =worb/v;:: 104 15

Resistanee coeffieient
,,=
r - I1p
-'-2- , see eurves S= f(j)-
Characteristics of plate, grid, Configuration s=~ pwo/2
or orifiee edge p~oI2

ScI'S.en (For free areal

Entranee with sharp inlet !"'W-o-r-f-F-o-r--~-~,-F-'ol "U
-- {al
where ssc is determined as S for
edge (8 1ID" = 0) -+tDllTIl--- '1--+0------- \ a sereen from Diagram 3.6
g _\.
\\
i tu ~
\.

1. Single orifice
(0 \\.
I

Oi'~'
I
~
••d
"-
'2,
2. Two orifiC1iS
2
......... -
Entranee with thiekened
inlet edge (8/D h > 0)
Iw"F
r-~
O
"" where for s',see eurves
S =f( 8/DIp bIDh ) of Diagram 3.1;
on opposite
sld~ f
a.t tli M tl.ß f.D 1.2
"""
f.~
"l
1.1 J
/1~~
o;"~
for Ssc' see above
Scresn (Forl

Values of ~ (graph a)
s=s,+Ss~
n
Bellmouth (eolleetor) entry where for S',see eurves Numberoforifiees --~0~.2~----~~------~~------L-------------------------------
S =j(rIDIl' blDh ) of Diagram 3.4; One (eurve 1) 64.5
for Ssc, see above Two (eurve 2) 65.5

Number of orifiees 0.9-------:-;:-------~-=--~-------------------

One (eurve 1) 2.70
Two (eurve 2) 4.54

Without supporting wall

s=s'+ Ss~ ,
I n
I
where for s',
see eurves
Coniea! nozzle (eolleetor)
.-
W.. f r
I
I
~ S =j(a, llDh) of Diagrams 3.6 and
3.7, respeetively; for S~c' see above
Scr6en (F01')
With supporting wall

I
I
~r.F,. ~ ~
I
j
I
Screen (F01')
--
208 Handbook oi Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition Flow at the Entrance into Tubes and Conduits
209

Entrance into a straight circular tube through the first side orifice; Intake shafts of rectangular cross seetion; side orifices
Re = worb/v?:: 10
415 Diagram 3.16 with and without fixed louver grating 19 Diagram 3.17

Values of ~ (graph b)

b ]
Curve
Da 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
0.13 0.13 335 850
0.26 305 85.0 42.2 22.5 15.6 11.6
0.38 280 79.0 38.3 23.2 16.0 11.7 9.30 6.40
4 0.48 260 75.0 36.3 22.0 15.2 11.3 8.80 6.85
5 0.62 235 61.0 32.5 20.0 13.8 10.2 8.00 6.50
0.7 230 63.0 30.2 18.4 12.8 9.40 7.35 5.95
]
Curve
Da 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6
0.13
2
-, nbh F
0.26 !!:.=05
B . j=_=.:..E
0.38 5.40 Fa Fo
4 0.48 4.20 3.40 3.80 Straight shafts
5 0.62 4.00 3.30 2.82 2.50 2.30 2.15 2.05
6 0.7 4.85 2.95 2.50 2.22 2.02 1.83 1.70 1.56
Resistance coefficient
Layout of Olifices
No. b ~=~
'{
oforifices f' h
pwiY2
!b)
Without
louvers
With Without ()( =30 0
; bilh = 0.029; ()( =45°; bilh = 0.024;
louvers louvers
Ilbi - 1.6; Bibi
l\ 0.058 Ilbi 1.4; Bibi 0.07

1\
pp
I-~

l\
0 0 0.44 1.5 12.6 17.5

(J

H\\
,\
\\
I
I
2
0 0 0.88 1.5 3.60 5.40

\1\
I~
2
0 0 0.88 1.5 4.20 6.30

#~
10
~J
"- !'I. f
t"~_F
0 0 1.30 1.5 1.80 3.20

0 0
,~J 4
6~ 1.74 1.5 1.20 2.50 3.80

, ~I
0
~ 6
9 """"

I~

2
t--
'?- :--
4

0 0 1.16 1.0 2.00 3.60 6.00

f
t).t - ar 11,9
I f -
4
0 0 0.58 0.5 8.00 13.7 21.5
 Flow at the Entrance into Tubesand Conduits 211
210 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

Straight intake circular shafts'

Diagram 3.18
Intake shafts of rectangular cross section; side orifices Diagram 3.17 Re = woDo/v> 10428 '
19
with and without fixed louver grating
Shaft characteristic Schematic Resistance coefficient

Shafts with bends

Resistance coefficient 1. With a plane top
Layout of Olifices r.,==~
No. E. pw5/2
of orifices l' h
With Without a = 30°; bi/h = 0.029; a = 45°; bi/h = 0.024;
Without
louvers louvers louvers I/bi = 1.6; 8/bi = 0.058 I/bi = 1.4; 8/bi - 0.07
2. With a cone top
r., ==
pwQl2
L!.f ' see curves r., = l.!!:...J
lDo
wDJ 0.44 1.5 14.0 18.6

3. With a canopy top and sharp

1Q I
r
e
a J..b I

OJ CD 0.44 1.5 16.0 19.0 inlet edge

?
c~

it \
[]][]] 0.44 1.5 16.7 20.0

4. With a canopy top and 1.8

d \ \\
~ \
\\
I\:
_\ ~
2 []J[]] 0.88 1.5 4.50 6.50
thickened inlet edge

~l f '\
~
..-:::::: ~~
......
D. Ul ..
'\ i'...
[TI [TI
I
2 0.88 1.5 5.20 7.00 1dl
~ "- "'l... -.
r- 116

1!r
211 ;;)

[]]OJ
5. With a canopy top and ~
a cone
(j • "" /l;
0.88 1.5 5.30 7.20 o d! a<t tl6 (J.3 1.Q II/JJq
~J
2
11

[]JOJ 0.88 1.5 5.30 7.50

6. With a convergent entry and

(eI

a canopy top

OJCI1 1.30 1.5 2.60 3.90

[]JOJ 1.30 1.5 3.00 4.50

OJOJ 1.30 1.5 3.40 5.10 Values of 1;

Scheme
h/Do

4 []JOJ 1.74 1.5 2.70 4.00 5.60

2
0.1 0.2
4.40
48.0
0.3
2.15
6.40
0.4
1.78
2.72
0.5
1.58
1.73
0.6
1.35
1.47
1.23
1.26
0.7
1.13
1.16
0.8 0.9
1.10
1.07
LO
1.06
1.06
1.06
1.06
4
[]JOJ 1.16 1.0 3.10 4.70 6.90
4
2.63
2.13
1.83
1.30
1.53
0.95
1.39
0.84
1.31
0.75
1.19
0.70
1.15
0.65
1.08
0.63
1.07
0.60
1.06
0.60
1.06
0.60

[]]OJ
5 2.90 1.90 1.59 1.41 1.33 1.25 1.15 1.10 1.07 1.06 1.06
4 0.58 0.5 9.00 14.4 22.0
6 1.32 0.77 0.60 0.48 0.41 0.30 0.29 0.28 0.25 0.25 0.25
 Flow at the Entrance into Tubes and Conduits 213
212 Handbook oi Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

Entrance into a straight channel through stamped

Diagram 3.20
Entrance into a straight channel through a fixed louver Diagram 3.19 or cast and shaped perforated plates
gratingatf For/Fgr-O.l 0.9

._._.~
-; ('J IrLwhere [lJ-
I 2': -;
b] b]
-; -. 11 (1 - -l.
b]J
j) /.
opt opt

Cal s== b.f

pwQl2
==k[0.85+(1-ffJ:sfr]x~(~J2
l f
=ks' a p
rnlet edges of fins cut vertically

wor = i; For - clear area of the grid S== .b.f '

PWa/2
~<[l.J
b' b'
I opt
: or
see curve S = ih of Diagram 3.12 (approxirnately)

where k = 1.0 for scheme a: k = 0.6 for scheme b;

Inlet pipes ofaxial stationary turbo-machines lO
b.S "" 0.5 [11 (1 - j) -~] ; Sfr = A~ ; Diagram 3.21
bl b]
(b)
for A, see Diagrarns 2.1 through 2.6. Converging annular collector (scheme a)
Inlet edges of fins cut horizontally forrned by two curvilinear surfaces at nar 2':
3.5; neo] '" n ar ; Dsn 2': 1.3 (optimal parame-
ters)
Viewfrom
(at Re = w=b/v'" 10
3
); for values of S', see curve S' =in. direction A S==~""0.07 .
H 8 pW6/2
Annual collector (scheme b) forrned by one
~rvilinear surface at nar 2': 3.5; H2': 0.95;
Dsn ~ 1.15-1.25 (optimal parameters)

S== .b.f "" 0.08 .

PW a/2

r I

!1Jl 1\
(.1) (b)

I
I I\.
\
2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
0.1 0.2 Fin heo]~
~ f
nar = Fa
n = F eo ] =2
Fa ho Da (1 +d)
f()
s' 235 52.5 20.5 10.5 6.00 3.60 2.35 1.56 1.18 0.85 col

o - d - D sn - H
-I I'.. d=- D sn = Da H=-
Da Da
2 "-
UJ r-.....
11I11f 0,7
,
t....>
)-10
.j;o.
Air-intake deviees (intake pipes) (at veloeities mueh below sonie ones)ll Diagram 3.22

Version 1 Version 2 Version 3

iit:;/t··o.0055ltm2 S==~
~~p:. " pwö/2 = Sin + Sex '

tE"-_.~ m where S== - t:.p (wo) see the graph (w= is the ffee stream ve!oeity);
2 - =f -
pwQl2 w=

Version 7 1i.~'~(JIJJii8rr!
"?'PArting line -~. ~l<l'&
~~ ;u"tta.oo~~m~ l
~
;::

-EE '" 3jro- !~

§::
Cl
Cl
?;-<

~
70

~
~
;.:
f{
>J
CI>
c.-,
r::;-
l::i
;::
<l
~
-k
s:-
g:
Sex == t:.f is determined depending on the sl1ape and geometrie parameters of the entire air-intake device from the data of the Handbook. ~:
pwol2 ;::

~
Cl
~
~
Va lues of Sin s:-
CI>

Version
wo/w= ~
0.1 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 ~;::
<l
5.0 1.5 1.0 0.7 0.4 0.35 0.25 0.15 0.03 0.3 CI>

2 6.0 5.0 2.5 1.5 0.8 0.45 0.25 0.10 S·

C)
3 6.0 5.0 2.5 1.5 0.8 0.45 0.25 0.10 ~
(3.-
4 5.4 3.2 1.5 0.70 0.45 0.25 0.20 0.05 CI>
v,
5 5.3 3.2 2.3 1.2 0.70 0.40 0.20 0.10 0.05 \:l
;::
~
6 4.3 2.8 1.9 0.9 0.5 0.25 0.20 0.10 0.05 (j
Cl
7 3.5 2.6 1.9 1.2 0.9 0.7 0.5 0.4 0.15 ;::
~
~:

7,01 11 "In I
6,'0

1.01 1'........ 1 . .

IJ 8.1 tZZ D.J 9.* a.; 0.$ 9.7 D.8 wo/woo N

)-10
tI'I
 216 Handbook oi Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition Flow at the Entrance into Tubes and Conduits
217

lnlet elements ofaxial fans 3,4,26 Diagram 3.23 lnlet elements of cetrifugal fans 3,4,25,33
Diagram 3.24

s==~
- pw~12 '

Zbl is the number of blades of the fan wheel; a

wo==QIFo ;

1== liD; d=d/D

Values of ~ of the elements

(d = 0.3-0.45; zbl = 3-4) 11' is the fan efficieney
F~=BC; wo==QIF~
Fo =~ Do
2
Fco1 == ab ; ; 1= liDo

VaIues of t; of the elements (the blades of the fan are bent backward)
e
Operational eonditions *
Angle of element Q < Qn nominal Q> Qn
Inlet element
Operational eonditions of the fan installation ßO Type offan
Q=Qn
Inlet element Maximum full pressure Maximum flow rate 11!> 0.91lfuax r/>11fuax 1l> 0.91lt;ax
pmax Qmax Inlet box (a):
Inlet box (a): FcoVFo== 1.7 0 0.3 0.3 0.3 Ts4.. 76
a:=. O.75D-; /7:=-2&;- 0.15 0.07 b/a=2.3; cx= 120
c=O.2D; 1=0 FeovFo= 1.2 90 05 0.5- 05
c=a 0.34 0.2 bla =2.3; cx= 12° 180 0.6 0.6 0.7
c= 0.2D;1 = liD == 0.1 0.03 0.08 270 0.5 0.5 0.3
FcoVFo= 1-1.5 0-270 0.07 0.7
c=ODD; 0.1< I:::; 0.3 0.03 0.06 0.7
bla == 2.3; a == 0°
Cl. =40° Composed elbow (b): 0-270 0.15 0.15 0.15 Ts4-70
Confuser, eone (b, e): RIDo= 1.5
1=0.1 0.07 0.09 Diffuser (e):
. 1=0.2 o 0.02 [ = 0.8; nar = l.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 Ts4-76
1= 0.3; cx = 60° 0.03 o [=0.8; nar =2 0.5 0.8 0.8
1=0.1; cx= 80° 0.07 0.06 1= 1.4; nar =1.5 0.2 0.3 0.3
I = 0.2; cx = 80°
1== 1.4; nar= 2 0.2 0.3 0.65
SimQle elbow {d}: 0-270 1.0
Step(d) 1.0 1.0 Ts4-70
~onieal eonfuser (e):
DI/D= 1;1=0 Flow separation 0.35 1=1;nar=0.67 0.7 0.3 0.2 Ts4-76
DI/D = 1.25; [=0.1 0.07 0.15 [ = 1.2; nar = 0.5 0.8 0.4 0.3
0.1 < I:::; 0.3 0.3 0.10 1= 1.4; nar = 0.4 0.5 0.1 0.1
Diffuser (e):
*The operational conditions of the fan that correspond to the maximum efficiency 11/ all d
Cl.=8-12°;nar=2 0.12 0.15 n . 1 .h rnax are c e
~mma '/ wH the flow rate Qn. The working region of the fan characteristic is that for which
Note: The fan is of type K-121. 11 ;::: O.911max.
 Flow at the Entrance into Tubes and Conduits 219
218 Handbook oi Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

Inlet elements of cetrifugal fans 3,4,25,33 Diagram 3.24

REFERENCES

Values of Sof the elements (the blades of the fan are bent forward) L Averiyanov, A G. et al., Ventilation of Shops of Shipbuilding Works, Sudostroenie Press, Moscow,
1969,268 p.
Operationa! eonditions * 2. Altshul, A. D., Hydraulie Resistanee, Nedra Press, Moscow, 1970, 216 p.
Angle 3. Bychkova, L. A, Entrance elements of installations with ~'(ial fans, Vodosnabzh. Sanit. Tekh., no.
ofelement Q< Qn nominalQ > Qn
Inlet element Type offan 5, 29-31, 1977.
installation ß0 Q=Qn 4. Bychkova, L. A, Reeommendations for Caleulating the Hydraulie Resistanees of the Complicated
Tl;:::o.9r]~ax T]f;:::T]~ax Elements of Ventilation Systems, Moscow, 1981, 32 p.
Inlet box (a): 5. Guinevskiy, A S. (Ed.), Introduetion to the Aerohydrodynamies of the Container Pipeline Trans-
FcoVFo = 1.3 o 0.3 0.3 0.35 Ts9-55 port, Nauka Press, Moscow, 1986, 232 p.
b/a = 2.4; cx= 12° 180 0.45 0.45 0.5 6. Zakharov, AM., Bulygin, P. A., Raikin, L. I., et al., Air-Intakes and Gas-Dischargers of Fast-
Gas-Turbine Ships, Leningrad, 1977, 207 p.
270 0.2 0.2 0.3
7. Gretsov, N. A, Hydraylic resistances and a rational shape of rectiaxial converging tubes witb a
FcoVFo = 1.1
baffle before the inlet, Tr. Mosk. Selkhoz. Akad., vyp. 87, 37-42, 1963.
b/a =2.3; cx= 12° o 0.5 0.5 0.5 Ts9-55
8. Davydov, A. P., Investigation of the operation of the suction orifice with an inner screen, in In-
FcoVFo = 1.2-1.8 0-270 0.85 0.85 0.85 vestigations in the Fields of Hearing, Ventilation and Air Conditioning (Tr. LISJ), no. 110, pp.
b/a 2.3; cx 0° 27-34, 1975.
Composed elbow (b): 9. Dzyadzio, A. M., Pneumatie Transport at Grain-Proeessing Faetories, Zagotizdat Press, Moscow,
R;::: l.5Do o 0.3 0.3 0.4 1961, 250 p.
90 0.4 0.4 0.4 10. Dovzhik, S. A. and Kartavenko, V. M., Experimental investigation of inlet nozzles ofaxial sta-
180 0.5 0.5 0.4 tionary turbomachines, in Prom. Aerodin., vyp. 29, pp. 56-73, Mashinostroenie Press, Moscow,
270 0.3 0.3 0.35 1973.
Diffuser (e): 1L Idelchik, I. E., The aerodynamics of the intake branch pipes of aircraft engines, Tekh. Vozdush.
[=0.5; nar= 1.5 0 0.2 0.2 Flota, nos. 5-6, 1-10, 28, 1944.
[ = 0.5; nar = 2.0 0.5 0.8 0.7 12. Idelchik, 1., E., Hydraulic resistance during flow entrance in channels and passage through orifices,
Prom. Aerodin., no. 2, pp. 27-57, BNT, NKAP, 1944.
[ = 0.8; nar = L5 0.1 0.15 0.1
13. Idelchik, 1. E., Hydraulie Resistances (Physieal and Meehanieal Fundamentals), Gosenergoizdat
[=0.8;nar=2.0 0.3 0.3 0.2 Ts14-46
Press, Moscow, 1954, 316 p.
[ =0.4; nar =1.5 0.2 0.2 0.15 14. Idelchik, 1. E., Determination of the resistance coefficients in discharge through orifices, Gidro-
_L=-2:.'!.:Jl2r.= 2,0 0.4 0.5 0.4 tekh. Stroit., no. 5, 31-36, 1953.
Simple elbow (d): 0-270 io 2.0 2.0 Ts4-70 15. IdelchiR, I. E., Handbook oi HjdrmilicRisiSfanees (Loeal Resistanee Coefficierits and Friction Re-
Coniea! eonfuser (e): sistanees), Gosenergoizdat Press, Moscow, 1960, 464 p.
[= 1.5 0 0 0 16. Idelchik, I. E., Account for the effect of viscosity on the hydraulic resistance of diaphragms and
nar 0.4-0.7 0.8 0.4 0.3 grids, Teploenergetika, no. 9, 75-80, 1960.
Step (eddy eolleetor) (f): 17. Levin, B. M., Local iniet losses during ground suction under water, Tr. Mosk. Inst. Inzh.
nar>0.7 0 0 0 Ts14-16 Zheleznod. Transp., vyp. 122,281-312, 1959.
18. Nosova, M. M., Resistance of inlet and exit bellmouths with baffles, in Prom. Aerodin., no. 7, pp.
"The operational conditions of the fan that correspond to the maximum efficiency n~ax are called
95-100, Oborongiz Press, Moscow, 1956.
nominal, with the flow rate Qn. The working region of the fan characteristic is that for which
19. Nosova, M. M. and Tarasov, N. F., Resistance of intake ventilating shafts, in Prom. Aerodin., no.
n l :2 0.9n~ax. 12, pp. 197-215, Oborongiz Press, Moscow, 1959.
20. Nosova, M. M. and Bamakova, T. S., Resistance of inlet and exit orifices in the presence of tbe
passing stream, in Prom. Aerodin., no. 15, pp. 20-37, Oborongiz Press, Moscow, 1959.
21. Oslyansky, Ya. L., Pressure head losses in the intake pipe of a dredger during suction of a water-
ground mixture, Tr. Leningr. Inst. Vodn. Transp., vyp. 119, 135-142, 1968.
22. Staroverov, 1. G. (Ed.), Handbook for a Designer of Industrial, Living and Communal Buildings
and Struetures, Stroiizdat Press, Moscow, 1969, 536 p.
23. Stemenko, V. A., Study of the resistance coefficients of inlet boxes of fans of the kinematics of
air flow in them, Tr. Inst. Gorn. Mekh. Tekh. Kibern., no. 17, 32-43, 1967.
 220 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition Flow at the Entrance into Tubes and Conduits 221

24. Stepanov, P. M., Ovcharenko, 1. Kh., and Skobeltsyn, Yu. A., Handbook of Hydraulics for Land 51. Stockman, N. J. Potential and viscous flow in VTOL, STOL or CTOL propulsion system inlets.
Reclaimers, Kolos Press, Moscow, 1984, 207 p.
AlM J., no. 1186, 11, 1975.
25. Steshenko, V. A. and Pak, V. V., Shaping of the inlet boxes of centrifugal double-suction guns 52. Burley, R. R. and Hwang, D. P., Experimental and analytical results of tanaential blowina applied
Vopr. Gorn. Mekh., no. 17,43-47, 1967. b ,
to subsonic V/STOL inlet, AIAA Pap. no. 1984, 1982, 11 p. b b

26. Sumov, N. V., Inlet devices ofaxial fans, in Prom. Aerodin., no. 9, pp. 28-34, Oborongiz Press, 53. Miller, B. A., A novel concept for subsonie iniet boundary layer conto1 1. Aircraift vo1 14 4
403-404, 1977. ' , . , no. ,
Moscow, 1957.
27. Temnov, V. K., Coefficient of the hydraulic resistance of a smooth entrance during turbulent fluid 54. ~olostnykh, v. ~. and Frankfurt, M. 0., Investigation of the efficiency of an jet air-intake device,
flow, Izv. VUZ, Energetika, no. 4, 89-93, 1963. 1llProm. Aerodll1., vyp. 3(35), pp. 55-64, Mashinostroenie Press, Moscow, 1988.
28. Khanzhonkov, V. 1., Resistance of inflow and outflow shafts, in Prom. Aerodin., no. 3, pp. 210-
214, Oborongiz Press, Moscow, 1947.
29. Khanzhonkov, V. 1., Aerodynamic characteristics of collectors, in Prom. Aerodin., no. 4, pp. 45-
62, Oborongiz Press, Moscow, 1953.
30. Khanzhonkov, V. 1., Reduction of the aerodynamic resistance of orifices by means of annular fins
and recesses, in Prom. Aerodin., no. 4, pp. 45-62, Oborongiz Press, Moscow, 1953.
31. Khanzhonkov, V. 1. and Davydenko, N. 1., Resistance of side orifices of the terminal section of a
pipeline, in Prom. Aerodin., no. 15, pp. 38-46, Oborongiz Press, Moscow, 1959.
32. Shepelev, 1. A. and Tyaglo, 1. G., Suction patterns in the vicinity of outflow orifices (based on
reported data), in Local Exhaust Ventilation, pp. 81-90, 1969.
33. Bruk, A. D., Matikashvili, T. 1., Nevelson, M. 1., et al., Centrifugal Fans, Moscow, 1975, 415 p.
34. Ashino, 1., On the theory of the additional 10ss at the pipe entrance in viscous fluid. 1st rept. On
the influence of rounded entrance, Bull. JSME, vol. 14, no. 45, 463-468, 1969.
35. Ashino, J., On the theory of the additional 10ss at the pipe entrance in viscous fluid. 2. When an
entrance is tapered type, Bull. JSME, vol. 12, no. 51, 522-529, 1969.
36. Basavarajaiah, B. S., Exit lass in a sharp edged pipe, J. Inst. Eng. (India) Civ. Eng. Dep., vol. 43,
no. 11, part 6, 549-563, 1963.
37. Bevier, C. W., Resistance of wooden 10uvers to fluid flow, in Heating, Piping and Air Condition-
ing, pp. 35-43, 1955.
38. Bosset H. H., Computation ofaxisymmetric contractions, AIAA J., val. 7, no. 10, 2017-2020,
1969.
39. Campbell, W. D. and Slattery, 1. c., Flow in the entrance of a tube, Trans. ASME, voL D85, no.
1,41-45, Discuss., pp. 45-46, 1963.
40. Cobb, P. R., Pressure 10ss of air flowing through 45-degree wooden louvers, in Heating, Piping
and Air Conditioning, pp. 35-43, 1953.
41. Kubicek, L., Ssaci mistavce, Strojirehstvi, no. 4, 427-433, 1954.
42. Gibbings, J. c., The throat profile for contracting ducts containing incompressib1e irrotational
flows, Int. J. Mech. Sci., vol. 11, no. 3, 29-301, 1969.
43. Hebans, G. G., Crest losses for two-way drop inlet, 1 Hydraul. Div., Proc. Am. Soc. Civ. Eng.,
vol. 95, no. 3,919-940, 1969.
44. Lundgren, T. S., Sparrow, E. N., and Starr, 1., Pressure drop due to the entrance region in ducts
of arbitrary cross section, Trans. ASME, vol. D86, no. 3, 620-626, 1964.
45. Oosthuizen, P. H., On the loss coefficient for a sharp-edged pipe entrance, BuU. Mech. Eng. Educ.,
vol. 7, no. 2, 157-159, 1968.
46. Rimberg, D., Pressure drop across sharp-end capillary tubes, Ind. Eng. Chem. Fundam., voL 6, no.
4, 599-603, 1967.
47. Unger, 1., Stromung in zylindrischen Komalen mit Versperrungen bei hohen Reynolds·zah1en,
Forsch. Ingenieurwes., Bd. 45, No. 3, 69-100, 1979.
48. Webb, A., Head 10ss of a sudden expansion, Int. 1 Mech. Eng., vol. 8, no. 4, 173~176, 1980.
49. Weisbach, G., Lehrbuch der Ingenieur und Maschinentechnik, 11 Aufl., 1850, 320 p.
50. Ushakov, K. A. and Bushel, A. R., Investigation of the operation of an axial fan sucking from a
passing stream, Tr. TsAGI, vyp. 976, 216-242, 1965.
 CHAPTER
FOUR
RESISTANCE TO FLOW THROUGH
ORIFICES '\tVITH SUDDEN CHANGE
IN VELO CITY AND FLOW AREA
RESISTANCE COEFFICIENTS OF SECTIONS
WITH SUDDEN EXPANSION,
SUDDEN CONTRACTION,
ORIFICES, DIAPHRAGMS,
AND APERTURES

4.1 EXPLANATIONS AND PRACTICAL RECOMMENDATIONS

1. An abrupt enlargement of a tube (channel) cross-sectional area gives rise to so-called shock
losses. In the ease of uniform veloeity distribution over the eross seetion of the smaIler up-
stream ehannel in turbulent flow (Re = woDhiv > 104), the Ioeal resistanee eoeffieient of the
"shoek" depends only on the eross-seetional area ratio FoIF2 (measure of expansion n =
F2IFo) and is ealcuIated from the Borda-Carnot formuIa as

_ i1p ( FOJ2 (4.1)

Sloc = p 5/2 = 1-
w F2

Tbe total resistanee eoeffieient of the seetion with an abrupt expansion * is

r- fjp r
~ =-2-=~loc+ ~fr=~loc+? '
r r Sir (4.2)
pwo/2 nM

where

*The additional coefficient Sfr is incorporated if it was disregarded when friction losses throughout
the piping system were determined.

223
 Flow through Orifices with Change in Velo city and Flow Area 225
Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition
224
4. For practical conditions, the veloeity distribution over the conduit length upstream of an
abrupt expansion is, as a rule, never uniform. This substantially contributes to the losses as
eompared with those predicted by Equation (4.1).
In order to ca1culate the local resistance eoefficient of a shock for a flow with nonuniform
veloeity distribution at large Re, it is necessary to use a generalized formula that allows for
this nonuniformity, provided the velocity distribution over the channel cross section 13,15 is

(4.3)

Figure 4.1. Schematic diagram of flow at an abrupt expansion.

The total resistance coefficient is calculated from a formula sirnilar to Equation (4.2).

2. In an abruptly expanded section a jet is formed which is separated from the remaining In Equation (4.3), M = (l/Fo) f (wlwoidF is the flow momentum coefficient (the Boussi-
medium by abounding surface that disintegrates into strong vortices (Figure 4.1). The length Fo
l of the section over which the vortices develop and gradually disappear while the flow com- nesq coefficient) at the exit from the smaller channel into the larger one; N = (1/Fo)
~etelY speads over the cross section ranges from 8 to 12D2h (D2h is t~e hydr~ulic .diameter
of the larger section). The shock losses at an abrupt expansion are assoclated wlth thlS forma- f (wlwO)3 dF is the coefficient of the kinetic energy of the flow (the Coriolis coefficient) in
tion of vortices over the length l2' Fo
3. When an abrupt expansion of the tube cross section occurs only in one plane (Figure the same section.
4.2), the shock losses decrease with an increase in the aspect ratio BIH (B is the width. of the An approximation can be made that N :::; 3M - 2. The approximation is more correct the
larger cross section; H is the constant height of the channel); in this case, the loeal reslstanee nearer M and N are to unity.
coefficient is The last expression leads to the following approximate formula for determining the Iocal
resistance coefficient

FOJ2
Sloc =k 1 [ 1 - F2 '
Sloc= tJ.!; ~N(l-~J+..l.-~.
p wö/2 n
3 ar nir 3nar
where kl :s; 1 is the correction factor which depends on the aspect ratio BIH.
5. If the velocity distribution over the cross section is known, the coefficients M and N can
be easily calculated. However, if this distribution is unknown, it must be determined experi-
mentally. Then the coefficients M and N can be determined by graphic integration from the
curves obtained for the velo city distribution.
Ir1
6. In diffusers with divergence angles up to a = 8-10° and over long straight sections of
1.0
constant cross section with a developed turbulent velocity profile (see Seetion 1.3) the distri-
bution of velocities over the cross section is elose to the power function law

~_(l_L)lIm
Wrnax - Ro

where wand W rnax are the velocity at the given point and the maximum velocity over the
cross section, respectively, mls; Ro is the section radius, m; y is the distance from the tube
axis to the given point, m; and m is an exponent which can vary from 1 to 00.
7. At m = 1, the velocity profile acquires the shape of a triangle (Figure 4.3). At m = 8,
it takes on the shape of a rectangle, that is, the velocity distribution over the section is com-
pletely uniform. The velocity profile is already almost rectangular at m = 8-10. This value of
o m can be used for long straight sections with turbulent flow. The values m = 2-6 can be used
for long diffusers (nI = F1IFo > 2):
Figure 4.2. Dependence of klon B/H.
 Flow through Orifices with Change in Velocity and Flow Area 227
Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition
226
,
rI
2~~ 0 w

Perforat
.I~ I rO'at~«tf
8d W; 0. ~ -
"§
plate
116
;;;;.
I I
\
i 01 I
-L -r T 1
Elbow with guide vanes !4-l-- I- Elbow with 9uide woes
(fJI~
r.,. ~ ~ ~I Perforated . ate pi
j ".g 1(2
.!!L 1/"-- i--- p.ff. 1\ t.5 W/n-Q
I :-.
~
-Ot
-tN
tUIJo 11.6
I

-tJB
I -?vfoo

Figure 4.4. Velocity distribution resembling a sinusoidal function (downstream of perforated plates and
guide vanes)Y
Figure 4.3. Velo city distribution in plane diffusers with divergence angles up to SO and comparison
with the power law.

-lRyJo
w -1 ( 2
Wmax -
at a =2° m ~ 6, at a =6° m~ 3 ,
In this case, for a circular or square tube lv1 = 1.33 and N = 2, and for a plane (rectan-
at a =4° m ~ 4, at a =8° m~ 2 . gular) tube lv1 = 1.2 and N = 1.55.
10. In tubes and channels directly downstream of perforated plates, in elbows behind ouide
vanes, and i~ other similar cases, the velocity profile resembles a trigonometric function (Fig-
8. With the power-law distribution, the values of lv1 and N in Equation (4.3) can be calcu-
12
lated from the author's formulas: ,13 ure 4.4), WhlCh for a plane channel is ca1culated from the author's formula: 13 ,15
for circular and square tubes
w Aw . 2y
--- = 1+ - sm 2krrc -'-.,
(2m + 1)2(m + 1) W max Wo bo
lv1 2
4m (m+2)
w~ere bo is the width of the plane channel, m; Aw is the departure of velocity at the given
POl~t of the narrow channel cross seetion from the section-average velocity Wo, mls; and k is
(2m + 1)3(m + 1)3
N an mteger.
4
4m (2m + 3)(m + 3) ' In this case,

for a rectangular tube or diffuser (with the aspect ratio of the rectangular cross section aoJbo
= 0.3-3.0) lv1 = 1 + 2. (AWJ2 N= 1 +1 (AWJ2
2 Wo 2 wo
(m + 1)2
lv1 11. A nonsymmetrical velocity field (Figure 4.5) is established downstream of diffusers
m(m+2) with divergence angles at which flow separation occurs (a ~ 14°), elbows, branches and so
on. In particular, in plane diffusers with divergence angles a = 15-20° and in straioh~ elbows
(m + 1)3 (8 = 90°), the velocity distribution is governed by:13,15 b
N 2
m (m + 3)

9. Over long straight seetions of tubes and channels (usually at a distance over lODh from :0 = 0.585 + 1.64 sin (0.2 + 1.95 ~~) .
the inlet) for laminar flow, a parabolic velocity profile is developed
 Flow through Orifices with Change in Velo city and Flow Area 229
Handbook ojHydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition
228

v_2J1j1.'q
- f' ~
TT
1
~
~

""
I

~a8
ex/l I 11 !
I
I
Ciä
~

ff·' 126 Diffuser "f~ - - r.r= QI;!

Diffuser
",1·~1 ;! "
/'
/ I
r·~·· ~~V , rr
I I
~
i~~~~-' t12 I

I
.>:.~c.-
~

I
~
Elbow
11
~
IN
w/~
~

~ r:;-z(J 1.i 2.8

---~
-fiS ()
-f./J I ~
-112
~
r ~

~
;v
~
"'a# r
Ir
~
'<f
g. ~ -t2tf ~
,/;'
~r 1/" -aB -~.
- - --'I 1 _ "c:I

.f6 ·2#,
f~ I
'«:l
~

Figure 4.5. Asymmetrie velocity distribution downstream of an elbow and in a diffuser with the diver- ::l
Co)
15
gence angle at whieh flow separation takes plaee. CI iii
,g
•c:
I: "'"
...:!
.! 2
In this ease, M = 1.87 and N = 3.7. r:.
12. When a nonuniform velocity field develops in a tube (channel) of constant cross sec-
tion (n = 1), subsequent equalization of the flow is also accompanied by irreversible pressure p; I
II
i~
losses (los ses for flow deformation), which are ca1culated by a formula obtainable from Equa- ~

tions (4.2) and (4.3):

)~

(4.4)

or accordingly from -

where lvf and N are determined in accordance with the nonuniformity pattern obtained. These I '.
I
losses are taken into account only in the case where they were disregarded during determina-
tion of the local resistance of fittings and obstructions which resulted in a nonuniform veloc- /
I
ity distribution over the straight section. ,I
13. The coefficients M and N for the inlet seetion of the ejector mixing chamber, when the
"main"* portion of the free jet enters it (Figure 4.6), are ca1culated from the author's formu-
~~! ~ ! ~
e<::>' t-...
lasy,15 "~ ~ ~
~
~
~r:.
"The "main" portion of a free jet is defined in Chapter 11.
- 230
Handbook oi Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition
Flow through Orifices with Change in Velocity and Flow Area 231

L....ö
VV
Figure 4.7. Sections with abrupt expansions: (a) with baffles; (b) with "pockets".
0.5 ~
IY
)

1 F2 1 (
F2J2 -e, ~
M=?Fo' N=q3 Fo 8 o/a
where F IF, is the area ratio of the given free jet (mixing chamber) section to the inlet jet Figure 4.8. Dependence of hydraulic los ses in a straight channel with a one-sided abrupt expansion in
20 hh' . tht
(inlet nozzle) section; q = QIQo, is the dimensionless flow rate throug t e gIV~n. sectIOn, a
1
the sizes of single vortices.
is the ratio between the flow rate of the medium passing through the tube (mixmg chamber)
e
a~d the initital flow rate of the jet (at the exit from the inlet nozzle); = EIEo is the dimen-
sionless kinetic energy of the jet at the given cross section, that is, the ratio between the ~n­ the finned section (400 mm) and, consequently, the distance between the partitions band ratio
ergy of the jet at the entrance to the tube (mixing chamber) and the initial energ~ of the Jet. bla was changed. Here, the point bla = 0 (S = 0.03) corresponds to a smooth channel without
e
The values of F2IFo, F/Fo, q, and depend on the relative length of the free Jet SlDh and an abrupt expansion. As follows from Figure 4.8, a decrease in the size of vortices (in the
are determined from the corresponding curves of Diagrams 11.24 and 11.25. parameter bla) leads to smaller losses in the system.
14. The resistance of the section with an abrupt expansion can be subs;antially reduced by 17. A substantial increase in the degree of static pressure recovery and decrease in los ses
installing baffles (Figure 4.7a). When the baffles are correct1y installed,. the losses are r~­ in channels with abrupt expansions can be attained by employing jet diffusers. 47 A jet dif-
duced by 35-40%, so that the local resistance coefficient of such a sect10n can be approx1- fuser is formed when a jet is blown from a slot in the exit section of the narrow portion of
mated from the channel. The jet is deflected from the channe1 axis to the outer wall of the broad portion
of the channel by the angle a. The deflection can be attained either by orienting the nozzle
axis (Figure 4.9a) or rounding its outer edge at the nozzle exit (Figure 4.9b) a!<l2 = 30--60°
(using-the-Caanda effect).
The investigations carried out by Frankfurt47 showed that in circular channels with the ex-
where Sloc is the resistance coefficient of the section with an abrupt expansion without baf- pansion ratio nar = 4.2 and 11 the use of a nozzle with a/2 = 15-30° between the channel
fles, which is determined as Sfrom the data given in Diagram 4.1. . . axis and jet direction allows one to increase the degree of pressure recovery almost up to the
15. A substantial decrease in the resistance of the section with an abrupt expansIOn lS also limiting value for an ideal diffuser. Here, the 10ss coefficient with account for the energy lost
attainable by arranging "pockets" immediately downstream of the narrow cross section (Figure on injection decreases by a factor of 1.5. A still greater positive effect was obtained when a
4.7b) which favor the formation of a steady recirculation ring (for circular tubes) or two
steady vortices (for a plane channel) which act like pumps.44
16. Pressure losses in sections with sudden expansion can be considerably reduced by shat-
terina vortices in this seetion with the aid of transverse partitions (Figure 4.8)21,46. The upper LL
edge~ of these partitions should be located at the level of the upper boundary of the recircu-
lation zone and must not extend into the active flow.
As an example Figure 4.8 shows the dependence of the loss coefficients in a straigh~ chan-
nel on the dimensions of single vortices downstream of a one-sided abrupt expansIOn: In
these experiments the height of the partitions remained constant and equal to the step height
(a = 35 mm), but their number n amounted to 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 10 at a constant length of

Figure 4.9. Schematic diagram of a step diffuser (with an abrupt expansion of the cross-sectional area).
*The general rules to be followed when installing the baffles are given in Chapter 5 (paragraph 65).
 232 Handbook ofHydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition Flow through Orifices with Change in Velo city and Flow Area 233

c n
--_....--

----- 0.50 r----T----;---~~---4----~

c n
Figure 4.10. Schematic diagram of step diffuser (with an abrupt expansion of the cross-sectional area).

jet diffuser was arranged with the aid of a device operating on the Coanda effect. In an op-
timum case (at u col/2 = 600 and fs/Fa :=: : 0.05, fs is the slit area, Fa is the cross sectional area 1.50 1.75 2,17
of the narrow portion of the channe1) the 10ss coeffieient was decreased by a factor of 2-2.5. a)
This was also the case when the end wall between the narrow and broad portions of the chan-
nel with an abrupt expansion was permeable. The characteristics of jet diffusers are consid- (j

ered in more detail in paragraph 65 of Chapter 5.

18. When the gas flow velocity in the section b-b (Figure 4.10) is elose to the speed of
sound and remains subsonic over the jet section between cross sections c-c and n-n, then7 the
shock losses can be determined with a sufficient accuracy from the above-given formulas for
an incompressib1e fluid (in the case of the relative (reduced) velocity Aex = w/acr ::; 0.75 the
0.2 r--.,rlrn3n----J.....--+---!----l
error is practically equal to zero; at Aex = 1, the error is 8%).
19. In the general case, a stepwise channel with a flow can have a supersonie nozzle at the
in1et and then the geometrie shape of the channel will be characterized by the dimensions of
three sections: by the area of the critica1 section Fw by the area of nozzle cross section at o 12 24
the exit Fex, and by the area of the cross section of a cylindrical channel Ftot . In the specific b)
case, Fcr = Fex and the supersonic nozzle is absent.
20. If in any crQss section of the jet over the secti()n c-n the jet velocity is higher than the Figure ",4.11. Defendence of the pressure ratio Ptotfp~ on Al (a) and of the pressure recovery coefficient
speed oi sound, then in this case compression· shock losses~iiio1ild be taken into account. () on pQlPtot (b).
Thus, the total pressure losses are composed of the straight compression shock los ses and
shock losses (according to Borda-Carnot) originating when a subsonic jet expands from sec-
tion 2-2 to section n-n? where Al = wl/a cr is the reduced velocity in section 1-1; it is determined from the relation
21. The relative losses of total pressure in a stepwise channel can be determined as
Ptot_( 2 k-1J( k-l 2)1!(k-l) km [k+l]kl(k-l)
fiptot = 1 - G
- A l - - - 1---11,1 +---
Po k+1 k+1 Al 2
* '
P
where G is the ratio of total pressures in cross sections n-n and 0-0: C
-+-l]1! k-l) ( l - -
x 1 -m- (k k-- A
1 2J1!(k-I)]
(4.6)
* 2 [ Al 2 k+ 1 1 ,
Ptot Ptot PtotWtot
G=-:=::::-+---
Po Po 2P6 where m = FcrlFtot .
For air (k = 1.41)
or after corresponding transformations

Ptot k [ 2 J(k+l)lk(Fcr)2 1 ( k-l 2]1!(k-l)

G=-+- - - - - x- l - - - A l (4.5)
2 k+lpo Ftot AI
k+1
 Flow through Oriftces with Change in Velo city and Flow Area 235
234 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

where

(10 is the length of the straight section downstream of the contraction).

Figure 4.12. Schematic diagram of flow with an abrupt contraction of the cross-sectional area.
25. The resistance of the contracting section can be substantially reduced by arranging a
smooth transition from a wide seetion to the narrow one with the aid of a nozzle (collector)
with curvilinear or rectilinear boundaries (see Diagram 4.9). The author recommends deter-
mining the local resistance coefficient of such a contracting seetion at Re > 104 from the
formula*:

and Equation (4.6) acquires the form 3/4

r --
':lloe ßPloe
') -- r'
~
(1 - FO) ,
(p wü/ 2) FI
Ptot =(AI _1)(1 _A1J2.5 + 0.7396!!!:... x [1
Po 6 6 ·AI where S' is the coefficient which depends on the shape of the inlet edge of the narrow chan-
nel mounted flush with the wall (see Diagrams 3.1, 3.4, and 3.7).
26. In the general case of the flow passing from one volume into another through an open-
22. The dependence of Ptot/po on Al and m at k = 1.41 is presented in Figure 4.11a and ing in the wall, the following phenomena are observed and are illustrated in Figure 4.13. The
the relation Ci = (PQ!Ptot, m) in Figure 4.11 b. flow passes from channel 1, located before the partition A with an opening of diameter Do
At small values of Al for the given values of Ptot/po and m, two values of Al are obtained. into channel 2, located behind the partition. The cross sections of both channe1s may be larger
However, as Ci weakly depends on Al at small values of Al> the choice of Al virtually does than, or equal to, the cross section of the opening. Flow passage through the opening is ac-
not influence the value of Ci? companied by distortion of the trajectories of particles with the result that they continue their
The above-given formulas apply for the values 1 ::;; Al ::;; Alim, where Alim corresponds to motion by inertia toward the axis of the opening. This reduces the initial area of the jet cross
the full expansion of the supersonic jet up to FI = Ftot· section FI until the area Feon (section c-c) is smaller than the area of the cross section of the
23. When the cross section abruptly contracts, the phenomenon is basically similar to that opening Fo. Starting with section c-c, the trajectories of the moving particles are straightened
observed when shock losses occur during an abrupt expansion. But now such los ses occur and thereafter an abrupt jet expansion takes place.
mainly when tnejet, -compressed cturing the entry·from ~. broad ·channel into a narrow Olle 27. In the general case the resistance coefficient of the flowpassage through an opening
(section c-c, Figure 4.12), expands until it fills the entire section of the narrow channel (sec- with sharp edges in the wall (l/Dh = 0, Figure 4.13a) is calculated for the self-similar (quad-
tion 0-0). ratic) flow region (Re = woDoIv ~ 105) by the author's refined formula:
24. The coefficient of local resistance to an abrupt contraction at large Reynolds numbers
I2
(Re> 104) can be approximately determined from the author's formula ,13
ß
Sloe=--f-=
pwo/2
[ 1 +0.707 ~[1- F,/ J/
1
3 4
- /F
2
j
2

ßPloe
Sloe=--?-=0.5 [FO)
1- p ,
(p wo/2) I
2
F, JIl
or, more exactly, from the formula wh ich the author derived by processing the experimental = [ 0.707 1 -
(
F~ + 1 - F~ ~
F, JO.375 ( (4.7)
results obtained by other research workers:

3/ A 28. Thickening (Figure 4.13b), beveling (Figure 4.13c), or rounding (Figure 4.13d) of the
Stoe = ßploe = 0.5 [1 - FO) . ,. orifice edges reduces the effect of the jet contraction in the opening (increases the jet contrac-
(pw5/2) F1 tion coefficient c), that is, decreases the jet velocity in its smallest section (F~on;::: Feon and

In this case, the total resistance coefficient is

*Equation (7.25) recommended in Reference 3 gives close agreement with experiment at large values
S=~=Sloe+S/fr , of Fo/FI and considerable discrepancy (up to 20%) at low values of FoIFI.
pwö/2
 Flow through Orifices with Change in Velo city and Flow Area 237
236 Handbook oi Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

Equations (3.4) and (3.5) or from the curve 1: = j{l/Dh) in Diagram 4.12, while for beveled or
rounded edges, it is approximated by 1: "" = 2-{f, where S' is determined from formulas simi-
lar to Equations (3.7) and (3.8) or from Diagram 4.13; Sfr = ACllDh ) is the friction coefficient
over the entire depth of the orifice opening; and A is the hydraulic friction factor of the open-
ing depth determined from diagrams in Chapter 2. In the case of beveled or rounded edges,
Sfr is assumed to be zero.
30. The general case of flow passage through an opening in the wall can be divided into
a number of particular cases:

• Fi = Fo, a sudden expansion of the cross section (see Figure 4.1); for this Equation
(4.8) reduces to Equation (4.1).
(b)
• F2 = Fo, a sudden contraction of the cross section (see Figure 4.12); Equation (4.8) is
(8)
then reduced to the form of Equation (3.1) at m = 3/4.
• Fi = 00, entrance with a sudden expansion (entrance through an orifice plate or a per-
forated plate at the entrance of a tube); in this case, Equation (4.8) has the following
form (if S is expressed in terms of the velocity W2 downstream of the entrance{

2 ] 2
S==+= [
pwo/2
S'+(l-;OJ2 +1:(1- ;OJ+Sfr
2
(;2J
°
(4.9)

• F2 = 00, dis charge from an opening into an infinite space (flow discharge through an
orifice or a perforated plate at the end of the tube, see Diagram 11.22); in this case
(d)
Equation (4.8) has the form (if Sis expressed in terms of the velocity Wl upstream of
(c)
the opening) **
Figure 4.13. Flow passage through an orifice in the wall from one volume into another: a) ~harp-edged
orifice (lID h '" 0); b) orifice with thick edges ([lD h > 0); c) orifice with edges beveled In the flow 4 4
ditection; d) orifice with edges rounded in the flow direction.
S == P:;/2 =[1
FJ3/
+ S' (1- F~ + 1:
. .\J'(1 - F~
F: J3/
~. +
] (F~~ J2_~__.
S[r
w'. < w-). And since it is this velocity which determines the shock losses at discharge from
the total resistance of the passage through'It IS
++~'(1- ~:rs H(I- ~:r7S +y'][~~J
theJ J
orifice . decrease.
d
29. Th~ resistance coefficient of the flow passing through orifices in the wall, with edges
(4,10)
of any shape and of any thickness, is ca1culated at great Reynolds number~ (virtuall~ for Re • Fi = F2, restriction orifice, perforated plate (see Diagrams 4.14 to 4.17); in this case,
;::: 105) (in the general case considered under paragraph 25) from the author s generahzed and Equation (4.8) reduces to the following form (if S is expressed in terms of the velocity
refined formula: Wl before the opening):

~[1 - F,/ J /
3 4
s== ~ = S' [1 - FOJ 3/4 + ( 1 - F,O
F J2 + 1: [ 1 - F,
/ J+ Sfr
p 6/2
W FI 2 1 2

~(1- ~: fS H(I- ~:r75 [1- ~~)+[1- ~~J +~fr' (4.8)

F: JO.75 + 1: (1 - FF~ ]0.375 + (1 - F~
F J2 l(F )2
= [ S' 1 -
( F~ + SfrJ F~ (4.11)
where S' is a coefficient which depends on the shape of the orifice inlet edge .and is deter-
mined as S from Diagrams 3.1 through 3.4 and 3.7; 1: is the coefficient representmg the effect *Subscript 0 corresponds to subscript "or" and subscript 2 to subscript 0 in Chapter 3.
of the wall thickness, the inlet edge shape of the opening, and conditions of flow passage **Subscript 0 corresponds to subscript "or" and subscript 1 to subscript 0 in Chapter 11.
through the opening; in the case of thick edges, it is determined from the formulas similar to
 Flow through Orifices with Change in Velo city and Flow Area 239
238 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

In the ease of orifiees with beveled edges, at Ci = 40-60°

11 Fl = F2 = 00, an opening in the wall between infinite flow areas (passage through an
opening from one large volume into another, see Diagram 4.18); in this ease, Equation ~'= 0.13 + 0.34 x 10--{3.45T+88.4?.3) , (4.18)
(4.8) reduees to the form
or see Diagram 4.13; at other values of Ci, ~' is determined as ~ from Diagram 3.7.
~ == D..f = S' + 1: + 1 + Sfr . (4.12) For round-edged orifiees ~' is determined as ~ for a cireular nozzle with an end faee
pwo/2 wall, Le.,

31. The resistanee eoefficient of a restrietion having orifiee edges of different shapes and (4.19)
at Re :::: 105 is expressed as follows:
or from the eurve of Diagram 4.13 .
• With sharp-edged orifiees, ~' = 0.5, 1: = 1.41, and Sfr = 0, so that Equation (4.8) is
32. The resistanee eoeffieient of an aperture in the wall of an infinite area having opening
redueed to the author' s formula of the form
edges of different shapes and at Re :::: 105 is expressed as folIows:

= 0,
~== p D..fl/2 =[0.707~(1- ~oJ3/4
• With sharp-edged orifiees, ~' = 0.5, 't = 1.41, and ~fr so that, on the basis of Equa-
+1- ;0]2 (;lJ2 tion (4.12),
W 1 1 0

=[0.707 (1 - ~~ )
0.37
+ 1-
R ]2 (F J2
F~ F~ (4.13)

and, aeeording to the author' s experiments, 12

11 With thiek-edged orifices, ~' = 0.5, resulting in

s=2.7-2.8 .
11 With thiek-edged orifices ~' = 0.5 and Equation (4.8) takes on the form

_ !::"p
~ = - 2 - = 1.5 + 1: + Sfr = ~O + ~fr , (4.20)
pwo/2

where SO = 1.5 + 1: was obtained experimentally by the author and presented in the
(4.14) form ~o = f(l/Dh) (curve a) in Diagram 4.18,

where so = 1.5 + (2.4 -7) x 10-<Jl(l) , (4.21)

- -<pIZ (4.15)
't = (2.4- I) x 10 , where <p(l) is determined from Equation (4.16).
.. Wirh beveled or rounded (in the flow direction) edges of the opening it is assumed that
- :-;S-7 (4.16)
<p(l) = 0.25 + 0.535l 1(0.05 + I ), (l = lIDh) . ~fr = 0 and 't "" 2-{f; then

.. With beveled or round-edged orifices 't "" 2-{f and ~fr = 0, then
(4.22)

~ == pw!::"f/2 =[1+ ~ ~' [1 - ;OJ1 3/4]2

- ;~- (;10J2 where ~' is determined in the manner deseribed in paragraph 30, Chapter 3.
l

33. The resistanee coefficient of a flow with an abrupt change in the cross section depends

= 1_
FO FJO.375] 2(F..J..J2
+-{f 1----2. (4.17) (Figure 4.14) not only on the geometrie parameters of the section, but also on the flow re-
[ Fl ( F2 Fo
 240 Flow through Orifices with Change in Velo city and Flow Area
Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition 241

gime (a function of the Reynolds number Re = waDI/V). 20 In t h e case conSl'dere d , as m

. th e 36. For the case of an abrupt contraction of the flow area, the resistance coefficient in the
4
case of friction, three specific flow regions can be distinguished: transition region (10 < Re < 10 ) can be determined (see Reference 18) from the curves S =
flRe, FoIFt) of Diagram 4.10 and in the laminar region (Re< 6-7) from Equation (4.24).
• The laminar regime, in which Sdepends linearlyon Re (in logarithmic coordinates); 37. For the case of flow passage through openings in a wall (the general case of passage
• The transition reaime, in which the linear dependence S= flRe) is violated; and is shown in Figure 4.13; restriction, aperture) the resistance coefficient in the transition and
• The self-similar ~rbulent regime (the region of the quadratic resistance law), in which laminar regions can be found:
an effect of the Reynolds number on the resistance coefficient is virtually absent. 4
111 within 30 < Re < 10 _10 5 * from the author's formula 16
The limiting values of Re beyond which the laminar pattern of the flow ceases, as wen as
the limiting values of Re at which the transition regime terminates, depend on the geometry
of the section.
'r'=~~(J....-IJ+
~ 2 2 0.342
2
pwo/2 <p 100 Re
34. The resistance coefficient with an abrupt change in the cross section can be expressed
in general form for all the flow regions from Equation (1.3) at k3 = 1

(4.25)
(4.23)

where <p is the velocity coefficient of discharge from the sharp-edged orifice, which depends
where A is a coefficient depending on the geometry of the section considered.
on Re and the area ratio FoIFt; EORe = Feon/Fo is the fluid jet area ratio of the sharp-edged
35. For the case of an abrupt expansion of the flow area, the resistance coefficient for the
orifice section at FoIFI = 0 (FI = 00), which depends on the Reynolds number; S<p = (l/<p2 _
transition region (10 < Re < 104) can be determined from the experimental curves S = flRe,
6 1) is determined from the curves S<p = fl(Re, FoIFI> of Diagram 4.19; EORe = 0.342/E5Re is
FoIFl) obtained by Altshul,3 Karev,17 and Veziryan (see Diagram 4.1).
determined from the curve EORe = flRe) of the same diagram; SOquad is the resistance coeffi-
For the laminar region (Re < 10) the resistance coefficient is
cient of the given type of flow restrietion for the self-similar (quadratic) region, which is de-
termined as S from Equations (4.7)-(4.22), where So = ~p/pw5;
(4.24) • Within 10 < Re < 30 from the approximation suggested by the author

_ 8p A-
S= pWÖ/2 ~ Re + 100 Re~uad , (4.26)

~ while at Re < 10
"-'\.
, '\ ~ '\ -.... -1--
~..i
f
__
1-
(4.27)
" ,l~
...
" br,.
~~ J_
2
.... where A = 33. 3
i'I..'\.
38. If the resistance coefficient is expressed in terms of the velocity Wl in section F up-
'\~~ I
stream of thc orifice (and not Wo in the orifice itself) , then Equations (4.25)-(4.27) are re-
(I)
~
IT~, ~ ~
... ~-.,...,

J
.... placed by

f ~ "'" c.Jb. l.._~ 1_ ....

I """"tI. 1..
~~r~
,,I .1 <I
f

Figure 4.14. Dependence of the resistance coefficient of orifices on the Reynolds number for different *For sharp-edged orifices the upper limit of Re is taken as 105, while for other shapes it is of the
values of Fo/F 1.20 1) 0.05; 2) 0.16; 3) 0.43; 4) 0.64. order of 104 .

242 Handbook oj Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition
39. At low values of the area coefficients FoIFI of the restriction, the flow through the
orifice attains high velocities (high Mach numbers), even at relatively low velocity in the
pipeline upstream of the restriction. Here, the eompressibility effeet, which sharply increases
the resistanee coeffieient of the restriction, becomes noticeable:
where ~M is the resistance coefficient of the restrietion at small Mach numbers determined as
given under 25-31; kM is the coefficient which considers the effeet of compressibility in the
contraeted seetion of the jet during its passage through the orifice (see Diagram 4.20); and
Mal = w1/al is the Mach number upstream of the restrietion.
40. A significant decrease in the resistanee of the orifiee can be attained by installing an
annuIar rib at the inIet into the straight channel or a ledge at the inlet into the orifice (Figure
4.15). Thus, for example, according to Khanzhonkov' s27 expenments, . th · all·
eInst atlOn 0 f an
annuIar rib with DIlDo 1.22 and liDo 0.25 reduees the resistance coefficient of the orifice
:0= :0=
in the wall of an infinite upstream area from ~ 2.7-2.8 (obtained without a rib) to ~ = 1.15.
:0=
41. When the flow enters through a smooth inlet nozzIe (collector) installed in the wall of
an infinite surface area (see Diagram 4.21), the flow resistance is made up of the resistance
of entrance into the nozzle, the frictional resistance over the straight seetion, and the exit re-
sistance. The· resistance eoefficient of such a seetion is determineu· from
Figure 4.15. Entrance into the orifice: a) through an annular rib; b) through a ledge.
Flow through Orifices with Change in Velo city and Flow Area 243
r=
- - -I1p
':>
r' r
2 - = ':> + ':>fr ,
pwo/2
where ~' is the coefficient representing the inlet and outlet losses, which is determined from
the curves ~ = f(l/Dh, rlDh) of Diagram 4.21, and ~fr = AI/Dh is the friction coefficient over
the straight seetion of the nozzle.
42. When the flow discharges through an orifice in the wall in the presence of the passing
stream * (see Diagram 4.22), the resistance coefficient in the case of both entry from the
stream (suction, aspiration) and dis charge into the stream (influx) is a function of the velocity
ratio wJwo, as shown in Reference 27.
43. In the absence of the passing stream (woo = 0), the fluid approaches the orifice from
all sides, while the flow discharges symmetrically into the stream, with the smallest contrac-
tion of the jet section.
In the presence of the passing stream, the fluid approaches the orifice from one side, while
the flow discharges at an angle with a more contracted seetion of the jet downstream of the
orifice. The jet contraction causes an increase of the velocity pressure, which is lost at the
exit for the given system.
44. At small velocities of the passing stream (woo « wo), the above increase in the veloc-
ity pressure is smaller than the increase in the difference of pressures upstream and down-
stream of the orifice causing the jet discharge, which is due to the blowing effect produced
by the velocity pressure of the incoming flow. This blowing effect enhances escape through
the orifiee, which is equivalent to a deerease in the flow resistance coefficient ~.
At large velocities woo , the increase in the velocity pressure of the jet, owing to its large
contraction downstream of the orifice, becomes more appreciable than the blowing effect, and
the coefficient ~ increases as a result.
45. In the case of influx into the stream; an increase in the velocity of the passing stream
within wJwo = 1-2 also decreases the coefficient ~. This is due to the fact that the incident
flow around the jet issuing from the orifice produces a _!.~~.~.""ith elevated pressure on its
upstream side and a large recirculating zone on its downstream side in which nirefaction is
created. At small velocities Woo the dimensions of the recirculation zone are appreciable and
the actual pressure difference, whieh affects theflow discharge through the orifice, exceeds
the pressure difference obtained at woo = O.
At more substantial velocities of the passing stream the latter exerts a strong throttling ef-
feet on the jet escaping from the orifice, forcing it against the wall (see Diagram 4.22,
scheme 2 at woo > wo) and reducing the dimensions of the recirculation zone, and the coeffi-
cient ~ increases.
46. In the cases of both suction and discharge, the resistance coefficients ~ remain practi-
cally the same for square and circular apertures, as well as for orifices with rounded edges.
At the same time, their values depend substantially on the orientation of orifices of elongated
(rectangular) shape, The largest values of ~ are obtained for the orifiees with their longer
sides plaeed perpendicular to the flow.
47. In the case of suction, the larger resistance coefficients ~ for elongated orifices with
their larger side perpendicular to the flow are due to a major portion of the flow entering
*The passing stream (w=) moves independently of the flow discharging through the orifice under the
influence of its own driving force - for example, wind, opposing strearn on an airplane, etc.
 Flow through Orifices with Change in Velocity and Flow Area 245
244 Handbook 0/ Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

these apertures from the wall region. The flow entering the orifice therefore has a small
amount of kinetic energy, and the additional blowing (diffusion) effect is small.
When the elongated orifices are arranged with their larger side parallel to the flow, the
portion of the perimeter facing the flow is small and the prevailing portion of the flow enters lw.s. is the length of the open working section of the wind tunnel, m; and ao and bo are the
the orifice from its upper layers, which have a higher velocity. This increases the blowing ellipse semiaxes, m.
effect and correspondingly decreases the resistance coefficient.
48. In 1:.tl.e case of discharging flow (influx), for elongated orifices placed with their longer
side normal to the flow, an increase in ~ is explained by the fact that the throttling effect
exerted by the passing stream on the jet escaping from the orifice is more pronounced than
with the larger side placed parallel to the flow, since the front surface of the jet in the former
case is larger than in the latter.
49. Baffles installed at the edges of orifices (see schemes of Diagram 4.22) have a sub-
stantial effect on the values of ~ in the case of suction as weIl as discharge. An inc1ined
baffle increases and a straight one decreases the value of the resistance coefficient. In the first
case, the baffle compresses the flow passing through the orifice; consequently, the velocity
pressure, lost on escape from the orifice, increases. In the second case the baffle weakens the
effect of flow contraction, which correspondingly decreases the velocity pressure losses at the
exit from the orifice.
50. When the fluid passes through the apertures in a wall, fitted with various flaps (pro-
jections), the resistance is higher than in the absence of flaps, since they complicate the flow
trajectory. In this case, the resistance coefficient becomes a function of the angle of opening
of the flaps, Ci, and of the relative length of the flaps lfl/bfl.
51. The open working section of a wind tunnel (see Diagram 4.25) can also be regarded
as a section with abrupt expansion.
The main source of los ses in this section is ejection dissipation of energy. The second
source of los ses is cutting off of the "added masses" from the surrounding mediumby the
wind tunnel diffuser.
The kinetic energy of the portion of the jet that was cut off turns to be lost for the wind
tunnel and, therefore, constitutes apart of the resistance of the open working section.
The coefficient of total resistance of the open working section (w.s.) is calculated from
Abramovich' s I formula.
For a circular (or rectangular) cross section:

S=~=0.1~-0.008 ~J2
5/
pw 2
lDh (IDh ,

where Dh = 4Fo/TIo is the hydraulic diameter of the exit section of the tunnel nozzle, m.
For an elliptical cross section:

~=~=0.145lw.s·-0.0017b ,
pW5/2 Dh aobo

where
 r

Flow through Orifices with Change in Velocity and Flow Area 247
246 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

Sudden expansion of a flow having a uniform

4.2 DIAGRAlVIS OF RESISTANCE COEFFICIENTS velocity distribution 13,15,17 Diagram4.1

Sudden expansion of a flow having a uniform

Diagram4.l r
.12 ~l
velocity distribution 13 ,15,17
(b)
WoDh 3 ~~~ I
1. At Re=--~3.3x 10:
v ~,,~ I
~,,~
Fojl;.= P.1 ! -I
:~~~i ·1 I -H' i ~ J
; ~~. I 0.21
H"'w..."-----....... t'.
~
I ~~ ~ I .~~ ~' ,I
where Sloc = f(FrJF2), see graph a; Sfr = A(l21D2h); for A, see Chapter 2. 118 I , "
I 1 ~ ;-1 I '+J--'::::-- ~
,vF,.-tU I j'
b) With baffles /) ! r ii IIII ~
f/J JI) f{}II f{)!.1 2
S=~=O.6[1-!:!2J2
pW6/2 F
+ S~r .
n 2 ar
3. At 10 < Re < 500, Sloc is determined from graph b or from the formula:
Relative losses with a sudden expansion at supersonic velocities are con- Sloc = 3.62536+ 1O.744(1-Fr/F2)2 -4A1041(1-Fo/F2 )4
sidered in paragraphs 20 and 21 of Seetion 4.1
+ !Og1 [-18.13 - 56.77855(1 -Fo/F2)2 + 33.40344(1-Fr/Fz)4]
F, Re
nar = Fa' n is the perimeter
+ __ 1 _ [30.8558 + 99.9542(1 - F o/F2)2 - 62.78(1 - Fr/F2)4]
(log Re) 2

+ __ 1 _ [-13.217 - 53.9555(1 - Fo/F2)2 + 33.8053(1 - Fo/F2)4] .

c Values of S' (log Re) 3
(a)
1\ FoIF2=~ 4. At Re < 10
(/8
\ nar
30
\ , 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
Without baffles (curve 1)
0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 1.0 Sloc "" Re .

"" f'-
\
2r\
f

l'\
j f-
1.00

0.60
0.81

0.49
0.64

0.39
0.50

0.30
0.36
With baffles (curve 2)
0.21
0.25

0.15
0.16

0.10
0.09

0.05
0.04

0.02
Sudden expansion of a long straight section, diffusers, and so on,
with exponential velocity distribution; circular orreC1'a,11gular
cross section; Re =woDh/v > 3.5 x 10313 ,15
Diagramd..2

I' l\

I
'1'-.1'-.
f""-.. ~ 3 _ ~ 1 2M Sfr Sfr
2. When 500 S; Re < 3.3 x 10 , for Sloc, see graph b Of Sloc is deter- S=-2-=-:;-+N--+ 2 =Sloc+:r '
()
rnined from the formula pwo/2 n~ nar llar nar

I;;loc = -8A4556 - 26.163(1 - FrJF2 i - 5.38086(1 - FrJF2)4 W (2m+ 1)2(m+ 1)

1 4l1'?(m+2)'
+ log Re [6.007 + 18.5372(1 - FrJF2 + 3.9978(1 - FrJF2)4] i where see graph b ,
+ (log Re)2[-1.02318 - 3.091691 - FrJF2 )2 - 0.680943(1 - FrJF2)~ (2m + 1)3(m + 1)3
N
4m4(2m + 3)(m + 3)
Values of ~
Sloc =f(m, FrJF2), see graph a, I;;fr = "Al z/D2h; for A, see Chapter 2.
Fo
"F2=n;;
1
10 15 20 30 40 50 102
Re
2X102 5 X 103 103 2Xl03 3 X 103 :2:3 X 103
Dh =
4Fo
Da; D2h = rr; ,
4Fo
TI is the perimeter;
0.1 3.10 3.20 3.00 2.40 2.15 1.95 1.70 1.65 1.70 2.00 1.60 1.00 0.81
0.2 3.l0 3.20 2.80 2.20 1.85 1.65 1.40 1.30 1.30 1.60 1.25 0.70 0.64 II
ar-
-!i.
F 'o
~=(l_..l..)l/m,
W R
rnax o
m;::: 1
0.3 3.10 3.10 2.60 2.00 1.60 1.40 1.20 1.10 1.10 1.30 0.95 0.60 0.50
0.4 3.10 3.00 2.40 1.80 1.50 1.30 1.10 1.00 0.85 1.05 0.80 0.40 0.36
0.5 3.10 2.80 2.30 1.65 1.35 1.15 0.90 0.75 0.65 0.90 0.65 0.30 0.25
0.6 3.10 2.70 2.15 1.55 1.25 1.05 0.80 0.60 0.40 0.60 0.50 0.20 0.l6
 Flow through Orifices with Change in Velo city and Flow Area 249
248 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

Sudden expansion of a long straight section, diffusers, and so on,

Sudden expansion of a long straight section, diffusers, and so on, with exponential velocity distribution; circular or rectangular Diagram4.3
with exponential velocity distribution; circular or rectangular Diagram4.2 cross seetion; Re =WODh/V > 3.5 x 10313 ,15
cross section; Re - WODh/V > 3.5 x 103 13,15

tlf =~ + N _ ~M + S;r = Sloc + S~ ,

s== pWii/2 n~ n ar n~ ar
~~ p.,.,.+-+_+-+-+-_+-+-+-~+--~-l---l--+-+-+-+-. f- {a)
U~~~~~~-~~~~f.~p~+-+--~~-+-r-r~i-t-t-rI
where
M=~) m(m+2) ,
see graph b;
..... 1'-..
N= (m+l)3
m 2(m+3)

!P:::--.:t:--.. ""~O r---.~ Dlz

4F
=ilo;o D2h
4F
=rr;-;2
"" ~~l:::--kJO'r--... ........ ~ "'lvmoW (al

rr is the perimeter; "-

r--.
-
=
nar = _pF02 ; ~
wrnax
= (1 - ~bVJlIm
0
1.2 f'.
~
bit--...
R
1--..12.,
~~ ;:::"1-0..1-....
'1-0..
~ ....... r-.....

...... r-.....
I
...... ,
m~l -..::~ ~
p.J tU 0.7 118 ..... "I"--. ~ i

--
IJ.f I1t 0.5 ...........
~" ....~'- 'i-I"-
10- I- -4
.,
1»-«1'
.. /
.
i
,0::::: i::;::G;;::: ~ t-
! ~ !
...... 1=;"" -
Values of S o G1 02 aa D.4 as f.1fj U7 Qß Q!) Fs/~

~= l/nar Values of ~loc

F2
0.7 0.8 1.0
m 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 !.2.=
F2
l/nar
1.0 2.70 2.42 2.14 1.90 1.66 1.45 1.26 1.09 0.94 0.70
1.35 2,00 1.74 1.51 1.29 1.00 0.93 0.77 Q,65._ 0.53 0.36 m o 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4. 0.5 p.7. 0.8 1.0

2.0 1.50 1.28 1.08 0.89 0.72 0.59 0.46 0.35 0.27 0.16 1.0 2.00 1.74 1.51 1.28 1.19 0.92 0.77 0.64 0.51 0.34
3.0 1.25 1.04 0.84 0.68 0.53 0.41 0.30 0.20 0.14 0.07 1.35 1.65 1.40 1.20 1.00 0.83 0.67 0.53 0.41 0.32 0.20
4.0 1.15 0.95 0.77 0.62 0.47 0.35 0.25 0.17 0.11 0.05 2.0 1.35 l.l4 0.94 0.77 0.62 0.48 0.36 0.26 0.19 0.10
7.0 1.06 0.86 0.69 0.53 0.41 0.29 0.19 0.12 0.06 0.02 3.0 1.19 0.98 0.80 0.64 0.49 0.37 0.24 0.18 0.12 0.05
1.00 0.82 0.64 0.48 0.36 0.25 0.16 0.09 0.04 0 4.0 1.12 0.92 0.74 0.60 0.46 0.33 0.23 0.14 0.09 0.04
7.0 1.04 0.85 0.64 0.54 0.41 0.28 0.18 0.08 0.05 0.02
1.00 0.81 0.64 0.49 0.36 0.25 0.15 0.08 0.04 o

~IIIII lltiiA HiBiJ

tJ 0.1 tU
j
aJ 0.4 a! tU 0.7 (18 a9 f/m

m 1.0 1.35 2.0 3.0 4.0 7.0 m 1.0 1.35 2.0 3.0 4.0 7.0
N 2.70 2.00 1.50 1.25 l.l5 1.06 1.0 N 2.00 1.64 1.35 1.18 1.12 1.04 1.0
M 1.50 1.32 1.17 1.09 1.05 1.02 1.0 M 1.33 1.22 1.13 1.07 1.04 1.02 1.0
 Flow through Orifices with Change in Velo city and Flow Area 251
250 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

Sudden expansion downstream of a plane diffuser with CJ. > 100,

Sudden expansion of aplane channel downstream of perforated elbows, and so on, with asymmetrical velocity distribution; Diagram4.5
plates, guide vanes in elbows, and so on, with sinusoidal velo city Diagram 4.4 Re =WODhlv > 3.5 x 103 13,15 .
distribution; Re = woDI/v > 3.5 x 103 13,15
4Fo D _ 4F2 .
D" = Da ; 2h - TI2 ' nar = Fa;
F)
TI is the perimeter

k is an integer; TI is the perimeter

r. =~ -.l + N _ 2M + Sfr - r. . ). Sfr

J:!:.. = 0.585 + 1.64 sin (0.2+ 1.95 qb
% l 0
J,
• - Pw5/ 2 - n~ nar n~ - .10c . n~ ,

r - L1p 1 37 3.74 Sfr r Sfr

1(Wo 2 ; N= 1 +2"3(L1WJ2 see graph b;
where M= 1 +"2 L1wJ % ' "=-2-=2+ . --+2="10c+2'
pwo/2 n ar nar n ar n ar

Al2
see graph a; Sfr = D ; for A, see Chapter 2.
Zh !\ where Sloc =f(FofF2 ), see graph; Sfr = Al21D2,I' for A, see Chapter 2.

r.::../·.......J-..J....,..L.h-i-+++HH+++-H--t-{a)
\
-+ 2.11 \ !i=
F2
l/nar o 0.1 0.2 0.3 0,4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 1.0

2.0 !\. 3.70 3.34 2.99 2.66 2.36 2.09 1.82 1.58 1.35 0.96
\
1.5 i\.

a1
1.2
0.0
(J 0.2
""
M- 0,& 0.8 r,/fz

tI 121

Values of S\oc
Sudden expansion downstream of sections with parabolic
Diagram4.6
L1W fQ= l/nar velo city distribution; Re = woDhiv > 3.5 x 103 13,15
F2
11'0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 1.0 4Fo 4F? F2 • .
0.1 1.01 0.83 0.66 0.50 0.38 0.26 0.17 0.10 0.06 0.01
D,,- TI '' D2h = TI -; nar = -F ; TI 18 the penmeter.
- -
o 2 o
0.2 1.06 0.88 0.70 0.54 0.40 0.29 0.20 0.13 0.07 0.02
0,4 1.24 1.04 0.84 0.68 0.54 0,41 0.30 0.22 0.16 0.08 1. Circular tube:
0.6 1.54 1.31 1.18 0.92 0.75 0.61 0,48 0.39 0.29 0.18
0.8 1.96 1.70 1.47 1.27 1.07 0.89 0.75 0.60 0,49 0.32
1.0 2.50 2.21 1.95 1.70 1.46 1.25 1.05 0.88 0.74 0.50

-Tr-~ Z
1 1 11 1 1 1 -I 1 1
Z
T -f f 11 ! I I ..vI..... w:ax = 1- (FaJ 2. Plane channel:

--HJ--t~ -i-- V
, 1 I V
!1! I ,
-
• i i I ·T /.......V
-r ; ;,TH::'r ~"y
I
~
-,
L--t.-=.j::;::;P' ~
; I , I 11
I I
~I .:..-;- ~ -, I

10 (J ilf 112 113 IN Cl5 115 a7 tU ag,jwjwa where Sloc =j{FofF2), see graph; Sfr = AI2/D2'" for A, see Chapter 2.

Mv
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
wo
N 1.0 1.06 1.13 1.24 1.37 1.54 1.73 1.96 2.22 2.50
M 1.00 1.02 1.04 1.08 1.12 1.18 1.24 1.32 1,40 1.50
 Flow through Orifices with Change in Velo city and Flow Area 253
252 Handbook 01 Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

Flow deformation in a straight tube (channel);

Diagram4.7
Sudden expansion downstream of sections with parabolic Diagram4.6 nar = 1; Re =WoDh/V > 3.5 x 10313 ,15
3
velocity distribution; Re - woD1JV > 3.5 x 10 13,15

1\ IN I
!:!.= l/nar 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 1.0
1 F2
1.6 I
I\. ./ 1. Circular tube
'\ Ij
2 .... ~loc 2.00 1.75 1.51 1.30 1.10 0.92 0.78 0.63 0.51 0.34
2. Plane channel I
aB "'- ......... Pi',.'
~ 1.55 1.32 1.11 0.92 0.75 0.60 0.47 0.36 0.27 0.15 IJ.J
.........
SIoc I
~ V
tU OP I
t'- '/ ~
;-
01 V/
(J 1'/
... ~~
tJ IJ.t 09 tU aSl/m
Flow deformation in a straight tube (channel); Diagram4.7
nar - 1; Re - woDhiv > 3.5 x 103 13,15
m 1.0 1.35 2.0 4.0 7.0
1. Circular tube
Exponential law of velocity distribution:
~loc 0.7 0.36 0.16 0.05 0.02 0

~=
w
(l_..LJlIm
R
m? 1 , 2. Plane channel
rnax o
~loc 0.31 0.19 0.10 0.04 0.02 0
_ IIp
~ =-2-= 1 +N-2M+~fr= ~loc+ ~fr '
pwol2
~loc =.t(1/m); for M and N, see graph b of Diagrarns 4.2 and 4.3;
~fr = Alr/Do, for A, see Chapter 2.
Flow deformation in a straight tube with a free jet entering
Diagram4.8
4Fo it (ejector); nar = 1; Re = woDhiv > 3.5 x 10 313 ,15
D"=rr; Parabolic velocity distribution:

n is the perimeter ~=1--l(~J2

w Ro
rnax

1. Circular tube

~loc == pwQl2
~ = 0.34 . 2

M=~(~J;
q N=~(~J
q e. 0 0
2. Plane channel

_ IIp
~lOC=-2-=0.15 .
pwo/2 The values of ~loc' M, and N are detennined from the graph as a function of the free jet length SID h ; F = F2/Fo =
e
Fj/Fo, q and are determined as functions of the free length SID" from Diagrams 11.28 and 11.29; ~fr = AI2/D 2I,; for
-y A, see Chapter 2.
 Flow through Orifices with Change in Velocity and Flow Area 255
254 Handbook oj Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

Sudden contraction at b/Dh - 0;

Flow deformation in a straight tube witb a free jet entering Diagram4.9
Diagram4.8 Re = woDwv > 3.5 X 10412,13
it (ejector); nar = 1; Re =woDIJv > 3.5 x 10313 ,15

I Fo

V
.....
11
1. Sharp --_._-
W"F; Wo,
-- Fa
--t::j ~t - Ft
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 0.9 1.0

81.2
l ,... edges a 1.0 0.850 0.680 0.503 0.300 0.178 0
t"
111 " a
/11 4Fo ............. I--..
DIz=n;;- 0.8
I Jioc -...........
, l "-
208
Iv 1 If "" ""
r/1 ., "'""-
"
IJ IJ 2 i 8 S/.Ph
11 0.2 Q.tl 0.5 0.8 rojt;
F J3/4
S
Diz
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 ~ =~' ( 1-J; + ~fr == fa + ~fr' where for ~',
2. Rounded ~-_. see curve ~ = f(bIDIz) of Diagram 3.4 (curve c);
~loc 0.16 0.46 0.84 1.43 2.02 2.54
edges for a, see curve a == f(Fo/F j ) (para. 1); ~fr == Alo/D/z;
N 1.65 2.89 3.90 4.85 5.65 6.35 for A, see Chapter 2.
M 1.25 1.71 2.00 2.20 2.30 2.40
S
Diz
4.0 5.0 6.0 8.0 10
~ =~" ( 1-J;F J3/4 + ~fr= s"a+ ~ff' where for ~",
~Ioc 3.26 3.65 3.80 3.81 3.81 see curve ~ == f(a, IIDh ) of Diagram 3.7;
3. Beve1ed
N 7.20 7.55 7.68 7.70 7.70 edges for a, see curve a == f(F ofF1) (para. 1); ~fr = Alo/D,,;
M 2.45 2.45 2.45 2.45 2.45 for A, see Chapter 2.

Sudden contraction in transition and laminar regions'

Re =woD/Jv < 1043 ,18 ' Diagram 4.10

Sudden contraction at b/Dh =0;

Diagram4.9
Re = woDwv > 3.5 X 10412,13
~Ioe
4
1. At 10 :s; Re < 10 Sloe is detennined from curves =f(Re, Fo/F j ) or from
Resistance coefficient the formula
N Kind of inlet edge Configuration
~=~ ~loe=A-B(l-Fo/Fl) ,
pwÖl2 7
where A == I. a;(log Rd ;
~ =0.5 (1 - J;F J3/4 + Sfr =0.5a + ~fr ' ao
i=ü
=-25.12458; al = 118.5076; a2 == -170.4147; a3 = 118.1949;
lo a4 = --44.42141; a5 = 9.09524; a6 == ---0.9244027; G7 = 0.03408265
where for a, see curve a = ftFo/F 1); Srr = AD ; for A,
Iz
see Chapter 2.
Boi (~aifFoIF,)jl(10gR'i);
the values of aij are given below.

• "" 1Q.
2. Re < 10, (Ioe Re
256 Handbook 01 Hydrmtlic Resistance, 4th Edition Flow through Orifices with Change in Velocity and Flow Area 257

Sharp-edged orifiee (l/Dh - 0-0.015) instalied

Sudden eontraetion in transition and laminar regions;
Re = WODh/V < 1043 ,18 Diagram 4.10 in a transition section; Re = woDwv > 10413 ,14 Diagram 4.11

Values of 1;
Values of aii

i/j o 2 o 2
o 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
o 1.07 1.22 2.9333 0.5443 -17.298 -40.715 o 2.91 2.82 2.72 2.61 2.51 2.39 2.25 2.10 1.92 1.68 1.00
0.05 -0.51668 0.8333 -0.06518 8.7616 0.2 2.27 2.19 2.10 2.01 1.91 1.81
22.782 1.69 1.56 1.41 1.20 0.64
2 o o 0 0.05239 -1.1093 -3.1509 0.4 1.71 1.64 1.56 1.48 1.40 1.31 1.21 1.10 0.97 0.80 0.36
0.6 1.23 1.17 1.10 1.03 0.97 0.89 0.81 0.72 0.62 0.48 0.16
Values of ~Ioc 0.8 0.82 0.77 0.72 0.67 0.61 0.56 0.49 0.42 0.34 0.25 0.04
1.0 0.50 0.46 0.42 0.38 0.34 0.30
Fa Re
0.25 0.20 0.15 0.09 o
F; 10 20 30 40
0.1 5.00 3.20 2.40 2.00 1.80 1.30 1.04 0.82 0.64 0.50 0.80 0.75 0.50 0.45
0.2 5.00 3.10 2.30 1.84 1.62 1.20 0.95 0.70 0.50 0.40 0.60 0.60 0.40 0.40
0.3 5.00 2.95 2.15 1.70 1.50 1.10 0.85 0.60 0.44 0.30 0.55 0.55 0.35 0.35
0.4 5.00 2.80 2.00 1.60 1.40 1.00 0.78 0.50 0.35 0.25 0.45 0.50 0.30 0.30
0.5 5.00 2.70 1.80 1.46 1.30 0.90 0.65 0.42 0.30 0.20 0.40 0.42 0.25 0.25
0.6 5.00 2.60 1.70 1.35 1.20 0.80 0.56 0.35 0.24 0.15 0.35 0.35 0.20 0.20

7.2
r 0.8
M
1\
\ I I
~\-Folff-tU
.12 .:. I ()j 0.6 0.7 o.t! Fg/f.;
r-~
~
fJ.t
0.3
~-
N a~ Thick-edged orifiee (l/Dh > 0.015) installed in a transition
~~ I t25 section; Re = woDrJv > 10513 ,14 Diagram 4.12
/Fo/Ft=D.O
~ .~

~
I I 11I . / ...-bbJ:

o 111 I
'/0,..
~ == !1f "" 0.5 (1 -_
10 2 fO 2 2 ! fO';fe
FFoJO.75 + (1 _!9.J2 + 't (1 _!:2.JO.375
pwo/2 ] F2 F]

Sharp-edged orifiee (lIDh

in a transition seetion; Re
=0-0.015) instalied
=woDhJV 210413 ,14 Diagram 4.11 x (l-~]+ A~h' where 't = j(l/D,,); for A, see Chapter 2;
't = (2.4 - !) x 10--<P(l) ,

qJ(l) = 0.25 + 0.535[8/(0.05 + 71) .

t"
o 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 :t2
t'-.
""r-..
1.35 1.22 1.10 0.84 0.42

1.0 1.2 1.6 2.0 2.4

IJ.?
\,
i'
0.24 0.16 0.07 0.02 0 ~r-
-
 Flow through Orifices wirh Change in Velo city and Flow Area 259
258 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

Sharp-edged orifice (l/Dh = 0-0.015) in a straight tube;

Orifice with beveled and rounded (in flow direction) edges instalied Re =woDIJV;::: 105 13,14 Diagram 4.14
413 Diagram 4.13
in a transition section; Re =WoDhlv 2:: 10 ,14

Orifice Configuration Resistance coefficient

"',," ""12
.-..
~= PW[12
Ö = [( 1-~
F ] +0.707 (1-~
F r ri J
375
(F

o
With beveled edges F; ]
see curve ~1 = f-(F

F J2 + 2
+ 1- ~ ~ ~'1( - ~
F J0.375 + (1 -~
F , J
(

4Fo
where ~' at a. = 40-60°, see graph a, or ~' = 0.13 + 0.34 Dh=rr;;-
x 10-(34/+88.41'\ At other values of a., S' is determined as
~ from Diagram 3.7 Fa
0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14
Fl
~ {al ;1 7000 3100 1670 1050 730 400 245 165 117

(1J ......... '" ;--.....,... I Fo

Fl 0.16 0.18 0.20 0.22 0.24 0.26 0.28 0.30 0.32

Df
() at» aOB
r'.
~
11.12 l/)}h
I
1:1
Fo
86.0

0.34
65.6

0.36
51.5

0.38
40.6

0.40
32.0

0.43
26.8

0.47
22.3

0.50
18.2

0.52
15.6

0.55
Fl
IIDh 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.12 2':0.16 ;1 13.1 11.6 9.55 8.25 6.62 4.95 4.00 3.48 2.85
Fo
0.60 0.65 0.70 0.75 0.80 0.85 0.90 0.95 1.00
~' 0.46 0.42 0.38 0.35 0.29 0.23 0.16 0.13 Fl
SI 2.00 1.41 0.97 0.65 0.42 0.25 0.13 0.05 0

,,
I
4
t \ -
fpJ
8

With rounded edges w"Fj ..

.,
6

where ~' = f(;h} see graph (b) or

t
1\
~' = 0.03 + 0.47 x 10-7.71'
~ö 'loL ..
4 .....
2
!"\:
(0 ~
8
6
9
2 I'-..
~
t.O ~
111
0.6
9.4 I'
rlDh 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.08 0.12 0.16 2':0.2 112 '\
af~1-
~' 0.50 0.44 0.37 0.31 0.26 0.22 0.19 0.15 0.09 0.06 0.03 Q ill fit ().J tU fl5 tU (J,7 a8 f6/fi
 Flow through Orifices with Change in Velo city and Flow Area 261
260 Handbook oj Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

Orifice with beveled edges facing the flow «x =40-60°)

Diagram 4.16
Thick-edged orifice (l/Dh > 0.015) in a straight tube (charmei); Diagram 4.15 in a straight tube; Re =woDhiv > 10413 ,14
Re - woD/iv > 10313 ,14

1;;1=~= 0.5 I-i

P JO.75
+'t
(
I-iF: J1.375 SI =-+=[I_.f+~(1 FFoJ°.375]2 (_
pWI/2
p
1 I
__
F1 2, see the graph;
l 0J
p i/ 2 [W ( I I

2 2
s' =f(I/D,,), see the table below or graph a of Diagram 4.13,
+(l-~J +A ~J(~J or
where for 'C, see the table below or graph a of Diagram 4.12 or

1: = (2.4 -l) x lO--<l'(li ;

4Fo l=l/D h ·
7
D"=rr;;- qJ(l) = 0.25 + 0.5357 8/(0.05 + 7 ), see Chapter 2;

l=l/D" Values of 1;1

At A = 0.02 for the values of SI =f(l/D", FofF1) see the graph.
I=VDh __________________________________F~oI_F~I_________________________________
~' 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.90 1.0
V alues of SI at i\. =0.02 0.01 0.46 6840 1656 708 388 271 98.2 50.7 29.5 18.5 8.39 4.18 2.13 1.08 0.51 0.18
FoIFl 0.02 0.42 6592 1698 682 374 232 94.5 48.7 28.4 17.8 8.05 4.00 2.03 1.02 0.48 0.17 o
I=VDh ------o.-o2---o-.o-4--o-.o-6--o-.o-8--o-.1-0--o-.1-5--0-.2-0~0~.2~5~-0.-30---0.-40---0-.50---0-.6-0--0-.7-0--0~.8-0--0-.9~0--~1.0~0~ 0.03 0.38 6335 1535 655 360 223 90.6 46.7 27.2 17.0 7.69 3.80 1.93 0.97 0.45 0.16 o
1.35 6915 1676 716 394 244 99.5 51.4 30.0 18.8 8.56 4.27 2.19 1.11 0.53 0.19 0 0.04 0.35 6140 1488 635 348 216 87.7 45.2 26.2 16.4 7.40 3.66 1.84 0.92 0.43 0.15
0.2 1.22 6613 1602 684 376 233 95.0 49.0 28.6 18.0 8.17 4.08 2.09 1.07 0.51 0.19 0.06 0.29 5737 1387 592 325 201 81.5 41.9 24.4 15.2 6.83 3.35 1.68 0.83 0.38 0.13
0.4 1.10 6227 1533 655 360 223 91.0 47.0 27.4 17.2 7.83 3.92 2.01 1.03 0.50 0.19 0.01 0.08 0.23 5297 1281 546 300 185 75.0 38.5 22.3 13.9 6.20 3.02 1.51 0.74 0.33 0.11
0.6 0.84 5708 1382 591 324 201 81.9 42.3 24.6 15.5 7.04 3.53 1.82 0.94 0.46 0.18 0.01 0.12 0.16 4748 1147 488 267 165 66.7 34.1 19.7 12.2 5.40 2.61 1.29 0.62 0.27 0.09
0.8 0.42 4695 1137 485 266 165 67.2 34.6 20.2 12.7 5.77 2.90 1.50 0.78 0.39 0.16 0.02 0.16 0.13 4477 1.81 460 251 155 62.7 32.0 18.4 11.4 5.02 2.42 1.18 0.56 0.24 0.08
1.0 0.24 4268 1033 441 242 150 61.0 31.4 18.3 11.5 5.24 2.64 1.37 0.72 0.37 0.16 0.02
1.4 0.10 3948 956 408 224 139 56.4 29.1 17.0 10.7 4.86 2.45 1.29 0.68 0.36 0.16 0.03
0.02 3783 916 391 215 133 54.1 27.9 16.3 10.2 4.68 2.38 1.26 0.68 0.36 0.17 0.04 }f
r,
2.0
3.0 o 3783 916 391 215 133 54.3 28.0 16.4 10.3 4.75 2.43 1.30 0.71 0.39 0.20 0.06 I
3833 929 397 218 135 55.2 28.6 16.7 10.6 4.82 2.51 1.35 0.75 0.42 0.22 0.08 <#
4.0
5.0 o 3883 941 402 221 137 56.0 29.0 17.0 10.8 5.00 2.59 1.41 0.79 0.45 0.24 0.10
!
6.0 o 3933 954 408. 224 13<} 56.9 29.6 17.4 1LO· 5.12 .2,67 1.46 0.83.0.48 0.27 0.12 .
,jiß J.
7.0 o 3983 966 413 227 141 57.8 30.0 17.7 11.2 5.25 2.75 1.52 .0.87 0.51 0.29 0.18
8

:I=N!
8.0 4033 979 419 231 143 58.7 30.6 18.0 11.4 5.38 2.83 1.57 0.91 0.54 0.32 0.16
1.63 0.95 0.58 0.34 0.18 "
9.0 o 4083 991 424 234 145 59.6 31.0 18.3 11.6 6.50 2.91
4133 1004 430 237 147 60.5 31.6 18.6 11.9 5.62 3.00 1.68 0.99 0.61 0.37 0.20
10.0 2 ~\\
.... I\~
8
I '!4i-tulf
# .~
fgJ !
~
.., ./
.~ ll.OI
:;:;"ad8
6
117
,,~ .,,/' t/. -1).16
2 I
fQl 6
6 4-
9
I
~~ ~
,~
2 ...... ~~
10
6
4
2 '#
I
a6
~~
i'.. [\.,
119 ,~
f
02 Ilf 0.8
01
/J 2 J
 Flow through Orifices with Change in Velocity and Flow Area 263
262 Handbook ofHydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

Otifice with various edges in a wall

Otifice with rounded inlet edges in a straight tube; with infinite surface area 13,14 Diagram 4.18
Diagram 4.17
Re = WoDh/V > 10413 ,14

~1 = ==[1-~+~(1-~
P:[;2 rr(~J '
75

see me graph.
Orifice edges Configuration Resistance coefficient

~'=Jl (;IzJ, see the table below, graph b of Diagram 4.13 or Sharp
=
(Z/D lz 0
~'= 0.03 + 0047 x 10-7 .71'; r== r/Dh . -70.015)
~==2.7-2.8

Re~ 10 4
~ == ~o + A.(lID,,) ,
where ~ = j{l) or _
Values of 1;1 ~= 1.5 + (2.4-0 x 10-<P(l) + A.l/D" '
8
ep(l) = 0.25 + 0.535/ /(0.05 + /7) ,
Thick-walled
for A., see Chapter 2.
(deep orifice) F2 =co
r/Dh ~. 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0040 0045 0.50 0.55 0.60 0.65 0.70 0.75 0.80 0.90 1.0
(l/Dlz > 0.015)

;~ I! Ir!
0.01 0.44 6717 1628 595 382 236 96.4 49.7 29.0 18.2 12.0 8.24 5.75 4.10 2.91 2.08 1.49 1.05 0.73 0.49 0.l8 0
0.02 0.37 6273 1520 648 356 221 89.7 46.2 26.9 16.8 11.1 7.59 5.29 3.75 2.65 1.90 1.35 0.95 0.66 0.44 0.15
0.03 0.31 5875 1421 607 332 206 83.6 43.0 25.0 15.6 10.3 7.01 4.87 3.45 2.43 1.74 1.23 0.86 0.59 0.40 0.14
0.04 0.26 5520 1336 570 312 193 78.3 40.2 23.4 14.6 9.54 6.51 4.51 3.19 2.24 1.60 1.13 0.79 0.54 0.36 0.12 0
0.06 0.19 4982 1206 513 281 174 70.3 36.0 20.8 12.9 8.46 5.76 3.97 2.79 1.96 1.38 0.97 0.67 0.46 0.30 0.10
11 0.1 fJl t2 f.i .20 2.1 2.8 1.2t/11h
0.08 0.15 4657 1125 479 262 162 65.3 33.4 19.3 120 7.80 5.29 3.63 2.55 1.78 1.25 0.88 0.60 0.41 0.26 0.08
0.12 0.09 4085 986 420 229 141 56.8 29.0 16.6 10.2 6.65 4.48 3.06 2.14 1.48 1.03 0.71 0.48 0.33 0.21 0.06 0
0.16 0.06 3745 902 384 210 129 51.8 26.3 15.0 9.26 5.99 4.02 2.73 1.90 1.31 0.91 0.62 0.42 0.28 0.17 0.05 0 l=Z/Dh 0 0.2 004 0.6 0.8 1.0
~o 2.85 2.72 2.60 2.34 1.95 1.76

l1 l=Z/Dh 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 4.0

"
2 \ --
~o 1.67 1.62 1.60 1.58 1.55 1.55

flJ \ -
. ..
-:-
6
f-- Re~ 104
~0-- --
,---
2f-- Beveled facing ~o == J(0, see graph b or
~ (~
flow direction
f02 ~\\\\
-..,.... i-=- ~~
~ == (1 + '>/f)2 , where

~'I./Jg
- -"3
6.Il ~'=0.13 +0.34x 1O-(3Az+88.4r· ).
.. tJ.()f

'a
#'0 ./ ß./J2
\."'~ IA Q.fJ]
Bevel angle

2zrtHJttIi rI
l.tJ a = 40-60"
f(J ~ /1 v1~!a(}11 :--:
fJ.f2
6.tJ
4./J
~ r/lJlJ ",aI6 -
. . . f:>...~~
f-- r- () 1lJl4 a()8 af2 alb tjlJh
2.0 "t'-.......~~.L
r-......~ ~
1.0
00
-"'" .. -
l=l/Dh 0

2.85
0.01

2.80
0.02

2.70
0.03

2.60
0.04

2.50
0.05

2.41
(N
- ........~'" Z=l/D" 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.16
~~ ~ 0.20
fl.Z '\. '-"-: "'-'-
2.33 2.18 2.08 1.98 1.84 1.80
121 \,,\~ ~
() tZf tJ..J .lJ.5 tU tZ7 tU
 Flow through Orifices with Change in Velo city and Flow Area 265
264 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

Orifice with any edges for different conditions of flow

Diagram 4.19
Orifice with various edges in a wall
Diagram 4.18
4 5
in the transient and laminar regions (Re woDhiv < 10 _10 )16 =
with infinite surface area 13 ,14
EORe is determined from Table 2 or from the forrnula EORe =2.: a;(log Rd, where
Orifice edges Configuration Resistance coefficient i=O

ao =0.461465; al =--D.2648592; az =0.2030479; a3 =--D.06602521;

Rounded facing Re?: 104 =
a4 0.01325519; as =--D. 00 1058041
flow direction ~O = fei'), see graph c or
Values of S<p
~ = (1 + >ff:i, where
Re
~'= 0.03 + 0.47 x 10-7.71' • Fo
Fr 30 40 60 10
2
2 X 102 4x 102 103 2x 103 4x 103 104 2x 104 105 2x 105 106

r (cI
0 1.94 1.38 1.14 0.89 0.69 0.64 0.39 0.30 0.22 0.15 0.11 0.04 0.01 0

2.6 "-
0.2 1.78 1.36 1.05 0.85 0.67 0.57 0.36 0.26 0.20 0.13 0.09 0.03 0.01 0

22 "- ................ 0.3

0.4
1.57
1.35
1.16
0.99
0.88
0.79
0.75
0.57
0.57
0.40
0.43
0.28
0.30
0.19
0.22
0.14
0.17
0.10
0.10
0.06
0.07
0.04
0.02
0.02
0.01
0.01
0
0
tß ........., 0.5 1.10 0.75 0.55 0.34 0.19 0.12 0.07 0.05 0.03 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.01 0
11- """'- 0.6 0.85 0.56 0.30 0.19 0.10 0.06 0.03 0.02 0.01 0.01 0 0 0 0
tD 0.7 0.58 0.37 0.23 0.11 0.06 0.03 0.02 0.01 0 0 0 0 0 0
D IlDI (lD8 0.8 0.40 0.24 0.13 0.06 0.03 0.02 0,01 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0.9 0.20 0.13 0.08 0.03 0.01 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
r=r/Dh 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.12 0.16 0.20 0.95 0.03 0.03 0.02 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
2.72 2.56 2.40 2.27 2.06 1.88 1.60 1.38 1.37
2. Values of EORe

Orifice with any edges for different conditions of flow

4
in the transient and laminar regions (Re =woDhiv < 10 _105)16
Diagram 4.19 . Re
e-ORe
Re
e-ORe
4 5 _ Cip -
1. At 30< Re < 10 -10 : ~ = -2-= ~<I> + EORe~Oquad , fI 2x 103
pwO/2 0.69
~/F,-fl 10 4x 103
6
1l.2 0.34 0.74
tJ.J
-- 20 6x 103
'* ~ Q.~
0.35
30
0.76

\' as 10
4
t2 0.36
IU
~ /:1.fl.8
40
0.37
0.80
2x 104

-
'()

FIJ0 2- / 0. 60 0.82
_ Cip 33 (
and ~I = -2- =
pWI/2
R
e'
~<b F + EORe~lquad '
~/ ~Nf ~ 0.40 4x 10
4

,~ '#jF,""/J.9S V 80
0.85
where for EoRe, see below.
.. 0.43

11
2
06
y 10 6x 104
3. At Re < 10 : ~ __ Cip_ __ 33
- pW 612 - Re
and r =
Cip
--
33 (
':>1 - pwil2 - Re Fo
F1J2 0.45 0.87
\ 2x 102 10
5
~ 0.52
~
0.90
4
~oquad == Cip/(p w512), ~lquad == Cip/(p W 612) are determined as ~ at Re> 10 from the corresponding Diagrams 4.11 to tl2
111'-
~ 4x 102 2x 105
)< M ['<LN '-.... ::::::,... 0.58 0.95
4.18.

~<j> is determined from Table 1 or from the forrnula

o
2 ~ I
m
.~
~

2 4 6 !Pt ; Ii f()- 2
- §!!
# 5 'P Z ~511
6 x 102
0.62
10
3
3 X 105
0.98
4x 105
0.65 1.0
 Flow through Orifices with Change in Velo city and Flow Area 267
266 Handbook oj Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

Bellmouth nozzle l~~talled in a wall of infinite surface area,

Perforated plates or orifice in tubes at large subsonic velocities Diagram 4.21
Diagram 4.20 Re =woD,Jv > 10
(high Mach numbers)34
Orifices with sharp edges: Values of ~'

r
Dh
D"
WI 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
where for S, =
see Diagrarns 4.11 and 4.12; kM fiMal) ; Mal =-;- ;
0.02 2.64 2.25 1.89 1.68 1.60 1.56 1.54 1.53 1.51 1.50 1.49 1.48
0.04 2.20 1.70 1.42 1.37 1.34 1.33 1.33 1.32 1.32 1.32 1.31 1.30
al:: ~ ~iS
-\I Kr;; the velo city of sound; for k, see Table 1.4. 0.06 1.90 1.30 1.23 1.22 1.22 1.21 1.21 1.21 1.21 1.21 1.20 1.20
0.08 1.44 1.19 1.16 1.15 1.15 1.15 1.15 1.15 1.15 1.15 1.15 1.15
For beveled or rounded edges of orifices, see Diagrarn 8.7. 0.10 1.12 1.10 1.10 1.10 1.10 1.10 1.10 1.10 1.10 1.10 1.10 1.10
0.12 1.08 1.08 1.07 1.07 1.07 1.07 1.07 1.07 1.07 1.08 1.08 1.08
Values of k lVl 0.20 1.04 1.04 1.04 1.04 1.04 1.04 1.04 1.04 1.04 1.05 1.05 1.05
0.50 1.03 1.03 1.03 1.03 1.03 1.03 1.03 1.03 1.03 1.03 1.03 1.03
Mal
f 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.50 0.55 0.60 0.65
0
f I
0.2 1.00 1.09 1.30 1\ I !
0.3 1.00 1.03 1.13 1.51 \ r/.Ph~()"2
:\ I
0.4 1.00 0.00 1.03 1.14 1.41
\ I1IH
0.5 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.03 1.10 1.27 1.85 ).,
0.6 1.00 0.00 1.00 1.00 1.12 1.30 1.77 \ V- 0.01
1.03 1.08 1.18 1.35 1.68 \ '\ ~ apo
0.7 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
L"'- tl20 r. ~=Q.5P
~"" .-"
alP af2
0.8 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.01 1.03 1.07 1.12 1.20 1.37 1.63 2.01 "- 1
0.9 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.02 1.04 1.07 1.13 1.21 1.33 1.50 1.75 v
\
\
- I I T
I

kM
t2
\
-- -~,
.......
I '
J I j
I

!.tJ
t8
Orifices in a thin wall in the presence of a passing flow
t5 428 Diagram 4.22
(w= >0); Re = 1;\loDIJV::::: 10
[4
t!
ScI1eme 1
-14'.,.. -141'00
\riT
W ' , I ,W,

r9~
Bellmouth nozzle instalied in a wall of infinite surface area, Diagram 4.21
427
Re - woDlJV > 10

Without baffles (schemes 1 and 2):

s== pwt;o/2 :: S' + Sf"
_w.
Schema 3
_ W....
r, == +'
pwo/2
see graphs a-{:. With baffles

s' ::f(~h,;" J; for A, see Chapter 2. \ $fw,

'f
at a circular orifice (scheme 3):
where Sfr:: A J...;
D" ~,
I
S==~, see graphs b and d.
pwö/ 2

A. Suction orifices (intake; wo' dashed arrows)

 T

Flow through Orifices with Change in Velocity and Flow Area 269
268 Handbook oi Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

Orifices in a thin wall in the presence of a passing flow

Diagram 4.22
Orifices in a thin wall in the presence of a passing flow
Diagram 4.22 (w= > 0); Re = woDhfv ~ 10428
(w= > 0); Re = woDhfv ~ 10428
B. Discharge orifices (exit; wo' solid arrows)
Values of ~ for scheme 1 (graph b)

l w=/wo
a 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0
0 0.5
0.17 2.70-2.80 2.75-2.85 2.95 4.00 5.20 6.65 8.05 9.50
0.5 2.70-2.80 2.65-2.75 2.85 3.35 4.15 5.00 6.00 7.00
1.0 2.70-2.80 2.65-2.75 2.85 3.35 4.15 5.00 6.00 7.00
2.0 2.70-2.80 2.65-2.75 2.85 3.20 3.80 4.50 5.20 5.95
6.0 2.70-2.80 2.55-2.65 2.65-2.75 3.15 3.55 4.l5 4.75 5.45

*~a~l Vt(
1 A t/
/M./ V Values of ~ für scheme 1 (graph c)
/ / V
/ / "1.iY V w=
l
V"1 ~
1- ,/ V
V, V V / ' .... ",
a
0 0.5 1.0 1.5
Wo

2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0

~ '/ V ~ ,./ 0.17 2.70-2.80 2.50-2.60 2.45-2.55 2.55-2.65 3.05 4.75 7.0 9.00
.h r ....-:. . . . fo""" = U - ' - t -
:,..-C,····\A 0.5 2.70-2.80 2.40-2.50 2.25-2.35 2.45-2.55 2.80-2.90 4.10 5.70 7.30 9.00

J r-- ~~ ~I"i 1.0 2.70-2.80 2.25-2.35 2.20-2.30 2.25-2.35 2.60-2.70 3.65 5.00 6.50 8.00
~ 2.0 2.70-2.80 2.25-2.35 2.05-2.15 2.05-2.10 2.40-2.50 3.35 4.50 5.80 7.25
(J 2 6.0 2.70-2.80 2.25-2.35 2.00-2.10 1.90-2.00 1.90-2110. 2.25-2.35 _.2.15"0285_ -3..~_.3..90

Values of ~ für scheme 2 (graph a)

Arrangement w=/wo VaIues of ~ für scheme 2 (graph c)

oforifices 0 0.5 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0
Arrange- w=
No. 1 2.70-2.80 2.70-2.80 2.80-2.90 3.50 4.10 4.95 5.75 6.70
ment Wo
No. 2 2.70-2.80 2.55-2.65 2.60-2.70 3.40 4.05 4.95 5.75 6.70
of orifices
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0
No. 1 2.70-2.80 2.25-2.35 2.00-2.10 2.05-2.15 2.50-2.60 3.50 4.95 6.45 7.90
VaIues üf ~ für scheme 3 (graph b) No. 2 2.70-2.80 2.40-2.50 2.10-2.20 2.05-2.15 2.10-2.20 2.50-2.60 3.00 3.60 4.20

w=
Curve wo
0 0.5 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0
4.95 5.75 6.60 8.45 10.0
b 2.73-2.85 4.00 5.00 6.50 7.80 8.95 10.0
2.16-2.20 2.60-2.70 3.20 4.20 5.20 6.20 7.20 8.20
 270 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition Flow through Orifices with Change in Velo city and Flow Area 271

Orifices in a thin wall in the presence of a passing flow Movable flaps5

Diagram 4.22 Diagram 4.23
(we<> > 0); Re =woDhiv:2: 10428
Values of Sfor scheme 3 (graph d) !
JD !.!!..:;: ... tb}

w~
26
bfl
Curve wo Values of1;; (graph b)
22
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 \
Zft IX, deg
1 4.75 4.40 4.05 3.85 3.85 4.40 5.35 6.55 7.75 18
\ /ZU bfl
2 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.15 4.00 5.65 6.45 7.40 I \fJ('
15 20 25 30 45 60 90
11
3 2.16-2.20 2.05-2.10 2.10-2.20 2.35-2.45 2.65-2.75 3.50 4.75 6.20 7.55 \ 1.0 1.0 16 11 8.0 5.7 3.7 3.1 2.6
t(} l><f'\ 2.0 21 13 9.3 6.9 4.0 3.2 2.6
i\
J (b)
f r-...
{d} r"t--.. [""-~ ,
7 ~ 2
~ 15 25 JS 4$ 5$ {,f 75 85 a "
IJlV Single center-hinged flap
'A~
~VI
5
~ f A7.
r-.... V rzV r L
r- I/V (e)
SI 'fl =oo!
J
2 VV il'bfl
V 98 1\ Values of ~ (graph c)
,... J ~V
2 #() 1\
{l 2 3 Zn IX, deg

52
! l bfl 15 20 25 30 45 60 90
Movable flaps5 Diagram 4.23
,\ 1.0 46 26 16 11 5.0 3.0 2.0
2* 1\
Exhaust, single top-hinged flap
00 59 35 21 14 5.0 3.0 2.4
16 '1\
~,

(cL __ 0 .~
8
I r"'~
IJ
f,f 25 JS 4$ 55 M 75 15rx'"
r l!!= ... (sI
26 Double, top-hinged flaps
t,-bfl
22

18 \ Values of S(graph a) r
flf Y
('I;
'2fJ
J(}
Mn =2.0 Ifl (d)

Zft IX, deg 26

f/J
'\
bfl 1
15 20 25 30 45 60 90
(sl 22 Values of 1; (graph d)
6 ~ 1.0 11 6.3 4.5 4.0 3.0 2.5 2.0
18 1\
2 2.0 17 12 8.5 6.9 4.0 3.1 2.5 \.
;,11 In IX, deg
1ft is the flap length; 15 25 J5 1f5 55' 65 " ßf (X 9 30 16 11 8.6 4.7 3.3 2.5 19 \ bft 15 20 25 30 45 60 90
wo=i;; jO !\ \ 1.0 14 9.0 6.0 4.9 3.8 3.0 2.4
Id) i'\ 2.0 31 21 14 9.8 5.2 3.5 2.4
6 ...... 1--, i'~
2 0
15 25 .J5 '15 $5 55 75 es(x/
 Flow through Orijices with Change in Velocity and Flow Area 273
272 Handbook of Hydra u lic Resistance, 4th Edition

Working section (open) of a wind tunne1 1 Diagram 4.25

Movable flaps5 Diagram 4.23

For a rectangular section

~=~F
Double flaps (one top- and the other bottom-hinged)

D = 2a abo ,
h
ao+bo
$' (sI
56 rvbfl
!!!. ="" 1__ - for an elliptical seetion
Values of ~ (graph e)
#8 1\ I ~L-""
Iw,s • ....
4aobo
> \ 1ft a, deg
41) \
bii

+
.... 15 20 25 30 45 60 90
~~ ..~ 3'2 1\rlI.\' !ZU
1.0 19 l3 8.5 6.3 3.8 3.0 2.4
where ao and bo are the sides of the rectangle or semiaxes of the ellipse.
f.!,
Circular (or rectangular) cross seetions:
24 2.0 44 24 15 11 6.0 4.0 2.8

16 \
V\ 59 36 24 17 8.6 5.7 2.8
~== pw~o/2 =0.1 1;s._0.008(ID
l 'J2, see curve ~=f(!DW'S'J'
W S
'
l
(s)
ß '\ '"
~ ""-
I"-- ..... ..... 1-,_
h lz h

D
fJ 25 J5 45 55 65 75 85 ()(,"
lw.s.
75h o 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0

o 0.04 0.08 0.12 0.15 0.18 0.21 0.23 0.25 0.27 0.29
Grating with ~djustable louvers in a wall infinite
Diagram 4.24
surface area (f '" 0.8 for cornpletely open louvers)

r
,I "
00000000000 J
00000000000
00000000000 1; == ~ "" 1.6, where Wl is the mean velocity
-- ,,+.
00000000000 p wi/2 ' ...'" ,-'.-.,-_ ..'" - Elliptica! cross section: .- .. ._. fp% :..' "

00000000000 over the total area of the grating in the walL }

00000000000
00000000000
00000000000
00000000000 tU! 17
00000000000 i
00000000000 [l
/
J
1I
I
!I
- Fo ....0
IJ
f=fi;; l' is the open flow area of the grating.
 Flow through Orifices with Change in Velo city and Flow Area 275
274 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

24. Fedotkin, I. M., Hydraulic resistance of throttling diaphragms to a two-phase flow, Izv. VUZ, En-
REFERENCES ergetika, no. 4, 37-43, 1969.
25. Frenkel, N. A., Hydraulics, Gosenergoizdat Press, Moscow, 1956,456 p.
1. Abramovich, G. N., Theory of Turbulent Jets, Fizmatgiz Press, Moscow, 1960, 715 p. 26. Khanzhonkov, V. 1., Aerodynamic characteristics of collectors, in Prom. Aerodin., no. 4, pp. 45-
2. Altshul, A. D., Arzumanov, E. S., and Veziryan, R. E., Experimental study of the dependence of 64, Oborongiz Press, Moscow, 1953.
the resistance coefficient in the course of sudden expansion of flow on the Reynolds number, Neft· 27. Khanzhonkov, V. 1., Reduction of the aerodynamic resistance of orifices by means of annular fins
Khoz., no. 4, 64-70, 1967. and recesses, in Prom. Aerodin., no. 12, pp. 181-196, Oborongiz Press, Moscow, 1959.
3. Altshul, A. D., Hydraulic Resistance, Nedra Press, Moscow, 1982, 224 p. 28. Khanzhonkov, V. 1., Resistance to discharge through an orifice in the wall in the presence of pass-
4. Balanin, V. V. and Vasilevskiy, V. P., Determination of the flow resistance coefficient by the ing stream, in Prom. Aerodin., no. 15, pp. 5-19, Oborongiz Press, Moscow, 1959.
method of the theory of turbulent jets, Tr. Leningr. Inst. Vodn. Transp., vyp. 158, pp. 10-16, 29. Chjen, P., Separation Flows, pt. 1, 300 p.; pt. 2, 280 p., Mir Press, Moscow, 1972.
1977; vyp. 162, pp. 5-10, 1978. 30. Shvets, I. T., Repukhov, V. M., and Bogachuk-Kozachuk, K. A., Full pressure losses during air
5. Bromblei, M. F., Discharge coeffieients of orifices covered by flaps, in Current Problems of Ven- injection into a stalling air flow through orifices in the wall, Teploenergetika, 1976.
tilation, pp. 40-65, Stroiizdat Press, Moscow, 1941. 31. Alvi, Sh. H., Contraction coefficient of pipe orifices, Flow Meas., Proc. FLUMEX 83 I MeCO
6. Veziryan, R. E., Investigation of the mutual effect of locking and regulating devices on the hy- Conf, Budapest, nos. 20-22, pp. 213-218, 1983.
draulic resistance, Tr. NIIAvtomat., vyp. 2, pp. 25-29, 1974. 32. Astarita, G. and Greco, G., Excess pressure drop in laminar flow through sudden contraction, Ind.
7. Volkova, L. P. and Yudelovich, M. Ya., Shock losses in stepwise tubes at supersonic pressure Eng. Chem. Fundam., vol. 7, no. 1, 27-31, 1968.
ratios, Izv. Akad. Nauk SSSR, Otd. Tekh. Nauk, no. 4, 68-72, 1958. 33. Ball, 1. W., Sudden enlargements in pipelines, J. Power Div., Proc. Am. Soc. Civil Eng., vol. 88,
8. Garkusha, A. V. and Kucherenko, S. 1., Specific features of flow through an annular channel with no. 4, 15-27, 1962.
a step at n = 1.7, Energ. Mashinostr., vyp. 31, 13-18, 1981. 34. Comell, W. G., Losses in flow normal to plane screens, Trans. ASME, no. 4, 145-153, 1958.
9. Glotov, G. F. and Moroz, E. K., Investigation of the flow of gas in a cylindrical channel with an 35. Dewey, P. E. and Vick, A. R., An Investigation of the Discharge and Drag Characteristics of Aux-
abrupt expansion of the sonic flow, Uch. Zap. TsAGI, vol. 1, no. 2, 53-59, 1970. iliary Air Outlets Discharging into a Transonic Stream, NACA Tech. Note, no. 3466, 1955, 38 p.
10. Dudintsev, L. M., Discharge coefficient of an orifice in the wall with a parallel ditected flow, Izv. 36. Dickerson, P. and Rice, W., An investigation of very small diameter laminar flow orifices, Trans.
VUZ, Stroh. Arkhit., no. 5, 97-103, 1969. ASME, voL D91, no. 3, 546-548, 1969.
11. Zhukovsky, 1. E., Variation of the Kirchhoff method to determine liquid flow in two dimensions 37. Forst, T. Ho, The compressible discharge coefficient of a Borda pipe and other nozzles, 1 R. Aero-
at constant veloeity prescribed at the unknown strearnline, in Collected Works, vol. 2, pp. 130- naut. Soc., no. 641, 346-349, 1964.
240, Gosizdat Press, Moscow, 1949. 38. Geiger, G. E. and Rohrer, W. M., Sudden contraction losses in two-phase flow, Trans. ASME, Sero
12. Idelchik, 1. E., Hydraulic resistances during entry of flow into channels and in passage through C, vol. 88, no. 1, 1-9, 1966.
orifices, in Prom. Aerodin., no. 2, pp. 27-57, Oborongiz Press, Moscow, 1944; 39. Hebrard, P. and Sananes, F., Calcul de l'ecoulement turbulent decolle en aval de l'elargissement
13. Idelchik, I. E., Hydraulic Resistances (Physical and Mechanical Fundamentals), Gosenergoizdat brusque dans une veine de section eirculaire, C.R. Acad.. Sei., vol. 268, no. 26, A1638-Al641,
Press, Moscow, 1954,316 p. 1969.
14. Ide1chik, 1. E., Determination of the resistance coeffieients during discharge through orifices, 40. Iversen, H. W., Orifice coefficients for Reynolds numbers from 4 to 50,000, Trans. ASME, voL
Gidrotekh.' Stmit.~,-IlO;- 5;31-36;1953. 78, no;-2;;~-125~ 133, 1956.
15. Idelchik, I. E., Shock losses in a flow with a nonuniform velocity distribution, Tr. TsAGI, vyp. 41. Johansen, F., Flow through pipe orifices of low Reynolds numbers, Proc. R. Soc. London, Sero A.,
662, 2-24, MAP, 1948. vol. 126, no. 801, 125-l31, 1930.
16. Idelchik, 1. E., Account for the viscosity effect on the hydraulic resistance of diaphragms and 42. Kolodzie, P. A. and Van Winkle, M., Discharge coeffieients through perforated plates, AIChE J.,
grids, Teploenergetika, no. 9, 75-80, 1960. vol. 3, no. 9, 23-30, 1959.
17. Karev, V. N., Pressure head losses with an abrupt expansion of the pipeline, Neft· Khoz., no. 43. Reichert, V., Theoretische-experimentelle Untersuchungen zur Widerstanscharakteristik von Hy-
11/12, 13-16, 1952. draulikventilen, Wassenschaffliche Zeitschrift der Technischen Universität, Dresden, Bd. 3, Heft 2,
18. Karev, V. N., Pressure head losses with an abrupt contraction of the pipeline, and the effect of 149-155, 1982.
local resistances on flow disturbances, Neft. Khoz., no. 8, 3-7, 1953. 44. Ringleb, T., Two-dimensional flow with standing vortexes in diffusers, Trans. ASME, Sero D, no.
19. Levin, A. M. and Malaya, E. M., Investigation of the hydrodynarnics of flow with an abrupt ex- 4, 130-135, 1960.
pansion, Tr. Gos. Proektno-Issled. Inst. Vostokgiprogaz, vyp. 1, pp. 41-47, 1969. 45. Pearson, H. and Heutteux, B. M., Losses at sudden expansions and contractions in ducts, Aero-
20. Levkoyeva, N. V., Investigation of the Effect of Fluid Viscosity of Local Resistances, Thesis naut. Q., Bd. 14, no. 1, 63-74, 1963.
(Cand. of Tech. Sei.), Moscow, 1959, 186 p. 46. Migai, V. I. and Gudkov, E. 1., Design and Calculation of the Exit Diffusers of Turbomachines,
21. Migai, V. K. and Nosova, 1. S., Reduction of eddy losses in chfu"'1nels, Teploenergetika, no. 7, Mashinostroenie Press, Leningrad, 1981.
49-51, 1977. 47. Frankfurt, M. 0., Experimental investigation of jet diffusers, Uch Zap. TsAGI, voL 13, no. 2, 78-
22. Morozov, D. 1., The optimum degree of a sudden enlargement of the channel, Tr. Khark. Univ., 86, 1982.
Gidromekhanika, vyp. 4, 53-55, 1966.
23. Panchurin, N. A., Extension of the Borda-Camot theorem on the pressure head loss during an
abrupt expansion to the case of unsteady-state flow, Tr. Leningr. Inst. Vodn. Transp., vyp. 51,
34-39, 1964.
 CHAPTER
FIVE
RESISTANCE TO FLOW WITH A SMOOTH
CHANGE IN VELOCITY
RESISTANCE COEFFICIENTS OF DIFFUSERS
AND CONVERGING AND OTHER
TRANSITION SECTIONS

5.1 EXPLANATIONS AND PRACTICAL RECOMlVIENDATIONS;

DIFFUSERS IN A NETWORK
1. A smoothly expanding tubular seetion, a diffuser, is used in order to make the transition
from a tube (channel) of smaller cross section to a larger one (to convert the kinetic energy
of flow into the potential energy or of velocity pressure into static pressure) with minimum
total pressure losses (Figure 5.1). * Due to the fact that an increase in the cross-sectional area
of the diffuser causes a drop in the averagl;-:fldWo-velücüywith-ari increase in the divergence
angle a, the total resistance coefficient of the diffuser, expressed in terms of the velocity in
the smaller (initial) seetion, becomes smaller up to certain limits of a, than for the equivalent
segment of a tube of constant cross seetion, the area of which is equal to the initial area of
the diffuser.
Starting from this limiting divergence angle of the diffuser, a further increase in this angle
considerably increases the resistance coefficient, so that it becomes much larger than that for
a straight tllbe of equivalent length.
2. The increase of the resistance coefficient of a diffuser of a given length with further
increases in the divergence angle is caused by enhanced turbulence of the flow, separation of
the boundary layer from the diffuser wall, and resultant violent vortex formation.

*The main geometrie eharaeteristics of diffusers with straight walls are the divergenee angle (x, the
area ratio nar! = Fl/Fo, and the relative length ld. These quantities are eonneeted by the following rela-
tionships: for a eonieal diffuser lo/Do = (.r,;;;;] - 1)/(2 tan al2), for a plane diffuser ld/ao = (nar! - 1)/(2
tan al2).

277

278 Handbook oi Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition
a=180"
Figure 5.1. Flow patterns in diffusers with different divergence angles at narl = FI/Fo = 3.3. 48
The bqyndary layer separates from the walls (see Figure 5.1) dueto the adverse pressure
gradient along the diffuser walls, resuiting from theve10city drop as the cross-sectional area
increases (according to the Bernoulli equation).
3. Under constant flow conditions at the entrance and for eonstant relative Iength ld or at
the area ratio nar l = Fl/Fo, an inerease in the divergenee angle a, starting from a = 0°, will
result in a successive achievement of the four main flow regimes:
• Stable regime, nonseparating flow ("separation-free" diffusers);
• Regime with a large nondeveloped flow separation, where the size and intensity of
separation change with time (regime of strongly oseillating flows, diffusers with loeal
flow separation);
• Regime of fully developed flow separation, where the major portion of the diffuser is
oecupied by an extensive zone of reverse circulation (diffusers with substantial flow
separation);
• Regime of jet flow, where the main flow is separated from the diffuser walls over the
whole perimeter (diffusers with compiete flow separation).
4. The inception of flow separation in a diffuser is a function of both its geometrie pa-
rameters and the flow regime at its inlet (Reynolds numbers Re = waD//v and Maeh number~
Man = wo/al), as wen as of the eondition of the flow at the inlet (displacement thiekness 8'"
Flow with a Smooth Change in Velocity 279
of the boundary layer or the "momentum loss" thiekness 8**, the level of turbulence, ete.).*
Experiments carried out by Idelchik and Ginzburg54 show that for a eonieal diffuser (a = 4°)
installed both immediately behind the smooth inlet (colleetor) without an insert (lo/Do = 0 and
the boundary-layer displaeement thickness at the inlet 80 z 0) and far behind it with a straight
insert (lo/Do :F 0 and 80 :F 0), there is no flow separation along the entire length of the dif-
fuser even when the length eorresponds to the seetion with area ratio nx = FJFo = 16 (Figure
5.2). "Blurring" of the potential core (the core of constant velocities), the presenee of which
determines the "starting length" of the diffuser, that is, the section with a nonstabilized flow
and a corresponding "extension" of the whole veloeity profile at lo/Do = 0, terminates at
about nx = 6-8. Downstream of this seetion, that is, over the length of stabilized flow (where
the boundary layer fills the wh oIe seetion), a notieeable equalization of the elongated velocity
profile is observed.
5. If there is a straight insert (lo/Do :F 0) the starting length of the diffuser (with the eore
of eonstant veloeities) beeomes shorter. For example, at lo/Do = 20 and a = 4°, the eore is
retained only up to nx = 4 (see Figure 5.2). As a result, the velocity profiles in the first sec-
tions of the starting length are mueh more extended than at lo/Do = O. In subsequent seetions
downstream of the starting length (nx ~ 6) the velocity profiles at loJDo :F 0 beeome more
equalized than at loJDo = 0 and this ean be attributed to intensifieation of flow turbulenee.
6. Aceording to the experiments mentioned above, with an inerease of a up to 10-14°, the
value of nx at whieh the eore of eonstant veIocities is still preserved increases (sinee the
Iength of the diffuser at the same nx is redueed). At the same time, at the divergenee angles
eited and at certain ratios loJDo the flow starts to separate despite the presenee of the eore of
eonstant veloeities (Figures 5.3 to 5.5).
7. For praetieal purposes the regions without separation both in spatial and plane diffusers
ean, with limited aecuraey, be determined with the help of Figure 5.6. Curves 1 and 2 in
Figure 5.6 are the result of generalization of numerous experimental data. 36,54,129 The eurves
separate the whole region of a = f(n x ) into two parts: separation-free diffusers (region I) and
separation-prone diffusers (region II). Curve 1 is related to more favorable inlet eonditions
(loJDo ~ 0, 80"" 0). Curve 2 is related to the case where the diffuser is installed downsfream
of the long inlet seetion at whieh 80/Do » O.
8. As a rule, flow starts to separate from the walls of diffusers with divergenee angles up
to about a = 40°, not over the whole perimeter of the seetion, but in the region where, be-
eause of asymmetry of the diffuser, asymmetrie veloeity profile at the entranee, and so on, the
flow veloeity in the wall layer is lower than in other regions of the seetion. As soon as the
flow has separated from one side of the diffuser, the statie pressure along the diffuser does
not inerease further or even beeomes weaker, with the result that the flow does not separate
from the opposite side of the diffuser. This phenomenon is responsible for asymmetrie veloc-
ity distributions over the seetions of diffusers (see Figures 5.1 and 5.5).
8 8
* ö*= f (1 - ~)dY ,
Wc
ö** = f ~(l-~)dY
Wc Wc
o o
where Wc is the velo city in the potential core along the flow axis, (3 is the boundary-layer thickness
in the plane diffuser walls.
 Flow with a Smooth Change in Velo city 281
Handbook 0/ Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition
280
ff

o,~--+-~,-+~~-

Q 0 ~~~p~~~~
-!Jl-fl6 -0.2 az 126rjll -rj/(-11O -a2 /l2 115 r/;f
ja} (b)

Figur~ 5.4. Veloeitr/ield~ in a eonical diffuser at a = 10° over the seetion nx

5
= 4 at Re = (4-5) x 10
and dIfferent lofDo: a) dIameter I-I; b) diameter II-II.

Figure 5.2. Velo city fields over the diameter II-II of different sections (different nx) of a conieal dif-
5 54
fuser at a = 4° and Re = (4-5) x 10 : a) lrjDo = 0; b) lofDo = 20.

,
a~'~-"--'I:II

d 2~~~P~~~
-'1K-Ili -az /lZ fl6 r;tt -IJK-flb ~1J2 02 116 riß?
!a} (b)
5
Figur~ 5.5. Veloeitr/ields in a eonical diffuser at a = 100 over the section nx = 4 at Re ::: (4-5) X 10
Figure 5.3. Velocity fields over the diameter I-I of different sections (different nx ) of a coniea1 diffuser and dIfferent lofDo: a) diameter I-I; b) diameter II-II.
at a = SO and Re = (4-5) X 105 : a) lofDo = 0; b) lofDo = 10.
54
 Flow with a Smooth Change in Velocity 283
282 Handbook ofHydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

et; ,
26
22
\ 1\
[\ 1\/ i
18
#
2"'"
1\.."" I -0.5

if)
t'-....
"i',.
.... r-....,

b
j ~ f--
........ 0 c-
2 tJ 1.& 2.5 .!.() 15
.
';'f)

.
~i
.
""
5.tJ 5.5 6.(/ Px

. 54,129
v-

Figure 5.6. Regions of flow separatlOn m dIffusers: 1) lolDo '" 0, 2) lolDo ~ O. Q,S

9. In a symmetrical diffuser with a symmetrical velocity profile at the entrance, the sepa-
0
ration of flow from the wall occurs alternatelyon one side of the diffuser and on the other ,,-
0-

li -
(Figure 5.7), which leads to substantial oscillations of the whole flow. . . 0-
10. The profiles of reduced velocities Aci = w/acr at the exit from plane dlffusers wlth
divergence angles Cf. equal to 4, 6, and 8° and with loiDo = 5.8 are given in Figure 5.8 for -0.5

i Figure 5.8. Fields of reduced velo city in the exit sections of plane diffusers at ß = 0 and Ci, = 4, 6, and
8°; Ac is the reduced velocity at the inlet section of the diffuser.

both sonic and supersonic flows over the starting length of diffusers (according to experimen-
tal data of Bedrzhitsk:iy).6 Up to a certain value of P~h in th~blmvingG!.1amber (upstrea.r:n of··
the inlet into a straight entrance section), which corresponds to the formation of the local
supersonic zone in the initial section of the diffuser, no flow separation from the diffuser
walls is observed (separation "from under the shock"), and the velocity field at the exit from
the diffuser remains uniform. However, starting from a certain position of the compression
shock that brings up the rear of the local supersonic zone, separation occurs, as weIl as a
steep increase in the velocity field nonuniformity in the exit seetion of the diffuser.
11. The resistance coefficients of the diffusers ~d = L1P/(pW6/2), as weIl as the flow struc-
ture in them and the separation phenomena, depend on many parameters, such as the diver-
gence angle Cf. (for diffusers with rectilinear walls); the area ratio narl = Fl/FO; the shape of
the cross section; the shape of the boundaries; the boundary-layer thickness (momentum loss
thickness) at the entrance; the shape of the velocity profile at the entrance; the degree of flow
turbulence at the entrance; the flow regime (Reynolds number Re) both in the boundary layer
and in the main flow; and the flow compressibility (Mach number Mao).
(8) 12. The effect of the Reynolds number on the resistance coefficients of the diffusers is
different for different divergence angles. In the case of separation-free diffusers, the character
Figure 5.7. Velocity fields in a conical diffuser at a. = 20 over the section nx = 4 ~t Re = (4-5) x 10
5
0
of the relationship ~d =j(Re) is elose to thecharacter of the relationship A =j(Re) for straight
and different lcJD o:54 a) diameter I-I; b) diameter II-II; 1) IcJD o = 0; 2) IcJDo = ); 3) IcJDo = 10; 4) tubes; the values of Sd decrease monotonically with increases in Re (Figure 5.9).
IcJD o = 20.
 FZow with a Smooth Change in Velocity 285
Handbook oi Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition
284
l/4 ....0'85
_tg/lJ#a()
'2 .....
f-/ ~ !_"
4- .!.
r\ - 7-
I..,.
-~
V
-- ::t v -- -- ----le/ßtJ -tO
j!:ilI 1
l
' ~\ vJ' I ~ l1-
J.....-V
~2.JJ%
'\.1\ +..- ~
~),;...... i-+'
,J. .,_o-I ~~ .
'0 • ~\
r.--
~
1& '0' 0 ir~ ...+-"'f+.:i' !
~... J._E
"• "- r f-.- ~(L i-CL- ;t.-- ~- I-n-_ - .... F!gure 5.~O. Variation .af the longitudinal fluctuation of velocity W' = w'/wo in the inlet section of the
~
0
"<. ....... ~ dIffuser wlth a change 1il the relative length of the straight starting section lofDo.I72 ,173
~
~~
- [7-• -- ,!o- r--- •• -- •
_ll. e
1-- ~_!.hr !.o_ ... ..... --
~
...

(J.f2 ~~ 1,.1 16. A thicker boundary layer at the entranee to the diffuser causes somewhat earlier ap-

I ;:' f-,.Q, ...a.

~~ ..11.
(")
Ll.
- pearance of the wall.layer instability and oeeasional stalling of vortices. The larger the diver-
gence angle of the dIffuser, the ~tronger this phenomenon becomes, until the flow eompletely
Z I
f 2 J 7 8 Ra X 10 -
5 separates from the walls at certmn values of a. These combined effects inerease the total re-
sistance of the diffuser.
Figure 5.9. Dependence of the resistance coefficient Sd of a conical diffuser on Re at narl =4 and 17. For diffusers wi~h large divergence angles, at which the flow completely separates
different values of cx and lofDo:54 1) cx = 4°; 2) cx = 10°; 3) CX = 30°. from the walls (a > 14 ), the effect of the Reynolds number and the inlet conditions on the
ehange in the resistanee eoefficient is due to slightly different faetors, namely, to the displaee-

With inereases in the divergenee angle of the diffusers the eharaeter of the dependenee of

~" ~~
1',
Sd on Re beeomes eomplieated (see Figure 5.9), since flow separation from the ehannel wall ·'Ot

beeomes important. UD ..... F'il::t. r;JiJbl

13. When the diffusers (not only with small, but also with suffieiently large angles a) are IX r-1"""~!o:::. 11'
installed directl~ after a smooth inlet nozzle (collector) (hjDo = 0), the flow in the boundary ..
. iC·tl~ l'\~
~i.;
layer of the diffuser remains laminar over some distan~e downstream oi the inlet even thougn 1ft'>
"'u
the Reynolds numbers of the main flow substantially exeeed the eritieal value Reer- Just as l.:::: UlllJ

~
for J.., of straight tubes, this causes a sharper decrease (with inerease of Re) in the resistanee
coefficient of separation-free diffusers and of diffusers with loeal separation of the flow (a < aso !') ~ ~ t:,.1 ~
1.-1-

~
I--f-
fR -(n
140), than might have oecurred, had there been a fully developed turbulent flow in the bound-
ary layer over the who1e length of the diffuser.
70
.......
~A~ K;'l llL,ii i~t .
~ ..... Xi
Iw
I"
-~ " ,..... .-; (;)
14. In the presenee of a straight, sufficiently long insert between a smooth inlet nozzle
I~ V rJ r<
r'o~
(collector) and a diffuser: (1) the boundary layer in the beginning of the diffuser is addition- ö

\ ,.,
ally agitated (Figure 5.10) and (2) the boundary layer thickness inereases (and, accordingly, 'q 1°;;:.:0' ,..
54
the veloeity profiles "extend") as early as the entrance into the diffuser (see graph b of Dia- ca".:
~
gram 5.1).
These factors exert directiy opposite effects on the diffuser resistance. B
il ~[ v ~lll l.-ff
15. When the straight insert has a length up to about Zr/Do "" 10, the first factor is pre- /;~ tU :i ~# J.2 4.0 M 5.6 ReX W
dominant. At larger values of Zr/Do, the influence of the first faetor is stabilized, while the
influenee of the seeond faetor continues to increase to some extent. As a result, with further F!gure 5.11. The ~mctions Stot =fieRe) (a) and the velocity field over the section nx = 2 in a conical
inereases in Zr/Do, the constant influence of this parameter is established (the constant ratio kd ~Iffuser at ~ = 30 , narl = 2, and ~/Dl = 0 (b):54 I, Re = 0.3 x 105; II (a), Re = 1.2 x 105; III (ß), Re
- 3.3 x 10 , IV (r), Re = 4 x 10 ; 1) lofD o = 0; 2) lofDo = 2; 3) ZofD o = 3 with a turbulizer 4) l-'D
= Sdlo>O/Sdlo=O' which takes into account the effect of straight or curved sections upstream of = 20. ' er 0
the diffuser) or even some decrease in its effect on the resistance of separation-free diffusers.
 286 Handbook ojHydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition Flow with a Smooth Change in Velo city
287

ment of the separation point along the walls of the diffuser and to a change in the stalling
zone thickness together with a change in the mode of the boundary-layer flow.
18. These factors are responsible for the complex character of the resistance curve of sepa-
ration-prone diffusers installed directly downstream of the smooth collector, that is, at loiDo
= O. As is evident from Figure 5.11, at very small Re an increase in this number first leads
to a sharp drop of the coefficient ~:ot until it reaches a certain minimum (segmentA, Figure
5.l1a), and then Stot starts to increase sharply up to its maximum value at Re = (0.8-1.4) x
10 (segment B). This maximum is followed by a new sharp decrease in ~tot (the crisis of the
5

resistance) until the second minimum of the values of ~tot (segment C) is attained at Re = 3.3
x 10 . Following this minimum, the coefficient ~tot increases again, first rather sharply (seg-
5

ment D) and then slightly (segment E) with increases in Re.

19. Segment A of curve 1 (see Figure 5.11a) corresponds to a nonseparating laminar flow,
where the resistance coefficient is inversely proportional to the Reynolds number, and seg-
ment B corresponds to the development of separation of the laminar boundary layer. The Fi~~e 5.12. Dependence of StO! on the divergence angle of a conical diffuser at different area ratios
narl·
maximum of ~tot corresponds to complete laminar separation occurring elose to the inlet sec-
tion of the diffuser. This is due to the separation zone in laminar flow being most extensive
both in its lateral dimensions and its extent (Figure 5.11 b, region a) with the elear area of the
main flow being the lowest one - whence the maximum of the pressure losses. diffus~r inlet. section that any further backward displacement of the separation point is natu-
rally, ImpossIble. '
20. A sharp drop in ~tot over segment B of curve 1 (see Figure 5.11a) corresponds to the
onset of the crisis when the separated laminar layer becomes turbulent. The layer becomes 24. The in~uence of the ?ivergence 3~ngle a on the resistance coefficient of a conical dif-
thinner and, as a result of vigorous turbulent agitation, the flow attaches to the wall again. fuser can be Ju~ged fro~ FIgure 5.12. At small divergence angles, the diffuser resistance
first decreases shghtly wlth an increase in a and then increases When < 15° N . 1
The separation point (now of the turbulent flow) is thus displaced downstream. In this case, d d ' . u. , expenmenta

the separation zone greatly diminishes while the elear area of the flow correspondingly in- ~pen ences separate for dIfferent area ratios (~tot decreases with an increase in n ) and
creases (see Figure 5.11b, region ß), which leads to a sharp drop in the diffuser resistance ~lth ~ further increase in the divergence angle, tend to a single dependence on a. ~is fac~
1S attrtbuted to the development of a separatinO" flow in the dl'ffuser Th . . h
coefficient. Cl • e lllcrease III t e re-

21. Further increase in the resistance coefficient ~tot in the postcritical region (segments D
and E, Figure 5.11a) is explained by some reverse displacement of the turbulent separation
point upstream of the-flüw (Figure 5.11b;-region y). Such a displacement in the diffuser may
occur under the action of the inertia forces that increase with the Reynolds number.
22. The character of the curves ~tot = f(Re) for separation-pro ne diffusers changes, depend-
ing on the inlet conditions. In particular, even a short, straight insert (loiDo = 2) installed up-
stream of the diffuser agitates the flow and simultaneously thickens the boundary layer at the
entrance into the diffuser even at relatively small Reynolds numbers. Under these conditions, 0.8
the maximum of ~tot decreases within 004 x 105 < Re < 2.3 x 105, while at Re > 2.3 x 105
the values of ~tot, as a whole, turn out to be higher (see curves 2, 3, and 4 in Figure 5.11a).
The latter is attributed to some displacement of the turbulent separation point upstream of the 0.4-
flow (in the direction of the diffuser inlet) due to the thickening of the boundary layer. The
same effect can be achieved by artificial flow turbulence creation upstream of the diffuser inlet.
23. When the divergence angle of the diffuser a > 30°, the effect of a straight insert in- 0.2.
stalled upstream of the diffuser decreases sharply and, at a ~ 60°, becomes practically negli-
gible. The explanation is that at very large values of a the flow separates so elose to the
0
1 2. .J 4 S 0 7
'Here a diffuser is considered, for example, which is instalied at the exit from the network and for narl
which ~tot is the coefficient of total resistance of the diffuser (which also accounts for the exit velocity
pressure losses). A similar phenomenon is also observed in diffusers instalied in the network, that is, for Figure 5.13. Dependence of the total resistance coefficient ~tot on the area ratio of a conical d'ffu t
constant values of the angle 0:. 36 1 ser a
the coefficient ~d.

288 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition
sistance coefficient Stot with Cf, is due to the displacement of flow separation to the inlet of
the diffuser.
The area ratio of the diffuser determines its capabilities for converting the kinetic energy
of a flow into a potential one. The higher the narl, the lower the kinetic energy .of flow (pro-
vided the latter is separationless) at the outlet from the diffuser. However, as It has alrea~y
been noted, an increase in narl on the occurrence of separation does not lead to a decrease III
losses at the outlet from the diffuser. These losses may even increase in connection with the
increase in the nonuniformity of the velocity profile at the outlet. Consequently, for such dif-
fusers the optimum area ratios narl can be determined that correspond to .mini~u~ values of
r~M . This is c1early illustrated by the experimental data of Reference 36 glven .III FIgure
h
5.13.
.,
The larger the divergence angle Cf" the lower the optimum value narl and the hlgher t e mlm-
mum level of resistance Stot. Qualitatively, the above-considered trends are preserved also for
diffuser channels of a more complex shape (see also Diagrams 5.2, 5.4, and 5.5).
25. The influence of compressibility on a subsonic fluid flow in a diffuser is characterized
by the dimensionless velocity Al or by the Mach number MI. The compressibilityexerts its
influence on the velocity and pressure distributions along the channel. Here, the greatest
changes (as against an incompressible liquid) are observed near the ~nlet sec:ion where .di-
mensionless velocities Al are appreciable. Also, one observes here an lllcrease III the longItu-
dinal pressure gradients, and this, in turn, influences the deve10pment of a boundary lay~r on
the diffuser walls. Figure 5.14a and b presents the experimental data of Reference 36 lllus-
trating the change in the resistance coefficient of the diffuser depending .on the ~i~ensionless
velocity Al at different Re numbers. In these experiments, high subsomc velocltles were at-
tained by installing nozzles ahead of the diffuser and this ensured the need~d c?annel con-
striction. As a result, first the velocity profiles became more peaked (curve 2 III Flgure 5.14a)
because of the increase in the favorable pressure gradient in the nozzle, but this was followed
by attenuation of turbulence, and the velocity distribution in the boun~ary layer acquir~d the
form (curve 3 in Figure 5.14a) typical of a laminar boundary layer. ThlS was accompamed b~
flow separatioh and by asharp increase in thc rcsistance coefficient (Figure~.149~.Expen­
ments show that at high Reynolds numbers and moderate divergence angles of the dIffuser (Cf,
< 100 ) a separationless flow with a high coefficient of pressure recovery can be ensured over
y
~8~--+---+---~--fl
0.:1 0.4 O.S
b
a
Figure 5.14. Velocity distribution in a boundary layer near the inlet sec.tion of the ~i~fuser at Re. =
(2.1-3.7) X 105 and different values of Al (a); dependence of the total reslstance coefflclent of the dIf-
fuser on Al at different values of Re (b): 1) Al = 0.48; 2) Al = 0.65; 3) Al = 0.81.
Flow with a Smooth Change in Velocity 289
the entire subsonic range of inlet velocities Al. The calculations of the diffuser characteristics
at subsonic flow velocities are considered in more detail in para. 31 and the experimental data
at subsonic and supersonic velocities in paragraphs 52-54.
26. A straight insert ahead of the diffuser produces a symmetrical velo city profile at the
diffuser inlet with the maximum velocity at the center and reduced velocities at the walls
("convex" shape).
When the diffuser is preceded by a curved part of the pipeline or any barrier producing a
nonuniform velocity profile at its inlet with reduced velocities at the center and elevated ve-
locities at the walls ("concave" shape), the effect of such a profIle on the diffuser resistance
will be opposite to the effect of the convex profile; that is, at small angles Cf, the diffuser
resistance will increase, while at large angles Cf, it will probably decrease somewhat compared
with the resistance when there is a uniform velocity distribution at the inlet.
27. The structure of the flow in rectangular diffusers and the character of the resistance
curves are basically the same as for conical diffusers. However, the flow conditions in rectan-
gular diffusers are additionally influenced by the corners due to the cross sections, which are
conducive to earlier flow separation from the wall. As a result, the resistance in such diffusers
is always higher than in conical diffusers. On the other hand, the effect of the upstream
straight section insert somewhat decreases, so that a relative rise in the resistance coefficient
with h}Do turns out to be lower in such diffusers than in conical ones.
28. The resistance of plane diffusers (section expansion in one plane only) at the same
divergence angles and area ratios is noticeably lower than in diffusers with the section expan-
sion in two-dimensional planes and in many cases is even smaller than in conical diffusers.
This is attributed to the fact that at the same divergence angles and area ratios the plane dif-
fusers are correspondingly larger than the conical or rectangular diffusers, with expansion oc-
curring in two planes. Thus, with a smoother change in the cross section, a lower pressure
gradient along the flow and a weaker flow separation from the wall· result.
29. When there is a nonseparating flow in diffusers, then all of its characteristics, inc1uding
the resistance coefficient, can be calculated with the help of boundary-layer theory. With the
use of thesemethöds, the most extensive resultswereobtained by GuinevSkiyefal.,5,W-25
Solödkin and Guinevskiy,77-81 Voitovich and Emeliyanova,I4 Deich and Zaryankin,36 and
Emeliyanova. 43
30. In order to ca1culate the hydraulic resistance of diffuser channels, contemporary numeri-
cal methods of simulating laminar, transient, and turbulent flows of an incompressible liquid
and agas can be used. The methods of the boundary-Iayer theory are the most simple and
effective. As applied to diffuser channe1s - planar and axisymmetric ones - two sections are
distinguished: the initial one, with a comparatively thin boundary layer in the presence of a
potential core, and a section of a stabilized flow with closed boundary layers,z7,28,92,93
For the initial section of a diffuser channel the coefficient of total pressure los ses averaged
over the discharge velocity is expressed by the formula
(5.1)
where ,1*** and ,1* represent the ratio of the thicknesses or areas of energy loss and displace-
ment to the cross-sectional area of the channel. For a plane channel ~ *** = 28***/h and ,1* =
 Flow with a Smooth Change in Velocity 291
290 Handbook 01 Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

o 0
2'f//h, h is the channel height, 8* = 5(1- w)dy, (5*** = J(l- ;2)wdy, (5* and (5*** are the
o 0
***
thicknesses of displacement and loss of energy, w = w/w c; for an axisymmetric channel ~
o/rw

= 1'}***/1tr~ and ~* = 1'}*/1tr~, rw is the cross-section radius, 1'}* = 25(1- w)(l - ylrw)dylrw,
o
o/rw
1'}*** = 25(1- -;Z)w(l- ylrw)dylrw, (5 is the boundary-layer thickness, 1'}* and 1'}*** are the

o ,
displacement and energy 10ss areas. . tI
0~/~t-~==~==~=L--!-~--~-L-~,
The second term in formu1a (5.1) represents the total pressure loss over the channe1 sectlOn
,
I n re ~~
in front of the diffuser. The total pressure 10ss coefficient Stot, which inc1udes losses on ex- -0.2 .U-,-+-~
I
haust from the channel, is determined by summing up the coefficient Sand the supplementary
coefficient ~S that represents kinetic energy los ses of the flow in the exit section of the dif- a
fuser:

2
a~r--r In I
~S = JY
w 2
wdFI(Q p wo/2) (5.2) ~
0
"~P
I ,.~f'-.... $ 8 -
/le= 10' f - I - -

-Re=10 6
f-e---
1-1--
---/le =10 5
F
'~ b

'~ 0
Thus, for the initial portion of the diffuser channe1 ~ 10.-.. 0
10
.....~~
8
~
~~
(5.3)
5
11.522.53 810 15202530 X

In order to chsracterize the initial nonunifQrmity of the flQw in_ the. intet seQtion. of a dif-
fuser, the ratio of the maximum velocity to the mean one, wrnax/w rn, is used as weIl as the
coefficient of the nonuniform momentum M or of the kinetie energy N with Figure 5.15. Pressure coefficients in the section of closing or separation of boundary layers in a plane
diffuser (a); a comparison between the experimental91 and calculated (~~ = 0.005) dependences of the

wmax _ _ __ 1-~0-~**
N=-----
Wm - 1-~0 ' 1 - ~0)3
Here ~o* is the ratio of the thickness (area) of momentum loss to the width (area) of the
inlet cross section of the diffuser.
The same technique is used to determine the total pressure 10ss coefficient also for the
93
section of the diffuser channe1 with closed boundary layers.
The above formulas allow one to ea1culate the losses in a diffuser at different Reyno1ds
numbers, area ratios, divergence angles, and initial nonuniformities up to the section of
boundary-1ayer separation. It is only required to ca1cu1ate the parameters of the boundary
1ayer _ laminar, transient, and turbulent. Usually, a direct or an inverse problems of the
boundary 1ayer is solved: the direct problem consists of determining the parameters of a
boundary layer in a diffuser of a specified geometry for a fixed Reyno1ds number Re and an
initial flow nonuniformity; the inverse problem is reduced to determining the geometrie pa-
divergence angle of aplane separationless diffuser on its lirniting length (b). x
rameters of the diffuser at the fixed Reynolds number and initial nonuniformity of the flow
from the given streamwise distribution of the velocity over the channel axis or the friction
factor a10ng the diffuser surface.
The following is an example which shows the solution of a direct problem for plane sepa-
ration-free diffusers with fully turbulent boundary layers. Figure 5.l5a presents the static pres-
sure recovery factor cp = (p - po)/(pw5/2) in the section with closing or separating boundary
layers in a plane diffuser depending on the Reynolds number Re, divergence angle a, and the
initial flow nonuniformity ~o = 28 1 ho, where ho is the width of the inlet cross section of the
0
diffuser. Whence it follows that in the eonsidered range of the values of the initial nonunifor-
mity ~o at divergence ang1es not exceeding a = 7°, the closing of the boundary layers in a
diffuser occurs earlier than their separation. At divergence angles exceeding 8°, vice versa, the
separation of the boundary layers on the opposite walls precedes their c1osing. Here, in the
 Flow with a Smooth Change in Velocity 293
292 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

rw
first reaion (before the closing of the boundary layers) the static pressure recovery coefficient G = 2n f pwrdr = const (p is the gas density).
increas:s with the diveraence anale, whereas in the second case it decreases. Figure 5.1Sb
<0 :;, 91 279') 93 . o
presents a comparison of experimental and ca1culated ,~, dependences o~ the. d1~ergence
angle of a plane diffuser on its limiting length corresponding t? .~ow separatIOn In 1tS outlet To characterize the magnitude of total pressure losses in a diffuser channel in the ab-
section. The open experimental points correspond to the small 1mtlal turbulence, whereas the sence of heat transfer between agas and the walls, either the overall pressure recovery coef-
black dots - to an enhanced one. Since an increase in the initial turbulence favors boundary ficient () = P02/POl is used or the total pressure 10ss factor:
layer turbulization, the case of enhanced turbulence corresponds more to the case o~ an en-
tirely turbulent layer adopted in the ca1culation. The agreement between the ca1culatIOn and
~ = POl - ~02 (5.3a)
experiment appeared to be satisfactory (here Xs = x/ho)· . G(Pl W l/2)
31. We will consider the application of the above method to the calculatIOn of pressure
where
losses in conical diffusers at subsonic flow velocities. In a channel with impermeable walls
the condition of mass flow rate constancy should hold:
POi = fPopwrdr = n(ri - bi Pi5iwi5iPOO + 2n fpopwrdr , Ci = 1, 2) .
ri·-i5i

1.0,..--.=~~()--=-=~=':-:-T--,---r--1 Here Pi5i and Wi5i are the density and velocity of the gas in the flow core, Po is the total
cr pressure of the gas flow in the boundary layer, Poo is the total pressure in the flow core; the
subscripts 1 and 2 correspond to the inlet and outlet cross seetions of the diffuser.
0.981----+---- _ _- \___--f:--l[l'-Rd-{
Ca1culations were carried out for aseries of conical diffusers with divergence angles a =
4, 6, 10, and 20° for the values of the preinserted cylindrical segment lolrt = 4-40 and area
1.0 ratio n = (r21r1)2 = 4. 95 The values of the total pressure coefficient (J ca1culated as a function
of the reduced velocity Al = Wrnl/a cr are compared with the experimental data of Reference
211. The characteristic feature of these experiments is that an increase in the reduced velocity
at the in1et Al = Wrnl/a cr was accompanied by a corresponding increase in the Reynolds num-
ber. As folIo ws from Figure 5.16, the results of the calcu1ation - the (J(Al) curves - agree
satisfactori1y with the experiment (symbols). This agreement is observed until the velocity in
the flow core in* the inlet section becomes equal
- to- .the
. Iocal speed of
- sound, i.e., a "choking"
-- ..-
regime sets in.
0.98 _ _-4___t-__.-::::s~~~~---j~--j

0.981---~--+---+--=~~
o-a=4
e- 6
0.96
+- 10
0- 20
0.94 L-_--1----L----L---.L----"--;:;---' Figure 5.17. Influence of the symmetrie initial nonuniforrnity of flow on a streamwise change in the
0.1 0.3 0.5 1 A total pressure lass factor in a conical diffuser at Re = 5 x 107 and a = 2°: 1) Ll; = 0.01; 2) ~ = 0.02;
3) ~ = 0.04; 4) Ll; = 0.1; 5) place of closure of the boundary layers.
2 4 6 8 ~er 10:5
*Formula (5.3a) was derived by averaging the total pressure over the mass flow rate. The theory of
Figure 5.16. Coefficient of total pressure recovery in conical diffusers depending on A1 and Re: 1) ldr]
averaging nonuniform gas flows in channels has been developed by L. 1. Sedov abd G. G. Chemyi. 212
= 4; 2) Idr1 = 10; 3) ldr] = 20; 4) ldr] = 40.
 Flow with a Smooth Change in Velocity 295
294 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

32. Figure 5.17 presents the calculated values of the total pressure loss factors in a conical Cp
diffuser ~(xlrwl) at Re = 5 x 107 and a = 2° at varying degrees of flow nonuniformity, i.e.,
.6Ü = 0.01, 0.02, 0.04, and 0.1. They illustrate the increase in ~ in a nonuniform flow.
187 0.8
33. At different lengths of the preinserted cylindrical segment lrjDo = 1-9 and area ratios
narl = 1.5, 2, 2.36, 3, and 4 at Re = wODo/v = (0.35-0.45) X 106 ca1culations and experi-
ments 94 yielded the d~endences of the total loss factor at different values of the height of
roughness protrusions Ll = LlIDo = 0.002 and 0.005 as a function of narl, a, lo/Do, and LlIDo·
In all of the cases considered the surface roughness considerably increased hydraulic losses in
the diffuser (Figure 5.18a), with the relative increment in the hydraulic losses because of the

0.2

0.4-
Figure 5.19. Distribution of the static pressure along the diffuser generatrix at a = 100 depending on
0.2 nar !> 2k/Do, and lolD o.

0 .
I 2 J 2 J nar1 roughness (~r -. ~sm)l~sm being the highest at a divergence angle of a = 4° and it increases
Sr -Ssm with the area ratio narl (Figure 5.18b). With increase in the boundary-layer thickness up-
Ssm stream of the diffuser, i.e., with increase in lo/Do, a relative increase in ~tot due to roughness
decreases sharply. The distribution of the static pressure Cp = (PI - p2)/(pw2i2) alon a the
D.5 d"ffu " at a = 100 depending on narl = 1-3.5, 2klDo, and lo/Do is shown . b
1 ser generatnx in Figure
0.4 5.19. In all the cases considered, the surface roughness made the increase in the static pres-
0.2 sure smaller. The corresponding computational relations are also plotted (dashed curves) in
0 Figures 5.18 and 5.19.
" Calculations showed that the influence of roughness is substantial only when it is indented
0 z In sections with a thin boundary layer where the height of roughness protrusions exceeds the
b) viscous sublayer thickness.
34" In the foregoing, the possibilities of the use of the boundary-layer theory methods for
Figure 5.18. Dependence of the diffuser resistance on roughness ~:l4 a) ~tot = !(narl, a, lolDo, ~); b,
solving a direct problem - calculation of the 10ss factors of plane and axisymmetric diffusers
(~tot rough - ~tot smooth)/~tot smooth =f(lolDo, narl, ~)"
 r

Flow with a Smooth Change in Velo city 297

296 Handbook 01 Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

of prescribed geometry - were demonstrated. In a number of cases it is of interest to solve

an inverse problem,95 i.e., when the streamwise distribution of some of the aerodynamic pa-
rameters (e.g., velocity or surface friction) is given, and it is required to calculate the geomet-
rie parameters of the diffuser. The diffusers thus determined appear to be more efficient as
compared to plane (wedge-like) or conical ones. 0.02
This primarily relates to the so-called preseparation diffusers with zero surface fric-
tion,21,189-192 in which, at a given length, a noticeable decrease in the total pressure losses is 0.01
ensured or, at a given value of the area ratio nar , a marked decrease in the diffuser length is
possible.
Thus, as applied to apreseparation diffuser of circular cross seetion with prescribed con- 1.5
ditions in the inlet seetion (behind the preinserted cylindrical segment), it is needed to calcu-
late the law governing the change in the flow sections to obtain, at a certain distance from Figure 5.21. Total pressure losses in preseparation and conical diffusers. The symbols are same as in
the inlet to the diffuser, a boundary layer with a very small or zero surface friction. To attain Figure 5.20.
this, one has to prescribe the law of surface friction distribution over the short inlet length,
according to which this friction decreases over the length Llx* from the given value at the end
35. Diagrams 5.1 through 5.5 cont~in the total resistance coefficients Sd based on the
of the preinserted cylindrical segment Cf to zero or to a very small value. The diffuser ob- 51
experiments of Ide1chik and Ginzburg - 5:J with diffusers installed in a system or network that
tained in this way, over the length x > Llx*, acquires a bell-like shape which depends on the
had a variety of cross-sectional shapes (conical, square, plane), wh ich in turn depend on the
given value of the initial nonuniformity of the velocity profile in the inlet seetion of the dif-
basic geometrie parameters (a, narl), inlet conditions (loiDo ~ 0), and flow regime (Re).
fuser, Le., on L1Ö. In this sense, the calculated diffuser is a single-mode one. However, experi-
ments showed that a certain small change in L1Ö does not have a strong influence on the
efficiency of the diffuser.
Figure 5.20 presents the laws governing a change in the flow seetions of aseries of pre-
separation axisymmetric diffusers nar 1(x/ro) in the case of different extensions of the seetion
of formation of zero surface friction Ax = Llx*lrO = 0.5, 1, 2, and 4 at Re = 2.42 x 105 and 5
L1Ö = 0.02. This figure also contains straight Iines for conical diffusers with divergence angles
a = 3, 5, and 7°. 3
Figure 5.21 presents the corresponding dependences Stot(n ar 1) for preseparation diffusers at
different valües ofAx =: Llx*lrO andfor conical diffusers obtained~ by solving adirect problem.
Figure 5.22 gives a comparison between the data of calculation and experiment for a presepa-
ration axisymmetric diffuser at Re = 1.4 x 105, L1Ö = 0.2. 5,14,21-23,27,189-191
0.2

o r-__ ~ __~__~'~__c~__~
g

0.2 -
- 1
-2
O~~--~--~---~3~~
4 8 12 16 xlro
Figure 5.22. Geometrie and aerodynarnie charaeteristics of an axisymmetrie preseparation diffuser (Re
Figure 5.20. Area ratio of preseparation axisymmetric and conical diffusers (Re = 2.42 x 10\ 1) pre- = 1.4 x 105; ~ = 0.02): 1) experiment of Bychkova,189 2) eontour of the diffuser,189 3) calculation. 190
separation diffusers; 2) conical diffusers.
 T

Flow with a Smooth Change in Velocity 299

Handbook ojHydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition
298
_Figure 5.23 pres~nts the ~ependence <rexp = f(ao) for conical diffusers with the area ratio narl
36. The total resistance coefficient of a diffuser installed in the network is in the general _ 2-16 t~at are l~stalled 5~n the system; these were obtained based on the experimental data
of Ide1chlk and Gmzburg at the Reynolds numbers Re = (1-9) x 105.
case (under any inlet conditions)
For a uniform velo city profile at the inlet seetion (kd = 1.0) and large Reynolds numbers
(5.4) (Re :::: 2·10\ the shock coefficient of diffusers with divergence angles 0 < a < 40° can be
47
ca1culated from the author's formula .49

where ~dlo=O is the total resistance coefficient of a diffuser at lo/Do = 0 (see Diagram 5.1);
~dlo>O is the resistance coefficient of a diffuser with a straight seetion or a curved part in-
J..F:j...,lT
I 21:-
stalled upstream.
I[ I <J'exp
i i.-- 1.04
37. In the case of an asymmetrie al velocity distribution downstream of elbows, throttling r]'
i-i
devices, and other fittings, it is possible for practical applications to utilize the values of kd 1I
0.96
given in Diagrams 5.1 (para. 3) and 5.19 (para. 2). The data shown under para. 3 of Diagram
11 ..
0.88
5.1 were obtained using the results of investigations of a conical diffuser installed down-
ISO
stream of branches with different geometrie parameters. Those under para. 2 of Diagram 0.80 <Pexp

5.19 have been obtained on the basis of studies of circular diffusers upstream 127 of which dif-
.. 0.72 0.96
lt
ferent velocity distributions were produced with the aid of special screens.
0.64 0.88
38. The data of Diagrams 5.1 through 5.5 consider the simultaneous effect of the parame-
I~
ters Re and /..0 = wo/acr- In general, these parameters exert a combined effect on the charac- <Pexp. 0.56- 0.80
0.96
rn
'Il
..
teristics of the diffusers. 36 However, in the absence of separation and large Reynolds numbers I 0,48- 0.72
I I
this combined effect is of no importance. Flow compressibility exhibits itself most strongly at 0.88 11 0,4/} 0.64
small Reynolds numbers in the region of a critical drop in the resistance. 0.80 !ff/ 0.32 0.56
Since there is a lack of data to evaluate the combined influence of the above parameters, xp 7J
this effect can be neglected in practical application ca1culations, particularly since in many 0.72 I
1. 04 0.24 0048
Re= 1.105 I
practical cases Re and Ao vary simultaneously.
39. It is sometimes convenient in engineering calculations to resort to a conventional O. 96
0.64
0.56 l/ ~
, f•
,0.16 0.40

method of dividing the total losses in a diffuser fj.p into two parts: * fj.Pfp the friction losses ~ f .n.
0.08 0.42
O. 88 .....;
along .the length of the diffuser, and fj.Pexp' the local losses associated with expansion of the -(J.48 14:
O.E0 O~ -
cross seetion. The total resistance coeffieiehTüf lhe~diffuser:Sd is accordingly~eomposed of
~

I
0040 Re=210 5
0.72 '" O. 16
the friction resistance coefficient Sfr and the expansion resistance coefficient Sexp: 11
0.32 VI?' !J
0.64 0.08
Vg..
fj.p (5.5)
0.5 6
0.24 - , 0
=- 2 - =Sfr + ~exp 1111
Sd
pwQl2
.
0048
f.o.16 Re= 4·1rP
0.08 '/
.
40. It is convenient that the "expansion" losses be expressed in terms of the shock coeffi- 0.40 0 ~
cient,47,49 which is the ratio of the actual expansion losses in the diffuser to the theoretical
0.32
shock losses due to a sudden expansion of the cross seetion (a = 180°), that is, Re= 8'10 5
0.24 o n= 2
IJ ar1 4
(5.6) 0.16 I:J. 6
.,
~
2 .
'V 10
<Pexp + 16
(p/2) (wo - wI> 0.08 11111\

o '.... 11 i I! T I
1 3 5 7 10 1620 30 40 60 100140 cx.~

*Since the method has not strict foundation, the formulas that will given further should be consid-
ered as interpolational ones convenient for practical calculations. An attempt at improving the consid- Figure 55~3. Dependence <?exp =j{ao) for conical diffusers in the system at IdDo = 0 and different Ro
numbers. . v
ered empirical method for calculating the resistance of diffuser channels was made by Chemyavskii and
Gordeev. 97 ,98
 T

Flow with a Smooth Change in Velo city 301

300 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

42. When a ~ 40-50°, the shock coefficient <rexp is smaller than unity (see Figure 5.23).
(5.7)
<j)exp = 3.2K1 tan 1.25 a /2 , This indicates that the losses in a diffuser are lower than the shock los ses at a sudden expan-
sion (a = 180°). For angles a = 50-90° the value of <rexp becomes somewhat larger than
where, based on the experiments,26,52,54 for conical diffusers k ~ 1; for pyramidal diffusers unity, that is, the losses in a diffuser increase compared with the shock losses. Starting from
with expansion in two planes: a = 90° and up to a = 180°, the value of <rexp decreases and approaches unity; this means
that the losses in the diffuser become dose to the sud den expansion los ses and therefore, un-
less a uniform velocity is expected downstream of the diffuser, it is not advisable to use dif-
fusers with the divergence angles a > 40-50°.
k = 3.3 - 0.03a, 12° < a < 30° ; When a very short transition piece is needed because of the requirement of limited overall
size, then, from the point of view of the resistance, this piece may have the divergence angle
for plane diffusers a = 180°.
43. When a uniform velocity profile is required downstream of the transition piece and
k = 2.0 - O.03a, 4° < a < 12° ; guide vanes, dividing walls, or perforated plates (screens, nozzles) are to be installed for this
purpose, then any diffuser, even one with a very large divergence angle (a > 50°), should be
k = 2.0 - 0.04a, 12° < a < 20° , preferred to a sudden expansion (a = 180°).
where a is given in degrees. 44. Since a smooth expansion of the cross section of a tube with rectilinear walls at small
The expansion resistance coefficient is expressed in terms of the shock coefficient as divergence angles (a diffuser) leads first to a decrease in the pressure losses compared with
the los ses in a tube of the same length, but of constant cross section, while larger divergence

~exp == ~
angles lead again to an increase in these losses, then there probably exists an optimum diver-
= <rexp (1 - _1_)2 =3.2k tan1.25 %(1 - _1_ 2 (5.8)
gence angle at which the losses are reduced to minimum (see curves ~d = f(a) of Diagnims
p 6/
W 2 n arl narl
J 5.2, 5.4, and 5.5).
47 45. The minimum value of the resistance coefficient ~min of conieal diffusers exists within
41. The friction resistance coefficient for conical diffusers ,49 is
the region aopt = 4-12° and depends mainly on the area ratio nar l and the relative length
lolDo: the smaller narl> the larger aopt at which this minimum is attained (see graph a of
i1pfr A ( 1--21-
~fr==-2-=-- J. (5.9) Diagram 5.2); conversely, the parameter loiDo decreases the value of aopt.
pwo/2 8 sin ~ narl For rectangular (square) diffusers, the upper limit of a opt is much smaller (70). The effect
2
of loiDo on decrease of aopt is more substantial in this case (see Diagram 5.4).
For pyramidal. diffusers with the sides of the inlet section ao and bo and. with identical For plane diffusers, the optimum divergence angle, at which the miminum of the pressure
diver(J'~~~e angles inboth pl~nes the frietion coefficient Sfr fs ca1culated -from Equation (5.9) .. -losses i's attained, exisfs withirtlne range aopt= 6--12° (see Diagram 5.5).
47
Fo~ a pyramidal diffuser with different divergence angles (a :;t: ß) in both planes , 49 46. It is very important for many practical applications to recover the maximum possible
static pressure over a minimum length of the diffuser even at the cost of greater energy losses
in it.
r
~fr =~=J::..[l-.-LJ[_l
2
pwo/2
16 2 a +_1 ßJ'
nar sin 2" sin'2 (5.10)
Theoretically, the larger the area ratio narl or the relative length ld/DO at the given diver-
gence angle, the larger the coefficient of the static pressure recovery lld of the diffuser:

For a plane diffuser with the sides ao and bo (where bo is constant in length)47,49 PI-PO
TJd=-- . (5.13)
pw6;2
~fr -=~_~[aO_1 1 1
( 1 _ -J + _ 1 [1_-J~' (5.11)
p 5/2 - 4 bo tan !!:.
W narI 2 sin!!:. niel 47. Based on the Bernoulli and continuity equations and Equation (5.13), the following
2 2 relationship exists between the pressure recovery coefficient and the resistanee coefficient of
the diffuser installed in the network
Practically, it is possible to assurne that

~fr=-"A
4 sin ~
[~o (1-;f-J+0.5
ar I
0
[l-+l~
narl ~
. (5.12)
(5.14)

2
 Flow with a Smooth Change in Velocity 303
302 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

narl at which the maximum possible static pressure recovery is attainable (due to a deerease
where in the flow velocity) is considerably lower than it might have been in an ideal diffuser (with-
out separation and losses and with uniform velocity distribution over the eross seetion). In
cases where the geometric dimensions of the diffuser (area ratio narl and length ld) are not
limited by any requirement (not preseribed), the low values of narl allow the use of diffusers
with ;he o~timum area ratio [(narl)opt and (ldIDO)opJ at which lld attains the absolute maxi-
mum posslble for the given inlet conditions (boundary-layer thickness of length lolDo).
If nonuniformity in the veloeity distribution at the inlet and outlet seetions of the diffuser
50. The values of lldmax, ~d' (narl)opt, and (ldIDo)opt for eircular and rectangular diffusers,
is negleeted, that is, if it is assumed that No = NI = 1.0 (whieh is often admissible for prae-
as weIl as for plane diffusers, obtained from Equation (5.13) and from Diagrams 5.1 through
tieal ea1culations), then
5.5 are listed in Table 5.1. Tbe limits of the geometrie parameters of the diffusers are listed
in the same sequence as lldmax and ~d'
1 (5.15)
l1d = 1 - -2- - Sd . 51. The static pressure recovery coefficients in diffusers with the prescribed geometrie pa-
narl rameters can be determined from the curves of lld vs. narl for different divergence angles a
and inlet eonditions ClolDo) given in Figures 5.24 through 5.26 (the curves are based on the
An analogous relation is obtained for the total resistanee eoeffieient of the diffuser in-
data of Diagrams 5.1 through 5.5 for Re > 4 x 10\
stalled at the outlet from the network:
52. Figures 5.27 and 5.28 give the data l44 for conical diffusers with the divero-ence
I:> ano-le
I:>
a = 10° in the form of 1lld vs. the diffuser effieieney ca1culated from the formula similar to
lltot = 1 - ~tot .
Equation (5.14) and, correspondingly, of the resistanee coefficient ~d ea1culated as the ratio of
48. Tbe effieieney of the diffuser is sometimes characterized by the efficiency coefficient, the differenee of total pressures in sections 0-0 and 1-1 to the differenee of velocity pressures
which is the ratio of the actual to the ideal (without losses) increment in the static pressure: in the same seetions, that is

Table 5.1. Optimum characteristics of the diffusers

PI-PO PI-PO (5.16)
1lId = 22'
(P1 - PO)id No(pw0l2) - NI (p wI/2)
10
Do 1] 1 = Sd (narl)opt CIoIDo)opt
where (PI - PO\d is the difference between the static pressures in sections 1-1 and 0-0 for
an ideal diffuser (without losses). Conical diffusers (a = 14-10°)
Tbe coupling between the efficiency eoefficient and the resistance coefficient of a diffuser, 0 0.84-0.91 0.13-0.08 6-10 5.8-12.3
instalkd in the network, is expre8sed by 2 0.69-0.82 0;29-0.17 6-10 5.8-12.3
5 0.64-0.77 0.30-0.20 4-6 4.1--8.2
10 0.58-0.71 0.17-0.27 2-6 1.7-8.2
20 0.57-0.70 0.19-0.27 2-6 1.7 8.2
Rectangular diffusers (of square cross section at a = 10-6°)
at No = NI =1
0 0.74-0.84 0.18-0.13 6 8.2-13.5
10 0.66-0.76 0.28-0.18 4 5.7-9.40
Plane diffusers (a = 14-10°)
0 0.78-0.80 0.16-0.14 4 12.2-17.0
A similar relationship is obtained for the total resistance eoefficient of the diffuser installed 10 0.71-0.75 0.23-0.17 4-2 12.0-5.70
at the exit from the network:

1- ~tot *Since the finite equation of velocities and pressures over the section of interest occurs not directly
llltot = ?
1 - (lInärv downstream of the diffuser, but at some distance along the straight section behind it, the maximum of
the stati~ pressure recovery is attained at the distance downstream of the diffuser (for practical purposes
49. Owing to flow separation from the diffuser walls with a large area ratio and with a at the dlstance up to 2D1, where D1 is the diameter of the exit section; for a plane diffuser D] is re-
substantial nonuniformity of the veloeity distribution over the seetion, the effeetive area ratio placed by the larger side of the exit section, Le., 2m).
 Flow with a Smooth Change in Velocity 305
304 Handbook oi Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

'Z/

0.:
0.5 f narf= 1.5;
Pi, (}(=10"

l'ff1u "'l./t
l1 an =2.0i o.OtO
0(=/0" Jillq =11.0250.0200.015

~igure 5.~~. Depe,pdence of the efficiency nld of the diffuser with CI. == 10° on the Mach number (Mao) ,
l44
mIet condltlOns (ö !Do), and divergence ratio n ar l.
Figure 5.24. Dependence of lld on narl for a conical diffuser.

,---..- ,-- --r-r-

.. =60
0

~I.--.... t,,/JJ.#D
-
I ~ ~ "- ;".r

-- -
-~
I
~- .- --- ()- i~

~
I~

--r
1

- -
--r----.

~
..... ~
~~
~f(J

.. c!- -
~to.

-
20 0
I!! ~
r- 'MO
Il

---- -- ----
; 14
-- - ~f() --
t
! 10 .0

~--
~fO-

1--'I-- 1-1-
I1 ~ (I< -6- 0

.z::t~ - -- I-- -, ._.

V! i
-_. -jJ4j'0 I--
2 J ! 8 nar1 Figure 5.28. Dependence of the resistance coefficient Sd of the diffuser with
l44
CI. == 10° on the Mach
number (Mao) , inlet conditions (Ö*!D o), and divergence ratio llarl.
Figure 5.25. Dependence of lld on narl for Figure 5.26. Dependence of lld on llarl

a rectangular (square) diffuser. for a plane diffuser.

 T

Flow with a Smooth Change in Velocity 307

306 Handbook oj Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

r' - po2 - PI
Po is the density of the stagnated flow in the inlet section of the diffuser; Ta
is the stagnated
flow temperature in the same section.
,:>d = 2
NO powo _ NI PIWI 56. In Diagram 5.6 the total pressure recovery coefficients PO and the hydraulic resistance
2 2 coefficient Sd of a plane five-channel subson~ diffuser are given for the following geometric
vs. the parameters narl> '(//Do, and Mao. parameters: at a' equal to 8, 12, and 16°; at lO equal to 3.23, 6.45, and 9.68; narl = 6.45; Re
Here, andNo Ni
are the coefficients of the nonuniformity in the distributions of flow pa- = (0.6-4) x lOS.
rameters over the cross sections 0-0 and 1-1; Mao is the Mach number in section 0-0. The 57. At very low Reynolds numbers (at least within 1 < Re < 30-50) the resistance co-
coupling between the Mach number and the reduced velocity Ao is given by Equation (1.41). efficient of the diffusers is described by the same equation as in the case of a sudden
. 4
53. The data on the coefficients Tlld and Sd were obtained at the Reynolds number Re = 2 expanSIOn:
x lOS-1.7 X 106, Mach number at subsonic velocities from Mao = 0.2 till the regime of flow
choking and at supersonic velocities within the range Mao = 1.2-1.4. ßp
S = - - A-
There is the following relationship between the quantities Sct and Tlld: Sct = 1 - Tlld' - pw6/2 -Re'
54. The most detailed data in the form of the relationship PO = pr/po of the coefficient
pr of the total pressure recovery at the exit from conical diffusers in terms of the total pres- Here, the quantity A is a function of both the angle and the area ratio
sure (stagnation pressure) Po
in the smallest cross section (0-0) on the numbers Ao and Re are
given in Diagram 5.3. The relationships Po = f('A o, Re) (according to the experiments of Idel- A = j(a, narV .
chik and Ginzburg 27 ,Sl-S4) are given for the divergence angles a = 4-14°, area ratios narl =
2-16, and relative lengths loiDo = 0-10.
At velocities close to the sonic one, the dependence of Po on Ao degenerates into vertical
straight lines (see Diagram 5.3). This is explained by the onset of flow choking regime in the 20n~i3
diffuser when a compression shock occurs. The larger the relative length of the straight inlet A
(tan a)0.75
section, the earlier, that is, at the smaller values of 'Ao, the choking regime occurs.
55. The relationship between the resistance coefficient of the diffuser and the total pressure
coefficient may be obtained on the basis of the following formula: I9 58. At high gas flow velocities it is more convenient to operate not on the resistance co-
efficient, but on the total pressure recovery coefficient at the end of the diffuser pi, expressed
in terms of the total pressure (stagnation pressure) Po in its smallest cross section (0-0):

- PI*
PO=-; .
where Po
is the density of the stagnated flow in the inlet section of the diffuser. PD'
For diffusers with small divergence angles at which the pressure losses are small,2
59. A resistance located downstream of the diffuser and uniformly distributed over the
~ k+ 1 1 - cross section (provided by a screen, perforated plate or grid, nozzle, air heater, etc.) regulates
t
-d
=--=---(I-po)
* 2 k 2 ' the flow in both the diffuser and the channel following it. The losses in the diffuser decrease
Powo/2 'Ao
somewhat. However, the total los ses in the diffuser and in the grid (screen, etc.) vary only
slightly.
whence
For rectiHnear diffusers with divergence angles a up to 40-60°, and especially for curvi-
- k ')~r linear diffusers, these losses remain equal to the sum of losses separately in a diffuser and in
Po = 1 - k + 1 ''1J':>d , aperforated plate or grid,47-49 that is,

where l'= ßp -r
':>---2--':>W.gr+-?- ,
Sgr
pwo/2 närl

where ~w.gr = ~w.gr/(pw5/2) is the resistance coefficient of the diffuser without a grid, de-

a cr = '-l 2k
--RT
k+l
o* ,
termined as S from corresponding diagrams of Chapter 5; Sgr = ~gr/(pw~/2) is the resis-
 Flow with a Smooth Change in Velocity 309
Handbook oj Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition
308
wards, the flow becomes smoother, the degree of pressure recovery in the diffuser increases

aC8tE(!J_~-n~~-rl
and its resistance decreases.
The blowing off of the boundary layer (see Figure 5.29b) increases the flow velocity near
the walls, as a result of which the separation zone moves downstream.
62. The effectiveness of boundary-layer suction depends on the ratio of the flow rate q of
the medium sucked through the slits in the side walls of the diffuser to the total flow rate Q
(a) (b) (cl of this medium through the diffuser (on the flow rate coefficient q= ~) and on the relative

wt4~~
distance from the inIet section of the diffuser to a slit. At q = 0..0.2-0..0.4 the diffuser resis-
tance decreases by 30.-40.%. Here, the intrinsic losses in the suction system for the values of
q indicated are relatively Iow. 91 ,93
63. Figure 5.3o.b presents the resuIts of Frankfurt's experiments 93 on pressure distribution
(g) along the diffuser with a divergence angle a = 10° at the flow rate coefficients of the air
sucked q from zero to 0..1. Here, the suction through the slit located in the preseparation zone
turned out to be most efficient. An increase in the flow rate coefficient leads to a marked
increase in the degree of the static pressure recovery for diffusers of different Iengths. Figure
5.30c presents the data on the resistance coefficients ~tot of conical diffusers operating in dis-
charge with divergence angles of a = 30.° and 60.° and an area ratio of narl = 2-8 at Re =

(k)
V)

Figure 5.29. Different means of improving operation of short diffusers.

a
tance coefficient of the grid (screen, nozzle, etc.), based on the flow velocity at its face, de- p
termined as ~ from corresponding diagrams of Chapter 8. I .~
i
.-+-.-1-. I---
J.:.--- -1=
a. B
60.. The flow conditions in short diffusers (with larger divergence angles) can be greatly
improved, and the resistance lowered, by preventing flow separation with them or by attenu-
a. ~
V' ~
p
~ ~ j:=-
- .f-

~ '---'---,-
ating vortex formation. . .
The main measures that improve flow conditions in the diffuser (Flgure 5.29) mc1ude .~ ~ I
I
o 0.070.02 .0 .7

~ 0.8
I
boundary-layer suction (Figure 5.29a) and blowing (renewal) (Figure 5.29b); installation of I
I
7.6 2.4 .1.7 4.0 4.8 x
guide vanes (baffles, Figure 5.29c) and dividing walls or splitters (over :~e whole leng~h of
the diffusers, Figure 5.29d, or over part of it, Figure 5.2ge); use of curvlhnear walls (Flgure b c
5.29f, g, h), stepped walls (stepped diffusers, Figure 5.29j), and preseparation diffuse~s (~ig­ Figure 5.30. Schematic of boundary layer suction Ca), pressure distribution over the length of the dif-
ure 5.29i); and transverse ribs or fins (Figure 5.29k); use of the generators of longItudmal fuser with a divergence angle CI. = 10° at different values of Ci (b), dependence of Stot on the flow rate
coefficient q Cc):93 solid lines, flow suction through a slit in the initial section of the diffuser Cx = 0);
vortices (Figure 5.291).
61. When there is sucking through slits (see Figure 5.29a), the thickness of the boundary x
dashed lines, simultaneous suction through two sEts in seetions = 0 and Xi = 0.78 at CI. = 30°; = 0 x
and Xi = 0.35 at CI. = 60°; 1) narl = 8; 2) narl = 4; 3) narl = 3; 4) narl = 2.
layer on the diffuser wall decreases, as a result of which the separation zone moves down-
 310 Handbook of Hydra u lic Resistance, 4th Edition Flow with a Smooth Change in Velo city 311

(3.7-4.8) x 105 depending on the flow rate coefficient q and position of a sucking slit Xi = Sial r----.----...--.....
Xi
a
Da. Here, the total pressure los ses of the diffuser with sucking (Stot) were determined with

account for the additional energy spent on suction which were taken equal to the product of
the amount sucked (reduced to normal atmospheric conditions) by the difference of pressures
0,4 t----+--4f+-~-_j
above the slit and in the suction chamber (see Figure 5.30a). The efficiency of the sucking
unit was taken equal to unity.
0.2'--_-'-_ _J...-_....J
For a = 30° the optimal degree of suction lies within q = 0.02-0.03. The losses are the
X·
smallest on application of combined suction through slits: at distances x = 0 and Xi = D~ =
0.78. For a diffuser with the angle a = 60° the optimum value of the flow rate coefficient is 1.2 t----r-----if---4--l
q = 0.04. The smallest losses result when a slit is located in the initial section of the diffuser
(Xo = 0). 0.8 r---t-....".,,;;:-t--~_j
64. Investigations of the effect of the boundary layer blowoff on the static pressure recov-
ery lld and aerodynamic resistance Stot were carried out on models of plane and conical dif-
fusers 95 ,211 with a separational and separationless models of flow, divergence angles a = 10, 0.04 0.08
30, and 60° and area ratios narl = 3-8 at the Reynolds number Re ~ 2.7 x 105. The above-
mentioned works contain a detail bibliography on boundary layer blowoff in diffusers. Figure 5.32. Dependence of the resistance coefficient Stot on Ci for diffusers with divergence anales "'0
Boundary-layer blowoff was arranged through annular slits located around the periphery of and 60°;95 0 .J

the inlet section of the diffuser. 187 To blow a boundary layer, an air jet was directed either
a) a = 30°, narl = 3-8: 1) 1s = 0.03; 2) 1s = 0.06; 3) 1s = 0.08;
along the wall or along the axis of the diffuser. 187
The investigations have shown that the most efficient is blowing through a slit located at
b) a = 60°, narl = 4 and 8: 1) 1s = 0.03, 2) 1s = 0.06; 3) 1s = 0.08.
the inlet to the channe1. 211 The boundary layer blowoff with the flow velocity exceeding the

0"
j ~ ..;;,..1".3.
0.8
J;- ~~~~y
/'
r i-"~.
q,;
y"~"
~"''' r--r--
nart 0.0;] 0.060.08
f -
l..-' 1e.-~ .-:;f' ..!.!...... ~. J P ßl Jij
-~ 1f. d ff lIi
1D
5.5 p p tJ o
8 0 4l
•q
o aU2 0.04 0.05 a08 0.1

.. ~p"
.~
J
GI 00
,s.... 1().4l ()~ I n P-
~~ Pp
~~~~
,) P' >->

Ii • r----r-- 1s - 8 t-+if-+-+-

4,,<1
,1ft
,.~
n art 0.03 aus 0.08
J p ßl p
0.4 ~
cl

"- L;- a f5 .. 12~f-~-----+----~~

5:5 fj ;I! tJ
8 0 () 111 [1-.-_ _...1..-_ _- ' -_ _-'---1
o 0.1 0.2 o.J 0.5

Figure 5.31. Dependence of the degree of static pressure recovery on air flow rate through a slit and Figure 5.33. Dependence of the minimal los ses of a diffuser with boundary-layer blowoff on diver-
on jet mo mentum for a diffuser with a divergence angle a = 30°. gence angle a at different values of the slit area.
 Flow with a Smooth Change in Velo city 313
312 Handbook 01 Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

flow velocity in the channel leads to an increase in the static pressure recovery coefficient lld
of the diffuser. In this case, the results practically do not depend on the area ratio narl' In
187
diffusers with unsteady separation, the flow pulsations decrease. Figure 5.31 presents the
95
results of measurements of the coefficient lld in a diffuser with the divergence angle !?- =
30° and area ratio narl = 3-8 at different values of the relative width of the annular slit Is =
lfsfns)Fo, where ns = FsfFo,ls is the cross-sectional area of the slit; Fs is the cross-sectional
area of the diffuser at the place of boundary-Iayer blowoff. The coefficient lld is base~ o~ the
flow rate coefficient q and the momentum coefficient of the jet cll = 2qvsf(FoW6) = 2q2/(fsns),
where ns is the area ratio of the diffuser in the section with the slit. In the latter . case, the
results obtained for different widths of the slit practically coincide. Similar conc1uslOns were
obtained 187 in studying blowing through some of discrete nozzles installed around the perime-
ter of the inlet section of the diffuser.
The dependence of the coefficient Stot (that takes into account the expenditures of energ~
in the blowing system which were taken equal to the product of the flow rate through the s11t 1.2 cf.!.
by the difference of total pressures in the chamber of the blowing system and at the exit of
the slit) on the relative flow rate q at different values of Is and area ratio of the diffuser nar 1 Figure 5.35. Dependence of the static pressure recovery coefficient in a jet diffuser on jet momentum.
for a = 30° and 60° is presented in Figure 5.32. The optimum efficiency of blowoff lies
within the limits q = 0.04-0.12 and, just as lld, it also does not depend on the value of nar 1'
The value of Stot can be reduced by a factor of 2-3 by boundary layer blowoff, or at the Frankfurt94 cites the data of experimental investigations of the degree of recovery of the
identical values of Stot, the length of the diffuser can be diminished the same number of static pressure and energy characteristics of jet diffusers for circular (diameter D = 122 mm),
times. This is confirmed by Figure 5.33 95 which presents the dependence of the minimum annular (ratio of the inner diameter d to the outer one, D, being equal to 0.5 and 0.75), and
coefficient Stot,min on fs at different values of a. Here, the symbol q designates the parameters plane (315 x 80 mm) channels. He also performed estimation of the optimal parameters of
of a diffuser with suction (length, divergence angle) with the same coefficients of resistance such facilities for different shapes of the channel. Moreover, the application of jet diffusers
Stot as a diffuser without suction at narl = 8. . for improving the efficiency of channels with stepwise expansion of the cross-sectional area
65. A thin annular jet issuing from a peripheral slit located in the outlet sect10n of the was considered. Two type of nozzle units shown in Figure 5.34 were used to create a jet: a
channel must produce a diffuser effect and thus decrease the total pressure losses at the exit conical (a) and with a rounded edge (b) which deviates an annular jet in conformity with the
of the stream into an open space. In this case, flow retardation is ensured without application Coanda effect near a curvilinear surface. The width of the slit was changed from 0.8 to 2.4
of rigid wallsatthe exit· from thechanneLThis·· provides the possibility of usingsuch :iet~. W.ll1, the diverge angle of a conica! nozzle was equal to 30° and 60°, the angle of thenozzle.
diffusers in installations with high-temperature jets or aggressive media as weIl as of reducmg with the rounded-off edge varied from 30 to 120°. In designing the nozzle with the rounded-
the axial c1earance limits of various facilities. off edge the curvature radius of the convex surface, Rw/D = 0.18, and the slit width, tsfRw =
0.04-0.11, were selected from the condition of a separationless flow in the wall jet on change
in the angles of deviation in the range a con/2 = 15°-90°.
Figure 5.35 presents the depen,gence of the degree of static pressure recovery 1ljd on the jet
momen!:Im coefficient cll = 2q 2/fs for channels of circular and annular cross section. Here q
= q/Q, !s = fs/F, fs is the cross-sectional area of the slit, F is the cross-sectional area of the
LL channel, q is the flow rate through the slit, Q is the flow rate through the channel, and a is
the divergence a~le of the conical annular nozzle. The points correspond to different values
of the slit width fs (from 0.03 to 0.17). The results confirrn that the degree of static pressure
recovery in a jet diffuser is determined by the angle of jet blowing a, geometric parameters
of the channel (dlD) , and by the coefficient of jet momentum eil' As the jet momentum in-
creases, the degree of pressure recovery increases constantly.
The total pressure loss factor Stot determined with allowance for energy losses on jet blow-
ing depends on the angle a, relative area of the slit!s, flow rate coefficient q, and on the
geometric parameters of the channel. Investigations showed that for channels of circular cross
Figure 5.34. Schematic diagrams of setups far investigation of jet diffusers: a) conical nozzle; b) nozzle section the resistance coefficient Stot can be reduced to 0.55 at q = 0.08-0.12 and (X = 30°
with a rounded edge.
 Flow with a Smooth Change in Velo city 315
Handbook oi Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition
314

l,totmln

Figure 5.37. Dependence of the minimum total pressure losses and of the equivalent length of diffusers
with. suetion ~d. t~g~ntial inj~ction on the divergenee angle: 1) diffuser without suetion and injection;
_ 0.2 2) dIffuser wIth mJeetlOu; 3) dIffuser with suction; 4) jet diffusor with a corneal nozzle.
o 0.02 0.04 o.Oti t:J
0- __ 1
• -- 2
minimum values of the total pressure loss factor Stot,min are given (with allowance of the en-
e~gy spent, o~~suction or blowing) depending onth.e diver~enceangl~ of thediffuser(or 011
Figure 5.36. Dependence of the nnruuml11 coefficientsof losses . in. jet diffusers. on the slit area: a) the angle a that characterizes jet orientation fm a jet diffus~rr~s welf as the~ values ·oi the·
round channel; b) plane channel; c) stepwise diffuser with area ratio 4.2; d) stepwise diffuser with area
equivalent length of the diffuser lq with suction or blowing that has the same coefficient of
ratio 11; 1) slit nozzle; 2) nozzle with a rounded edge.
resistance Stot,min as in the initial diffuser at narl = 4. From this it follows that the tanaential
I:>

blowoff of the boundary layer is a more efficient means of the reduction of losses in diffuser
channels with large divergence angles than suction. The efficiency of a jet diffuser with angle
and to 0.65 at q = 0.14 and a = 60°. When a nozz1e with a rounded edge is used, total
a = 60° corresponds approximately to the efficiency of a diffuser with boundary layer suction.
pressure losses decrease with increase in the angle~ of deviation of the jet up to acon = 120°
67. Guide vanes (baffles) deflect a portion of the flow with higher velocities from the cen-
and in the optimum case (for a circular channel at!s = 0.05 and q ;: :; 0.09) can be reduced to
tral region oi the diffuser to its walls into the separation zone (Figure 5.29c); as a result, the
0.4.
Stot;:::; separation zone diminishes or vanishes completely. The baffles produce their greatest effect at
Figure 5.36a shows the dependence of the minimum values of the coefficient of losses Stot
large divergence angles. Thus, at al = 90-180° the resistance coefficient decreases by almost
on the relative width of the slit!s for a channel of circular cross seetion with a conical nozzle
a factor of 2.
(a = 30 and 60°) and a nozzle in which the Coanda effect is used (acon = 30-120°). In the
Several general rules can be given when installing baffles (guide vanes) in a diffuser:
latter case, the efficiency of a jet diffuser is higher approximately by a factar of 1.5. Similar
results for a plane channel are presented in Figure 5.36b and for channels with a stepwise The vanes should be placed ahead of the entrance angle to the diffuser and behind it
GI

chanae in the cross-sectional area (narl = 4.2 and narl = 11) are presented in Figures 5.36c and
5.36~. Here, in an optimum case (acon = 120° and fs ~ 0.05) the resistance coefficient with
allowance for energy losses on jet blowing is 2-2.5 times smaller that in the initial channel.
66. Comparison of the efficiency of the enumerated me ans of aerodynamic effect on the
characteristic of diffusers with large divergence angles are given in Figure 5.37. Here, the
(Figure 5.29c); the number of vanes should be increased with an increase of the diver-
gence angle.
• The channels between the vanes and the walls should, as a rule, contract; however, at
large divergence angles satisfactory results can also be obtained with expanding chan-
 Flow with a Smooth Change in Velocity 317
316 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

neis. It is necessary to allow the flow to expand in the peripheral channeis just as in the
central channel.
• For divergence angle a = 90°, the relative distance h 1/h2 = 0.95; for a = 180°, hllh2 =
1.4 (Figure 5.29c).
• The vanes should have a small curvature and can be made of sheet metal having con- ~
~ i---....,..:"-""""'~",
"';\:=-1"
stant curvature and chord.
• The chord of the vanes can constitute 20-25% of the diameter or the height of the dif-
fuser section.
• The most advantageous angle of inclination of the vanes can be selected by first placing
them close behind one another and then rotating each vane through some angle until the Figure 5.39. Arrangement of guide vanes in a diffuser. 96
minimum resistance of the diffuser is attained.
68. Splitters divide the diffuser with large divergence angles into several diffusers with
a * =a + 2,6.80pt ,
smaller angles (Figure 5.29d). This provides both a decrease in the resistance and a more
50
uniform velocity distribution ovet the section.
and the arc a-b of the circ1e is drawn which connects the angles of the bends of the
The efficiency of splitters is greater, the larger the total divergence angle of the diffuser.
diffuser walls (the line of t;ansition of the flow in the throat to the flow that "radially"
The dividing walls or splitters are selected and installed along the whole Iength of the dif-
escapes from the source M ) over the radius
fuser with large divergence angles in the following way:

• The number z of splitters is chosen depending on the divergence angle a: 3aO

r=--
* '
2adiv
a,deg 30 45 60 90 120

z 2 4 4 6 8
where ao is the diffuser throat width and a:llv = 0.01745a * is the fictitious divergence
• The splitters are placed so that the distances ab between them at the inlet to the diffuser angle of the diffuser, in radians.
are strictly equal while the distances ai at the exit from it are approximately the same. • The number of vanes is determined so that the divergence angle of the channels be-
• The splitters protrude before and after the diffuser parallel to the diffuser axis. The tween them is approximately
length I of the protruding parts should not be smaller than O.lao and O.lal, respectively.
69 Ther1ües<:coi-arranging the diffusers with shortened walls (guide vanes) following the
96
scheme of Figure 5.2ge are
• From Figure 5.38, one finds ,6.80pt (the angle between the extension of the line of the whence
outer wall of the diffuser and the li ne of the displacement of the "source" M*, that is,
the point at which the prolongations of the lines of all the vanes are crossed, Figure *
5.39). z=~-l
7-10
• A fictitious divergence angle of the diffuser is ca1culated as
• The relative length ['lab of the vanes is determined as a function of ß (Figure 5.2ge):
.c.O"opt
L-
ß, deg 7 8 9 10 12
~ I 'Iao 20 16 12 10 9
./
• The width of the entrance into the diffuser is divided into z + 1 equal parts and the

4 7"
.IV vanes are placed radially beginning from the points of intersection of the dividin cr lines
with the transition line a-b; the length of the vanes is laid off from the transiti~n line
(Figure 5.2ge).
2
.] narl
11 The vanes in the zone of the forward edges are curved to provide a smooth transition
from the throat into the expanding part of the channel.
Figure 5.38. Dependence of the angle ~egpt, on the area ratio
96
narl.
 Flow with a Smooth Change in Velocity ,319
318 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

• If the diffusers are relatively shart and the length of the vanes exceeds the length of the
diffuser, the vanes can be shortened to have l'lld = 0.6.
41 When it is necessary to reduce the number of vanes - for example, when the width of
the inlet section is small and there is the possibility of a compressibility effect, the vane
should be made shorter, since in this case the divergence angle ß increases.
70. The variation of the pressure gradient is smoother in a diffuser with curved walls (Fig-
ure 5.29f), in which the rate of increase of the cross-sectional area is lower in the initial sec-
tion than in the end section. This reduces the main cause of flow separation and,
consequently, diminishes the main source of losses. A most advantageous diffuser, from this
point of view, is one in which the pressure gradient remains constant (dp/dx = const) along
the channel in potential flow.
For divergence ang1es a = 25-90°, the losses in such diffusers can be reduced to 40% as
compared with rectilinear diffusers, the reduction increasing with an increase of the diver-
47
gence angle within the limits mentioned.
When the divergence angles are small (a < 15-20°), the losses in curved diffusers become
even larger than in rectilinear diffusers. Therefore, the use of curved diffusers is advisable
only when the divergence angles are large.
The equation of the boundary of a curved wall diffusers of a circular (or square) cross
section for dp/dx = const (Figure 5.29f) has the form
72. Diffusers with a preseparated turbulent boundary layer ("preseparation" diffusers) are
also very efficient. An approximate ca1culation method has been developed by Bychkova lO
21
and Ginevsky and Bychkova. Initially Gust behind the entrance) they are of a bell shape,
which transforms into a segment with straight walls (Figure 5.29i). Diffusers of circular cross
section have a total divergence angle over this segment equal to a = 4°, while in plane dif-
fusers this angle is a = 6°. Apreseparation diffuser is a diffuser with a nonseparating flow
of the minimum length. See also para. 34 of this Chapter.
73. The combination of blowing with a profiled preseparation section (the Griffith diffuser,
Figure 5.29i) further decreases pressure losses and the length of the diffuser.
74. A considerable reduction in the resistance (by a factor of 2 or more) is attained by
arranging transverse ribs or fins in the diffuser (Figure 2.29k).61,62 The reduction of the resis-
tance is accompanied by equalization of the velocity profile over the diffuser section. All this
is due to the fact that macroseparation of the flow from the walls is replaced by a system of
minor separations (Figure 5.40), with the largest effect for circular diffusers being attained at
a = 40-45°. The optimum parameters of finning are given in Figure 5.40.
The lateral fins can be made flexible. The resulting vorticity and recirculation due to sepa-
ration of the boundary layer rotate these fins through an angle, thus varying the efficient cross

The equation of the bounding wall for a plane diffuser is

(a) (b)

Yl
y Figure 5.40. Schematic diagram of flow in a diffuser61 ,62 without fins (a) and with fins (b).

The resistance coefficient of a curved wall diffuser at dp/dx = const within the limits
0.1 < FoIFl < 0.9 can be ca1culated from an approximate formula based on data from the t _AI ~
... 4 A.
author's experiments: 47 A.

.. '" Cl -""
~
S=-'-=<Po ( 1.43--
pw5;2
1.3)(1 -1)2
-
narl narl 0.6 a b -
1 0 ltI

where <Po is a coefficient that depends on the relative length of the curved diffuser (see Dia-
2 X
"
A.
-
3 Ä
gram 5.8). O.lf
71. A marked reduction in the resistance is also attained in "radius" diffusers, where the 4
.6. A A IA
... Ä

bounding walls completelylOO ar partially55 follow the shape of a circular arc (Figure 5.29g, h).
The resistance coefficients of diffusers with partially circular walls and equivalent angles
-- -
a = 45 and 60° are similar to S for a longer diffuser with a = 30° without rounding. This 20 30 40 50 wo' mls
means that it is expedient to replace the rectilinear diffuser with a = 30° by a shorter diffuser
with the equivalent angles a = 45-60°, but having circular arc walls. The length of these Figure 5.41. Efficiency of finned diffusers: a) smooth; b) finned; 1) conical, narl = 5.85; 2) annular,
diffusers is smaller than that of a diffuser with a = 30° by ::::::60-100%. narl= 6.85; 3) annular, narl = 8.68.
 Flow with a Smooth Change in Velocity 321
320 Handbook of Hydra u lic Resistance, 4th Edition

As a result, the los ses in the diffuser are greatly reduced (by a factor of 2-3). The coeffi-
cient of total resistance of a stepped diffuser of circular or rectangular cross section can be
47
approximated from:

0.92
where q = 1 + 2(l/Dh) tan a.l2; kl = 3.2 for circular diffusers; kl ~ 4-6 for rectangular dif-
fusers;* nar = F2/FO is the total area ratio of the stepped diffuser (the ratio of the widest part
0.88
of the diffuser to its smallest part, see Figure 5.29j).
77. The total resistance coefficient of a plane stepped diffuser can be ca1culated approxi-
mately:47
0.84
0.82
0

Figure 5.42. Distribution of the static pressure in a diffuser involving vortex generators: 1) position of
the first row of the generators; 2) ca1culated curve; 3) position of the second row of vortex generators;
4) outlet section of the diffuser; circular points, experiments without generators; tri angular, square, and
rhombic points, with vortex generators of different geometries.
where

section of the diffuser and preventing the distribution of reverse stream of the diffuser a
mouth. 32 ql = 1 + 2(ld/aO) tan 2" '
The increase in the efficiency of conical and annular diffusers with a large area ratio at-
tained by finning the surface can be illustrated by Figure 5.29m. The corresponding experi- a
mental dependences of the pressure recovery coefficient for such diffusers with a smooth and q2 = 1 + (ld/ao) tan 2" '
65
finned surface on the mean velocity in the inlet section are presented in Figure 5.41.
75. Aneft1clen'Tmelnod of redudng t01alpressure losses in diffuser channels is based on (bo is canstaut along the diffuser length).
using of generators of longitudinal vortices (Figure 5.29l).65,203-207 They consist of a system 78. For each area ratio n and each relative length IdlDh (or IJao) of the stepped diffuser
of plane plates with the height commensurable with the boundary layer thickness in the inlet there is an optimum divergence angle aopt at which the total resistance coefficient is mini-
section of the diffuser or somewhat exceeding it. These plates are located around the entire mum (see Diagrams 5.9 through 5.11). It is recommended that stepped diffusers be used with
perimeter of the inlet section of the channel at a certain angle of attack a to the free stream the optimum divergence angles.
flow, and in this position they generate a system of longitudinal vortices of the same sign. In The resistance coefficient of such diffusers is
a number of cases, the generators that pairwise form a system of plates with angles of attack
±a turn to be more efficient: they pairwise produce a system of vortices with opposite rota- _ Ap
~=-2-=Smin,
tion (Figure 5.29l). The interaction of a system of vortices with the main stream leads to the pwo/2
enhancement of exchange in the boundary layer and to its delayed separation. Generators of
longitudinal vortices ensure a substantial decrease in the total pressure losses in subsonic dif- where Srnin is the minimum resistance, which depends on the relative length of the smooth
fusers with large area ratios and, correspondingly, an increase in the static pressure in the part of the diffuser IdlDh (or ld/aO) and the total area ratio n of the stepped diffuser (see Diar-
diffuser (Figure 5.42). gams 5.9 through 5.11).
76. In a stepped diffuser (Figure 5.29j), in which a smooth change in the cross-sectional
area is followed by a sud den expansion, the main los ses (shock losses) occur even at rela-
tively low velocities.
*The curves in Diagram 5.10 were ca1culated for kl = 6.0 which gives a certain safety factor in the
calculation.

322 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition
79. The limiting divergence angle amin of the smooth part of the stepped diffuser, that is,
the angle at which the steps cease to have influence at the given overall area ratio nar and
relative length IdDh (or Id/aO) of the smooth part, is given by
and correspondingly
alim nar1- 1
tan--=--- .
2 2ld/aO
When the relative length IdlDh (ldao) of the stepped diffuser is selected in practice, it is
advisable to use not the minimum value ~min' but a value about 10% higher, which allows a
considerable reduction in the length of the diffuser without noticeably increasing the los ses in
it. The optimum values of IdlDh (ld/aO) are given in graphs a of Diagrams 5.9 through 5.11
as a dashed line.
80. In addition to the methods of increasing the efficiency of diffuser channels (Figure
5.29) mention should also be made of other methods based on the use, for the purpose, of
solid or permeable screens and nets installed at a certain optimal distance from the outlet sec-
. all d"d d'ff 128,162,197-201 The
tion of the diffuser as weH as permeable screens Inst e InSl e a 1 user.
nets can prevent separation and ensure flow reattachment and can increase the stability of
flow in a diffuser.
81. When a diffuser is installed behind a fan, one should take into account that there is a
!ITeate difference between the flow patterns at the fan exit and at the entrance into an isolated
diffuser preceded by a straight segment of constant cross section.
As a rule, the velocity profile downstream of a centrifugal fan is asymmetric due to a cer-
tain deflection' 61 the flow ~Iil lhe' drrectiön· of-;fU11~Totati\)n:' The' vc1ocityprofile· depends on
both the type of the fan and the mode of its operation characterized by the relative flow rate
_ /Q op't where Q opt is the flow rate at maximum efficiency of the fan.
O . .
82. The flow deflection to the periphery of fan rotation allows the use of d1ffusers wlth
larcrer divercrence ancrles than conventionally used behind centrifugal fans. In this case, it is
'"
advisable '"
that '"
the plane diffusers with divergence angles a > 250 '
be made asymmetnc so that
the outer wall either would be a continuation of the housing or would deviate no more than
100 to the side of the housing, while the inner wall follows along the side of the impeller.
Displacement of the diffuser axis toward the side of the fan housing is not expedient, si?ce
the resistance of such diffusers at a > 15° is 2-2.5 times higher than that of symmetncal
58
diffusers whose axis is displaced toward the impeller axis.
83. The resistance coefficient of plane diffusers with divergence angles a < 15° and of
pyramidal diffusers with a < 10°, installed downstream of centrifugal fan~ of any type u~der
any working conditions, can be ca1culated approximately from the data glven above for lS0-
lated diffusers with the following velocity ratio taken for their inlet section:
Wmax;:::: 1.1
wo
Flow with a Smooth Change in Velocity 323
Figure 5.43. Schematic diagram of an· axial-annular diffuser.
When the divergence angles of the diffusers are larger than 10-15°, the values of ~ ob-
tained for isolated diffusers should not be used; the values of ~ should be deterrnined from
Diagrams 5.13 through 5.18.
These data are applicable in practice for Q = Qopt and Q S Qopt·
84. When there is a lack of space following a centrifugal fan, a stepped diffuser can be
installed which is much shorter than a straight diffuser for the same resistance. The optimum
divergence angle of the diffuser at which the minimum resistance coefficient is obtained can
be determined from the corresponding Diagram 5.18.
85. Axial-annular diffusers are installed in the outlet section ofaxial compressors and fans.
Figure 5.43 shows the schematic diagram of tested axial-annular diffusers and their main geo-
metric parameters. Depending on a change in the conditions of operation of a compressor or a
fan, the velocity profiles~int:heir0ut1e:tsections'ehange alld, correspondingly, th.ey change in
the inlet section of the diffuser. The above-adopted schematic representation of flow in a dif-
fuser, viz., a potential core with a constant velocity across the flow and a boundary layer on
the wall, cease to be valid, because here, outside the boundary layer on the convex and con-
cave walls of the diffuser, the velocity profiles in the "flow core" are variable along the radius
under the modes of operation of the compressor or the fan that do not allow of calculation.
Figure 5.44 presents distributions of the velocity downstream of the model of a compressor
at different values of the flow rate coefficient Ca. The figure also contains the corresponding
values of the coefficient of radial nonuniformity <p and of the coefficient of kinetic energy a
T2
f(~-llTar,
for each velocity profile, with <p = 2 -2 where Tl and T2 correspond to the
I-d _ Cam
Tl
points on the velocity profile; ca/cam = 1, and Cam is the average value for the given profile.
The diffusers indicated were tested on a rig when they had been connected to a plenum
chamber with wire nets inside that created a nonuniform velocity profile in the inlet section
of the diffuser. 192,193 Figure 5.45 presents the dependences of the efficiencies ofaxial-annular
diffusers installed downstream of a compressor on the coefficient of radial nonuniformity <po
 Flow with a Smooth Change in Velocity 325
324 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

-- -i--
~~r-....
.... .....
~ 1"- ..... ...... 1.(1
Diffuser 1 "
a5r-
r- ~I--...J.
..... 1-0.. ' -
.......
1.0
~ ......

- --
Diffuser J
1'-- ...j.. ..
'" ' .... 0.5

~ ~.
I"
Diffuser .5 1'_,-
t: I.U

- -.;
!
'.
1--- ... 10-

1.0 ~ :......

-
Diffuser 5 " ..... "', a 5
-;.-.
... ,;; ~.,..
~ ~~

0.5
Diffuser 8 r,
"
o 0.05 O.1orp
Figure 5.45. Dependence of the efficiency ofaxial-annular diffusers installed downstream of a compres-
sor on the coefficient of radial nonuniformity.
-:.-,.~_",,:_....c:'---:-'-._"-'.='>'-",_'~"~" __ ": __

Figure 5.44. Distribution of velocities downstream of a compressor modeL
Tbe dashed eurves in the figure show the eorresponding dependenees obtained in testing the
same diffusers but under the eonditions when the inlet nonuniformity was ereated by the re-
sistanee from wires. Tbe eharaeter of the eurves obtained by both methods is approximately
the same. Tbe works indicated also eite dependences of the coefficients of total pressure
losses Sd and of the efficieney of diffusers lldl on the eoeffieient of nonuniformity <p derived
in tests on a rig in which a wire net of variable resistance was used to create radial nonuni-
formity of the flow.
Tbe above data should be kept in mind when designing units for the cases where the effi-
eieney of transformation of adynamie pressure in a diffuser exerts a notable effeet on the
economical efficiency of the unit.
86. To convert the dynamic pressure downstream of the outlet vane ring ofaxial turboma-
chines (fans, compressors, turbines), wide use is made of annular diffusers, which are made
with rectilinear boundaries (axial-annular diffuser, Figure 5.46), with curvilinear boundaries (ra-
dial-annular diffuser, Diagram 5.20), or combined (axial-radial annular diffuser, Diagram 5.20).
Tbe area ratio of the axial-annular diffuser is deterrnined from the formula given in Diagram
5.19, and that of the radial-annular diffuser is determined from the formulas of Diagram 5.20.
87. The internal resistanee coefficients * Sin == fl.p/(pw5;2) = fl.p(pc a/2) of the axial-annular
diffuser with positive angles (Xl, depend on the area ratio narl at the given do, and have in
*By the internal resistance coefficients Sin and sin, here and later, we mean the ratio of the difference
of total pressures at the entrance and directly at the exit from the diffuser to the inlet velocity pressure,
regardless of the additional losses that might have occurred in the straight exit section behind the dif-
fuser due to equalization of the velocity profile distorted during the passage through the diffuser.
 Handbook oj Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition
Flow with a Smooth Change in Velo city 327
326

89. The experimental investigations of twisting a flow at inlets to conical diffusers that
practice only one curve for each value of ld = LIDo. This kind of dependence of ~in on narl
were earried out in wide ranges of divergenee angles (a = 4-30°) and area ratios narl = 1.3-
at do = 0.650-0.688 and ld = 0.5-2.0 is shown in graph a of Diagram 5.19. The curves ~in
8.3 have shown that the twisting exerts a double effect on the diffuser characteristics and de-
= j(narl) far ld = 0.5 and 1.0 were constructed from the experimental data of Dovzhik and
pends strongly on the mode of flow in a diffuser in the absence of twisting. The flow twisting
Morozov 40 while the remainino- values were constructed to approximately account for both
, ":' 40· 9 at the inlet influences the eharacteristics of the diffuser if the original untwisted flow is either
the experimental data of Dovzhlk and Moroz..:?v and the expenmental data of Bushel.
separationless or contains minor separation zones. However, in eonical diffusers, the flow in
Within the limits 2 < narl < 4 and 0.5 < ld < 2.0 the following interpolation formula can
which (with an axial flow at the inlet) contains large separation zones, twisting considerably
be used:
improves the characteristics and suppresses separation. 2lO
90. In annular diffusers installed downstream ofaxial compressors or fans the presence of
twisting should sometimes be taken into aecount. A twisted flow is eharaeterized by the pres-
enee of a circumferential (tangential) veloeity Cu in addition to the axial one Ca (Figure 5.47).
In References 162, 197, 198, data were obtained on the influence of flow twisting on the
When the velocity at the inlet to the axial-annular diffuser is non uniform or when the dif- properties of the axial-annular diffuser channels conneeted to an axial compressor. The tests
fuser is installed downstream of the operating axial machine, the internal resistance coefficient in Reference 197 were carried out at an axial velocity Cam = 60-70 rnJs, with the Reynolds
is determined as number being equal here to Re = cam-hlv = (6-7) X 105, where h is the height of the axial
ehannel in the inlet section of the diffuser. Flow twisting was produced by blading (No. 1)
- /).p ~ y' with straight blades and blading (No. 2) with the blades profiled following the constant cir-
~in = - - 2 - ~ kd ~in ,
pwo/2 culation law r·cu = const; in both cases, the angle of twisting al was practically constant
along the radius.
where kd is the correction factor (see Diagram 5.1 or 5.19). Figure 5.48 presents the results of tests of a compressor with an axial-annular diffuser in-
88. The resistance coefficient of an axial-annular diffuser with a converging back fairing stalled downstream of it. The figure eontains the dependences of the coefficients of los ses in
(see Diagram 5.19) can be determined from the diffuser ~ and ~tot, flow twisting angle in the outlet section of the diffuser a2, and pa-
rameter 'l' = tan a2/tan al on the angle of twisting a.
91. The present chapter considers one type of radial-annular diffuser with the outline of the
curvilinear part constructed following a circular are with RI/ho = 1.5 and Rolho = 2.0 (see
Diagram 5.20) and one type ofaxial-radial-annular diffuser with the outline of the curvilinear
part constructed following an elliptical arc (see Diagram 5.20 and Figure 5.49) having
where <Pd is the total* shock coefficient determined, depending on the divergence angle a,
semiaxes:
from graph b of Diagram 5.19.

Figure 5.46. Axial-annular diffuser.

47 Figure 5.47. Axial-annular diffuser with a swirled flow.

"The total shock coefficient takes into account the total lasses in a diffuser. ,49
 Flow with a Smooth Change in Velo city 329
328 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

o
Figure 5.49. Schematic diagrams of construction of an axial-radial-annular diffuser.

diameter ho to the final diameter h1> linearly. The relative diameter of the hub at the entrance
to diffusers of both types is do = 0.688.
92. The internal resistance coefficients ~in of the above types of diffusers~ are given in
Diagram 5.20 as functions of the area ratio nl at different values of "radiality" D = DIlDo for
two cases: with an operating compressor at ca = 0.5 (where Ca = caolu = W = 4Q/[n;(D5 -
d6)u]; u is the circumferential velocity of the compressor blades at the external radius, mls;
and Q is the flow rate, m 3/s) and with an idle compressor.
The value of ~in for an operating compressor exceeds the corresponding value of ~in for an
idle compressor (turbomachine) by 15-20%. The resistance coefficient of the diffusers under
consideration depends on the mode of compressor operation, that is, on the discharge coeffi-
dent cao (see Dovzhik and GinevSky):39
93. A combined diffuser, that is, an axial-radial-annular diffuser in which a radial bend
follows a short annular diffuser is somewhat better. In this diffuser, the radial turn is achieved
at lower stream velocities, and therefore the pressure losses are somewhat lower. At the same
time, the axial dimensions of such a diffuser are much larger than those of a radial-annular
diffuser.
Figure 5.48. Efficiency of the a,xial-annular diffuser installed downstream of the compressor. 94. The resistance of an annular diffuser, like that of the conventional ones, can be notice-
ably reduced by installing one or several splitters or guiding surfaces, which would divide the
diffuser with large a into several diffusers with smaller values of a and would generally
regulate the flow in the diffuser. Just as with conventional diffusers, these guiding surfaces
a =L s - (Lin - b sin a)
are efficient only at large divergence angles and at definite combinations of the angles aI and
a?, that is, combinations at which the resistance coefficients of the diffusers without these
and
s;rfaces are largest 36,39,40
95. Different mechanical systems involving such machines as pumps, turbines, and com-
pressors require, besides velocity retardation and turning of the flow, that the supplying chan-
nels be of small overall size. This is achieved in diffuser elbows or (which is the same) in
where a = (al + a2)!2·
The axial line was assumed to be the locus of centers of the circ1es inscribed in the dif- *Por the values of the total resistance coefficients Sfr, see Chapter 1 L
. fuser outline while the diameters of these circ1es varied along the axial line from the initial
 Flow with a Smooth Change in Velo city 331
330 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

fusers were tested when they were installed downstream of a smooth inlet colleetor with a
Wmax wmax
w;- Tf1d --w,- T/ 1d small straight seetion Clo/Do = 0.35).
-E~-::-----:J}-- 1.Slf 91.'1% O°-E·--f-fS 1.50 92.8~ 98. In some types of curved-axis diffusers secondary currents can also exert a positive effeet
w as they transport a portion of the moving medium from the region with larger kinetic energy
~ 1.81 85.8% 15 13 ~ 1.50 92.8% to the boundary layers which are affected by separation. In this ease the resistance coefficient
of a eurved diffuser becomes noticeably smaller than that of a straight diffuser with the same
parameters [eompare the eurves S = jRe) for diffusers 9 and 10 of Diagram 5.22].
J ' 2 . 0 7 79.6% 30°
~
911" r
~1.50 92.7%

1.53 91.1 '/.

99. In some cases, a curved-axis diffuser can be replaced by a straight diffuser with an
elbow having guide vanes. The effect on the resistance is evident from the data given in Fig-
ure 5.50.

Converging Nozzles in the System

1. Transition from a larger seetion to a smaller one through a smoothly converging section -
eonverging nozzles - is also aceompanied by comparatively large irreversible losses of total
pressure. The resistanee coefficient of a converging nozzle with rectilinear boundaries (Dia-
Figure 5.50. The values of Tlid and Wrnax/wl for curved-axis diffusers at narl = 4; ld/D O = 7.15 Ca = 8°);
ß = 15 and 30°; lofD o = 0.35; 2o~/D = 0.51%; Re = 5.2 x 105 and for straight-axis diffusers with gram 5.23) depends on the convergence angle a and the area ratio no = Fo/Fl (and corre-
flow-straightening elbows. I72 ,173 spondingly on the relative length lcon/Do) , while at stnall Reynolds numbers it also depends
on Re.
2. At sufficiently large angles (a > 100 ) and area ratios (no< 0.3), the flow, after passing
curved axis diffusers (Diagram 5.21). The flow in such diffusers is much more complex than
from the contracting section of a rectilinear converging nozzle to the straight part of the tube,
in straight axis diffusers and is composed of (1) the flow in a straight-axis diffuser and (2)
separates from the walls, which is the main souree of the loeal losses of total pressure. The
the flow in a curved channe1 of constant cross section. The latter is accompanied by secon-
larger a and the lower no, the stronger is the flow separation and the greater the resistanee of
dary currents due to nonuniformity of the velo city and pressure field in the direction normal
the eonverging nozzle. The resistance is naturally highest at a = 180°, that is, when there is
to the plane of the turn and to the existence of boundary layers at the channel walls (see
a sudden contraction in the cross seetion (see Figure 4.12).
Chapter 6). These factors contribute to an earlier flow separation and cause pressure losses
The friction losses occur along the length of the contraeting seetion.
different from those in straight diffusers. Besides the parameters mentioned in paragraph 11,
3. For engineering ea1culations it is convenient to represent the general resistance eoeffi-
the resistance of the curved-axis diffuser is also affected by the angle of curvature of the axis
cient of converging nozzles as
ß and the relative curvature radius of the axis RfDo (r/bo)·
96. The interni resistance eoeffieients sin of plane' curved-axis diffusers of eonstant length
(ld/bO = 8.3), most often eneountered in multistage pumps, are given in Diagram 5.21 as a S==4-=Sloc+Sfr.
funetion of the divergence angle a * for four values of the relative curvature radius of the pwo/2
inner side wall of the diffuser: rlbo = 00, 22.5, 11.6, and 7.5. These data were obtained by
The loeal resistance coefficient of a converging nozzle 136 is
Polotskl9 ,70 for diffusers installed direet1y behind a smooth inlet collector, that is, at lo/bo = O.
97. The internal resistance eoefficients of spatial curved-axis diffusers with exit seetions of
different shapes (circ1e, ellipse with a larger axis in the curvature plane, ellipse with a smaller SIoc == I1f
pwo/2
= (-ü.0125nt + 0.022418 - 0.00723bnO + 0.00444no - 0.00745)
axis in the curvature plane; see Diagram 5.29) at eonstant length (ld/DO = 7.15) and area ratio
(narl = 4)** and different bending angles (ß = 0, 15, and 30 ; RlDo = 00, 27.30, and 13.65
0
x ( a~ - 2TCa~ - lOap ) ,
are given in Diagram 5.22.*** Some data are given for constant values of the Reynolds num-
ber (Re = 5.2 x 10\ and some as a funetion of Reynolds number. In all the cases the dif- where ap = 0.01745a rad (a in degrees).
The frietion resistance coefficient Sfr of a contracting seetion is determined from Equations
*Por a circular diffuser the divergence angle a = 8°. (5.9) and (5.9)-(5.12), where A. is assumed to be approximately eonstant along the entire see-
tion, but dependent on Re at the entrance and on the relative roughness of the walls ~.
**By the divergenee angle or a curved-axis diffuser we mean an angle made by the side walls of a
straight diffuser obtained by "unbending" a curved axial diffuser. Diagram 5.23 also eontains the values of the total resistance coefficient S obtained experi-
lOO 5
***These data were obtained on the basis of an approximate recalculation of the values of the effi- mentally by Yanshin at Re = 5 x 10 .
I73
ciency taken from Shiringer' s experimental work.
 Flow with a Smooth Change in Velo city 333
332 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

where SI is the resistance coefficient of the transition piece with a smooth (curvilinear) con-
4. Within the limits 10 < a < 40°, the general resistance coefficient of the converging verging section at lolDo= 1.0, which is determined at Re = woDoIv ;::: 2 X 105 from curves
nozzle with rectilinear boundaries has a minimum which, at least at Re ;::: 105, remains prac- SI =fr(a,j) of Diagram 5.25 plotted on the basis of Yanshin's data. lOO At Re = 2 x 105, for
tically constant and is equal to ~ "" 0.05. coefficient SI of an annular diffuser, see S in Diagram 5.2; k I = SIAIn?:4 is the ratio of the
5. The resistance of converging nozzles can be greatly diminished by providing a smooth coefficient SI at nI = FI/Fo < 4 to its value at nI ?:: 4, see curves kI = !2(ad' FI/Fo) of
transition from a larger section to a smaller one with the help of curvilinear boundary w~lls Diagram 5.5.25; k2 is the correction far the effect of the relative length lolDa; within the lim-
(following the arc of a circ1e or any other curve; see Diagram 5.23), as well as by bendmg its 0.25 ::; loiDo ::; 5.0
rectilinear walls of the converging nozzles at the exit into the straight section (thin lines in
scheme a of Diagram 5.23). Io
With smooth contraction of the cross section, when the contraction angle is very small (a k2 ;::; 0.66 + 0.35 Da ; (5.18)
< 10°) or when the contracting section has very smooth curvilinear walls (see scheme b of
Diagram 5.23), the flow does not separate from the walls at the place of trans~tion int.o a t"s is an additional term which considers the effeet of lolDo; A = 1.0 is for transition with a
straight section, and the pressure losses reduce to only friction los ses in the contractmg portIon: smooth converging diffuser; A = f(ad) for transition with a eonverging diffuser having recti-
linear generatrices (see Diagram 5.2.5).
y_ !:3.p _y 4. For transition pieces of rectangular (square) cross section and plane transition pieces (for
~ =--2-= ~fr'
pwo/2 which both contraction and divergence of the cross section oeeur in one plane), the resistance
coefficient can be roughly determined from Equations (5.17) and (5.18), but with ~1 replaced
6. At very small Reynolds numbers (l < Re < 50) the resistance coefficient of converging by Sd of the diffuser at loiDa = 0 from Diagrams 5.4 and 5.5, respectively.
4 5. In transition pieces that connect tubes of cireular and rectangular cross sections (see
nozzles, like that of diffusers, is
Diagram 5.27), conversion of an axisymmetric flow into a plane one (and vice versa) is ac-
!:3.p A companied by its deformation in two mutually perpendicular planes - by expansion in one
~==-=-. 84
pW 6/2 Re plane and contraction in the other. Such a complex flow can simultaneously exhibit the
characteristic effects of the diffusers and converging sections. If a longer side of the rectan-
Within the limits 5 S a S 40°, gular section exceeds the diameter of a circular tube (bI> Do), stalling phenomena can occur,
leading to large pressure losses. Therefore, the transition piece of the type considered should
A = 20. 5n üO. 5 tan-0.5 have such a length and a shape as to prevent the possibility of flow separation or to displaee
it into the region having lower flow velocities. This ean be achieved by proper selection of
the geometrie shape and overall dimensions.
Transition Sections- 6. As Lo the shape of the walls fOTmins thetmnsitiunpieces, the laUer cart be dividedtllto
three eharacteristic types (Figure 5.51). Type A is obtained when the truncated cireular cone
1. There are two kinds of transition sections: (1) those with a variable cross section along the
(with rectilinear boundaries) is intersected by planes.
flow, with the shape of the cross section kept constant and (2) those in which both the cross Type B is construeted on the basis of a linear change of the cross-sectional areas along the
section and its shape vary. length of the transition pieces; in this case, in the plane of symmetry, parallel to the longer
2. The first type inc1udes, in par~icular, convergin~-1~~erging ~ansition pieces (Diagrar:n side of the rectangle, the boundaries of the transition pieces are rectilinear.
5.25). According to experiments carned out by Yanshm the optlmal parameters of transI- Type C, like type B, retains a linear change of variation of areas over the greater part of
tion pieces in the form of a converging nozzle with rectilinear walls are as follows: the length of the transition pieces, but at the same time provides a more uniform distribution
of the average velocity at eaeh location. All the boundary walls in these transition pieces are
curvilinear.
7. In the transition pieees of type A, provided bI > Da, a nonseparating flow can be pro-
For a converging nozzle with curvilinear walls the optimal bending radius is R con = 0.5- duced near the diverging walls at a = 20-30°. In this case, the length of the converging tran-
1.0Do· sition segment should be asssumed to be equal to: at bI > 1.5Do, Icon "" 1.8(h} > Do), and at
3. The resistance coefficient of converging-diverging transition pieces of annular cross sec-
bl ::; 1. 5Do, lcon = 1.5b I ·
tion, like that of conventional diffusers, depends on the relative length of the intermediate The length of the converging transition pieces of types Band C can be reduced by a factor
straight section loiDo and on the area ratio FI/Fo and can be determined from of 1.5-2 as compared with the length of the transition piece of type A. Tentatively, the length
of these transition pieces is
S== !:3.f =A (kIk2SI + t,,~) , (5.17)
pwo/2

334 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition
84
Figure 5.51. Transition pie ces having different shapes of the boundary walls.
leon ~ (1 - 1.5)bl .
In cases where bl/Do, the walls of the converging transition pieces taper and then their
length should correspond to the optimum angle of convergence, as in annular converging noz-
zles, thaUs,a =~4:.9-500. In this case,
8. An increase in the length of converging transition pieces leads to an increase in friction
losses, whi1e a decrease in their length causes an increase in the resistance due to flow sepa-
ration from diverging walls.
9. Diverging transition pieces, like plane or conical diffusers, also have an optimal length
for which there is a minimum hydraulic resistance. It is most important here to prevent sepa-
ration at the inlet portion of the unit. To achieve this, the complete angle between the diverg-
ing walls at the beginning of the transition piece should not exceed 8_10°. Compliance with
this condition in transition pieces of type A leads to their comparatively large length, corre-
sponding at a = 10° to
Therefore, to make the length of the diverging transition pieces shorter, type B or C
sshould be used, and their length should be equal to
ld ~ (3 - 4 )Do .
Flow with a Smooth Change in Velocity 335
10. When the relative width of the rectangular cross section is small (bl/Do < 2), transition
pie ces of type B should be used. The walls adjacent to the longer side of the rectangular
section should in this case be made curvilinear, while the walls adjacent to a shorter side
should be left rectilinear. At bIIDO > 2, diverging transition pieces of type C should be used.
11. Dimensions of any cross section along the length of the transition piece of type B can
be determined analytically from
(5.19)
x
bx =DO + (b - Do) I '
where Fx is the cross-sectional area at a distance x from the entrance.
12. The cross-sectional dimensions of transition pieces of type C can be determined from
Equation (5.19), using them separately for each of the three characteristic parts of the transi-
tion piece shown in Figure 5.51.* For example, when the middle part I is ca1culated (see Fig-
ure 5.51), the width bxI = Do is known, while the size axI is deterrnined from the relation F
= f(xll). When parts II are caIculated, the size axII = axI is known, while the size bxII is de-
=
termined from the relation F f(xll).
The total width of any cross section should be equal to
bx =bxI + bxII .
13. As for conventional (plane and axisymmetric) diffusers and converging nozzles, the
hydraulic resistance of the transition pieces considered depends on the geometrie parameters
(area ratio nar and relative lengths of the transition pie ces ld/DO and teon/DO), on the flow
pattern (Reynolds number) and iniet conditions. Moreover, the ratio of the sides of the rectan-
gular cross section bI/al, the shaj:)e of the walls--mthetransitionpieces,and- the method of
variation of the cross-sectional areas over the length are important parameters for the above
transition pieces.
14. The resistance coefficient of the transition pieces considered can be determined from
84
the interpolation formula of Tanaev:
y_ I1p
I:;,=-z-=Ssim+Aexp (-k2~
Re] , (5.20)
pwQl2 esim
where the numerical coefficients A and k2 depend on the method of variation of the values
and shape of cross-sectional areas over the length of the transition piece and on the ratio
bI/al; SSirn is the resistance coefficient of the similar flow regime (Re;::: Resim = 5 x 10\ Wo
is the average flow velocity in a circular cross section of the transition piece; A = Ad "" 0.5
and k2 = kd = 5.0 for a diverging transition piece; A = Acon "" 03 and k2 = keon "" 5.0 for the
converging transition piece.
*In important cases, specification and final selection of the optimal shapes and dimensions should be
made on the basis of experiments.
 Flow with a Smooth Change in Velocity 337
336 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

5.2 DIAGRAlVIS OF THE RESISTANCE COEFFICIENTS

The first term on the right-hand side of Equation (5.20) is
Diffusers. Determination of the inlet conditions (kd)51-55,127 Diagram 5.1

(
~sim = Co + hJ no2 ,
CI;; Concentric vanes Diffusers

~
2'Freeiet
where CI depends on the length and shape of the transition piece. For transition pie ces with
a linear method of variation of the areas, values of CI are given in graph b of Diagram 5.27. -Y0' fo --
. •___ _
The coefficient Co is the resistance of the tube portion of constant cross section, the length
of which is equal to the length of the transition piece. 1ts value is ---
Iw•s.

'Al
co= Dh '
where Dh is the average value (over the length of the transition piece) of the hydraulic diame-
ter. At the length of the transition pieces liDo"'" 3.5, it can be tentatively assumed that Co "'"
0.06, Cid "'" 0.01 - for the diverging transition piece, and CIcon = 0.002 - for the converging
transition piece. The quantity no = FoIFl> where Fo is the area of the circular cross section of
the transition piece and FI = alibI is the area of the rectangular cross section.
15. The resistance coefficients of transition pieces in which a rectangular cross section
with small aspect ratio (alibI:::; 2.0) changes into an annular cross section, or vice versa (see
scheme of Diagram 5.28), can be determined from the data for diffusers of rectangular cross
section with equivalent divergence angles. The equivalent angle a e is determined from the
following expressions:
for transition of a circ1e into a rectangle
1. When wrnax/w or 2bo/Dh is known in the symmetrical velocity field upstrearn of a diffuser (scheme 1), the rela-
tive length loIDh is determined from the curves Wrnax/WO = /l(loIDh) (graph a) or alternatively from the curves
2bo/D/z =!2(lOIDh) (graph b); then, from these values of loID/z, the value of kd is determined from the appropriate
diagrarns.
2. For a free jet (working section of a wind tunnel (scheme 2), Wrnax/WO = /3 (lw.s!Dh) (graph c) is determined using
the known length lw.s!D/z, then loID" is determined from graph a, and finally kd = f(loIDh) is determined from the
appropriate diagrarns.
3. When diffusers (of any shape) with a = 6-140 are instalied downstrearn of a branch pipe (scheme 3) or any other
=
curved parts with similar velocity profiles upstrearn of the diffuser (graph d) kd lew/wo, RolD/z, loID", z) is taken
from the table below.

a e 2~-Do
tan 2' = 2ld
:2. Stlwting length-Free jet
for transition of a rectangle into a cirele ICI
wjw.
Annulan-j-- ( ''f'>--, "~~
ae ~~--~~~--~~
tan2' i?Q , tO ~-+f\-l--/---;~-).L....j=-\-l

ff
_

~~~-L~~~~~ W
f2 f6 1.IDh . Q U (6 I.f Iw.s./Dhllw.sJ2/j~)

Parameters of the branching pipe

Shape ofvelocity
Number of concentric kd
profiles (graph d) Ro/Dh lo/Dh splitters z
0.8-1.0 0 0 6.8
0.8-1.0 0 2 2.1
0.8-1.0 0 1.9
2.0 0 0 2.6
2.0 1.0 0 1.0
>3.0 0 0 1.0
 Flow with a Smooth Change in Velo city 339
338 Handbook oi Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

Conieal diffuser (in the system with I1IDI > 0) at Cf.. - 3-180° 51-55 Diagram 5.2
Conieal diffuser (in the system with IIIDI > 0) at Cf.. =3-180° 51-55 Diagram5.2

a, deg
1. Uniform velocity field at the entrance into the dif- Re x 10-5
4 6 10 12 14
fuser (wrnax/wo = 1.0 or [oiDo '" 9):'
_ I1p narl =4
~ =-2-=~d =/(cx, n ar l' Re) , 0.197
0.5 0.197 0.180 0.165 0.151 0.157 0.174
pwo/2
1.0 0.154 0.141 0.126 0.119 0.120 0.131 0.155
see the table and the curves of graph a (for approxi-
2 0.120 0.112 0.101 0.096 0.096 0.107 0.120
rnating forrnulas see para. 38-40 of Section 5.1).
Calculation of the preseparation diffusers is consid- 4 0.101 0.091 0.085 0.079 0.082 0.090 0.107
ered in para. 34 of Section 5.1). 2:6 0.101 0.091 0.085 0.089 0.080 0.107 0.135
woD o
Re=--
v 2. Nonuniform velocity field at the entrance into the
diffuser (wrnalwo > 1.0, 28~/Do > 0 or [oID" > 0):
a, deg
Re x 10-5
16 20 30 45 60 90 120 180
~ == - !J.p ( 28; [0 J
2 - = kd~d; for diffuser downstrearn of a straight section: k d =1 cx, D' D' narl' Re , see the tables and
narl =4
pwo/2 0 0
graphs b and c; for diffusers behind a free jet (working section of a wind tunnel); 0.5 0.225 0.298 0.461 0.606 0.680 0.643 0.630 0.615
1.0 0.183 0.262 0.479 0.680 0.628 0.600 0.593 0.585
ar
J
wrnax n l' Re , see the tables and graphs b and c, where
kd =1 cx, -;;;-' w rnax
% = fI ( D[0
o
Jor Da
28; = 11 ( D J
[0
o
' 2 0.146 0.180 0.360 0.548 0.586 0.585 0.580 0.567
(
4 0.124 0.172 0.292 0.462 0.562 0.582 0.577 0.567
see Diagrarn 5.1; for diffusers with cx :: 6-14° downstrearn of a shaped (curved) piece kd = I(w/wo), see the table of
2:6 0.169 0.240 0.382 0.506 0.560 0.582 0.577 0.567
Diagrarn 5.1.

a, deg
Re x 10-5
4 6 10 12 14

'd at loiDo = 0 0.5 0.182 0.170 0.168

narl =6
0.168 0.179 0.200 0.240
CX, deg 1.0 0.153 0.144 OJ31 0.126 0.132 0.159 0.193
Re x lO-s -----------~--

4 10 12 14 2 0.128 0.118 0.109 0.101 0.101 0.118 0.151

narl =2 4 0.106 0.095 0.090 0.084 0.087 0.104 0.151

0.112 0.107 0.109 0.120 2:6 0.092 0.090 0.080 0.079 0.080 0.098 0.137
0.5 0.148 0.135 0.121
1.0 0.120 0.106 0.090 0.083 0.080 0.088 0.102
2 0.093 0.082 0.070 0.068 0.062 0.062 0.063

>4 0.079 0.068 0.056 0.048 0.048 0.048 0.051

cx, deg
Re x 10-5 a, deg
16 20 30 45 60 90 120 Re x 10-5
16 20 30 45 60 90 120 180
narl =2
0.308
narl =6
0.5 0.141 0.191 0.315 0.331 0.326 0.315
0.286 0.283 0.279 0.5 0.268 0.330 0.482 0.640 0.766 0.742 0.730 0.722
1.0 0.122 0.196 0.298 0.297
0.268 0.268 0.265 1.0 0.218 0.286 0.488 0.680 0.755 0.731 0.720 0.707
2 0.073 0.120 0.229 0.279
0.268 2 0.185 0.280 0.440 0.640 0.700 0.710 0.708 0.690
2:4 0.051 0.068 0.120 0.271 0.272 0.272
4 0.160 0.224 0.360 0.510 0.660 0.696 0.695 0.680
2:6 0.160 0.286 0.456 0.600 0.690 0.707 0.700 0.695

"Here and later on lolDo = 0 me ans that the diffuser is installed direetly following a smooth eolleetor
(inlet nozzle).

Pt
 Flow with a Smooth Change in Velocity 341
Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition
340
Conical diffuser (in the system with I1ID1 > 0) at C!. = 3-180° 51-55 Diagram5.2
Diagram 5.2
Conical diffuser (in the system with 1I1D1 > 0) at c!. =3_180°51-55
C!., deg
10 12 14
4
narl =10 fd
0.184 0.190 0.220 0.227 0.256
0.5 0.195 0.181 0,18 0.62
0.155 0.156 0.162 0.184 0.212
1.0 0.160 0.156
0.120 0.123 0.134 0.151 0.167
2 0.123 0.120
0.097 0.100 0.106 0.128 0.160
4 0.100 0.097
0.084 0.085 0.086 0.114 0.160 f
0.085 0.084
=?6 ,,4.....t-+..J,f.W....u....U (1
fd t-t-t-t-H+t-I-H-H--J.-jq, (Ha

o. 72 H-j-tt-i+t-t-H!-H-+/-tJI4H4.If-,1fttb±?~4-l 0.40
}j I
Rexl~5 ____________________________C!.,_d_e~g___________________________
120 180 0.\12
20 30 45 60 90
16
narl = 10 0.21
0.760 0.800 0.834 0.840 0.827
0.5 0.290 0.380 0.585
0.812 0.800 0.820 0.820 0.815
1.0 0.240 0.332 0.572 fl.l6
0.760 0.800 0.806 0.807 0.808
2 0.195 0.240 0.426
0.605 0.735 0.804 0.805 0.809
4 0.195 0.254 0.407 008
0.600 0.760 0.825 0.840 0.825
;:0:6 0.212 0.332 0.520
{}

C!., deg
10 12 14
4 6
narl;:O: 16
0.196 0.224 0.270
0.5 0.179 0.174 0.176 0.1?5
0.147 0.147 0.151 0.179 0.233
1.0 0.148 0.146 0,72 (J.40
0.120 0.120 0.120 0.140 0.176
2 0.118 0.120
0.095 0.094 0.095 0.118 0.160
4 0.120 0.098
0.084 0.085 0.094 0.118 0.160 0.64 0.32
;:0:6 0.094 0.085

lt56 0.24'

Q4

Rexl0~ ____________________________C!.,_d_eg~__________________________
Q4
45 60 90 120 180
16 20 30
narl;:O: 16

0.840 0.880 0.880 0.880 0.880

0.5 0.306 0.378 0.600
0.840 0.905 0.877 0.986 0.876 0.24 -
1.0 0.275 0.340 0.600
0.760 0.868 0.868 0.868 0.868
2 0.208 0.280 0.520
0.778 0.847 0.868 0.869
4 0.191 0.264 0.480 0.700 G16
0.720 0.790 0.853 0.874 0.886
;:0:6 0.212 0.342 0.560
0.08
1
 Flow with a Smooth Change in Velocity 343
342 Handbook oj Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

Conieal diffuser (in the system with /j/DI > 0) at Ci. = 3_180°51-55 Diagram5.2
Corneal diffuser (in the system with h/DI > 0) at Ci. = 3_180°51-55 Diagram 5.2

Values of k d at nl =2
10 a,deg
Do
4 6 10 12 14 16 20 30 45 60 >90
5
Re = 0.5 x 10
2 1.00 1.10 1.20 1.25 1.26 1.26 1.23 1.16 1.05 1.00 0.01 1.01 1.01
5 1.45 1.62 1.75 1.83 1.86 1.80 1.70 1.53 1.10 1.02 1.02 1.02 1.02
10 1.88 1.96 2.05 2.07 2.07 2.05 2.00 1.93 1.60 1.12 1.11 1.10 1.10
;:::20 1.68 1.83 1.96 2.00 1.99 1.93 1.85 1.74 1.45 1.03 1.01 1.01 1.01
5
Re = 1 x 10
,. I I,
2 1.00 1.10 1.20 1.27 1.43 1.60 1.67 1.60 1.10 0.85 0.96 1.11 1.13
5 1.63 1.83 2.00 2.11 2.20 2.19 2.11 1.88 1.20 1.00 1.13 1.15 1.15
10 1.93 2.13 .241 2.75 2.93 3.00 3.05 2.99 1.40 1.100 1.13 1.15 1.15
;:::20 1.86 2.07 2.31 2.60 2.68 2.60 2.45 2.13 1.45 1.00 1.13 1.13 1.15

Re = (3--4) x 105
2 1.31 1.45 1.60 1.80 2.05 2.33 2.40 2.40 2.20 1.56 1.20 1.15 1.13
5 1.53 1.70 1.90 2.14 2.54 2.90 3.02 3.00 2.60 1.56 1.20 1.15 1.13
10 2.20 2.33 2.55 3.00 3.80 4.00 4.07 4.00 3.30 2.00 1.33 1.20 1.25
;:::20 1.91 2.07 2.25 2.46 3.20 3.70 3.83 3.73 3.03 1.56 1.20 1.15 1.13 I-l./Da =: 2
2-1./Do = 5
Re = (2-5) x 105 3-/o/D. ::;: 10
4-10 1Do =: 20
2 1.18 1.33 1.50 1.67 1.95 2.20 2.31 2.13 1.60 1.27 1.14 1.13 1.11
1.15 1.75 2.05 2.30 2.60 2.70 2.80 3.58 1.85 1.33 1.15 1.14 1.11
10 2.06 2.25 2.54 2.91 3.40 3.70 3.82 3.73 2.27 1.50 1.26 1.20 1.12
1.75 1.93 2.28 2.60 3.00 3.22 3.36 3.20 2.10 1.43 1.20 1.16 1.11
5
Re> 6 x 10
Values of k d at 4 ::; narl ::; 16
2 1.00 1.14 1.33 1.65 1.90 2.00 2.06 1.90 1.53 1.26 1.10 1.07 1.10
1.15 1.33 1.60 1.90 2.06 2.10 1.20 1.90 2.20 1.62 1.30 1.23 1.10 Zo a, deg
10 1.73 1.90 2.15 2.45 2.93 3.13 3.25 3.15 2.20 1.62 1.30 1.23 1.10 Do 4 6 10 12 14 16 20 30 45 60 >90
;:::20 1.46 1.65 1.95 2.86 2.54 2.65 2.70 2.60 1.70 1.33 1.13 1.12 1.10
Re =0.5 x 105
2 1.00 1.04 1.07 1.20 1.33 1.28 1.05 1.14 1.07 1.05 1.05 1.06 1.05
1.00 1.25 1.47 1.60 1.66 1.65 1.60 1.58 1.43 1.23 1.08 1.06 1.05
10 1.50 1.65 1.85 1.90 2.10 2.10 2.05 1.93 1.70 1.38 1.26 1.20 1.05
?::20 1.30 1.43 1.65 1.85 1.98 1.74 1.75 1.66 1.48 1.23 1.10 1.06 1.05

Re= 1 x 105
2 1.05 1.10 1.14 1.26 1.47 1.40 1.28 1.18 1.06 0.95 0.95 0.95 1.02
5 1.30 1.46 1.68 1.93 2.15 2.15 2.05 1.90 1.60 1.07 1.00 1.00 1.02
10 1.67 1.83 2.08 2.28 2.60 2.50 2.43 2.20 1.83 1.30 1.10 1.03 1.02
?::20 1.50 1.63 1.93 2.15 2.60 2.50 2.27 2.07 1.73 1.20 1.05 1.07 1.02
 Flow with a Smooth Change in Velo city 345
Handbook of Hydrmllic Resistance, 4th Edition
344
C?nieal diffusers at large subsonie velocities (in the system
Diagram 5.2 wJth lJlDl > 0 (eoefficients oftotal pressure recovery)27 Diagram 5.3
Conieal diffuser (in the system with lJ/D1 > 0) at (J. = 3-180° 51-55
- - p~
Po=-;=j ( A.o,a,nl'D
Zo J
a,deg
10 Po 0
14 16 20 30 45 60 >90
Do 4 6 10 12 is deternrined from the curves of graphs a-e;
Re = (3-4) x 105
1.25 1.10 1.05 Sd=~=~J..lnJ..·
2 1.07 1.25 1.40 1.60 2.14 2.25 2.20 2.12 1.90 1.53 pW612 k A6 Po'
2.47 2.40 2.20 1.60 1.26 1.15 1.06
5 1.30 1.47 1.67 2.00 2.45 2.53
3.13 3.00 2.65 1.80 1.30 1.15 1.06 k=2., see Table 1.4;
10 1.90 2.05 2.30 2.70 3.38 3.30 Cv

;::20 1.52 1.73 2.13 2.50 3.27 3.13 2.93

Re = (2-5) x 105
2.75 2.40 1.67 1.30 1.15 1.06
acr = -v2k
--RTo•
k+1
2.07 1.95 1.68 1.32 1.15 1.13 1.07
2 1.00 1.20 1.40 1.63 2.05 2.13
1.19 1.13 1.07
5 1.30 1.47 1.69 2.00 2.27 2.35 2.37 2.27 1.95 1.40
1.20 1.07
Po at a =4° (graph a)
3.30 3.20 3.00 2.80 2.40 1.53 1.26
10 1.80 2.00 2.25 2.60
2.75 2.50 2.10 1.50 1.23 1.15 1.07 Ao
;::20 1.54 1.73 2.12 2.43 3.20 3.00
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 0.94 0.95
Re;::6x 105 narl
1.23 1.13 1.10 1.07 Rex 10-5
1.42 1.73 1.98 1.93 1.83 1.70 1.50
2 1.00 1.13 4.6 7.3 10.8
1.90 1.55 l.25 1.15 1.10 1.07 1.7 3.2 6.0 8.6 9.7 11.7 11.9 12.0
1.05 1.23 1.60 1.95 2.25 2.20 2.08
5
10 1.60 1.82 2.15 2.55 3.20 3.02 2.53 2.20 1.83 1.33 1.22 1.18 1.07
~=o
1.60 1.30 1.20 1.15 1.07 Do
1.63 2.10 2.43 3.05 2.70 2.23 1.98
;::20 1.35 2-6 0.999 0.998 0.995 9.991 9.987 9.983 0.975 0.971 0.964 0.961 0.930
10-16 0.999 0.997 0.994 0.990 0.985 0.980 0.973 0.968 0.961 0.958 0.920
Zo
Do =2
2-6 0.999 0.998 0.995 0.991 0.986 0.981 0.975 0.969 0.962 0.960
10-16 0.999 0.007 0.993 0.989 0.984 0.978 0.973 0.967 0.961 0.958
Zo
-=5
Do
2 0.999 0.998 0.995 0.991 0.986 0.980 0.974 0.965
4-6 0.999 0.997 0.994 0.990 0.985 0.978 0.971 0.930
10-16 0.998 0.996 0.993 0.988 0.983 0.977 0.970 0.960
~>10
Do-
2-4 0.999 0.997 0.992 0.985 0.978 0.969 0.959
6-16 0.999 0.995 0.990 0.983 0.975 0.966 0.955

ii.
17.98 n, 2-6
10-16

f.O
t:--f--- - ~ 2-6
098 ----=- == -- ~-=
10-16
l-lo/D o = 2
tlJ
2-1o/D o := 5 • ;~.-='~~ 2-4
3-1o/D o = 10 17.98 . ---6~
4-1o/Do ;> 20 -- ._, - - 10-16
(0

1- ~2-4
a9s l- i - -

a95 c:::--i---- - n, -~'6~-"'"

, u U U M U U D U
pI;;;};; g ;Of~
 Flow with a Smooth Change in Velo city 347
346 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

Corneal diffusers at large subsorne velocities (in the system

Corneal diffusers at large subsorne veloeities (in the system Diagram5.3
Diagram 5.3 with !IID] > 0, eoeffieients of total pressure reeovery)27
with 1I/D] > 0, eoeffieients of total pressure reeovery)27
Po at a =8° (graph c)
Po at a =6° (graph b)
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 0.95
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 0.94 0.95 narl
narl
Re x 10-5
1.7 3.2 4.6 6.0 7.3 8.6 9.7 10.8 11.7 12.0
1.7 3.2 4.6 6.0 7.3 8.6 9.7 10.8 11.7 11.9 12.0

..!2..=0
Do 2 16 0.999 0.998 0.995 0.992 0.987 0.982 0.976 0.970 0.962 0.930
2-4 0.999 0.999 0.996 0.993 0.989 0.984 0.980 0.975 0.970 0.960 0.930
6-16 0.999 0.998 0.995 0.991 0.987 0.983 0.977 0.973 0.966 0.958 0.930
2 0.999 0.997 0.995 0.992 0.987 0.982 0.975
4 0.999 0.997 0.993 0.989 0.984 0.978 0.971
0.995 0.992 0.988 0.983 0.975 0.965 6-16 0.999 0.996 0.992 0.985 0.979 0.970 0.960 0.950 0.948
2 0.999 0.998
4 0.999 0.997 0.993 0.989 0.984 0.977 0.970 0.960
10-16 0.999 0.996 0.992 0.987 0.982 0.975 0.967 0.958 0.946
2 0.999 0.997 0.995 0.991 0.987 0.980 0.970
4 0.999 0.996 0.992 0.986 0.979 0.971 0.961 0.948
6-16 0.999 0.995 0.989 0.983 0.975 0.966 0.955 0.943
2 0.999 0.998 0.995 0.990 0.985 0.977 0.968 0.958
4 0.999 0.996 0.992 0.987 0.981 0.975 0.966 0.955
10-16 0.999 0.995 0.991 0.986 0.980 0.972 0.962 0.950
2 0.999 0.996 0.993 0.989 0.984 0.972
4 0.999 0.995 0.990 0.984 0.974 0.962
6-16 0.999 0.993 0.987 0.980 0.970 0.959
2 0.999 0.995 0.993 0.987 0.980 0.970 0.958
4 0.999 0.996 0.991 0.985 0.977 0.967 0.956
10-16 0.998 0.995 0.989 0.982 0.974 0.964 0.952 p~
...... a-8" 1--+ (cl
111"2-0 •
~
t./)),-()-
'5

(0
2
8
4 - f-(gf.4-t-

'J
1-16
'D
2 - 't-t,j])g-f-
9-
8

1JJ6
-1i

~/14"'fD-
098
,~

Iff- -li-
..
- 1--

ag5 r-_+-_+--'-+-'-1nt;'{I·~'ol--"--"".~r-..-"::>""'+---l---I--~ 119' tJ (lf D.1 aJ ~4 a5 a5

tJ f1.1 1/.2 t!J !l.? t!5 ao Q.7 Q.9
I
)} ; 2 J ~ 5 7 } ttJ if 12 Re X 10-5
~;)) }} 8 g
f
'5
10 I1
 Flow with a Smooth Change in Velocity 349
348 Handbook oj Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

Conieal diffusers at large subsonie velocities (in the system

Conieal diffusers at large subsonie veloeities (in the system Diagram5.3
Diagram5.3 with ltlDI > 0, eoeffieients of total pressure reeovery)27
with h/Dl > 0, eoefficients of total pressure reeovery)27

Po at a. =10° (graph d) Po at a. =14° (graph e)

0.1 0.2 0.3 004 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 0.95
0.1 0.2 0.3 004 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 0.94 0.95 narl
narl

1.7 3.2 4.6 6.0 7.3 8.6 9.7 10.8 11.7 12.0
1.7 3.2 4.6 6.0 7.3 8.6 9.7 10.8 11.7 11.9 12.0
lo/Da=O
~=O 2 0.999 0.998 0.996 0.993 0.990 0.986 0.982 0.976
Do 4 0.999 0.997 0.994 0.990 0.982 0.974 0.965 0.957 0.948 0.945
2 0.999 0.998 0.997 0.995 0.991 0.987 0.984 0.981 6-16 0.999 0.996 0.990 0.984 0.974 0.966 0.956 0.945 0.934 0.924
4 0.999 0.998 0.997 0.994 0.990 0.985 0.980 0.975 0.971 0.960 0.950
6 16 0.999 0.998 0.996 0.992 0.987 0.982 0.975 0.970 0.963 0.959 0.940
rotl
~=2
Do
2 0.999 0.998 0.995 0.991 0.986 0.978 0.968
4 0.999 0.997 0.993 0.988 0.981 0.972 0.963 0.950
6 0.999 0.996 0.991 0.984 0.977 0.968 0.958 0.947
10-16 0.999 0.995 0.989 0.981 0.972 0.963 0.953 0.940

0.1 0.2 0.3 OA 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 0.94 0.95
narl

1.7 3.2 4.6 6.0 7.3 8.6 9.7 10.8 11.7 11.9 12.0

~=5
Do - -"--"::::':'-,--:
2 0.999 0.998 0.995 0.990 0.985 0.978 -' li
~

4 0.999 0.996 0.992 0.985 0.978 0.967 0.955

10-16 0.999 0.996 0.989 0.981 0.973 0.962 0.950

11.96 9
, /Jt=I-f6,
2 0.999 0.996 0.992 0.988 0.982 0.975 PoM
tJ df 112 aJaf 1l.!t11 alM !lJJ.
4 0.998 0.995 0.989 0.982 0.971 0.959 (; I 2 J ~ S I i 8 9 tU ff Re X 10"'
10-16 0.998 0.993 0.985 0.976 0.965 0.954

0.1 0.2 0.3 004 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 0.95
n.~2 narl
498 #
6-16 Rex 10-5
tU 1.7 3.2 4.6 6.0 7.3 8.6 9.7 10.8 11.7 12.0
lo/Do=2
--+--' 2 0.999 0.997 0.993 0.988 0.982 0.975 0.966
096 4 0.999 0.995 0.988 0.979 0.970 0.957 0.941
6-16 0.998 0.992 0.983 0.972 0.960 0.945 0.930
lo/Da= 5
098 2 0.999 0.997 0.993 0.988 0.982 0.974
1.0 4 0.998 0.994 0.987 0.978 0.966 0.952 0.938
6-16 0.998 0.991 0.981 0.968 0.953 0.938 0.920
098
la/Do= 10
2 0.999 0.995 0.991 0.985 0.978 0.969
4 0.998 0.992 0.984 0.974 0.961 0.948
1294 () III 112 llJ 04 as l1i {}7 ().~ a9 A, 6-16 0.997 0.990 0.972 0.963 0.933 0.922
b; 2 } ~,} D 7 8 p ftJ f( Re X 10-'
,
W
tJt
Diagram 5.4 o
Diffuser of rectangular cross section (in the system with 111D1I > 0)26 1

1: Uniform velocity field at the entrance into the diffuser (wrnaxfwo '" 1.0 or lolD" '" 0):
S== f,p/(pw6/2) = Sd = f(a, narl, Re), see the table and graph a. Approximate formulas are
given in para. 40 of Section 5.1).
2. Nonuniform velocity field at the entrance into the diffuser (wmaxfwo > 1.0, 28~/D" > 1.0%
or lolD" :2: 10): S== L'lp/(pw6/2) = Sd = f(a, nar!' Re), see the table and graph b.
=
3. For diffusers with a 6-140 downstream of the shaped piece (elbow) S== L'lp/(pw6/2 ) =
kdS , where for Sd, see the table and graph a of Diagram 5.4, for kd = f(w/wo), see the table
d
of Diagram 5.1; for wrnaxfwo =j(lolDh ), see Diagram 5.1; a:2: ß·

Sd at lo/Do =0
a,deg
Rex j{)-5 16 20 30 45 60 90 120 180
10 12 14
narl =2
0.235 0.250 0.300 0.325 0.326 0.325 0.320 0.300
0.5 0.140 0.136 0.135 0.153 0.175 0.200
0.230 0.270 0.300 0.315 0.310 0.310 0.300
~
0.10 0.110 0.105 0.130 0.160 0.185 0.200
0.180 0.216 0.250 0.285 0.310 0.315 0.325 0.300
0.095 0.090 0.095 0.116 0.150 0.175 ;:s

>.4 0.085 0.085 0.090 0.112 0.145 0.175 0.185 0.220 0.250 0.285 0.310 0.315 0.325 0.310
~
C)
llarl =4 C)
?;;-<
0.380 0.450 0.520 0.580 0.620 0.640 0.640 0.640
0.335
0.5 0.170 0.185 0.200 0.245 0.300
0.560 0.605 0.630 0.630 0.625 ~
0.430 0.500
~
0.145 0.155 0.180 0.225 0.280 0.335 0.360
1
0.420 0.500 0.560 0.605 0.630 0.630 0.625
0.115 0.135 0.150 0.200 0.260 0.335 0.360 I::l...
0.106 0.188 0.130 0.195 0.260 0.335 0.360 0.430 0.500 0.560 0.605 0.530 0.630 0.625 ~
<:4
E..
llarl =6 r;'
0.460 0.525 0.625 0.715 0.775 0.790 0.790 0.785 :::t;
0.5 0.185 0.190 0.205 0.295 0.370 0.420
(\:)
0.485 0.600 0.695 9.750 0.775 0.770 0.760
0.155 0.165 0.185 0.250 0.320 0.380
0.360
0.420
0.420 0.465 0.580 0.675 0.720 0.760 0.760 0.750 '"0;;'
0.130 0.140 0.165 0.235 0.320 \':i
;:s
0.400 0.465 0.580 0.675 0.720 0.760 0.760 0.750
>4 0.120 0.125 0.145 0.230 0.300 0.360 C"')
"(\:)
llarl:2: 10 ~
0.430 0.470 0.530 0.635 0.750 0.840 0.890 0.890 0.880 S-
0.5 0.180 0.195 0.240 0.300 0.375

~(S.
0.440 0.550 0.615 0.725 0.815 0.880 0.880 0.865
0.160 0.175 0.205 0.265 0.340 0.400
0.420 0.490 0.590 0.700 0.795 0.870 0.850 0.860
0.130 0.155 0.180 0.240 0.320 0.370
0.420 0.490 0.590 0.700 0.795 0.870 0.850 0.860 ;:s
>4 0.120 0.135 0.160 0.235 0.320 0.370

Diffuser of rectangular cross section (in the system with h/DIII > 0)2 6 Diagram 5.4 ~
:;s
:;s
Sd at loiDo ~ 10 s:
~

Re X 10-5 ~
C)
10 12 14 16 20 30 45 60 90 C)
S-
llarl=2
O
0.5 0.200 0.240 0.280 0.280 0.298 0.305 0.315 0.325 0.340 0.355 0.355 0.350 0.340 0.310 S
;:s
OQ
0.175 0.200 0.215 0.235 0.250 0.260 0.275 0.290 0.310 0.330 0.340 0.340 0.320 0.310 (\:)

0.140 0.160 0.180 0.195 0.210 0.225 0.240 0.260 0.280 0.310 0.320 0.335 0.320 0.310 S·
<:4 0.150 0.125 0.140 0.160 0.200 0.195 0.210 0.235 0.265 0.300 0.320 0.335 0.320 0.310
;$
a
C"')
-4 ~.
0.5 0.260 0.320 0.360 0.400 0.430 0.455 0.480 0.510 0.565 0.610 0.635 0.655 0.650
0.220 0.270 0.320 0.365 0.400 0.435 0.460 0.495 0.550 0.600 0.630 0.650 0.650 0.640
0.180 0.230 0.275 0.320 0.365 0.400 0.430 0.470 0.530 0.590 0.620 0.650 0.650 0.640
<:4 0.130 0.180 0.220 0.270 0.320 0.350 0.380 0.430 0.500 0.580 0.620 0.650 0.650 0.640

=6
0.5 0.310 0.360 0.400 0.450 0.490 0.530 0.560 0.615 0.685 0.750 0.775 0.795 0.785 0.760
0.250 0.305 0.375 0.405 0.455 0.500 0.530 0.580 0.650 0.720 0.775 0.780 0.775 0.760
0.190 0.255 0.305 0.370 0.420 0.460 0.495 0.545 0.635 0.710 0.745 0.775 0.75 0.760
<:4 0.140 0.205 0.255 0.320 0.380 0.425 0.460 0.520 0.615 0.695 0.740 0.770 0.775 0.760

llarl <:10
0.5 0.300 0.360 00415 0.470 0.520 0.570 0.600 0.670 0.760 0.850 0.900 0.960 0.920 0.880
0.240 0.315 0.370 0.455 0.490 0.540 0.580 0.640 0.730 0.830 0.880 0.940 0.910 0.880
0.185 0.265 0.325 0.400 0.460 0.515 0.550 0.610 0.715 0.810 0.860 0.930 0.910 0.880
<:4 0.130 0.200 0.270 0.345 0.400 0.460 0.500 0.570 0.680 0.790 0.855 0.930 0.910 0.880

W
tJt
""'"
 Flow with a Smooth Change in Velo city 353
352 Handbook 0/ Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

Diffuser with expansion in one plane (in the system with hlDlh > 0)26 Diagram 5.5

L Uniform velocity field at the entrance into the

diffuser (wrnroJwo '" 1.0 or IrJDIz '" 0):

_ f),p
~ =-2- =~d = j(rJ., narl, Re) ,
pwQl2

see the table and graph a. Approximate formulas

are given in para. 41 of Seetion 5.l.
Calculation of preseparation diffusers is made in
para. 34 of Seetion 5.1.
2. Nonuniform velocity field at the entrance into the
diffuser (wrna,/wO > 1.0, 28~/DIz > 1.0% or
IrJDIz 2: 10):

see the table and graph b of Diagram 5.5.

3. For diffusers rJ. = 6-20 0
downstream of a shaped (curved) piece

where for ~d' see the table and graph a; for kd =f(w/wo) and for wrnax/wo =f(lrJD h), see Diagram 5.1.

Rexl0~ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _rJ._,_de~g_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ___

4 6 10 14 20 30 45 60 90 120 180
narl =2
0.5 0.200 0.165 0.142 0.135 0.125 0.154 0.235 0.350 0.370 0.380 0.370 0.350
0.180 0.145 0.125 0.115 0.105 0.120 0.200 0.335 0.370 0.380 0.370 0.350
2 0.163 0.125 0.110 0.100 0.093 0.115 0.200 0.335 0.370 0.380 0.370 0.350
2:4 0.150 0.115 0.100 0.096 0.83 0.115 0.200 0.335 0370 0.380 0.370 0.350
narl =4
0.5 0.275 0.225 0.285 0.170 0.182 0.250 0.420 0.600 0.680 0.700 0.700 0.660
0.230 0.182 0.160 0.163 0.180 0.250 0.420 0.600 0.680 0.700 0.700 0.660
2 0.210 0.162 0.142 0.140 0.162 0.250 0.420 0.600 0.680 0.700 0.700 0.660
2:4 0.165 0.150 0.133 0.135 0.162 0.250 0.420 0.600 0.680 0.700 0.700 0.660
narl=6
0.5 0.310 0.250 0.215 0.205 0.210 0.300 0.480 0.650 0.760 0.830 0.830 0.800
0.250 0.205 0.175 0.170 0.190 0.300 0.480 0.650 0.760 0.830 0.830 0.800
2 0.235 0.190 0.160 0.158 0.190 0.300 0.480 0.650 0.760 0.830 0.830 0.800
4 0.215 0.165 0.143 0.143 0.190 0.300 0.480 0.650 0.760 0.830 0.830 0.800
2:6 0.200 0.150 0.130 0.130 0.190 0.300 0.480 0.650 0.760 0.830 0.830 0.800
 Flow with a Smooth Change in Velocity 355
354 Handbook 0/ Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

Diffuser with expansion in one plane (in the system with lJlDlh > 0)26 Diagram 5.5
Diffuser with expansion in one plane (in the system with lJlDlh > 0)26 Diagram 5.5

CI., deg
Re x 10-5
td 4 6 10 14 20 30 45 60 90 120 180
tJ.I;O
/lari =4
0.5 0.300 0.280 0.270 0.275 0.320 0.420 0.570 0.660 0.690 0.700 0.700 0.660
fd 0.280 0.250 0.240 0,295
0.240 0.400 0.560 0.650 0.690 0.700 0.700 0.660
2 0.210 0.190 0.195 0.200 0.260 0.380 0.520 0.640 0.680 0.700 0.700 0.660
1109 4 0.185 0.160 0.160 0.170 0.230 0.375 0.520 0.640 0.680 0.700 0.700 0.660
td >6 0.170 0.155 0.150 0.160 0.210 0.360 0.520 0.640 0.680 0.700 0.700 0.660
050
/lari =6
flSO
0.5 0.335 0.310 0.300 0.305 0.360 0.500 0.650 0.760 0.810 0.830 0.830 0.800
OM 1108 0.280 0.260 0.255 0.270 0.350 0.490 0.640 0.750 0.800 0.830 0.830 0.800
/172
2 0.215 0.200 0,205 0.220 0.320 0.475 0.610 0.730 0.790 0.830 0.830 0.800
{J.9D {}
4 0.190 0.180 0.185 0.210 0.300 0.460 0.610 0.730 0.790 0.830 0.830 0.800
/1bf. ~ 0.180 0.165 0.165 0.180 0.280 0.440 0.590 0.710 0.780 0.830 0.830 0.800
4J2
Q50
024
11.48 ~d
'olDh ;;. 10
fllo ... rd rt1.4/J Ib)
,......,
11,""2 ~
D.4/J , I.-~~ t::='
; i ;1 ·1 1'..
008 DI8 "C2
! I :j t ~I/ I'
' '. i
!J.12 ! ,
I' ,
I I.

MO 024
I"'~ I 2.J 9,S
[#L,.
v. V[I,
'~b4 l-oV ~f
0.2; ~~rß ~!p;j';o r-r--.
'P as2 afot--..
t-. I""- r--.l!
r-r-
J..,.v
~i-I--v
i,.- r/ ~.

1)./1
0.72 1-414 1-0{}8 11/.' ~
VII ~
apo n,=1f 1I "', ~
.J 4- J 7 10 f4 D.J6
I 'l. ~.IJ.q
/f/ 2V!J
!l21 " i'-
~d at lolDh ;::: 10 1'1'-- {,/I
1"-, l,I~ 9 ~ i
11.96 020 , t:--- I--. r- :f '11
Re x 10-5
(J., deg
~ I I
--;- P
4 6 10 14 20 30 45 60 90 120 180
(J/lf) af2 ~). I! li i
/larl =2 Il,;:Q
-
lZ 11 I I J H
0.5 0.260 0.225 0.210 0.210 0.220 0.240 0.300 0.360 0.370 380 0.370 0.350 1132
I"-
r-.
T"'--!'-- 1/
'l~ t-
1 • Re 0.5 X 105 t--
r)ßI'- ,2
2 - R. 1.0 X 10'
=
= B
0.225 0.200 0.190 0.190 0.200 0.220 0,270 0.340 0.370 380 0.370 0.350
. . . t----t-
'.1
.I!J
t--
'J- 3 - Re 2.0 X 105 =
_ 4· Re = 4.0 X 10 5
2
4
0.150
0.125
0.130
0.110
0.125
0.100
0.125
0.105
0.150
0.120
0.185
0.155
0.245
0.250
0.340
0,340
0.370
0.370
380
380
0.370
0.370
0.350
0.350
fJ.24
' .... 1--...'
/'~1f
4
5 - Re ;.. 6.0 X 105 fJ
>6 0.125 0.110 0.100 0.105 0.120 0.155 0.205 0.340 0.370 380 0.370 0.350 ,,'~ : 11 111 r / I11 I 1 I ,1
J 9 5 I 78 I(J fit Zf) J(J ~5 51J Pf) fZ(J Ct~
 Flow with a Smooth Change in Velo city 357
356 Handbook 01 Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

Plane five-channel subsonie diffusers in the system;55

Diagram 5.6
Plane five-channel subsonie diffusers in the system;55 narl=: 6.45; Re =: (0.6-4) x 105
narl =: 6.45; Re =: (0.6-4) x 105 Diagram 5.6

0-0
- P~
Po =: - ; , see graph a;

r==-=-t~==~1
Po

-~
I" - /:;.P 1"'
Iod = - 2 - - 0.024 =: StOI - 0.024 ;
pwQl2
---
for S;Ol' see graph b
-~-----
---------
tJ.

01

Q,9

D.85
D.1 0.2 0..1 IH IM 0.5 0.7 tU o,g Ar)
Values of Po at various ld

N1 Values of ~d at various ld
u,deg -_._-----
0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 0.95
0.1 0.2 N1
a,deg
ld =: ld!Do =3.23 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 0.95
0.990 0.998 0.981 0.975 0.967 0.960 0.950 0.900
0.999 0.995 ld =: ld!Do = 3.23
0.999 0.995 0.990 0.989 0.975 0.963 0.950 0.938 0.870
12 0.10 0.11 0.12 0.12 0.11
0.10 0.13 0.10 0.10 0.18
0.999 0.996 0.987 0.979 0.968 0.934 0.938 0.920 0.870
16 12 0.20 0.20 0.21 0.22 0.22 0.21 0.20 0.18 0.18 0.28
kI =ld!Do =: 6.45 16 0.23 0.23 0.23 0.24 0.24 0.24 0.23 0.23 0.33
0.988 0.979 0.969 0.956 0.945 0.926 0.907 0.88
0.999 0.992 ld =Id!Do = 6.45
0.998 0.991 0.984 0.976 0.965 0.950 0.930 0.904 0.850
12 0.16 0.17 0.17 0.17 0.16
0.16 0.18 0.15 0.20
0.997 0.991 0.983 0.959 0.954 0.954 0.913 0.887 0.82
16 12 0.23 0.23 0.23 0.24 0.24 0.24 0.24 0.24 0.31
ld =: ld!Do =: 9.68 16 0.28 0.28 0.28 0.29 0.30 0.30 0.29 0.28 0.38
0.998 0.990 0.983 0.975 0.963 0.950 0.931 0.913 0.84
ld =: [d!Do = 9.68
0.990 0.982 0.970 0.957 0.940 0.917 0.888 0.83
12 0.996
0.22 0.22 0.23 0.23 0.23 0.22 0.21 0.20 0.29
16 0.995 0.988 0.978 0.963 0.948 0.927 0.900 0.868
12 0.30 0.30 0.30 0.30 0.31 0.31 0.30 0.29 0.38
16 0.36 0.36 0.37 0.37 0.37 0.36 0.35 0.35 0.43

tnz
 Flow with a Smooth Change in Velo city 359
358 Handbook oj Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

Diffusers of circular cross section (in the system with lr/D] > 0);4
Plane five-channel subsonic diffusers in the system;55 Diagram 5.7
5 Diagram5.6 laminar flow (Re = waD/iv<:: 50)
narl = 6.45; Re = (0.6-4)-10

A
f'..... I
t
- I If,,}qo ~ b F0l'- I
~d == 5'.5 200
0.3
\ ~ r"'i:'-'- /1,=0
./
0.2 --
--
-
.........

~
rr--
.A.
f.;:c
6:"'S d·J~1
I~
IR
......,.
MJ

fOO
:::-..
."
"-:-"
!'-,

"
I;
.......

!"-
SO
k' ~
ld=!U' &t=11 50 J 1:><::--
2' y '
o.J
\ I
SO
1,={-5 " "-
r'""
..... ~
.... -r-- ~

5,'1S
NJ
,I "
0.2 --_t- - po--
.Jj

~J
JIl
I I
l"l
'...;
0,1 ! 8 f() tlf 2fl Jfl C(

0.5
f d =J.JI ar=IUO
I I I
... ........ Diffusers with curvilinear boundaries (in the system with lJlDl > 0);47-49

~
r-- Diagram 5.8
Re =woDhiv <:: 105
0.3 -- r-
..A

6."'5 J.2J

0.2
- J..p ~
D,f D.2 aJ 0.'1 Q.S (l.6 0.7 8.8 O,! 11.(1

Diffusers of circular cross section (in the system with lrID1 > 0);4
Diagram5.7
laminar flow (Re = waDhiv <:: 50)

s= pwAföl2 =~,
Re
s== ~
pwQl2
"" q>oaod' (the formula is applicable within
Di{(user ofclrcu1aror
Wl. F, rectangular cross section
~
where at a ::; 40°
0.1 Fa
S; -F ::; 1.3F (F]
0.9), where ao = 1.43 - _ _0 =! -2.
1 Fj F1
20n~f3
A=---
(tan a)O.75 '
see the curves A =!(a, narl)'
Ld l, and d = 1 -Ei; • [ Fo]2 =12 (F
lEi;o] , see graph a;

Values ofA
<Po = f(~l] or <Po = ![~ ],see graph b.

a, deg
narl
4 6 10 14 20 25 30 35 40
Plane diffuser
1.5 178 130 104 87.5 67.2 50.1 41.4 35.1 30.3 23.3
2 197 144 115 96.8 74.4 55.4 45.8 38.8 33.5 29.1
227 166 133 112 85.7 63.8 52.8 44.7 38.6 33.5
4 251 184 147 123 94.8 70.6 58.4 49.5 42.7 37.1
6 290 212 169 142 109 81.4 67.3 57.0 49.2 42.7
 Flow with a Smooth Change in Velo city 361
360 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

Diffusers of circular cross section with stepped walls (in the system
Diffusers with curviIinear boundaries (in the system with h/Dl > 0);47--49 Diagram5.9
Diagram 5.8 with ltlDl > 0);47-49 Re = woD,Jv 2 105
Re - WoDh/V > 105
Values of (io and d* Values of ~rnin
Fa
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
K
0.5 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 8.0 10 12 14
1.30 1.17 1.04 0.91 0.78 0.65 0.52 0.39 0.26 1.5 0.03 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.11 0.13
0.81 0.64 0.49 0.36 0.25 0.16 0.09 0.04 0.01 2.0 0.08 0.06 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.05 0.05 0.06 0.08 0.09 0.10
2.5 0.13 0.09 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09
3.0 0.17 0.12 0.09 0.07 0.07 0.06 0.06 0.07 0.07 0.08 0.08
4.0 0.32 0.17 0.12 0.10 0.09 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08
6.0 0.30 0.22 0.16 0.13 0.12 0.10 0.10 0.09 0.09 0.09 0.08
0.08 0.34 0.26 0.18 0.15 0.13 0.12 0.11 0.10 0.09 0.09 0.09
10 0.36 0.28 0.20 0.16 0.14 0.13 0.12 0.11 0.10 0.09 0.09
14 0.39 0.30 0.22 0.18 0.16 0.14 0.13 0.12 0.10 0.10 0.10
20 0.41 0.32 0.24 0.20 0.17 0.15 0.14 0.12 0.11 0.11 0.11

Values of % n
(a)
.-
n~2Q
o 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 6.0 \'
I1J2 1---1 ~f~- --
1. Diffuser of annual or rectangular cross section
L/28 \\ [\1 Ifu .. - - - _._- -- ..... ~ ._- -
\ ~V8~
1.01 0.75 0.62 0.53 0.47 0.43 0.40 0.38 0.37
2. Plane diffuser 112 ~
1.02 0.83 0.72 0.64 0.57 0.52 0.48 0.45 0.43 0.41 0.39 0.37 11217 !". \ I\~~ /
~ ~ ~ ..J. . .l2.5 2.17 n-f.5
\

lUD
\

tlf2
,\ ~ .Y~ ~ ft3~r-
\~ "-... ~ Cl tt':: t;;:-= - --...,. c..- - ~

--
--.
....
~~ ~' ~
Uf+fi
//
11/14

()
./'
.... .-
/1--

2
- .J

Diffusers of circular cross section with stepped walls (in the system Values of Uopt, deg
Diagram5.9
with ZIlDl > 0);47-49 Re - woDwv > 105

nar 0.5 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 8.0 10 12 14

y- ~p -I'
':> = -r--/2 - ':>min 1.5 17 10 6.5 4.5 3.5 2.8 2.2 1.7 1.2 1.0 0.8
PWa 2.0 21 17 8.5 6.2 5.0 4.3 3.8 3.0 2.3 2.0 1.6
2.5 25 16 10 7.4 6.0 5.4 4.8 4.0 3.5 3.0 2.5
This fOffimla can be applied for the selection of the opti- 3.0 27 17 11 8.5 7.0 6.1 5.6 4.8 4.2 3.8 3.2
ma! angle a opt from graph b; for Smin, see graph a as a 4.0 29 20 13 9.8 8.0 7.2 6.6 5.8 5.2 4.8 4.4
function of IctlDO and n ar 6.0 31 21 14 11 9.4 8.2 7.4 6.2 5.6 5.2 4.7
0.08 32 22 15 12 10 8.8 8.0 6.6 5.8 5.4 5.0
ld 10 33 23 15 12 11 9.4 8.4 7.0 6.2 5.5 5.2
14 33 23 16 13 11 9.6 8.7 7.3 6.3 5.6 5.4
20 34 24 16 13 11 9.8 9.0 7.5 6.5 6.0 5.6
 Flow with a Smooth Change in Velocity 363
362 Handbook oj Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

Diffusers of rectangular cross section with stepped walls (in the system
Diffusers of circular cross section with stepped walls (in the system Diagram 5.10
Diagram5.9 with 1JiDlh > 0);47-49 Re = WoDh/V ~ 105
with 111D1 > 0);47-49 Re = WODh/V > 10 5

Qopt r-- ---l-'- --- r - - --_.- --'(bi

; I~

20 \~ ~ .. ~ ._._- .. --- --
16 ~~
(2 \~ ~r20 f~ f()

8
f\'\: ~~ ~~~$ 1/ /P 2.0 ,n-U
..
'r::::: ~ ~!-
~ t--
--
- .

/l J tQ ff 12 tJ

Diffusers of rectangular cross section with stepped walls (in the system
Diagram 5.10
with lIlDlh > 0);47-49 Re =woDhlv > 105 1 2 J 7 9

Values of !lupt, deg

nar
This formu1a can be applied for the se1ection 0.5 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 8.0 10 12 14
of the optimal angle (Xopt from graph b; Smin is 1.5 14 9.0 5.3 4.0 3.3 2.7 2.2 1.7 1.2 1.0 1.0
determined from graph a as a function of lctlDh 2.0 18 12 8.0 6.3 5.2 4.5 3.8 3.0 2.3 2.0 1.8
and nar (with ample safety margin).
2.5 20 14 9.0 7.2 6.1 5.4 4.8 4.0 3.2 2.9 2.4
3.0 21 15 10 7.8 6.5 5.8 5.2 4.4 3.6 3.3 2.9
4.0 22 16 11 8.5 7.1 6.2 5.5 4.8 4.0 3.8 3.5
6.0 24 17 12 9.4 8.0 6.9 6.2 5.2 4.5 4.3 4.0
0.08 25 17 12 9.7 8.3 7.3 6.5 5.5 4.8 4.6 4.2
10 25 18 12 10 8.7 7.6 6.9 5.8 5.0 4.8 4.5
14 26 18 13 10 9.0 7.8 7.1 6.1 5.2 5.0 4.7
20 26 19 13 11 9.2 8.1 7.3 6.4 5.5 5.2 4.9

Values of ~min

0.5 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 8.0 10 12 14

1.5 0.04 0.03 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.05 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.11 0.13
2.0 0.11 0.08 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.07 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.10
2.5 0.16 0.13 0.09 0.08 0.08 0.07 0.08 0.07 0.08 0.08 0.09
3.0 0.21 0.17 0.12 0.10 0.09 0.09 0.09 0.09 0.09 0.09 0.09
4.0 0.27 0.22 0.17 0.14 0.12 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.10 0.10
6.0 0.36 0.28 0.21 0.18 0.16 0.15 0.14 0.13 0.12 0.12 0.11
0.08 0.41 0.32 0.24 0.21 0.18 0.17 0.16 0.14 0.13 0.12 0.12
10 0.44 0.35 0.26 0.22 0.20 0.18 0.17 0.15 0.14 0.13 0.13
14 0.47 0.37 0.28 0.24 0.21 0.20 0.18 0.16 0.15 0.14 0.14
20 0.49 0.40 0.30 0.26 0.23 0.21 0.19 0.17 0.16 0.15 0.14
 Flow with a Smooth Change in Velocity 365
364 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

Diffusers of reduced resistance, with a screen

Diffusers with expansion in one plane with stepped walls 5 Diagram 5.11
Diagram 5.11 (in the system with hlDl > 0);50,55 Re = woDlzfv::::: 10
(in the system with IllDlh > 0);47--49 Re =woDlzfv::::: 105
Values of IXopt> deg

ld
nar ao
y - flp -t 0.5 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 8.0 10 12 14
"'=-2--
pwo/2
~min'
1.5 25 18 11 8.0 6.4 5.4 4.7 3.5 2.8 2.4 2.0
2.0 33 23 15 12 9.7 8.4 7.5 6.0 5.2 4.7 4.3
This fonnu1a can be applied for the selection of
2.5 37 26 18 14 12 10 9.4 8.0 7.0 6.3 5.6
the optimal angle aapt from graph b; I;;min is 3.0 16 13 12 11 9.1 8.0 6.4
39 27 20 7.2
detennined from graph a as a function of ld/Dh 4.0 42 30 21 17 15 13 12 10 9.0 8.2 7.4
4Fo
Dh=ITa and nar . 6.0 45 31 23 18 16 14 13 11 10 9.4 8.5
0.08 47 32 23 19 17 15 14 12 11 10 9.1
al ld a 10 48 33 24 20 17 15 14 12 11 10 9.5
narl =~= 1 +2~tan2
14 49 34 25 20 17 16 14 13 12 11 9.9
20 50 35 25 21 18 16 15 13 12 11 10

~pt

Values of ~min J1
~ n=}P -~.
(b)

I
JQ >-i

5.0 6.0 8.0 10 12 14 26

1//
~
0.5 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0
1.5 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.11 0.13 22
~~6
/ ?
2.0 0.12 0.09 0.07 0.07 0.06 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.08 0.10 012 .I
18
2.5 0.18 0.14 0.11 0.10 0.09 0.09 0.09 0.09 0.09 0.10 0.10
.\\~~ J f f-u n=f.S
3.0 0.23 0.18 0.14 0.12 0.11 0.11 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.11
\ ~ ::::::: ;::::: -:;t:::.- !

""" ---- ---

4.0 0.30 0.24 0.19 0.16 0.15 0.14 0.13 0.12 0.12 0.12 0.12 fU
r-- --..L
6.0
0.08
0.38
0.43
0.31
0.36
0.25
0.28
0.21
0.25
0.19
0.22
0.18
0.20
0.17
0.19
0.16
0.17
0.15
0.16
0.14
0.16
0.14
0.15
............ t--
r--- -:-
-:t- - ::=
-
....
2
~

10 0.46 0.38 0.30 0.26 0.24 0.22 0.21 0.19 0.18 0.17 0.16 P 2 J S tf 7 8
14 0.50 0.41 0.33 0.29 0.26 0.24 0.22 0.20 0.19 0.18 0.18
20 0.53 0.44 0.35 0.31 0.28 0.25 0.24 0.22 0.20 0.19 0.19

Diffusers of reduced resistance Diagram 5.12

~mln
~~~ (a) Resistance coefficient
OJ6 ..
Internal arrangement of diffuser Scheme
I;;=~
o.Jt \' ~\n=20 pwß/2 .
\ \~l\. ./~f08
0.28
f-\ 1\\~lGV
6 Dividing splitters, number of splitters, ZI
429
\0~RS f /11 2.5 ZO
f/20
0.16
-\r-.'\"<:~ S;2 t::::::::t CL
......
\ n=i\ a, deg 30 45 60 90 120
where I;;d is determined as I;;
from Diagrams 5.2, 5.4, and
'- ........, -~ f>
\""
- ~ 5.5.

\ "'- '>:: --
al2 J._ . ~

ZI 2 4 6 6 6-8
...........
/
0.08
........... " ('d/"z?WoPt
aOlJ
/" ,,- ~
/"'- ~
;-
"
() f 2 J 9 S 5 7 8 9 I() /1 IZ 13 ~/])h
 Flow with a Smooth Change in Velocity 367
366 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

Diffuser with symmetrie expansion in one plane, installed downstream

Diffusers of redueed resistaI1Ce Diagram 5.12 Diagram 5.13
of a eentrifugal fan operating in a system with hlDlh > 058

~ == pW~512 =f (F1J
Baffles
~ "" 0.65~d '
where ~d is determined "as ~ from
Fa '
Diagrams 5.2, 5.4, and 5.5
see the curves at different (X values

Values of t;

~ Fl
0.45 k- I - t;!J5 Fo
~:- I
V JO a, deg 1.4 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
0.35
V' 1-1-;-- -I 10 0.05 0.07 0.09 0.10 0.11 0.11
~=k~d ' V I---" I
ZS 15 0.06 0.09 0.11 0.13 0.13 0.14
0.25
~
Rounded insert R in the inlet seetion; V ~ 20 0.07 0.10 0.13 0.15 0.16 0.16
where for ~d see Diagrams 5.1
Il ar l = F/F2 = 2-4 I.- I-
~
through 5.5: 0.15 " 25 0.08 0.13 0.16 0.19 0.21 0.23
l..--':-
~
'1"'5
30 0.16 0.24 0.29 0.32 0.34 0.35
(a) at liDo'" 0.5 and (X == 45 and :;;~
OI.=fD
35 0.24 0.34 0.39 0.44 0.48 0.50
60°, k'" 0.72; 0.05 f.4 (8 2.2 2.6 ]'0 J./j /11 =FtlFq
(b) at liDo'" 0.8 and (X == 60°,
k", 0.67

Diffuser with asymmetrie expansion (at (Xl =0) in one plane, installed
Diagram 5.14
downstream of a eentrifugal fan operating in a system with hlDlh > 058

see the curves at different a values

Values of S
(a) at (X == Q..-600
Fl
~=~o+~i, :.- r-r-
Fa
(b) at (X
Il ar l

> 60° 1---' .... lXll',5

"7
a, deg 1.4 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0

'/ ~ I.-
!- 30 10 0.08 0.09 0.10 0.10 0.11 0.11
Screen or grid (perforated plate) ~ == (1.2-1.3) (~o + ~{' J' :.--" Jf.. 15 0.10 0.11 0.12 0.13 0.14 0.15
l ""V l,...-'
.....
-
Il ar l
at the exit of diffuser
~/" ..- r..- ~ 1
20
20 0.12 0.14 0.15 0.16 0.17 0.18
where ~o is deterrnined as ~ from ....i.-. 25 0.15 0.18
"'L-I- 0.21 0.23 0.25 0.26
Diagrams 5.2, 5.4 and 5.5, and ~gr
is deterrnined as ~ of the screen or ..
IJ.f ... I-
1-";-
rx=fO'
I
15
30
35
0.18
0.21
0.25
0.31
0.30
0.38
0.33
0.41
0.35
0.43
0.35
grid from Diagrams 8.1 to 8.7; Il ar l 0.44
=F/Fo·
 Flow with a Smooth Change in Velo city 369
368 Handbook oj Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

Diffuser of rectangular cross seetion instalied downstream

Diffuser with asymmetrie expansion (at Ci) = 10°) in one plane, installed 58 Diagram 5.17
Diagram 5.15 of a eentrifugal fan operating in a system with lJ/D)h > 0
58
downstream of a eentrifugal fan operating in a system with 1)ID)h > 0

d:::Jo·
!i=f.1r
s= PWßp612 =f (FFaJ' ~~
1 ..... 1---'
............ 1---' ...... ~
v .... ...... ...... l
1/./ / .....
see the curves at different CI. values
(19 ....1/ ,,-
.11/
.;f .......... -- -- k T
I
(l.J
Values of ~ V. rx=fO~

F] (J.?'
':
""' .... - T
L1
1

Fa fl./ / '
? ~35 1." 1.8 2.2 2.5 J.tl J.4R,=I;/Fo
0.35 CI., deg 1.4 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
~ ......
...... JO Values of S
0.2 5
....... V -~ I-
~ 10 0.05 0.08 0.11 0.13 0.13 0.14 s= pW5;2
Ap
=f (F1J
Fa '
. . . . .V ~f-'" ...::. '5 15 0.06 0.10 0.12 0.14 0.15 0.15 Fl/Fo
"0
...... ,...,.. ...-
0.1 :> V ",.i'" I-'f-- I "':::'15 20 0.07 0.11 0.14 0.15 0.16 0.16 see the curves at different CI. values
CI., deg 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
a.=10'" 25 0.09 0.14 0.18 020 0.21 022
5 ~e:::::::;;..- I 10 0.10 0.18 0.12 023 0.24 025
0.0 30 0.13 0.18 0.23 0.26 0.28 0.29
1.'1 1.8 2.2 2.5 3.0 .U H,.aftfFo 15 0.23 0.33 0.38 0.40 0.42 0.44
35 0.15 0.23 0.28 0.33 0.35 0.36
20 0.31 0.43 0.48 0.53 0.56 0.58
25 0.36 0.49 0.55 0.58 0.62 0.64
30 0.42 0.53 0.59 0.64 0.67 0.69
Diffuser with asymmetrie expansion (at Ci) =_10°) in one plane,
installed downstream of a eentrifugal fan operating in a system Diagram 5.16
58 Diffuser with stepped walls, instalied downstream
with lJlDlh > 0 58 Diagram 5.18
of a eentrifugal fan operating in a system with ll/Dlh > 0

tm.~I I I I L..i--'i
. - I1S V 11 !a)
I JO
S=~-f(!iJ t..-F1'"'"
.1 <I',.,...,P
t-+-: \dl~t::1.5 t,...1--"'
(/1 1-1-
- p 6/2 - F o '
W
..!-+-
:.-- 'I

--
1..-12.0
-.....
(J.J V
see the curves at different CI. values
1/ V ~O .... .... -:rI
!/ ..... I-""~, .-i-
112 ~~ ...,,'l..... f-'" i--!'" _10- I
1f 1
tlf :" Ib .. 5.
~,...... ld _1° I
2.!J 2.5 ],0 J.5 4.(J M 5.1J 17"'f2/Fo
Values of S
~ 0
",35 Fl Values of ~min
~....,.
116 V I
Fa S=~
pw612 ' smin=f(~}
'/ 30 CI., deg 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 ld F2IFo
115 V I- 1" bo
10 0.11 0.13 0.14 0.14 0.14 0.14 see the curves at different ld/bo in graph a; 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 6.0
:,.....
114 ...... -i!..
I
i-~ 15 0.13 0.15 0.16 0.17 0.18 0.18 Cl.opt = j(F/Fo), see the curves at different
libo in graph b
1.0
l.5
0.16
0.13
0.25
0.20
0.33
0.26
0.38
0.31
0.43
0.34
0.47
0.38
0.50
0.41
0.56
0.46
-~- 20 0.19 0.22 0.24 0.26 0.28 0.30
I1J .~ 2.0 0.12 0.17 0.22 0.26 0.29
~!§~ X~
~
0.33 0.35 0.38
0.32 0.35 0.37 0.39 0.40
, ...--.
25 0.29
3.0 0.09 0.13 0.18 0.21 0.24 0.26 0.28 0.31
fJ.2 I 30 0.36 0.42 0.46 0.49 0.51 0.51
4.0 0.08 0.12 0.15 0.18 0.20 0.22 0.24 0.26
; 35 0.44 0.54 0.61 0.64 0.66 0.66
(J,f 5.0 0.06 0.10 0.13 0.15 0.17 0.18 0.20 0.22
1.4 1.8 1.2 2.5 3,() 17, =fi/~
 Flow with a Smooth Change in Velo city 371
370 Handbook oj Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

Annular diffuser~ with inner fairing, in a system

Diffuser with stepped walls, installed downstream with 11!Dlh > 0; do = 0.688 40 ,128 Diagram 5.19
58 Diagram 5.18
of a centrifugal fan operating in a system with IIID1Iz > 0
2. Inner converging fairing ((;(1 < 0):

Values of Clopb deg

t _ i1p
~=-?--=kderd (1F
--
o )2
/-+- /d/bo=t~ Ib) pwQl2 Fr
11 ld F2!'Fo
J.- 7J" Ta where for erd' see graph c as a function of the
2.0 4.0 4.5
..,.."'" I 2.5 3.0 3.5 5.0 6.0
..... M
1.-;'- divergence angle (X; far k d, see graph b as a function
9
..,.."'" ;,-
ld 1.0 9 10 10 11 11 11 11 12 of the divergence angle CX:! for different velocity

-
.".."'"
7 1.5 9 9 10 10 10 10 10 profiles shown in graph d.
:,....- ~ _i-" I
2.0 7 9 9 9 9 9
5 ...... ...... -t'""' 3.0 6 7 7 7 8
~
~
I J
J Id/bo""!O 4.0 4 5 6 6 7 7 Ku ._-
ZO 2.5 10 15 #.IJ 9.5 !tJn-~/Fp 5.0 3 4 6 6 6 7
2.9
io-""
i.-i-
, (b)

1.-9
i'~
~~
Annular diffuser~ with inner fairing, in a system
with lJlDlh > 0; do = 0.688 40 ,128
Diagram 5.19
2.0
,
-.... jl-

t6
t2
"","'"

..",:
2

:-
-- -_. -
5" .-

r-

1. Inner diverging fairing ((;(1 = 8-16°): (J,ß r

--7 F
7 8 9 10 ff f2 fJ ct;

Values of k d

wh~re for ~ see graph a, or within 2 < narl < 4 and Velocity profile (graphs b and d)
(X2, deg
at ld = 0.5-1.0 determine from the formula 2 3 4 5 6
1.0 1.40 2.00 1.16 0.90 2.74
1.0 1.60 2.10 1.21 1.15 2.98
10 1.0 1.60 2.10 1.20 1.36 3.02
12
4! (?
1.0 1.45 2.00 1.10 1.42 2.70
2 '\ for kd; see Diagram 5.1 or graph b (whel1 instalied
n ar 1 = 1 + --=:i tan- CX:! - tan (;(1)' 14 1.0 1.40 . 1.S6 LOS 1.50 2.48
1- do downstream of an operating axial flow machine).

41 (tan CX:! - -do tan (;(1 )

+ --=:i
1-do

1-'·1250...... ,J!
/'
l7
la)
fll 'i" 7
j 1/ /' Values of ~in
I D.75,Y /'
/~
020
I
I " / tov
,/ / ,;'
ld
1.5 2.0 2.5
narl

3.0 3.5 4.0

Section 1·1

(X2, deg
flf4 I / /" 0.5 0.06 0.22 0.50
/ /' I/~ 0.25
0.75 0.06 0.15 0.24 0.35
I. / V id""f5-2.D 1.0 0.06 0.10 0.15 0.23 0.35 0,46 0.25
/lfO 11 /
U / 1.5-2.0 0.05 0.07 0.10 0.15 0.18 0.25 10 0.30
/107 lL / 12 0.37
V V 14 0.44
11.05 V
f.J 2.0 2.5 10 15 fl,
 Flow with a Smooth Change in Velo city 373
372 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

Diffusers with curved axis (and with expansion in one plane

Turbomachinery diffusers (!:adial-axial and axial-radial-annular) Diagram 5.21
39 Diagram 5.20 in the system with ld/bo =8.3; la/ba =069 ,70
in a system with lJlD) > 0; da = 0.688
L Radial-axial

~p
Sin =- - 2 - =final' <Xl) ,
pwol2
where Sin = 11(nar, 151); Sin = f(n ar , <Xl), see graphs a-c

1. Values of ~in
2. Axial-radial-annular

1.4 1.8 2.2 2.6 3.0 3.4 3.8 4.2

- ~p
Sin=~=ko S'in;
pWö Si~ =1 [<X, *l for k d , see Diagram 5.1

(a) Diffuser downstream of operating compressor at GaO = 0.5

1.5 Q~ Q~ Q~ Q~ Values of Sln
1.7 0.34 0.48 0.56 0.61 0.64
1.9 0.37 0.49 0.56 0.62 0.65 r <X, deg
U O~ Q~ O~ QOO Q~ bo 2 4 6 10 12 14 16
(b) Diffuser downstream of idle compressor 0.037 0.068 0.088 0,106 0.123 0.138 0.150 0.160
1.4 0.31 0.41 0.48 0.55 0.60 (straight, ß =0)
l.6 0.25 0.33 0.40 0.46 0.52 0.55
22.5 0.42 0.72 0.97 0.113 0.130 0.144 0.155 0.163
2. L:(O.a-'1.0)lJo 1.8 0.19 0.26 0.33 0.39 0.44 0.48 0.51
2.0 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.43 (ß = 21 0 15')
151 =2.06 C0 =8
0
Gao =0.5 11.6 0.043 0.077 0.103 0.124 0.140 0,154 0.163 0.168
1h1 -- D
n = 2 - D ) - - D 1 = -1 do=da- (ß =400 5')
ar ho 1 + do Do Do
7.5 0,043 0.081 0.113 0.136 0.153 0.163 0.170 0.175
- 0 - cao
cao=wo rc(DÖ':::d6)14 caO=-;;'
where Q is the fluid discharge, m3/s; u is the
~~ .....;
~ ~

\00"" fli J...-"'"

-......,..---
(b)

circumferential velocity on the outer radius, mls .., .. ~ ~

/
1/
V
1/
,... I~
t ..1.~ -;?
-""
1,.000

V", : .... ..... ~

l/ 7 ./~ ?{n ....
"I"" ..,..'" afO 1 I I I I I
~~
" r/bQ "" 7.S" I T
ft~ ~
.",..
f.q. 1.8 2.2 2.1 .1.0 .14 J.811 tJ.19
alP
alu /.~";
2. Values of ~in /.'7'; y
tin 1 1 I
tJ.# 1 1 01 J!L nar 11tJ/J
W .... ?<
I-f-
f-
. •...21,...o~ I-t-"'
~X 2 ~
t.,...~V
V
<Xl, deg
1.8 2.2 2.6 3.0 3.4 3.6 4.0
#':.W 22.,
tl)
190 i--" (lf)6 ~~ r/bp :: oo
-2 0.28 0.31 0.35 0,38 0.40 0.41 0.43
D.2 #
V.,::-tY..,...
~ +2 0.14 0.22 0.27 0.31 0.35 0,37 0.41 //;. V I
(U
/..,."
/ ....1
1
+4 0.08 0,13 0.18 0.24 0.29 0.32 0.39
fJ.Olf W I
(J V I 1 2 .J 8 1IJ
I./f ~8 2.2 2.5 J,(J .u. J.8 n
 Flow with a Smooth Change in Velo city 375
374 Handbook oj Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

Converging nozzles of circular cross section in the system

Diffusers of circular cross section with a curved axis in the system with lo/Do> 047 ,49,100,136 Diagram 5.23
Diagram 5.22
with narl =4; lctIDo = 7.15; a =8°; lolDo =0.35 172,173
1. Rectilinear boundary walls (scheme a, I)

r - Clp r'
S= Cl: ' see graph a
pwo/2
'oin = - 2 - = kd'oin '
pwo/2 . (Re ::: woDrJv ;:: 105) or use
for ~in, see the table the approximate formula
at Re ~ 5 x 10 and
5

the curves ~in ::: j(Re)

S= (-0.0125nri + 0.0224nß
in the graph; for kd, - 0.00723n6 + O.00444no - 0.(0745)
see Diagram 5.1
F1 x (a; - 21ta,? - War) + Sfr '
narl =70' (al
where no = FrJF 1 :::; 1.0,
a r = 0.01745a.
Re= woD o .
v 2. Curvilinear boundary walls - completely over the radius R af the cirele (scheme a, 2):

~ =pwClo/2; , see graph b (Re ~ 105) .

loE3 3. Rectilinear boundary walls with rounding at the exit aver the radius r (scheme a, 3) at a ::: 90°;
Clp 5
~ =-2-' see graphs c and d (Re ~ 10) .
Diffuser no. 2 10 11 12 pwOI2
ß, deg 15 30 15 30 15 30 30 30 30 4. Curvilinear boundary walls of double curvature (nozzle scheme b):
R/Do 27.30 13.65 27.30 13.65 27.30 13.65 13.65 13.65 13.65 _ Clp
~=-2-=~fr ,
~in at Re <:: 5 x 105 0.081 0.131 0.092 0.087 0.108 0.145 0.154 0.220 0.131 0.115 0.265 0.118 pwo/2
where for ~fr' see Equations (5.9)-(5.12).
Values of ~;n
Re x 10-5
Values of'
Diffuser no.
0.10 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 a,deg
1. (ß =0; r/Do==) 0.244 0.216 0.178 0.160 0.150 0.140 0.120 0.100 0.088 0.075 no
10 15-40 50-60 .. 76 90 105 120 150 180
2. (w= 15°; rlDo=27.30) 0.410 0.366 0.290 0240 0.200 0.180 0.160 0.150 0.132 0.127
0.64 0.072 0.067 0.054 0.040 0.058 0.076 0.094 0.112 0.131 0.167 0.190
3. (ß = 30°; r/Do= 13.65) 0.385 0.338 0.250 0.230 0.216 0.210 0.200 0.198 0.184 0.45 0.076 0.064 0.052 0.050 0.072 0.104 0.138 0.170 0.202 0.246 0.255
9. (ß=O; r/Do = 00) 0.340 0.280 0.240 0.180 0.136 0.132 0.132 0.39 0.098 0.070 0.051 0.046 0.064 0.110 0.162 0.210 0.250 0.319 0.364
10. (ß = 15°; r/Do = 27.30) 0.375 0.265 0.220 0.185 0.175 0.140 0.122 0.113 0.103 0.25 0.100 0.071 0.047 0.044 0.068 0.127 0.174 0.220 0.268 0.352 00408
0.16 0.108 0.084 0.048 0.044 0.074 0.136 0.184 0.232 0.278 0.362 00420
11. (ß = 30°; r/Do = 13.65) 0.375 0.300 0.275 0.253 0.244
0.10 0.118 0.093 0.053 0.050 0.079 0.142 0.190 0.237 0.285 0.367 00427

n , '''I I
I
I I s 1 I laI
""- I I
2 -.:::::i ~ J ",g fll /1 n,=af
~~ I i I\. 12J8
no=121-aI6

"
aUff
flJO " ~r af6 1;
!J.tJ9 ~ D
I .... ~ ;::::~ -..;/'.. 12J9
IA
r--- r--
f120 r--L--. i l ~ ~I"~ ~I
10
\. l\
12JI)
rA.)9r
:-, I

~
I ~:

;;;;;;""-
!""'-. .:.\ I
"~i
I
I
1l1J7 ~ ~ '~ a22
,11
I
F1 ~~ Va~
1'...1".~
I all51"- .)
alu I Ni'- atJ5
Iio.. 12M
vi
i'\. . n()=o.5~ ~
a06~~
I I, /10 :0,64
a07 I I I tJ.OJ
at az aJ fJ./f 125 0.6 aa 1.0 Re X 10-5 J 9 S6 7 ftJ 12 f5 21) JtJ 90 otJ 90 !2(}ffOa
 T

Flow with a Smooth Change in Velo city 377

376 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

Converging nozzles of circular cross section in the system

Converging nozzles of circular cross section in the system 4 Diagram 5.24
with lolDo > 047 ,49,100,136 Diagram 5.23 with la/Do> 0; laminar flow Re = woDh/v::; 50

Values of ~ _ Ap A
S= pw~/2 = Re '

where at 5° ::;; 0: ::;; 40°

A 20.5
n~·5(tano:)0.75 '

see curves A = f( 0:, no) .

A
I I I I Values ofA
JOO

~ I II
i'.
zoo ~~
I'- ~
, I7q=(J.f5
~ no
0:, deg

20 25 30 35 40
~, i'
10 15
....... ~
>.. N
"!:'~ az "- 0.15 333 197 144 114 95.0 80.8 69.9 61.0
i'-.r-- r-.... 0.25 255 151 110 87.6 72.8 61.9 53.6 46.8
11J0 '''l'-
0.10 I i' 0.33 221 131 95.5 75.8 63.0 53.6 46.4 40.5
80
:--. .,
r--. ~
1"- 0.5 178 105 77.0 6L1 50.8 43.2 37.4 32.6

60 tlJJ
1J.50
"'~......
i>~
" '\
".'..
0.6 162 95.7 70.0 55.5 46.2 39.3 34.0 29.7

50
Values of ~
10
"(I-MO " "
.......:
. ~
I I i'.."
r/Do JO I I I :'S:.
no 5 8 12 2P JO 0:
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.15 0.20
0
0: = 90 Converging-diverging transition pieces in the system
100 Diagram 5.25
0.64 0.097 0.063 0.061 0.060 0.059 0.058 0.055 0.052 with lrIDh > 0
0.45 0.138 0.074 0.064 0.060 0.058 0.057 0.057 0.057
0.33 0.150 0.113 0.092 0.077 0.066 0.059 0.058 0.057 1. Circu1ar cross section
0.25 0.160 0.108 0.071 0.056 0.053 0.052 0.049 0.045 (a) Curvilinear converging sectioll (scheme a):
0 _ Ap
0: = 120
S=-2-=kIk2S1 +AS,
0.64 0.130 0.087 0.064 0.062 0.060 0.059 0.057 0.054 pwo/2
0.45 0.196 0.138 0.090 0.067 0.065 0.064 0.062 0.060 = 5
=
where at Re wODh/v 2 2 x 10 , SI h(o:ct), see the graph; at Re < 2 x 105, SI is detennined as Sct
0.33 0.237 0.165 0.115 0.085 0.072 0.065 0.055 0.053 from Diagram 5.2; k 1 = h(O:ct, FI/Fo) see the graph; k2 '" 0.66 + 0.351olDo at 0.25 ::;; loiDo ::;; 5; for AS,
0.25 0.250 0.170 0.120 0.083 0.063 0.055 0.054 0.053 see the table.

Q
fX=fZO (d)
t «""gO· (e}
tU! 1\
~\ !\\
41J ~

0.11
\
\
~
, \)<
Il()-az§'
alJ
fJ.2
\
'\
1\\
\ \l\,.
\~
Ilq=(J.25
aJJ
(J.45

I1IJ9 \'- 1/ M5
0.12 '\ ~~
"<,
\ 1\ \ VIl()=fJ.M I\. ~ 1l(1=t164
\ \ /'
K " N..
-
I1IJ7 r--. (J.tJß ~
"- 1-0. r- ~ "N. r-.... LI'---.~

fJ.tJ5
tJ aO! fltJ4
......
{l,()o (l,()8 fJ.1() rlJJp
arH
o 1202 aOIf OIJ6 /lOO
-rjJJ()-
(J.fIJ Ib)
 Flow with a Smooth Change in Velo city 379
378 Handbook 01 Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition
Transition pieces with sharply changing cross seetions
Converging-diverging transition pieces in the system Diagram 5.26
Diagram 5.25 in the system with 111D1 > 0
with 11IDh > 0 100
4
where at Re = woD,/v > 10
(b) Rectilinear converging section (scherne b):
34
r _
"'ree = - 2 - =
6p
A~eur '
~I== 0.5 F J / + (1 _.....9.
1-.....9.
F
F J2 + A.!:2....
F D
pwo/2
( 1 I o
where ~eur is deterrnined as ~ for a curviJin~ar 10
= ~se + ~gr + 11, D '
converging section; A =f(ad), see the graph. o
2. Square cross section (tentatively): ~se ==
0.5(1 - FrJFI )3/4, see Diagram 4.9, paragraph 1;
~gr = (1 - FrJFI ); at Re < 10 , ~sc is determined as ~ frorn
4

~ == 6f see paragraph 1, but ~I is Diagram 4.10 and ~gr is deterrnined as ~ frorn Diagrarn 4.1;
pwö/ 2
at all the Re nurnbers k l =f(lrJD o, F/Fo) see the graph.
deterrnined as ~d at lrJD o frorn Diagram 5.4; For 11" see Diagrarns 2.1 through 2.6.
3. Rectangular cross section with expansion in one plane
(tentatively):

~ == ~ see paragraph 1, but ~I is

pwii/2
deterrnined as ~d at lrJDo = 0 frorn Diagram 5.5.

Values of k 1
Cf.ct, deg
Value
5 7 10 12.5 15 10
FI DI Do
0.10 0.10 0.11 0.13 0.16 Fa Do
A 1.08 1.09 1.13 1.16 1.15 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 1.0 1.4 >2.0
1.5 1.6 ("'1.25) 1.02 1.01 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
2.2-2.3 H.50) 1.06 1.03 1.02 1.01 1.0 1.0 1.0
Values of k 1
3.0-3.2 (",,1.75) 1.10 1.06 1.04 1.01 1.0 1.0

Cf.ct, deg ;::4.0 (>"/.0) 1.15 1.10 1.08 1.04 1.03 1.0
FI/Fo DI/Do
5 7 10 12.5 15
1.5 1.6 -1.25 0.59 0.55 0.48 0040 0.33
2.2-2.3 "'].50 0.81 0.81 0.78 0.77 0.66
3.0-3.2 ""1.75 0.90 0.89 0.85 0.81 0.77
;::4.0 >"/.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0

Values of.6.~

lo/Do F,/fQ~ ~IJ

FI/Fo DI/Do 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 12.5 1.50
1.f2 1\
1.5 1.6 -1.25 -0.012 -0.08 -0.004 0 0.004 0.008 \ 3J}-3.2
2.2-2.3 ""1.50 -0.020 -0.014 0 0 0 0.014
3.0-3.2 ",,1.75 -0.022 -0.016 -0.010 0 0.010 0.014 t08 ~ )( 2.2-2.3
;::4.0 ;::2.0 -0.028 -0.020 -0.010 0 omo 0.016 \ VI ~
lo/Do
f()~l\. 1)\ "' --
r--...
r-. t--
!
FI/Fo
1.5 1.6
2.2-2.3
3.0-3.2
DI/Do
-1.25
",,1.50
",,1.75
1.75
0.012
0.020
0.022
2.0
0.016
0.026
0.027
2.5

0.038
0.038
3.0

0.048
0.050
3.5

0.06
0.062
4.0

0.072
0.073
tOP
N ~ ........
I'"I'... ~ r-. r--.~
fi/fo""f.5-f.6
- t--1-
t-- -..

;::4.0 >2.0 0.028 0.030 1l.7 1l.9 1.1 f.5

bz
 Flow with a Smooth Change in Velo city 381
380 Handbook 01 Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

Diffuser with transition from a drele into a rectangle or

Transition from rectangular to circular cross sections Diagram 5.28
Diagram 5.27 from a rectangle to a cirele, in the system with lrlDl > 0
in the system with lo/Do> 0;7,84 Re =woDolv > 104

1. Diverging transition piece (Fo > F j ):

5
Sd == Ö;/2 = Ssim + 0.5 exp (-Re x 10- ) = Ssim + ÖSd ' see Diagram 5.4 for a pyramidal diffuser of rectan-
PWo
gular cross section with an equivalent divergence
angle which is determined from the relations:
ÖSd = 0.5 exp (-Rex 10-5) see graph a.
a 2~-Do
2. Converging transition piece (Fo < F j ):
tan 2 2/d

5
Seon == Öf/ = Ssim + 0.3 exp (-Re x 10- ) = Ssim + ÖS eon ' for transition from a eirele into a rectangle
pWo 2

5
ÖS eon = 0.3 exp (-Rex 10- ), see graph a; Ssim = (co + Cl ~J(~ r; Cl = f(~o) ,see graph b (cld' for the diverging
transition piece; cleon' for the converging transition piece); Co = /...(llDh ): Dh = D lI, + Dr/2 = [2a 1b 1/(al + b 1) +
2

O.5Dol; for /..., see Diagrams 2.1 through 2.6. The choice of the shape and optimal dimensions of the transition pieces
is described under para. 1 through 15 (transition pieces).

Re x 10-4 2 4 6 10 20 40 50
0.272 0.245 0.201 0.165 0.135 0.111 0.041 0.005 0.002
0.453 0.409 0.335 0.275 0.225 0.185 0.068 0.009 0.003

':--. ............ {a)

fJ.4() lJ?d
"-
"'lI
\ .......
~ ...... Neon "- _.
..... ~ ....
fJ.f6 ' ....... \..
..... 1"-
"-
r--....~
{J.08
~
~::s
r:s:::
~
_
.
U ~
fp4 2 2

c, (b)
I
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 4.0 5.0
~ Cld 0.055 0.ü30 0.023 0.018 0.015 0.008 0.006

IJ
" ../ld
~t::--
'----lL:.l.E2~ _ r---
2 J
Cleon 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.0015 0.0010 0
 Flow with a Smooth Change in Velocity 383
382 Handbook oj Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

22. Guinevskiy, A. S., Emeliyanova, G. N., and Kolesnikov, A. v., The direct and inverse problems
REFERENCES in caIculation of diffuser channels, Tr. TsIAM, no. 1093, 51-60, 1984.
23. Guinevskiy, A. S. and Kolesnikov, A. V., Calculation of the starting length and stabilized flow
1. Abramovich, G. N., Aerodynamics of local resistances, in Prom. Aerodin., vyp. 211, pp. 65-150,
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Oborongiz Press, Moscow, 1935.
2. Abramovich, G. N., Applied Gas Dynamies, Nauka Press, Moscow, 1969, 715 p. 1969.
3. Altshul, A. D. and Kalitsun, V. M., On the resistance coefficient of converging diffusers, Izv. 24. Ginevskii, A. S. and Solodkin, E. E., Aerodynamic characteristics of the starting length of an an-
nular tube with turbulent boundary layer flow, in Prom. Aerodin., vyp. 12, pp. 155-167,
VUZ, Energetika, no. 7, 130--136, 1960.
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25. Ginevskii, A. S. and Solodkin, E. E., Hydraulic resistance of annular channels, in Prom. Aerodin.,
Leningr. Politekh. Inst., no. 333, 104--106, 1973.
5. Guinevskiy, A. S., Kolesnikov, A. V., Podolynyi, 1. N., and Smoliyanikova, A. N., The aerody- vyp. 20, pp. 202-215, Oborongiz Press, Moscow, 1961.
26. Ginzburg, Ya. L. and IdeIchik, 1. E., Main results of the study of diffusers of square and rectan-
namic characteristics of plane separation-free diffusers, in Prom. Aerodin., vyp. 30, pp. 5-25,
gular cross section, in Industrial Cleaning of Gases and the Aerodynamics of Dust-Capturing Ap-
Mashinostroenie Press, Moscow, 1973.
6. Bedrzhitskiy, E. L., Study of subsonic diffusers, in Prom. Aerodin., vyp. 1(33), pp. 123-158, paratus, pp. 57-63, Yaroslavl, 1975.
Mashinostroenie Press, Moscow, 1986. 27. Ginzburg, Ya L. and Idelchik, I. E., Experimental determination of the eoefficients of pressure reduc-
tion in conieal diffusers at large subsonic velocities, Uch. Zap. TsAGI, vol. 4, no. 3, 23-31, 1973.
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into rectangular slots, Tr. Leningr. Politekh. Inst., no. 289, 104-109, 1968. 28. Gordeyev, N. N., Seleznyov, K. P., and Chemyavskiy, L. K., An approximate method for calcu-
8. Brusilovskiy, I. V., Determination of the optimal parameters of the diffusers ofaxial fans and of lating the losses in straight and bent diffusers with an arbitrarily varying cross-sectional area and
their energy characteristics from the experimental data, in Prom. Aerodin., vyp. 2(34), pp. 118- its use for optimizing the elements of turbine machines, in Thermal Power Engineering (Tr. Len-
133, Mashinostroenie Press, Moscow1987. ingr. Politekh. Inst.), no. 358, pp. 47-53, Leningrad, 1947.
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pp. 121-138, Mashinostroenie Press, Moscow, 1966. angle, Tr. Leningr. Inst. Inzh. Vodn. Transp., vyp. 22, 47-53, 1955. e

10. Bychkova, L. A., Aerodynamic characteristics of plane and radial diffusers with apreseparating tur- 30. Gubin, M. F., Kazennov, V. V., and Volshanik, V. V., An optimal shape of a rectiaxial diffuser
bulent boundary layer, in Prom. Aerodin., vyp. 30, pp. 26-33, Mashinostroenie Press, Moscow, 1973. for a swirled liquid flow, Tr. Mosk. Inzh.-Stroit. Inst., no. 89, 38-44, 1972.
11. Vasiliev, Yu. N., Towards the theory of a stepped diffuser, in Blade Machines and Jet Apparatus, 31. Gurzhienko, G. A., On the developed turbulent flow in conical diffusers with small divergence
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12. Verigin, 1. S., Concerning the effect of the hydrodynamic regime of flow entrance into a conical 32. Daniliehev, V. N. and Vasiliev, B. N., Investigation of diffusers with flexible transverse fins,
diffuser on the efficiency of energy conversion when operating in the system 'nozzle-tube-dif- Gidroaeromekhanika, vyp. 3, 25-30, 1966.
fuser-tube', Yaroslavl Polytechnic Inst., 1981 (The paper is deposited at VINITI 17.12.1981 under 33. Dantsyg, A. Ya., Petrov, N. M., and Ponomaryov, N. N., Concerning the problem of determining
no. 5738-81). the los ses in a suddenly diverging channel located downstream of the diffuser, Izv. VUZ, Aviats.
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paper isdeposited at \fINITI IS.1L1979under no. 3879-79). diffusers with rectilinear outer walls and uniform Yelocity field at the entrance, Izv. VUZ, A viats.
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15. Garkusha, A. V., Grincheko, N. Ya., and Kucherenko, S. 1., Investigation of flow in an annular Tekh., no. 3, 63-66, 1983.
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Press, Moscow, 1960, 378 p. 39. Dovzhik, S. A. and Guinevskiy, A. S., Experimental investigation of pressure nozzles of stationary
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 Flow with a Smooth Change in Velo city 385
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68. Ovchinnikov, O. N., Effect of the inlet velocity profile on operation of diffusers, Tr. Leningr.
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Flow with a Smooth Change in Velocity 387

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175. Stock, H. W., Compressible turbulent flows in long circular cross-section diffusers of 1arge area
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151. Patterson, G., Modem diffuser design, Aircraft Eng., pp. 1-15, 1938.
nular Diffusers, Pap. Am. Soc. Mech. Eng., no. NWAiFE-38, 1968, p. 15.
152. Peryez, S., Der Einfluss des Diffusorwirkungsgarde auf den Austrittverlust im Dampfturbinen,
179. Stratford, B. S. and Tubbs, H., The maximum pressure rise attainable in subsonic diffusers, J. R.
Brennsr. Waenne Kraft, vol. 13, no. 9, 9-15, 1961.
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Arch., no. 1, 7-29, 1931.
stieg, Ing. Arch., vol. 22, no. 4, 268-281, 1954.
154. Pohl, K., Strömungverhaltrnsse in einen Diffusor mit vorgeschalteten Krummer, Ing. Arch., no. 29,
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Wannenwirtschaft, no. 2, 38-49, 195-3. . '
155. Polzin, 1., Strömungsuntersuchungen an einem ebenen Diffusor, lng. Arch., vol. 5, 30-49, 1950.
182. Winternitz, F. A. L. and Ramsay, W. 1., Effect of inlet boundary 1ayer on pressure recovery, en-
156. Prechter, H. P., Gesichtpunkte sur Auslegung von Diffusoren unter Berucksichtigung neuerer For-
ergy conversion and losses in conical diffusers, J. R. Aeronaut. Soc., vol. 61, no. 554, 15-23,
schungser-gebrnsse, Der Maschinenmarkt, vol. 13, no. 82, 31-39, 1961.
1957.
157. Raghunathan, S. and Kar, S., Theory and Performance of Conical Diffuser Exit Duct Combina-
183. Wolf, S. and lohnson, 1. P., Effects of Nonuniform Inlet Velocity Proftles on Flow Regimes and Per-
tions, Pap. Am. Soc. Mech. Eng., no. NWAlFE-45 , 1968, 8 p.
formance in Two-Dimensional Diffusers, Pap. Am. Soc. Mech. Eng., no. WA/FE-25 , 1969, 13 p.
158. Rao, D. M., A method of flow stabilization with high pressure recovery in short conical diffusers,
184. Wu, l. H. T., On a two-dimensional perforated intake diffuser, Aerosp. Eng., vol. 21, no. 7, 13-
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159. Rao, P. V. and Dass, H. S., Design and testing of streamline shapes for axisymmetric diffuser, J.
185. Van Dewoestine, R. V. and Fox, R. W., An experimental investigation of the effect of subsornc
Inst. Eng. lndia, vol. 62, pt. ME 2, pp. 39-46, 1981.
inlet Mach number on the performance of corneal diffusers, Int. J. Mech. Sei., vol. 8, no. 12, 759-
160. Rao, D. M. and Raju, K. N., The Use of Splirters for Flow Control in Wide-Angle Corncal Dif-
769, 1966.
fusers, Tech. Note Nat. Aeronaut. Lab. Bangalore, no. AE-26, 1964, 19 p.
186. Villeneuve, F., Contribution a l'etunde de l'ecoulement dans on diffuseur a six degres, Publ. Sei.
161. Rao, D. H. and Raju, K. N., Experiments on the Use of Screens and Splitters in a Wide-Angle
Tech. Minist. Air, no. 397, 1963, 9 p.
Corncal Diffuser, Tech. Note Nat. Aeronaut. Lab. Bangalore, no. AE-24, 1964, p. 23.
187. Kwong, A. H. M. and Dowling, A. P., Active boundary-Iayer control in diffusers, AIAA J., vol.
162. Rao, P., Samba, S., Vyas, B. D., and Raghunathan, S., Effect of inlet circulation on the perform-
32, no. 12, 2409-2414, 1994.
ance of subsornc straight corncal diffusers, lnd. J. Technol., vol. 9, no. 4, 135-137, 1971.
188. Frankfurt, M. O. A compararive estimate of the efficiency of diffuser channels with suction and
163. Ringleb, F. 0., Two-dimensional flow with standing vortexes in ducts and diffusers, Trans. ASivfE,
tangential injection, in Prom. Aerodin., no 4(36), pp. 191-195, Mashinostroenie Press Moscow
Sero D, vol. 82, no. 4, 921-927, 1960. 1991. ' ,
164. Robertson, 1. M. and Fraser, N. R., Separation prediction for conical diffusers, Trans. ASME, Sero
189. Bychkova, L. A., Experimental investigation of diffuser channels with preseparation state of a
D, vol. 82, no. 1, 135-145, 1960.
boundary layer, Uch. Zap. TsAGI, vol. 1, no. 6, 89-93, 1970.
 390 Handbook 0/ Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

190. Molochnikov, V. M., Determination of the aerodynamic characteristic of preseparation diffusers

CHAPTER
based on solution of the inverse boundary-Iayer problem, Inzh.-Fiz. Zh., voL 62, no. 1, 808-813,
1992.
SIX
191. Kozlov, A. P. and Molochnikov, V. M., Structure of flow in a profiled diffuser with a presepara-
tion state of a turbulent boundary layer, Aviats. Tekh., no. 2, 84-88, 1994. RESISTANCE TO FLOW WITH CHANGES
192. Kozlov, A. P., Mikheev, N. L, Molochnikov, V. M., and Nilov, G. A., Structure of flow in the
wall region of a profiled preseparation diffuser, Izv. Ross. Akad. Nauk, Energetika, rio. 3, 83-88, OF THE STREAM DIRECTION
200t
193. Mazo, A. S., Ca1culation of the geometric and aerodynamic characteristics of conical diffusers
RESISTANCE COEFFICIENTS OF CURVED
with a boundary layer in apreseparation state, Inzh.-Fiz. Zh., vol. 64, no. 5, 827, 1983. SEGMENTS - ELBO"VS, BENDS, ETC.
194. Dovzhik, S. A. Influence of the radial nonuniformity of flow on the efficiency of annular dif-
fusers, in Prom. Aerodin., no. 32, pp. 5-21, Mashinostroenie Press, Moscow, 1975.
195. Sovran, G. and Komp, E. D., Experientally determined optimum geometries for rectilinear dif~
fusers with rectangular, conical or annular cross section, in Proc. of the Symposium on the Fluid
Mech. of Internal Flow, General Motors Research Laboratories, Warren, Michigan, 1965, Amster-
dam and others, pp. 270-319, 1967.
196. Adenubi, S. O. Performance and flow regime of annular diffusers with axial turbomachine dis-
charge inlet conditions, l. Fluid Eng., Trans. ASME, Sero I, vol. 98, no. 2, 236-243, 1976.
197. Dovzhik, S. A. and Kartavenko, V. M., Experimental investigation of the effect of flow twisting
on the efficiency of annular channels and exit branches ofaxial turbines, in Prom. Aerodin., no.
31, pp. 94-103, Mashinostroenie Press, Moscow, 1974.
198. Lohmann, R. P., Markowski, S. T., and Brookman, E. N., Swirling flow through annular diffusers
with conical walls, Trans. ASME, l. Fluids Eng., vol. 101, no. 2, 1979.
199. Verevkin, N. N. and Lashkov, A. L, Concerning the means of reducing pressure losses in diffusers 6.1 EXPLANATIONS A:Nl) PRACTICAL RECOMMENDATIONS
with large divergence angles, in Prom. Aerodin., no. 7, pp. 81-94, Oborongiz Press, Moscow,
1956. 1. Bending of a flow in curved tubes and channe1s (elbows, bends, and bypasses *) results in
200. Khanzhonkov, V. I., Improvement of the efficiency of diffusers with large divergence angles by the appearance of centrifugal forces directed from the center of curvature to the outer wall of
using plane screens, in Prom. Aerodin., no. 3, pp. 210-217, Oborongiz Press, Moscow, 1947. the tube. This causes an increase of the press ure at the outer wall and its decrease at the inner
201. Schubauer, G. B. and Spangenberg, W. G., Effect of Screens in Wide Angle Diffusers, NACA wall, when the flow passes from the straight to the curved section of the pipe (until it is
Rep., 949, 1949. completely turned). Therefore, the flow velocity will correspondingly be lower at the outer
202. Gibbings,). C=.,The pyramid gauze diffuser, Ing.-Archi~,. vol: 4J, no.4, 225:-~33! 1973. . wall and larger at the inner wall (Figure 6.1). Thus, in -thisbend a ,diffuser effeot 0€curs near
203. Chang, P. K., Control of Flow Separation, Hemisphere PublishingCorporation, New York-Wash-
the outer wall and a bellmouth effect occurs near the inner wall. The passage of flow from
ington, 1976.
204. Senoo, K. and Nishi, M., Improvement of the performances of conical diffusers by vortex gener-
the curved into the straight section, after turning, is accompanied by these effects in the re-
ators, Trans. ASME, Sero D, no. 1, 96-103, 1974. verse order: a diffuser effect near the inner wall and a bellmouth effect near the outer wall.
205. Ledovskaya, N. N., Some ways of increasing the efficiency of annular diffusers with large diver- 2. The diffuser phenomena lead to corresponding flow separation from both walls. In this
gence angles, Trudy TsIAM, no. 1112, 1-13, 1984. case, separation from the inner wall is intensified by inertial forces acting in the curved zone
206. Ledovskaya, N. N., Experimental investigation of the three-dimensional structure of aseparation in the direction toward the outer wall. An eddy zone, formed as a result of flow separation
flow in an axisymmetrical annular diffuser, Inzh.-Fiz. Zh., vol. 51, no. 2, 321-328, 1986.
207. Brown, A. C. et al., Subsonic diffusers designed integrally with vortex generators, Paper 67-464,
in Proc. AlAA Third Propulsion loint Specialist Cont, Washington, D.C., 1967. *Bypasses are meant to be curved sections in which the inner and outer walls represent arcs of con-
208. Dovzhik, S. A., Investigations into the aerodynamics of an axial subsonic compressor, Trudy centric circIes with inlet and outlet cross sections being equal:
TsAGI, No. 1099, 1968.
209. Guinevskiy, A. S., On calculation of the hydraulic resistance with separation flows, Inzh.-Fiz. Zh., ro 2': 0 and Tl = ro + bo ,
voL 8, no. 4, 540-545, 1965.
210. Khalatov, A. A., Theory and Practice of Twisted Flows, Naukova Dumka Press, Kiev, 1989, 192 p. where ro is the radius of curvature of the inner wall and Tl is the radius of curvature of the outer
211. Frankfurt, M. 0., Efficiency of tangential blowoff of a boundary layer in conical diffusers, Uch. wall. Since the two walls have the same center of curvature, the bend is characterized by the radius of
Zap. TsAGI, voL 4, no. 5, 50-55, 1973. curvature Ro of its axis when Ro/bo ;:::: 0.5.
212. Sedov, L. I. and Chernyi, G. G., in Collection of Papers no. 12, L. I. Sedov (Ed.), vyp. 4, pp. Elbows are meant to be curved sections, the curvatures of the inner and outer walls of which are not
17-30, Oborongiz Press, Moscow, 1954. ares of eoncentric circles.

391
 Flow with Changes of the Stream Direction 393
392 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

- - Velocity profiles
- -- Pl"essure profiles
1.5 2.0 2.5 J.O
Eddy zone
Figure 6.2. Vortex pair in an elbow: (a) longitudinal section; (b) cross seetion (rectangular channe!); (e)
- - - - - - . - ; - ; -.......--1- cross seetion (of a circular tube).

6. If the outer edge of the elbow is left sharp (radius of the outer curvature rl = 0) and
9.05 0.36 1.35 only the inner corner is rounded, an increase in the radius of inner curvature ro, then the
minimal resistance of the elbow with a 90° bend will be attained at rolbo = 1.2-1.5. With a
Figure 6.1. Variation of velocity and pressure profiles in an elbow and a slraight seetion downstream. further increase in rolbo, the resistance will grow noticeably. Such an increase in the resistance
is due to the fact that if the inner corner is rounded, the cross-sectional area at the place of
bending increases considerably, and hence the velocity decreases. This intensifies the diffuser
from the inner wall, propagates far ahead and across, greatly reducing the cross section of the
separation of flow, originating at the place of transition froin the starting length into the elbow.
main stream.
7. Rounding the outer corner and keeping the inner corner sharp (ro = 0) do not lead to a
3. The appearance of centrifugal forces and the presence of boundary layers at the walls
noticeable decrease in the elbow resistance. A significant increase in the radius of curvature of
explain the occurrence of a secondary (transverse) flow in a curved tube, i.e., the formation
the outer wall even causes an increase in the elbow resistance. This indicates that it is undesir-
of the so-called vortex pair, which is superimposed on the main stream parallel to the channel
able to round the outer wall alone (with the inner corner kept sharp) , since then the cross-sec-
axis and imparts a helical shape to the streamlines (Figure 6.2).
tional area of the flow decreases at the place of flow turning and increases the diffuser losses,
4. The main portion of pressure losses in curved tubes is due to formation of eddies at the
which originate during flow passage from the elbow to the exit section of the pipe.
inner wall, and this, together with the secondary flows, determines the nature of the velocity
distribution downstream of the bend.
The magnitude of the resistance coefficient of curved tubes and the flow structure within
them varj under the influence of both the factors governing the degree of flow turbulence
and the inlet velocity profi~ shape. These factors are the Reynolds number Re = WoDh/V,
relative roughness of walls ~ = NDh, inlet conditions, relative length of the straight starting
section lolDo, * relative distance from the preceding shaped piece, etc., and geometrie parame-
ters of the tube, i.e., the angle of bend 8, the relative radius of curvature r/D o or RoiDo
(RoIb o) (Figure 6.3), the aspect ratio (relative elongation) aolbo, the ratio of the inlet area to
the exit area FI/Fo, etc.
5. Other conditions being equal, the curved tube offers the largest resistance in the case
when the curvature at the inner wall is a sharp corner; the flow separates from this wall most
vigorously. At the angle of bend 8 = 90°, the region of flow separation at the inner wall
downstream of the bend amounts to 0.5 of the tube width. Hence, the intensity of eddy (vor-
tex) formation and the resistance of the curved tube (channel) increase, with an increase in
the angle of bend. Rounding of the elbow corners (especially of the inner corner) makes the
() f 2
flow separation much smoother and, consequently, lowers the resistance.
Figure 6.3. Scheme of rounding of an elbow and the dependenee of the resistanee eoefficient of an
*Here loiDo is the length of the straight seetion downstream of a smooth inlet (eollector). elbow on the eurvature radius rlb o.
 Flow with Changes 0/ the Stream Direction 395
394 Handbook 0/ Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

The minimum resistance is achieved by an elbow for which TI/bo = rolbo + 0.6 (an elbow
of the optimum shape), while the resistance close to the minimum is offered by abend or by
a "normal" elbow for which TI/bo = rolbo + 1.0. Since abend is technically more easily
achieved, it can supplant an optimal elbow in the majority of cases.
8. The resistance of right-angle elbows can be greatly reduced by installing a fairing on
the inner corner (see Diagram 6.10). The optimum value of the relative curvature radii of the
fairing amounts to rolbo = 0.45. If such a fairing is installed, the resistance coefficient of the
30
elbow bend (8 = 90°) diminishes from S = 1.15 to S = 0.55.
Rounding of the outer corner of the elbow with the radius rr/bo = 0.45 additionally re-
duces the losses by 5%, i.e., up to S = 0.49.
Reduction in the elbow resistance can also be attained by beveling (along the chord) sharp
corners of the bend (especially the inner corner; see Diagram 6.10).
9. A change in the ratio of the areas Fr/Fo of the entrance to and exit from the elbow
changes its resistance. With an increase in the cross-sectional area downstream of the bend,
the diffuser effect increases, which intensifies the flow separation and the formation of vor-
tices (increases the eddy zone). At the same time, when the discharge is constant, the flow Figure 6.4. Dependence of Sin of elbows with 0 == 90° on TI/bo at different values of ro/bo. 77
velocity in the exit seetion decreases. The effect of the velocity decrease, expressed as a de-
crease in the pressure losses, is greater (with the increase in the ratio FI/Fo up to certain
limits) than the effect of the increasing eddy zone, which leads to higher losses. As a result,
the total losses in the elbow of enlarged cross section decrease within certain limits.
10. The resistance of straight elbows (8 = 90°) with sharp corners is minimum for the ratio where Sfr = A(llDh) is calculated as S for straight seetions with A taken from Diagrams 2.1
FI/Fo lying within 1.2-2.0. In elbows and bends with smooth turns the optimal ratio FI/Fo is through 2.6 as a function of the Reynolds number and of the relative roughness ~ = YD h ; I
doser to unity; in some cases, it is even less than unity, which is clearly seen in Figure 6.4. is the length of the elbow or bend measured along the axis.
The internal resistance coefficient* Sin of plane bends with 8 = 90° and height-to-width ratio Tne ratio
aolb o = 2.4 depends on the relative curvature radius of the outer wall TI/bo at different values
of the relative curvature radius of the inner wall rolbo. The envelope of the curves S = f(rolbo,
TI/b o), over the whole range of values of rolbo and rl/bo, is higher for the diffuser channel
when FI/Fo ::: 1.3 and lower when FVFo = 0.5. The intermediate position is occupied by a
channel of constant cross section (Fr/Fo = 1.0). Then
Figure 6.4 can provide guidelines for the choice of optimal relationships between rolbo and
TI/b o of plane branches with 8 = 90°. Ro
Sfr=ü.0175 Dh 8A.
In the absence of data on the resistance of elbows and expanding bends, it is possible to
neglect a decrease in the pressure losses within the above limits of FI/Fo and to assurne that 13. The coeffi~ient of local resistanee of branches is ca1culated from the formula suggested
the resistance coefficient is the same as for Fr/Fo = 1. An increase in the resistance at values by Abramovich: r
of Fr/Fo differing substantially from the optimal values should not be neglected.
11. The resistance of curved tubes (channels) decreases with an increase in the relative
(6.1)
elongation of the cross-sectional area of the elbow aolbo and increases when aolbo decreases
within the limits of less than unity.
12. In the majority of cases, for the convenience of engineering ca1culations, the total re- where Ar is the coefficient that allows for the effeet of the angle of the bend 8; BI is the
sistance coefficient of elbows and bends is determined as the sum of the coefficient of Iocal coefficient that allows for the effeet of the relative curvature radius of the be nd RoiDo (RoIbo);
resistance of the bend Sloc and the friction coefficient Sfr: and Cr is the coefficient that allows for the effeet of the relative elongation of the bend eross
seetion aolbo.
*The internal resistance coefficient Sin is determined as the ratio of the difference of total pressures
The value of Ar ean be determined from the data of Nekrasov: 31
at the entrance to and exit from the bend to the velocity pressure at the entrance. It does not consider
the additional losses that would have occurred in a straight exit seetion downstream of the bend due to
"Abramovich's formula contains a numerical factor 0.73, which is included here in the quantity BI.
further equalization of the velocity profile distorted when the flow turns in the branch.
 Flow with Changes of the Stream Direction 397
396 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

log I100Acur)
at 8=90° Al = 1.0,
1-. $-"
2- ~ 6- Q

at 8< 70° Al = 0.9 sin 8 ,

J-ID
t9 If- * 7 - '"

8
at 8> 100° Al =0.7 + 0.35 90 '

or from graph a of Diagram 6.1. . *

The value of BI can be calculated from the approxlmate formulas:

0.21
(DO/DO)O.25 ' fUI-------'--,

or from graphs band c of Diagram 6.1. The value of Cl is determined from graph d of
Diagram 6.1.
14. The total resistance of very smooth curvilinear tubes and channels (bends, coils)
(RoIDo :2: 3.0) can be considered as an increased friction coefficient at which the resistance
coefficient is dependent not only on the Reynolds number and roughness, but also on the
relative curvature radius RoIDo (RoIbo) or on the parameter Re->J2Ro/Do:
Hefe S : : Acur(lIDh) = O.0175(RoIDo)oAcü!',> where !\"cUr is the coefficient of hydraulic frktion
of a curved channel (bend).
15. The dependence of the hyd.!..aulic friction coefficient of smoothly curved tubes (bends),
Acur, on Rd2Ro/Do, RoIDo, and L\, established by various authors (Figure 6.5), points to the
existence of a dose analogy for such tubes with straight tubes (see Chapter 2). In this case,
four flow regimes are possible.
The first regime, within the limits up to Re = 6.5 x 103 , is laminar. It is .s:haracterized by
the condition where the straight lines of resistance for different RoIDo and L\ are parallel to
each other and form a sharp angle with the abscissa In Rd2Ro/Do.
4
The second regime, with 6.5.103 < Re < 4.10 , is a transition regime. The coefficient Acur
under these conditions is practically independent of the Reynolds number.
The third regime is turbulent, which corresponds to 4 X 104 < Re < 3 X 105. The resis-
tance curves of smooth bends exhibit behavior similar to that of the resistance curves of
straight commercial pipes (with non uniform roughness) in the transition region (see Diagram
2.4): they decline.Jmoothly with an increase in the parameter Rd2Ro/Do. Besides, for dif-
ferent RoIDo and L\ these curves are also parallel to each other.
*Por a rectangular cross section RolDo should be replaced by Ro/bo.
Figure 6.5. Resistance coefficient !-el of smooth 90° bends as a function of the dimensionless parameter
Re-/2Ro/Do;56 1) Ito, Do = =
35 mm, brass; 2) Goffman, Do 43 mm, brass; 3) Goffman, Do = 43 mm,
rough brass; 4) Tsimerman, Do = 50 mm, steel; 5) Gregorik, Do = 89.3 mm, steel; 6) Idelchik, smooth;
7) Lee, Do = 26 mm, steel.
The fourth regime is observed at Re > 3.105; the curves Acur = f(Rd2Ro/Do) are parallel
to the absci§sa so that Acur practically ceases to depend on Re and remains a nlilction of
RoIDo and L\ alone.
16. For smooth curved tubes (made of glass, brass, lead, rubber, steel at L\ < 0.0002, etc.)
at any 8, induding spirals (coils), the value of Acur up to Re "" 105 can be calculated from
the following equation * (see also Diagram 6.2):
a
(6.2)
17. Analogous formulas have been obtained for curvilinear channels of square cross sec-
tion 84 (see Diagram 6.2). Formulas for the rectangular cross section of different orientation
differ somewhat the value of Acur can be calculated from the formulas suggested by Demen-
tiyev and Aronov12 (see also Diagram 6.2):
at Re =(0.5-7) x 103
or
*Equation (6.2) was derived by Aronov 3,4 on the basis of his experiments and those of Adler51 and
95
White. Dala dose to the values of Acur obtained by Aronov are given in the works of Kvitkovsky,24
Koshelev et alo,27 Mazurov and Zakharov,28 and Shchukin et al. 48
 Flow with Changes of the Stream Direction 399
398 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

for the rectangular cross section

f(y)=2/Dh at y>l,

for the elliptical cross section

f(y) = 2y/(y+ 1) at y< 1 ,

f(y) = (y+ l)/(2y) at y> 1 .

19. The coefficient of local resistance of elbows with sharp corners can be ca1culated for
Figure 6.6. Schematic representation of the winding of a helical tube.
the entire range of angles 0 ~ 8 ~ 1800 from the equation

at Re = (7-38) x 103 where S' is determined by Weisbach's equation:

92

S' =0.95 sin2~+2.05 sin4~,

or
A is the correction factor, which is obtained from the experimental data of Richter79 and
Schubart81 and is determined from the curve A = f(8) of Diagram 6.5.
20. The local resistance coefficients of any elbows and bends can be considered constant
5
18. Within the limits of the subcritical Dean number which is determined approximately and independent of the Reynolds number only when Re > (2-3) x 10 . At lower values of
89 this number, it influences the resistance value and this influence increases with decreasing
from the formula
-valqesof Re. Tnis is particularly tl'He of bends,as weUas -of elbüws w.ithsmooth inner CUf-
vature.
21. The dependence S= f(Re) is complex and, according to the author's data,16,17 its char-
{where Ra = Ro[1 + tpf(2rrRo)2]; tp is the spiral pitch (Figure 6.6)}, it is possible to use the acter is mainly determined by a change in the flow regime in the boundary layer. In particu-
following single formula for ca1culating the hydraulic friction coefficient Acur which will be lar, in bends with Ro/bo = 0.55-1.5, especially when the bends are installed close to the
valid for any cross-sectional shape of a curvilinear channel (circular, rectangular, quadratic, smooth entrance, the phenomenon is similar to that observed for a flow around a cylinder or
and elliptical):89 a sphere.
22. Starting with very small values of the Reynolds number, the coefficient of total resis-
~O.5 .~-O.5 tance * Stot of the bend drops at Ro/bo "" 0.5-1.5, reaching the first minimum at about Re =
Acur = 0.1008f(y) (Re 'IDh/2Ro) [1 + 3.945f(y) (Re 'I Dh/ 2Ro)
5.104 (Figure 6.7). Following this, there is a slight increase in Stot until it reaches the value
corresponding to Re er (in this case at about 10\ at which there occurs a sharp drop in the
-1 -1.5
+ 7.782f(y) (Re ,jDh/2Ro) + 9.097f(Y) (Re ,jDh/2Ro) resistance coefficient (the resistance crisis in the transition regime) until the second minimum
at Re = (0.2-2.5) x 105 (developed or postcritical regime), whereupon there follows a slight
increase in the resistance coefficient.

where A = j\Re) is the hydraulic friction coefficient determined for the given cross-sectional
*The coefficient ~tot also includes the velocity pressure losses at the exit from the bend into the
shape of the channel from the corresponding diagrams of Chapter 2; y == bo/ao is the ratio of atmosphere.
the channel cross section axes;
 Flow with Changes of the Stream Direction 401
400 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

24. As the Reynolds number increases, the transition point moves progressively upstream,
ttot I
while the separated boundary layer expands until it again elings to the inner wall of the bend.
""-, I However, the centrifugal forces in the turning region prevent the layer from adhering to the
o~o 0"
1I
"- 0
(>

~~
-" oc;g entire curvature of the bend, causing the flow to separate again from the wall, but this time
22 ~
it is the separation of a turbulent layer at a larger distance from the inner curvature (see Fig-
~
1 ""'5
I I
I
ZP ure 6.8).
'4
1
I
I ~ ! Öf)
r=/13oo
(J.7IJb" i
i 25. In the fIrst instant after the reattachment of the layer, a elosed eddy zone is formed
t3
-,
°1
Xl
~~
o
.... ' ,,' 0
IJ ~
"'i
I
I
between the point of laminar separation and the point of flow attaehment. With further in-
t6 ~ crease in Re, this zone disappears completely, when the transition point coincides with the
XI
~
In!

tlf
U'lj
ct, I Ill
IS')I
i

-
! ~ ....2. point of laminar separation. This moment corresponds to completion of the transition flow
~I ,":, u

(1)1
01 I
I Re = 0.3 X 10' J I I regime, subsequent to which the resistance coefficient does not decrease any further and takes
i2 n'
\l)f on almost a constant value. In the ease considered, it occurs at Re = (2-2.5) X 105•
tP ~I 1'.1: 1 I I : 26. Separation of the laminar layer at the point closest to the beginning of the curvature of
Il /lfP P.,f5 aZI) Re X 10 -6 the bend naturally produces the most extensive eddy zone at the inner wall (see Figure 6.8).
As the transition point approaches the point of laminar separation, this zone compresses. The
Fi!!Ure
b
6.7. Dependence of -the total resistance
17
coefficient Stot on the Reyno1ds number for abend with zone has the smallest dimensions during turbulent separation at the point furthest removed
o = 90° and smooth walls (~ = 0.00003). from the beginning of the curvature.
27. The effect of the Reynolds number on the 10cal resistance eoefficient of bends and
4
elbows at Re ~ 10 is accounted for by the eoefficients kRe in the expressions for the local
23. At re1atively small Reynolds numbers (approximately up to Re = 10\ the boundary resistance coefficients Sloc on respective diagrams. The values of kRe are represented by the
layer is laminar in abend installed elose to a smooth entrance; therefore, at moderately large curves of kRe vs. Re,17,88 which, pending further refinement, are taken tentatively for all an-
Rolbo the separation of the flow from the walls of the inner curvature is laminar. The critical gles ö.
Reynolds number, at which Stot starts to decrease, is characterized by transition from laminar 3
28. The resistance coefficient Sloc at Re < 2 X 10 can be determined from the formula
to turbulent flow. Turbulization of the separated boundary layer, which leads to an intensified suggested by Zubov: 13
momentum exchange between separate fluid partieles, causes the jet expansion in this layer
resulting in the contraction of the inner eddy zone (Figure 6.8). Sloc=(k 1 + 1) SSim.loc +A/Re ,

5
where SSim.loc is the value of Sloc at Re > 2 x 10 (similarity region); kl is the correction
faetor; for an elbow with a recess

30 45 75 90

kr 60 3.6 1.5 1.3

A is a coefficient that depends on the geometrie parameters of the elbow (bend), on RoIDo in
particular; according to some data (see, e.g., Reference 2), for an elbow of 90°, A "" 400; for
0 3 0
a 135 elbow, A "" 600; at Re :::; 10 for a 90 elbow, rlDo = 2.6, A "" 1300; for a 1800 elbow,
.. rlDo = 1.5-2.0, A "" 1200.
g{mm Re< Recrit GI Re =: 0.055 X 10' (Subcritical regime) 29. The influence of fluid compressibility at large subsonic flow velocities on the resis-
~ mm Recrit < Re< Returb () Re = 0.155 X 10 6 ITransitlon regime} tanee of curved channels can be taken into account by the coefficient k).." which can be deter-
~ B Re;;;' Return 6
0 Ra = 0.30 X 10 (Postcrltical regimel
mined from the following empirical formula obtained74 by processing the results of
experimental investigations of some types of elbows and bends:

Figure 6.8. Regions of flow separation from the inner wall and distribution of velocities over the mean
line of the cross section of abend with smooth walls at different flow regimesY 1) point of laminar
separation; 2) "dead" zone; 3) transition point; 4) point of reattachment of the separated 1ayer; 5) turbu-
lent expansion of the separated 1ayer; 6 and 7) lower boundary of the separated laminar and turbulent where Ac == wav / acr is the reduced flow velocity at the entrance into a curved channel; wav =
layers, respectively; 8) point of turbulent separation. (l/2)(wo + W1); k).., and S are the resistance eoefficients of the curved channel, respectively, at
 402 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition Flow with Changes of the Stream Direction 403

S'tot
t3
2.1

6?
t9
t7
f.~

tJ
() aos alf} aiS a2t) a25 IJ.JO Re X 10....f ::::::
~6
---------------------
~-
Figure 6.9. Resistance curves ~tot = j(Re) of the bend with different relative roughness of the surface
of the entire inner wallP 1) smooth walls; 2) rolling paper; 3) poster stamped paper; 4) emery paper
~ (s)
?/~
no. 140; 5) emery paper no. 60.

the given subsonic value of Ac and at its small value determined from the graphs in the cor-
responding diagrams of the present chapter; <Xl and ß are constants the values of which are
given in Diagram 6.4. It is evident that ~A == kA~.
30. The condition of the inner surface (uniform or local roughness, roughness over the
whole surface or over apart of it) of elbows and bends, just before the curvature at large
Reynolds numbersp has a greater effect on the local resistance coefficient than on the fric-
tion coefficient. At small Re the resistance coefficient of abend, the inner wall of which has
a different degree of roughness, barely differs from ~tot of abend with a smooth inner wall
(Figure 6.9). As Re increases, the resistance coefficient decreases sharply; at some value of (b)
this number, ~tot attains the minimum and then increases again.
31. The critical Reynolds number, at which the minimum value of ~tot is achieved, and th~
Reynolds number, at _which ~tot starts to increase again, depends on the relative roughness L1
= I1IDh. The larger L1, the smaller are the above values ofRe~artdille"larger are the corre-
sponding minimum values of ~tot and values of Stot, which are achieved at large Re (under
selfsimilar conditions).
32. As long as the Reynolds number is small, the laminar boundary layer is so thick that
it almost completely covers the asperities of roughness (Figure 6.lOa) and they negligibly in-
fluence the state of the flow. As a result, the boundary layer, which has separated from the
inner eurvature of the bend, remains laminar, while the value of the resistanee of the bend
wirh rough walls virtually resembles the value of ~tot of the bend with smooth walls.
33. As the value of Re inereases, the boundary layer beeomes thinner and the asperities of
roughness partially start to protrude (Figure 6.lOb) and agitate the flow. When eompared with
a smooth wall, the point of laminar-to-turbulent boundary-Iayer flow transition is displaeed
closer to the beginning of the bend curvature and turbulent separation oeeurs earlier, i.e., both Figure 6.10. Regions of flow sep~ation and velocity distributions over the mean line of the cross sec-
the eritical Reynolds number, at whieh the resistanee eoeffieient starts to deerease, and the tion of abend with rough wall (~ = 0.001) under different flow conditions: 17 (a and e) laminar and
value of Re, at whieh the minimum value of Stot is attained, deerease. turbulent flow, respectively, over asperities of roughness; (b) transition regime: 1) lower boundary of
34. As the Reynolds number inereases further, the thiekness of the boundary layer progres- the separated laminar layer at Re < Re cr; 2) laminar separation; 3) turbulent expansion of the separated
layer at Re cr < Re < Redev; 4) turbulent separation at Re ~ Redev; 5) lower boundary of the separated
sively diminishes and the asperities protrude even more from the layer, eausing loeal stalls of
turbulent layer at Re cr < Re < Redev; 6) roughness asperities.
the flow (Figure 6.lOe), owing to whieh the turbulent point of separation from the inner wall
moves upstream. This displaeement of the separation point naturally leads to expansion of the
 Flow with Changes oi the Stream Direction 405
404 Handbook oi Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

37. When elbows and bends are not smoothly rounded, i.e., when there are very small
!tot
, relative radii of internal rounding within the limits 0 < rlDo < 0.05 (0.5 < RoiDo < 0.55), then
2.5

2J ,....
2.f
;
' ...-
~............ ~
. A-A '\~ ,,'.
-~€. 00 . ".':':' ~ ..,- ._L ...-"- =.::::= -:;.-:;:..- . ..-
the effect of the general roughness L1 (and not of local asperities) is considerably weaker than
for smoothly curved elbows and bends. In this case, the place of flow separation is fixed near
the corner of the bend. The effect of the general roughness in such elbows and bends can
tentatively be ca1culated by the following equation (until refined experimentally):
f.9 -=-bl)
<.. ~""r _ L1p
17
AT 01A r '0ill '\ "
, ... j
S=-2-=kL'lSsm'
pwo/2
(6,3)

(§

f.J 'I
.! ~~
---- ---- - ----
-
---:,; 4
where at Re > 4 x 10 and L1 < 0.001
-

o 0.10 D.IS tJ,2fJ 0.25

Figure 6.11. Resistance curves Stot = ARe) for different walls (si des) of abend covered with rough
kL'l ~ (1 + 0.5 x 10 3
~) ,

paperY 1) all four walls are rough (stamped paper, ~ = 0.0005); 2) inner wall is rough, the remaining
while at Re > 4 x 104 and ~ > 0.001
three walls smooth; 3) inner wall is smooth, the remaining three walls rough; 4) a11 the walls are
smooth (L1 = 0.00003).

Ssm is determined as Sloc for smooth walls (L1 z 0),

eddy region and again to an increase in the resistance coefficient of the bend. The greater the
38. The effect of general roughness in elbows and bends with relative radii of inner cur-
relative roughness, the earlier and more vigorous is its effect. Consequently, the earIier the
vature within 0.05 < rlDo < 1.0 (0.55 < RoiDo < 1.5) can be accounted for by the coefficient
minimum of resistance is reached, the larger is the value of this minimum and the value of
at 4 x 10 < Re < 2 x 105 and ~ < 0.001 is given tentatively,
4
kL'l in Equation (6.3), which
Stot at large Reynolds numbers. 1
until refined experimentally, by the equation of Abramovich
35. The resistance coefficient of the bend is affected primarily by the state of the surface
of the inner wall. The roughness of the remaining three walls has virtually no influence on
the value of Stot (Figure 6.11).
36. In case of partial (local) roughness or local asperities on the inner wall of the bend,
the curves of the resistance coefficient of bends are smoother (without a marked minimum).
and at Re > 2 x 105 and ~ < 0.001 is given tentatively by the equation
17
The value oi ~tot at large Reynolds numbers is Jarger, the eIoser the asperity is to the start of
the curvature of the bend and the larger its dimensions are (Figure 6.12).

4 -
and at Re > 4 x 10 and L1 > 0.001, tentatively by
\ r\ ,
-"-
~
ZJ :-, .;1
....~
2.f ~ ~
'"
'~
t9
~
" '"
--~ ::r- "-- .-.--7;
~\ _...-........ -- .-
.-..-;0

~
;... i"" .... - 1--.-
Here Asm is the coefficient of hydraulic friction of a smooth tube determined as A at the given
Re > 4 x 104 from Diagrams 2.1 and 2.6; AL'l is the coef~ient of hydraulic friction of a
---- --_. ---- ---- ----
~ ::s _...
f7
_ ---
i--- 4
I'-••~ ~---
rough tube, determined as A, at the given Re > 4 x 10 and L1 = 0-0.001, from Diagrams 2.2
- -J ~.-
-- ----,
9
--- ---- ..- ......-
_.- _.- through 2.6,
15 '-;

Yled?8
S
~

~ - -- --- .- 39. The effect of the general roughness on bends with RoiDo > 1.5 can be accounted for
f.J
IJ 11.05 IJ.fIJ aIs (1.20 aiS 1J.30 Re X 10- 6 approximately by the following equations based on the author's data 17 and those of Reference
64 in Chapter 4: at Re > 4 x 10 and ~ < 0.001
4

Figure 6.12. Resistance curves Stot = ARe) of abend with local roughness and different asperities on
the inner wallY 1) the whole inner surface of the wall is rough (:;: = 0.002); 2) wire step at a distance
from the curvature x/bo = 0.13; 3 and 4) rough pasted strip (L1 = 0.002) at~istances x/bo = 0.13 and
0.63, respectively; 5) flute layer at a distance x/b o = 1.45; 6) smooth walls (L1 = 0.00003).

406 Handbook oi Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition
and at Re > 4 x 10 and ~ > 0.001
4
40. At Re < 4 x 104, the resistance coefficient of all the elbows and bends can be consid-
ered practically independent of the degree of general roughness, being a function of the
Reynolds number alone. It is therefore calculated according to paragraph 28 of this chapter.
41. The resistance coefficients of elbows with rounded corners of the bend and with di-
verging or converging exit cross section (n~l = Fl/Fo = bI/ba :;t 1.0) can be approximated
from the following equation: 37
where Al = f(8) and Cl = f(aolb eon) are determined in the same way as above; kl = -2.3 log
1;;0; 1;;0 is the resistance coefficient of the elbow at n ar = FI/Fo = 1.0 and 8 = 900 ; W eon is the
mean velocity in the contracted section of the elbow; beon is the width of the contracted sec-
tion of the elbow.
42. All other conditions being equal, the coefficients of local resistances of welded bends
are higher than those of smooth bends, since welding seams on their inner surfaces increase
the local roughness. With increase in the diameter of the bend, the relative value of the local
roughness (seams) decreases, and the resistance coefficient decreases accordingly.
All other conditions being equal, the coefficient of local resistance of corrugated elbows is
higher than for bent and welded elbows. Since the absolute dimensions of the corrugations
increase with the bend diameter, the resistance coefficient also increases.
Elbows made of sheet material, fabricated from several interlocked links or corrugated,
also result in curved sections with an increased resistance coefficient.
43. 111 Jht<~~ase ~ Qf J::f!sl iLon. (sießl) branches_ with .threaded j.oints,a- pwjectionigJormed~at:.·. --
the junction between the straight and curved sections, which sharply changes the cross section
(Figure 6.13), creating additional pressure losses. The smaller dimensions of such bends, the
larger is the relative magnitude of the projection. Therefore, the resistance coefficient of
standard gas fittings, which usually have small dimensions, is much higher than I;; of ordinary
turns with a flanged joint.
Tbe values of the resistance coefficients of gas pipe fittings given in Diagram 6.3 can be
extended to standard bends and fittings with dimensions wh ich are elose to those given in
these diagrams.
Yledge
Figure 6.13. Threaded cast-iron elbows.
Flow with Changes oi the Stream Direction
407
rf;~m ff ~I"~ -I !11 !l t-rl
o 1 2 J " S 6 7 8 !J 10 11 12 13 1~ 15 16/ellO o
(b)
Figure 6.14. Characteristics of a turn of the "gooseneck"-type branch at Ö = 30°, RofDo = 1.0, Re =
1.6.105 , and ~ = 0.0003. 8,10 (a) Scheme of flow distribution along the exit section of the turn; (b) de-
pendence of the coefficient Sloc on lellDO'
44. The resistance of combined (joint) bends and elbows depends greatly on the relative
distance leI/Da between the two elbows; the total resistance coefficient I;; for sharply bent
channels can be larger or smaller than the sum of the resistance coefficients of two separate
bends, while for smoothly bent channels it can be smaller than the resistance coefficient of
even one isolated (single) bend.
~-45: The difference between the local resistfu'1Ce coefficients~0f~sm00thly-eonnected~gends,is--
mainly determined by the position of the maximum velocities (the "core" of the flow) before
the entrance into the second bend and by the direction of inertia forces in it.
46. According to Goldenberg 8,10 and Goldenberg and Umbrasas,9 different situations are
0
possible. Thus, for the "gooseneck"-type branch with 8 = 30 and Rolbo = 1.0, these are (Fig-
ure 6.14):
• The insert between the bends is small (in the present case Zer/Da< 2.5); the inertia
forces m the second bend hinder the development of the trans verse (secondary) flow
caused by the fIrst bend. The net velocity of the transverse flow is smaller than it would
have been downstream of aseparate bend and the resistance coefficient 1;;10c of the
gooseneck-type channel is smaller than the resistance coefficient (I;;is) of aseparate (iso-
lated) branch with the salne geometric parameters (8 and RoIbo), i.e., 1;;10c < I;;is·
• The insert is increased up to the value leilDa = 5.0. In this case, the inertia forces in the
second bend, acting on the core, increase the intensity of the trans verse circulation.
Thus the losses increase and attain the maximum when the core of the flow at the en-
trance into the second bend occupies a postion which corresponds to positions land II
on the scheme of Figure 6.14. Hence, Sis < 1;;10c < 2l;;is·
 "'f"

Flow with Changes of the Stream Direction 409

408 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

• The insert is increased up to leI/Da = 11.0. The inertia forces have a lesser effect on the
flow (this is also favored by a simultaneous transverse equalization of the flow). The
point (minimum) of the curve Sloc has a corresponding position in the second bend,
where the magnitude of transverse circulation is not appreciably affected. The resistance
coefficient of the gooseneck-type channel is approximately equal to the resistance coef-
ficient of one isolated bend: Sloc = Sis·
• A further increase in the length of the insert leads to higher losses, due to more com-
plete flow equalization over the cross seetion downstream of the first bend and to sec-
ondary excitation of trans verse circulation and losses in the second bend. As a result,
the total resistance coefficient increases, approaching Sloc = 2Sis in the limit.
Figure 6.16. F10w in a combined elbow with a 90° turn in two mutually perpendicular planes.
Similar situations are also observed at other parameters of combined bends.
47. The resistance coefficients of the paired branches (of the gooseneck type), of three
bends joined in one plane and in space (see Diagrams 6.18 to 6.21) are determined from 50. At some intermediate value of ler/bo on the order of 1.0, the separation zone behind the
first 90° turn has insufficient time to develop completely and, being concentrated at the inner
wall before the second 90° turn, it creates the conditions for smooth rounding of the main
flow. Under these conditions the second turn of the flow occurs almost without separation,
and therefore the total resistance coefficient of such TI -shaped elbow is aminimum.
51. Rounding of the corners of TI-shaped elbows decreases the difference between the val-
where sioc is determined as Sloc of a single bend and A = f(ler/Dh) is determined from corre-
sponding curves obtained on the basis of the experimental data of Goldenberg,8,10 Goldenberg ues of S corresponding to different lei/bo, but the flow and the character of the resistance
56 curves remain similar to those for elbows with sharp corners.
and Umbrasas,9 Klyachko et al.,26 and Chun Sik Lee.
48. In the case of sharply be nt channels, the interaction between the paired elbows is 52. In the case of a pair of 90° elbows joined Z-shaped (Figure 6.15), the increase in the
relative distance ler/bo between the axes of two single elbows first leads to a sharp increase
mainly determined by the position and the magnitude of the separation zones downstream of
of the total resistance coefficient and then, when a certain maximum is reached, to its gradual
the bend. Thus, for a TI-shaped elbow made from a couple of 90° elbows with sharp corners
decrease to a value roughly equal to twice the resistance coefficient of a single riaht-anale
and small relative distance (leI/ba "'" 0), the flow separates from the inner wall only after the
elbow (0 = 900).
complete turn by the angle 0 = 180°. At such a large turning angle the flow separation is
b b

most intense and as a result the resistance coefficient is highest.
49 As~gnific:.qnLincIeas~jlLtherelative distance lel/bO (tolf',Jibo= 4-5 and above) leads to
alm ost complete speading of the flo~ over the linear segment after the first 90° turn, and the
conditions of the subsequent 90° turn come to be nearly the same as those for the first turn.
Thus, the total resistance coefficient of such a TI-shaped elbow will be close to twice the
resistance coefficient of a right-angle elbow (0 = 90°).
53. The resistance coefficient of a Z-shaped elbow reaches the maximum in the case where
the secon~ of !~~~~~~. ~e.~~elbows is placed near the\Vide~t section ofthe eddy zone
formed after the first 90° turn (see Figure 6.16). A maiimum r~dubiion Öfth-e stream cross
section is then obtained at the second turn.
54. In the case of a combined elbow with flow turning in two mutually perpendicular
planes (Figure 6.16), the total resistance coefficient increases with an increase in the relative
distance lel/bO between the axes of the two constituent right-angle elbows. This increase from
an initial value equal to the resistance coefficient of a single right-angle elbow (8 = 90°)
reaches a maximum at some small relative distance Z;l/bo. With a further increase in Z;l/bo,

~;UdH11
fl ~ 8 12

Figure 6.17. Dependence of the resistance coefficient ~ of a smooth bend on the relative length of the
starting (inlet) section lo/b o.1
Figure 6.15. Flow pattern in a Z-shaped bend.
 Flow with Changes of the Stream Direction 411
410 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

a cylinder (Figure 6.19b and c), and thin concentric vanes (Figure 6.19d). The shape of the
guide vane is chosen according to the following tabulation:

Symbols Relative dimensions Symbols Relative dimensions

t1 1.0 Y2 0.215t1
Xl 0.519t1 Zl 0.139t1
X2 0.489t1 Z2 0.338t1
n 0.663t1 Z3 0.268tl
1"2 0.553t1 P 0.033t1
Y1 0.463

Turning vanes of identical shape and dimensions are usually mounted within the elbows
and generally are instalied along the line of bend of the channel (Figure 6.19a, b, and c).
60. To achieve smooth turning of the flow, a centrifugal fan is followed by bends. 3,4 The
resistance coefficients of such bends depend on the operating conditions of the fan and on the
angle of installation ß, that is, on the angle between the velocity vectörs at the inlet to the
Figure 6.18. Different velocity profiles at the entrance into the elbow: 32 1) Wrnax near the inner corner fan and at the exit from the bend reckoned in the direction of the rotation of the impellar (see
of the turn; 2) W rnax near the outer corner of the turn; 3) W rnax at the left wall of the elbow; 4) w rnax at
Diagram 6.4). Under all the operating conditions of the fan, the resistance of the bend, in-
the right wall of the elbow.
stalled downstream of it, is much higher than that under conventional flow conditions.
61. An aerodynamic grid, composed of guide vanes and placed in the elbow, deflects the
the total resistance coefficient begins to decrease again, approaching a value approximately flow to the inner wall due to the aerodynamic force developed in it. When the dimensions,
equal to twice the resistance coefficient of a right-angle elbow (8 = 90°). number, and angle of the vanes are appropriately chosen, this flow departure prevents jet
55. The resistance coefficient of curved channels can vary with the character of the veloc-
ity profile at the entrance. In turn, the shape of the velocity profile can also differ according
to the conditions of flow supply to these channels.
56. In particular, when the flow is supplied via a straight section placed downstream of a
smooth inlet nozzle, the resistance coefficient S of the bends and elbows increases up to a
certain limit together with an increase in the relative length loJbo of the straight inlet section
(Figure 6.17). Th~~e is no·increase in ~. when tlie lengtlJ.üfthe--:Tiiie-t-·sectioilis nearly the
same as the length of the starting section, i.e., of the section over which the velocity profile
develops, which corresponds to this particular mode of flow.
57. An increase in the resistance coefficient of a curved channel with the development of
the velocity profile, i.e., with thickening of the boundary layer, is apparently due to the influ-
ence of the latter on both the intensity of flow separation from the walls and the formation
and development of the secondary flows (vortex pair).
58. A velocity profile that has been strongly distorted by a barrier or fitting before the
flow entered a curved channel can have a more significant effect on the resistance coefficient
of the curved channel, than a straight inlet section. The resistance coefficient can either in-
crease or decrease depending on the character of the velocity profile. If the velocity has its
maximum near the inner corner of the turn (Figure 6.18), then the resistance coefficient of the
curved channel can become even smaller than in the case of uniform velocity distribution.
With other positions of the velocity maximum, the resistance coefficient increases.
59. The resistance of an elbow can be lowered not only by rounding or beveling its cor-
ners, but also by installing guide vanes. In the former case, the overall size of the channel
. becomes larger, while in the latter the compact form of the channe1 is preserved. The guide Figure 6.19. Guide vanes in elbows and turns: (a) shaped; (b) thin, along a 95° arc; (c) thin, along a
107° arc; (d) concentric; (e) slotted.
vanes can be aerodynarnically shaped (Figure 6.19a), simplified, and bent along the surface of
 Flow with Changes ofthe Stream Direction 413
412 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

63. In the case where it is especially important to obtain a uniform velocity distribution
directly after the turn, the "normal" number of vanes is used in the elbow, which is deter-
mined by the equation *

(6.4)

In the majority of practical cases it is sufficient to use a reduced number of vanes ("most
advantageous" or minimal):15

l-.4LrJ
(8)~ (6.5)

or

(6.6)

In ordinary elbows, lower resistance and better distribution of the velocities are achieved

~
with the optimum number of vanes determined by Equation (6.5).
The chord t1 of the shaped vane is taken as the chord of a 90° are of a circle, i.e., of the
(b)~ are of the inner curvature of the elbow, and therefore

t1 =r{2, (6.7)
or

" ~ Do~oJ,rz . (6.8)

Equations (6.4) to (6.6) are correct only for this relationship between the dimensions of the
~ vane chord and the radius of curvature of the elbow.

(C)~
64. If the curvature in the elbow is not smooth (there are sharp or beveled corners), then
t1 = 0.15-0.60Do. Then the number of vanes can be determined by the following equations:
15

15
Figure 6.20. Distribution of dimensionless veloeities (veloeity pressures) in an elbow. (a) Without 3Do
vanes; (b) with anormal number of vanes; (e) with a redueed number of vanes. nnor =---1 , (6.9)
t1

separation from the walls and formation of the eddy zone. The velocity distribution over the Do
nadv ~
t1 '
2 (6.10)
cross section downstream of the turn (Figure 6.20) is improved and the resistance of the
elbow is decreased.
62. Since the main factor in decreasing the resistance and equalization of the velocity field Do
nmin~ 1.5 - . (6.11)
is elimination of the eddy zone at the inner wall of the channel, the largest effect will be t1

produced by the vanes placed closer to the inner curvature.

This suggests the possibility of reducing the number of vanes located near the outer wall *Por a right-angle elbow, Da in Equations (6.4) to (6.11) is replaeed by bo.
of the elbow. 5,15
 Flow with Changes of the Stream Direction 415
414 Handbook ofHydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

69. The installation of guide vanes in elbows is expedient as long as the relative curvature
65. For elbows with a diverging section, in which the cross seetion past the turn is larger radius is comparatively small. For elbows of constant cross section, the installation of vanes
than that before it (bI> bo), the numbers of vanes are determined, respectively, from is justifiable as long as r/bo :::; 004-0.5. For diffuser elbows (Le., with diverging exit cross
seetion) the limiting value of rlbo increases up to about 1.0. In the case of converging elbows
S (with converging exit cross section), the value of rlbo is decreased to about 0.2.
nnor = 2.13 - - 1 ,
t1 70. The action of concentric vanes installed in turns is evidenced mainly in that they di-
vide this bend into a number of bends with more elongated cross sections, which leads to a
decrease in the pressure losses. The normal number, nch, of thin optimally installed concentric
vanes in abend is determined on the basis of the data of Khanzhonkov and Taliev: 46

S
nrnin ;:,:; 0.9 - , r/bo 0-0.1 0.1-0.4 0.4-1.0 1.0
tl
nch 3-4 2 o
where
The optimum position of the vanes in abend is reached (see Figure 6.19d) when
S=--.Jb6+bI
ri = 1.26ri_l + 0.07bo .
66. When the "normal" number of vanes is used, they are uniformly placed along the
bendina line of the elbow, so that the distance between the vane chords is ai = S/(n + 1). 71. The resistance coefficient of a rectangular bend with anormal number of optimally
b 1 5 ' installed concentric vanes can be determined, approximately,46 by the following equation:
If a reduced number of vanes is used, the author recommends that the dlstance a be-
tween the chords be taken as varying according to an arithmetic progression, such that in the
case of the optimum number of vanes an+l/al = 2, and in the case of the minimum number S=
-;}.P Ro 0.04JSw.v,
- 2 - = ( 0046-;;-+
of vanes an+l/al = 3. Here, al is the distance from the arc chord of the inner curvature of the pwo/2 0
elbow to the chord of the first vane (see Figure 6.19); an+l is the distance between the chords
of the last vane and the outer curvature. where Sw.v is the resistance coefficient of the bend without vanes.
16
The intermediate distances between the vanes are determined by the following equations: 72. The normal number of vanes in a circular bend, according to the experiments of Ito
and Imai,68 is
with an advantageous number of vanes

S ( i - 1 '\ ro/Do .0-0.5 0.5-1.0 LO

ai =0.67-l1
n+1
+--j'
n
--------------------~--------------------~.

nch 2 03

with a minimum number of vanes With one vane installed, its optimum distance should be (see Figure 6.19d):

n+1
S [ -lJ
i
a i = - - 0.5+-- .
n
rl = ro ~1 + Do/ro .

In the case of two vanes, this distance is equal to

67. In the majority of practical cases, the vanes used in elbows are simply thin shaped
vanes selected for a 90° turn, on the average, along the arc of a cirele <PI = 95° independent
rl =ro ~1 + Do/ro and r2 =ro ~(1 + D o/ro)2 .
of the elbow parameters (the relative curvature radius, the area ratio, etc.). The position and
the angle of installation of such vanes are selected according to the same criteria used for The values of the resistance coefficients of circular bends with guide concentric vanes and
profiled vanes. The resistance coefficient of elbows with such vanes is markedly higher than without them are given in Diagram 6.27.
for elbows with profiled vanes. 73. When guide vanes are installed in combined elbows, the resistance coefficient is deter-
68. A low value of resistance is obtained, coming elose to the resistance of elbows with mined as the sum of the resistance coefficients of single elbows with vanes
50
profiled vanes, when thin vanes are selected by Yudin's method. The optimum angle of the
vane arc and the vane angle depend on both the relative curvature radius of the elbow and its
area ratio (see Diagram 6.30).
 Flow with Changes of the Stream Direction 417
416 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

I 11
where Su is the resistance coefficient of a single elbow with vanes and nis is the number of
turns in a combined elbow. 2 1 2
74. The coefficient of the local hydraulic resistance of a spatial (annular) turn through
1800 depends on the relative distance h/Do from the entry edge of the inner tube up to the
end cover (hood) of the outer circular tube; on the area ratio nar = FI/Fo between the outer
and inner tubes; on the relative thickness oe}iDo or the curvature radius rlDo of the cut edge
of the inner tube, as weH as on the relative curvature radius R/DI of the cover (Figure 6.21).
75. The coefficient of local resistance Sloc is most strongly affected by the parameter h/Do.
When the ratio a increases from zero, the coefficient Sloc first decreases very sharply, reach-
2 1
a
ing a minimum at some value of a, then increases somewhat sharply. Then it remains con- 1 2
stant in some cases, and in others, it decreases to a certain value or smoothly increases.
76. Within certain limits of h/Do (following the first minimum of Sloc) and at some values '1
3
of nar and rlDo (oe}iDo), one can observe marked oscillations (in time) of the coefficient Sloc
caused by flow instability. This instability, which is typical of turns with small values of r/Do
(oer/Do) can be explained by periodic blowing-off and entrainment by the flow of the separat-
ing (eddy) zones 1 at the outer wall and zones 2 at the inner wall of the annular turn (Figure b
6.221) under certain conditions. This occurrence corresponds to a sharp decrease in the resis-
tance. Following this, the vortices reappear and the resistance increases sharply in a con- Figure 6.22. Flow patterns in a 1800 turn without guide vanes CI) and with guide vanes and fairings
CII):47 I Ca) pumping; Cb) suetion: 1) eddy zones at the outer wall; 2) eddy zones at the inner wall; 3)
tracted section behind the turn.
divider. II Ca) pumping; Cb) suetion: 1) vane; 2) fairing.

Tne curves ~loc = f(a, r/Do or OeIIDO, nar) of Diagrams 6.31 and 6.32 correspond to the
time-average experimental values of ~loc'
77. Table 6.1 contains the values of ~min of annular turns corresponding to the first mini-
mum of the resistance coefficient and to the optimum values of (h/Do)opt for different rlDo
(oer/DO) , R/D, and n ar• The table also contains the values of (h/Do)tr within the limits of
which the flow is markedly unstable.
O~+-4-~-+-4~~-~~~~~
78. The· relative thickness of the corner· ÖerlDo of the inner tube of an annular turn, to-
t! I-t-+-+-+-~ gether with hlDo, is also an important factor which influences the value of Smin, decreasing it
noticeably especially at n ar < 2. At the same time, the rounding of this corner within r/D o :::
0.05-0.2 barely reduces ~min' Therefore, in those cases where rounding of the corner is diffi-
cult, it may be left as iso
79. In the case of suction (entry through an annular tube), the optimum value of the pa-
rameter m = FI/Fo lies at all values of rlDo (8e}iDo) within 1.0-2.0; in the case of pumping
(exit through an annular tube), it is different for different parameters. At rlDo < 0.2, an an-
nular tum with the ratio nar < 1.0 is expedient. At rlDo ~ 0.2 (oelIDo ~ 0.4), the optimum
value of nar = 1.0-1.5.
80. In the case of suction, the optimum curvature radius of the end cover R/Dl lies within
0.18-0.35, and in the case of pumping, within 0.2-0.45.
81. In order to better stabilize the flow in an annular turn, divider 3 can be used (see
()
Figure 6.221), which does not influence the losses appreciably.
The resistance of the annular turn can be decreased by installing guide vanes 1 in the vi-
Figure 6.21. Dependenee of the resistanee eoefficient Sjoc of an annular turn on hlDo at RlD j ::: 0.3: 19 cinity of inner corners of the turn (Figure 6.22II).
82. A symmetrical 180 turn of the flow can also be achieved in a plane channe1. 47 Plane
0
Ca) pumping at r1D o ::: 0.1; Cb) suetion at r1D o = 0.2: 1) nar ::: 0.80; 2) nar ::: 1.07; 3) n ar = 2.1; Ce)
suetion at rlD o = 0.1: 1) nar = 0.76; 2) nar ::: 1.06; 3) nar = 2.07. symmetrical turns are often used, for example, in heating furnaces with closed-cycle circula-
 Flow with Changes ofthe Stream Direction 419
418 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

Table 6.2. Characteristics of a symmetrie plane turn through 1800

Table 6.1. Characteristics of the spatial (annular) turn through 180 0

(hol aO)opta
Type of device in the turning region a
Suction (inlet) (h1ao)oPt Smina
Without divider, without fairing and guide vanes 0.40-0.60 4.0-4.2
Oel/Do rlDo
Characteristics of the turn (0.55-0.70) (4.0-4.2)
0.1 0.2 0.4 0.5 0.1 0.2
Without divider, guide vanes, but with fairing 0.40-0.60 3.4-3.5
F2
nar= Fl = 0.75-0.80 instalied on the inside of the charmel (0.45-0.60) (2.3-2.5)
Without divider, but with fairing and with 0.35-0.50 0.76
~in 1.70 1.10 0.72 1.90 0.96 0.70 1.70-1.75
(hIDO)opt 0.23-0.27 0.22-0.28 0.03-0.38 0.18-0.22 0.18-0.23 0.22-0.30 guide vanes (0.35-0.50) (0.76-0.127) (0.90-1.0)
(hIDO)tr 0.28-1.4 0.20-1.4 Stable 0.25-1.0 0.40-1.0 0.60-1.4 Without divider, without fairing, but with 0.40-0.55 0.127 1.75-1.80
nar= 1.0-1.10 guide vanes (0.45-0.57) (0.127) (1.30-1.35)
Smin 1.05 0.45 0.40 1.05 0.40 0.32 Without fairing, guide vanes, but with 0.53-0.65 3.6-3.7
(hIDO)opt 0.7-0.34 0.23-0.33 0.26-0.36 0.24-0.33 0.20-0.29 0.18-0.28 aplane divider (;;:::0.60) (3.9-4.0)
(hIDO)tr 0.38-1.40 0.77-1.45 Stable 0.26-1.40 0.60-1.0 Stable With divider, fairing, but without guide vanes 0.50-0.65 3.3-3.4
nar = 2.0-2.1 on the inside of the charmel (0.55-0.70) (2.2-2.3)
Smin 0.55 0.50 0.40 0.50 0.20 0.16 With divider, fairing, and guide vanes 0.35-0.55 0.76 1.2-1.3
(hIDo)opt 0.35-0.45 0.22-0.48 0.26-0.40 0.33-0.60 0.28-0.40 0.17-0.50 (0.40-0.65) (0.90-1.0)
(hIDo)tr 0.50-1.80 0.50-1.40 1.1-1.30 0.45-1.60 0.40-1.60 Stable With divider, without fairing, but with 0.45-0.60 0.127 1.2-1.3
Pumping (exit) guide vanes (0.50-0.70) (1.30)
oel/Do rlDo With divider, fairing, guide vanes, but with 0.40-0.50 0.076 3.1-3.2
Characteristics of the turn
0.1 0.2 0.4 0.5 0.1 0.2 a burden (>0.40) (0.076-0.127) (2.6)
nar= 0.75-0.80
aNumbers not in parentheses refer to suction (inlet); those in parentheses - to pumping (exit).
~in 0.24 0.22 0.36 0.19 0.16 0.30
(hIDO)opt 0.40-0.62 0.40-0.50 0.32-0.45 0.40-0.80 0.25-0.50 0.23-0.45
(hIDo)tr 0.60-20 0.55-2.0 Stable 0.75-2.0 0.40-2.0 Stable
nar= 1.0-1.1 is its stabilizing effect on the flow. Only a plane divider should be used in this case, as dur-
Smin 0.40 O.2K ·0.26 . '(I4Ö-~~'
0.23
..
'~'lf2(j' ing suction it proyides.-a..sQULewhatgreate.r.reducrton. in, theJ:eSiSJanc..e..Jhau..a.~ofile.d .divideL._._~.
0.50-0.60 0.35-0.55 0.30-0.40 0.47-0.83 0.30-0.50 0.25-045 During pumping, the effects of the plane and profiled dividers ~e' practically the same. The
(hIDo)opt
0.55-2.0 0.90-2.0 0.75-1.0 0.80-2.0 0.60-2.0 Stable resistance of the turn can also be reduced by installing fairing 2 on one of the sides of the
(hIDo)tr
inner channel (see Figure 6.22II). A still greater reduction in the resistance of a plane turn is
nar = 2.0-2.1
achieved by the use of guide vanes (Figure 6.22II) installed in the vicinity of inner corners of
Smin 0.34 0.32 0.30 0.34 0.32 0.40
the turn. The minimum values of the resistance coefficients of turns with guide vanes are
(hIDo)opt 0.75-1.0 0.65-0.93 0.50-0.90 0.65-0.95 0.60-1.0 0.20-1.0
obtained at noticeably lower ratios (hlao)min than without such vanes.
(hIDo)tr 1.0-2.0 0.55-2.0 0.30-1.8 0.30-2.0 1.1-2.0 1.0-2.0
84. The right-angle turn with fairing and guide vanes is the best one among those studied.
In the case of suction (hlao)opt "'" 0.45 and (holao)opt "'" 0.076, and in the case of pumping
(hlao)opt = 0.5-0.6 and (holao)opt = 0.076-0.175.
tion of gas flow. The resistance coefficient of such a turn depends on the same parameters as 85. Bent flexible glass-fabric air conduits, just as straight air conduits (see paragraph 72 of
in an annular turn (paragraph 74). Section 2.1) have an elevated resistance. Some of the experimental data 53 on the resistance
83. Table 6.2 contains the values of Smin obtained at optimal geometric parameters of a coefficients of such bends are given in Diagram 6.25.
plane 1800 turn both in the absence and in the presence of divider 3 (Figure 6.22I) in the 86. ?uring the pneumatic transport of pulverized materials, the highest resistance is pro-
place of merging (division) of flows. At opti;nal values of (hlao)opt the divider moderate1y duced In the places where the flow alters its direction, that is, in bent channels (elbows,
decreases the resistance coefficient of the turn. However, the principal function of the divider bends, etc.).69
The overall resistance coefficient of bent channels with pulverized material in the flow is
*At small values of h/ao, the divider may moderately increase the resistance of the turn. calculated as
 Flow with Changes ofthe Stream Direction 421
420 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

(6.40)
~ 2
<l
1.5 -0-0-
·U
I
where ~o and ~I are the resistance coefficients of the bent channel without (K = 0) and with I
I
(K = 1) pulverized materials in the flow, respectively; K = mtorfmh is the coefficient of dust .1
1.25
content (the ratio of the mass flow rate of the pulverized material to the mass flow rate of 1
I
the gas flow). 1
87. When 2.5 x 105 ::::; Re ::::; 4.5 x 105 and 20 ::::; Fr ::::; 36, the overall resistance coefficient 1.0 1
I
~ is independent of either the Reynolds number Re = woDoIv c or the Froude number Fr = 1
wol-v gDo, where vc is the average value of the kinematic coefficient of viscosity of the gas 4 (J I
I~~ .. 1 L (Jer
flow laden with pulverized material. 0.75
1.5 2.5 3.5
Pressure losses in the dust-laden flow are determined as
Figure 6.23. Dependence of the coefficient of Iocal resistance of an elbow ~ on the cavitation number
G. Tube diameter 13.5 rum, water with t = 30°C, Re = (9-18) x 10 . 1) elbow with a turning angle of
4

60°; 2) elbow with a tuming angle of 90°.

where p is the average value of the density of a dust-laden gas flow.
88. The resistance coefficient of curved channels with dust-laden flows is practically inde-
pendent of whether the transported flow moves in the horizontal plane or changes its direction
to the vertical, and vice versa.
The values of ~ are also independent of the size of particles of the pulverized material.
89. Rectangular bends differ from circular bends by a smaller local wear in motion of dust
particles.
Elbows with sharp turning angles and without guiding devices are inapplicable for pneu-
matic systems, since dust is accumulated in outer corner elements and periodically returns to
the main stream. In this case, the resistance and the wear of the system increase sharply.
Combined elbows occupy intermediate position between the elbow with a sharp turn and
smooth bends.
rectangular cross sec ti on with a turning angle of 90° at different radii of curvature (Figure
6.24). It was established that with an increase in the curvature radius of the branch the cavi-
tation cavern is decreased. For elbows and branches, a simple empirical dependence of the
critical cavitation number on the local resistance coefficient of a cavitation-free flow was ob-
tained: (Jer = 2~. This dependence can be used for elbows and branches with ~ = 0.5-2.0.
Thus, in hydraulic ca1culations of pipelines one should take into account the possibility of the
occurrence of cavitation in local resistances and check whether or not the average velocity of
flow exceeds the admissible value from the condition of a cavitation-free flow.

I
I, - -' 1-·
90. Guide vanes or pIttes in elbows- and bendsnot· only decrease the resistance, butalso _~~o·

'·1"

diminish the wear, since the latter is distributed uniformly over these units. 0n= 0, Taut= 16
During the pneumatic transport of not very hard material (e.g., sawdust) in large-diameter

-
1.5 4
tubes, combined circular elbows can be used. When the material is transported in large-di-
ameter tubes which produces appreciable wear, elbows with guide vanes should be used.
1.25
91. During flow of a liquid in pipelines with local resistance the pressure is decreased to
the saturation vapor pressure and cavitation caverns are formed; this leads to a change in the ~ lin= 3.5, Tout= 19.5
hydraulic characteristics. Peshkin96 called attention to the possibility of the appearance of 1.0
I
cavitation in the local resistances of pipelines, which leads to a sharp increase in the loss
coefficient. He carried out experimental investigations of the cavitation characteristics of cer-
~ I
0.75
~ ~
0n= 8, Tauf 24
tain local resistances (elbows, branches) to determine the limiting cavitation numbers.
Figure 6.23 presents the dependences of the local resistance coefficient ~ of two elbows of
circular cross seetion with a turning angle of 60 and 90° on the cavitation number (J = (PI - 0.5
P2)/0.5pw2 at the tube diameter d = 13.5 mm, water temperature t = 30°C and Re = (9-18) 1 1.5 2.5 3.5 Ci

x 104. Here Ps is the saturation vapor pressure.

The local resistance coefficient of both elbows on attainment of a certain limiting cavita- Figure 6.24. Dependence of the coefficient of Iocal resistance of branches ~ with a turning angle of 90°
tion number is increased sharply. This is due to the formation of an extensive cavitation zone on the cavitation number G. The branches are of rectangular cross section of size 16 x 8 rum; water
downstream of the inner corner. Similar results were obtained in investigation of a branch of with t = 30°C, Re = (9-16) x 104 .
 422 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition Flow with Changes ofthe Stream Direction 423

into a vertical one upwards, the resistance coefficient will be smaller than in the case of it
being directed into a vertical channel downwards. This is explained by the different direction
of the action of gravitational forces on the gas phase. In the first case, air bubbles tend to
mo:,e upwards, i.e., in the direction of the flow, whereas in the second case, they move op-
poslte to the flow, and a higher amount of energy is to be spent to move the bubbles. Figure
6.26 presents the dependence of the reduced resistance coefficient 'J!, i.e., the ratio of the 10cal
resistance coefficient in flow of agas-liquid mixture to the coefficient of local resistance for
water flow on gas content for two versions of the location of a branch (with a mixture mov-
ing upwards and downwards).

0.81-1---+---+
0111 - 4
0.6'O'~--~5~--~1~O----1~5~--2~O~--~25~-C-w,~%

Figure 6.25. Dependence of the coefficient of local resistance of a branch ~ with a tuming angle of 90 0
on the volumetrie flow rate gas content Cvjr (section 16 x 8 mm, water-air mixture, Frmix = 880-1010):
1) spatial position of the branch; 2) rin = 0 mm, rout = 16 mm; 3) rin = 3.5 mm, r out == 19.5 mm; 4) rin
= 8 mm, rout = 24 mm.

92. The hydraulie resistance in the flow of gas-liquid mixtures was studied in References
97 and 98.
The experimental results presented in Figure 6.25 show that in all branches tested the
value of the local resistance coefficient S increases substantially with an increase in the volu-
metrie gas content in a liquid flow and in agas-liquid mixture flow it depends for each
branch on its orientation in space. Thus, if a mixture flow is directed from a vertical channel

1.4 I----h~--+--+_--+-__:.+==__I

00 - 2 0111 - 4

Figure 6.26. Dependence of the reduced resistance coeffieient of a braneh 'Jf with a turning angle of
900 on the volumetrie flow rate gas eontent Cvjr (seetion 16 x 8 mm, water-air mixture, Frmix = 880-
1010): 1) spatial position of the branch; 2) rin = 0 mm, rout = 16 mm; 3) rin == 3.5 mm, rout == 19.5 mm;
4) rin = 8 mm, rout = 24 mm.
 Flow with Changes oi the Stream Direction 425
424 Handbook oi Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

6.2 DIA GRAMS OF THE RESISTANCE COEFFICIENTS Bends at -Ro (RO]

- < 3.0 and 0 < 8 ~ 180°, -;:::
10 10*1,17,31,61,64,77,78,91 Diagram 6.1
Do bo Dh

Bends at ~~ (~~ j< 3.0 and 0 <8 ~ 180°, };h ;: : 10*1,17,31,61,64,77,78,91 Diagram 6.1 Values of kll

Ro/Do
1) Smooth walls (A == 0) and Re == woDi/v ~ 2 x 10 ;
5
(Ro/bo) Re

~=
~ - == SIOC + ~fr == ~loc + 0.0175 8A 7J.
- -2 ~ ' ~ 3 X 103-4 X 10
4
>4x 104 3 x 103-4 X 104 >4x 104 2x 105 >2 X 105
pwo/2 Il
0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
~loc==AIBICI ' 0-0.001 1.0 1 + 0.5 X 103~ 1.0 Aß/A,;m 1 +~x 10
3

Al == f(8), see graph a or, tentatively, the corresponding forrnulas: >0.001 1.0 -1.5 1.0 2.0 -2.0

where !9r ""sm' see A of commerciallY smooth tubes at the given Re in Diagrams 2.5 and 2.6; for \", see A. of rough
0, deg 5,,70 90 ~100
tubes (A > 0) at the given Re and A in Diagrams 2.2 through 2.6.

0.9 sin 8 1.0 0.7+0.35~

90°
t
BI == j(Ro/Do) orj(Ro/bo), see graphs b and c or, tentatively, (8)
I.-- 8, deg 0 20 30 45 60
the corresponding forrnulas:
",...-- ~ Al 0 0.31 0.45 0.60 0.78
./
Ro (&1 0, deg 75 90 UO 130 150 180
Do ~bo )
./
V Al 0.90 1.00 1.13 1.20 1.28 1.40
0.21(Ro/Dor •
25
0.21(~(Ro/Do) -0.5 /
0 2() ~Il 60 80 !DU i20 f4tJ 160 ff'
Cl == j(aolb o), see graph d for a circular Of square cross section Cl == 1.0 Of, tentatively:
81
ao/bo ::;4- Ro/Do(Ro/bo)
119 \ (b.

Cl
0.85 + 0.125
ao/bo
BI 1.18 0.77 0.51 0.37
\
Ro/Do(Ro/bo)
a* "-
~fr == 0.0175 OA Dh .
Ro
BI 0.28 0.21 0.19 0.17
'H -I

~ 10
4
2. Rough walls (A > 0) fuld Re ;

Ro
~ == kßkRe~loc + 0.0175 OA D '
(cl
k =f(A == IYD h ),
il
see the tables; kRe == f(Re), see graph e Of, tentatively: fllt r\
0.50-0.55 ~0.55 to 0.70 >0.70
\ Ro/Do(Ro/bo)
tlM
",
Ra/Do(Ro/bo) 0.15 0.11 0.09 0.07 0.07
kRe 1 + 4400/Re 5.45IReo.13l 1.3-0.29 In (Re x 10-
5
)
Ro/Do(Ro/bo)
(110
A == f(Re and A), see Diagrams 2.2 through 2.6; at A'" 0.02, ~fr == 0.000358(RoID h)·

3) 3 x 103 < Re< 10 ,

4 1106 '" J """-t-'-- r-_
0.15 0.11 >40

~ ==
A?
R; + Squ + ~fr '
(102
f
I
where for A 2, see the table (tentatively); ~qu is deterrnined as Sloc at Re > 2 x 105.
f \
(d)

Ro/Do(Ro/bo)
>0.5-1.5 >1.5-2.0 ao/bo 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.0 1.5 2.0
\
ro/Do 0-0.05 >0.05-0.20
6.0
>0.2-0.5
4.0-2.0 1.0 0.6 Cl 1.30 1.17 1.09 1.00 0.90 0.85 ((J \
A2 X 10-3 4.0 V
ao/bo 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 ~ ./

=
*From here onward 10IDh 0 means that an elbow (turn) is instalIed directly behind a smooth collec-
tor, whlle 10IDh > 0 means that it is instalied downstream of a straight seetion (insert) behlnd the collector.
Cl 0.85 0.90 0.95 0.98 1.00 1.00
118
IJ
'- 2
/
 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition Flow with Changes ofthe Stream Direction 427
426

Ben ds at Do bo < 30 Ro (RO]

dOS: < 180 .!:sL>
. an < 0 - , Dh -
0 10*1,17,31,61,64,77,78,91 Diagram 6.1 Tubes and channels (smooth), smoothly curved (~~ ~ 3JWith any Diagram 6.2
angle of the turn (coils);3,4,12,24,28,51,79,84 lolDo ~ 10

Values of k Re VaIues of AeI (graph a)

rlJJT
~1
"- , (e)
HuilJq >a7 _.... ,-
~,.

1\ Ro/Do
k;r-,', =: r-'
-.
- (Ro/bo) 0.1 0.14 0.2 0.3 OA 0.6
Rex 10-3

l'- ~ ., 0.5-D.55 1AO 1.33 1.26 1.19 1.14 1.09 Ro/Do(RoIbo) OA 0.6 0.8 1 4 6
, >ass -o.7iJ'
" Ii" ~,.. KQ7j)~-;"a5{F,ds5
f- >0.55-D.70 1.67 1.58 1.49 1AO 1.34 1.26 3.0-3.2 0.34 0.26 0.22 0.19 0.12 0.078 0.063

,'7'" ~"> '.. >0.70 2.00 1.89 1.77 1.64 1.56 1.46
... ... r - - ,- c-' 3.8-4.0 0.30 0.23 0.19 0.17 0.11 0.070 0.060
Ro/Do 4.3-4.5 0.28 0.22 0.18 0.16 0.10 0.065 0.056
r--. K
t2 ... - i"'....
(Ro/bo) 0.8 1.0 lA 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0-8.0 0.26 0.20 0.16 0.14 0.09 0.060 0.052
I"'- ~ ..... ~ 0.5-D.55 1.06 1.04 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 10-15 0.24 0.18 0.15 0.13 0.08 0.055 0.043
tU 1.21 1.19 1.17 1.14 1.06 1.0 20-25 0.22 0.16 0.14 0.12 0.075 0.048 0.040
fU"!." 2 J " S67 f(Js t'l 2 3 "Re >0.55-D.70
>0.70 1.38 1.30 1.15 1.02 1.0 1.0 30-50 0.20 0.15 0.13 0.11 0.ü70 0.045 0.038
>50 0.18 0.135 0.105 0.090 0.052 0.040 0.035

Tubes and channels (smooth), smoothly curved (~~ ~ 3]With any Diagram 6.2
Rex 10-3

Ro/Do(RoIbo) 10 20 30 50 100
angle ofthe turn (coils);3,4,12,24,28,51,79,84 lolDo > 10
3.3-3.2 0.058 0.055 0.050 0.048 0.046 0.044
1. Circular cross section 3.8-4.0 0.055 0.052 0.047 0.045 0.044 0.042
_ !1p R 4.3-4.5 0.052 0.049 0.045 0.043 0.041 0.040
S=-2-=0.0175 A.el0j)o , 5.0-8.0 0.049 0.047 0.043 0.042 0.040 0.038
pwo/2 h
10-15 0.040 0.038 0.034 0.033 0.030 0.028
where A.el =flRe, RrJDo), see curves, or for 20-25 0.037 0.035 0.030 0.029 0.027 0.026
a circular cross section:
30-50 0.035 0.033 0.028 0.027 0.025 0.023
~ Wo 20 ( °.l75 >50 0.032 0.ü30 0.025 0.023 0.022 0.020
at 50 < Re . \f IR;; < 600 \1 = ReO.65l2Ro
DoJ

at 600< Re ~2RDoo < 1400 \ _ 10.4 (Da JO.225

1- Reo.55l2Ro '
2. Square cross section:

at 1400< Re 1fi
o (D o JO.275 5
-2R < 5000 A.el =--045 -;;jf
° Re' -0
at Re ~ao/(2Ro) :=: 100 - 400 or Re = 100 - 400
~ao/(2Ro)
woD"
Re=--
v \1 = 16.5 X (Rdao/(2Ro» 0.35/Re, see graph b ;

at Re ~ao/(2Ro) > 400, for A.el, see graph b .

Values of A.eI (graph b)

Re x 10-3
Ro/ao OA 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3 4 10 20
1.70 0.272 0.210 0.172 0.160 0.140 0.148 0.140 0.136 0.132 0.120 0.112 0.108 0.092
3AO 0.240 0.180 0.152 0.132 0.112 0.112 0.108 0.104 0.096 0.088 0.080 0.076 0.072
6.85 0.212 0.160 0.136 0.116 0.092 0.080 0.072 0.068 0.061 0.052 0.048 0.044 0.040
13.7 0.188 0.142 0.120 0.104 0.080 0.068 0.060 0.056 0.048 0.044 0.040 0.038 0.034
 Flow with Changes oi the Stream Direction 429
428 Handbook oi Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

Turns and bends;22,90 Re =woDo/v 2 2 x 105 Diagram 6.3

Tubes and channels (smooth), smoothly curved (~~ 2 3) with any Diagram 6.2
angle of the turn (coils);3,4,12,24,28,51,79,84 lolDo 2 10 8 = 90°; RalD o = 1.36-1.67 L, mm 45 63 85 98
1.20 0.80 0.81 0.58
Ael
0.25 b
0.20 ~"
;:-... '-
. . . . :--..r- ~ ..l.
a16 ..... -.
fJ,14
1J,12
0.10
aos
i'oo.,
"-
["'..
-'" i'"'"
1-1-..

- :""0
..... - IltJ/Dp-m
1

L,mm
0.07 J,~- 55 85 116 140
I"-.. .....
o,OG ........ :-,.. ...... t---, 0.82 0.53 0.53 0.35
0.05 J
1"-""", r- r-I'- 0,3$
a/JII ~ &/lJ,=/.ij
a/JS ::TI.l
4 $ 8101 2 J 4- 6 1101 2 Re
x 10 2 x/o J x 10 11

3. Rectangular cross section

1. Re = (0.5...{j) x 103 (laminar regime): L,mm 38 102 102 127

»
Ael =[1.97 + 49. 1(D,/(2R o 1.32 (bol ao)O.37] Re-D.46 =Alam Re-D.46 or AelA1am =Re-0.46. 1.23 0.70 0.65 0.58

2. Re = (7-38) x 103 (turbulent regime):

Ael =[0.316 + 8.65(DJ!(2Ro») l.3\b olao) 0.34] Re-D.25 = Aturb Re-O·25 or AelAturb = Re-D·25

Turns and bends;22,90 Re =woDo/v > 2 x 105 Diagram 6.3

Characteristics of the bend Resistance coefficient <;; == /)"f =

Branch 8 90°; furrowed; RoIDo = 2.5 Do,mm 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
pwo/2
0.25 0.30 0.33 0.37 0.42 0,45 050
6 = 30° Do V2in. 1 in. 11/2 in. 2 in.
L

»&,~{)
~.<
ß=YDo 0.02 0.01 0.0075 0.0050
L,mm 30 44 56 66
. 30· S 0.81 0.52 0.32 0.19
Ro
Circular section bends and elbows at high subsonic flow velocities 41 ,74 Diagram6.4
_ b.v
L,mm 36 52 68 81 S" =---2 - = k"S ,
w l2
Pm m
S 0.73 0.38 0.27 0.23 where for S, see corresponding diagrarns of Chapter 6 for smal1 velocities.
1. Small-diameter elbows and bends (25 mm), pure (not rusted) at Ac < 0.9 and

105< Re< 7 x 105 ,

k,,= 1+ajA~ ,

o = 90° (knee beud) W~>FO

~ L,mm 30 40 55 65 where Ac == wmlacr ; W m = O.5(wo + Wj);
2.19 1.98 1.60 1.07 Sm = 0.5(po + PI), aer is the critical velo city of sound.
-.) fl~

L
 T

Flow with Changes oi the Stream Direction 431

430 Handbook oi Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

41
Circular section bends and elbows at high subsonic flow velocities ,74 Diagram 6.4
41 Diagram 6.4
Circular seetion bends and elbows at high subsonic flow velocities ,74
Values ofk)..

A,;
No. Characteristics
Values of (Xl and ß 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.45 0.5 0.52 0.55 0.60

Note Bend; Ö=45-90°;

8, deg Ra/Do al ß L\J.lm
Ro/Do> 1
1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
Elbows
2 Bend; Ö= 45°;
5.84 3.17 15 Butt-welding 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.02 1.04 1.05 1.08 1.15
90 0.90 Ro/Do = 1
3.17 1.5 Same
90 0.90 6.86 Bend; Ö=90°;
15 Same 1.0 1.02 1.08 1.17 1.22 1.28 1.30 1.34 1.40
90 1.34 6.57 3.17 Ro/Do = 1
90 1.34 6.76 3.17 1.5 Same Bend; Ö=90°;
4
Threaded connection 1.0 1.03 1.10 1.19 1.24 1.30 1.32 1.35 1.42
90 0.62 1.52 1.95 120 0.75 ~Ro/Do ~ 1
90 0.62 2.56 1.95 1.5 Same Elbow; Ö= 90°;
Butt-welding; transition from a 32-rnm diameter rm/Do = 0; 1.0 1.0 1.05 1.16 1.26 1.41 1.50
90 1.34 3.40 1.95 15 elbow to a straight 25-rnm-diameter section of the tube rout/Da = O-D.5
180 1.34 3.88 3.17 15 Butt-welding
180 1.34 5.02 3.17 1.5 Same Bends located downstream of centrifugal fans (Chapter 3, References 3, 4, 26) Diagram 6.5
45 1.34 7.34 3.17 15 Same
45 1.34 7.53 3.17 1.5 Same
45 1.20 3.14 1.85 120
Threaded connection
45 3.25 4.45 3.18 2.5 Bends
89 2.48 13.47 3.17 2.5
89 8.36 9.33 3.17 2.5
90 29.29 8.24 3.17 2.5
91 15.57 4.39 3.17 2.5
180 4.80 4.45 3.17 2.5

2. Standard bends and elbows:

kA = f(AO), .see the graph

Values of~

kÄ, Angle of Nominal operational conditions ofthe fan

Tum element Q/Qn; Q=Qn; Q>Qn; Type offan
instaliment, deg
1.5 r(;:; O.91frr,ax r(=~ax r(;::: O.91frr,ax
Vanes bent backward
Rectangular cross section (a), Ro = Dh 90-270 0.6 0.2 0.3 Ts4-76
t* J Circular cross section, Ro = 2Dh 90-360 0.5 0.5 0.4 Ts4-76
Rectangular cross section, Ro = I.5D" 90-360 0.2 0.2 0.2
1.3 with a pyramidal diffuser (b)
Vanes bent forward
Rectangular cross section (a), Ro = D" 90-180 0.2 0.3 0.3 Ts4-76
U
270-360 0.7 0.5 0.5
Circular cross section, Ro = 2Dh 90-360 0.3 0.4 0.4
U Rectangular cross section, Ro = 1.5Dh 90-180 0.4 0.2 0.2
with a pyramidal diffuser (b)
1,{}
aß Note: r{ and rfmax are the efficiency and the maximum efficiency of the fan, respectively.
{) at 0.2 0.3 a* D.5 Äc
 Flow with Changes of the Stream Direction 433
432 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

Elbows with sharp corners (r/bo =0) at 0 < 0::;; 180°;

Elbows with sharp corners (r/bo = 0) at (5 = 90°; lo/Dh:::: 0*36 Diagram 6.6 Diagram 6.7
lo/Dh:::: 101,17,77,79,81,92
woDJz 5
1. Smooth walls (L1 = 0), Re =-v-;:o: 2 X 10 ;
1. Elbow without recess:
r,-=~ 1) Smooth walls (L1 = 0), Re = woDJz/v;:o: 2 x 105:
pW612
bi ao] r, -= !J.r == CIASloc(Sfr "" 0) ,
at lo/DJz = 0-2; S = Sloc == f Ta'
(
Ta ' see graph a;. pwo/2
Cl == f(aolb o), see graph a (in the case of a circular or square seetion
at lo/D" ;:0: 10, S "" 1.05S10c . 2
Cl == 1.0) or, tentatively, Cl == 0.97 - 0.13 In (aofb o), Sloc == 0.95 sin
4
(8/2) + 2.05 sin (8/2) == f(8), see graph b; A == f(8), see graph bor,
tentatively, A =0 0.95 + 33.5/8;
4
2) Rough walls (L1 == 0) and Re ;:0: 10 :

S= k,1,kReC1ASloc '
k,1, and kRe are determined as a function of L1 = !J./Dh and Re, respec-
tl oe tively; see Diagram 6.6.

"
tlQ/b(J=tJ.25 (ttt Values of Sloc

t6 ~K 1.0
bl/bo
~l~ V /4.0 ao/bo
0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 2.0
[2 i\ ~ / tlg/b()=o<:>
0.25 1.76 1.43 1.24 1.14 1.09 1.06 1.06
'\ rsz: r--
I 1.0 1.70 1.36 1.15 1.02 0.95 0.90 0.84

/13 I"< .--. . :--

r-F-.
i'--... 4.0 1.46 1.10 0.90 0.81 0.76 0.72 0.66 8, deg 0 20 30 45 60 75 90 110 130 150 180
i 'r-- r-- 1.50 1.04 0.79 0.69 0.63 0.60 0.55

i I
I'--
- Sloc
A
0 0.05
2.50
0.07
2.22
0.17
1.87
0.37
1.50
0.63
1.28
0.99
1.20
1.56
l.20
2.16
1.20
2.67
1.20
3.00
1.20
0.8 1.2 1.6

2. Rough walls (L1 > 0) and Re

S = k/lkReSloc '
where kt, = f(Re and L1 ==D/Dh ), see
the table; kRe , see graph bor,
tentatively,
k Re "" 4.06/ReO. 1l8
;:0:
4
10 :
Values of k t1

0
0.001
0.001
3'-40
1.0
1.0
1.0
Re X 10-3

>40
1.0
1 + 0.5 X 10 ~
=01.5
3

ao/bo 0.25
:I~
0.50
p f

0.75 1.0
2 J

1.5
9

2.0
S'

3.0
Ii

4.0
7

5.0
t7l1!o"
6.0
.7.0 8.0
CI 1.10 1.07 1.04 1.00 0.95 0.90 0.83 0.78 0.75 0.72 0.71 0.70

Re X 10-4 1.4 2 4 6 14
1.40 1.33 1.26 1.19 1.14 1.09 1.06 1.04 1.0 1.0
Ibl
8
-........ (b)l
V
!"'--. ........ II. Elbow with recess:
f.J \ /
................
....... I\. J ~Io S-=~""
w
I.2Sw.r ,
1.2 to p o/2
i"'"'-
.................. ) "- /
-
A
t2 where for Sw.f' see S for elbow without recess.
1.1 -.
tU --;~ aß. /
fg~ 1.9 z il'! I /
*Here and subsequently lo/Dh
the smooth collector inlet.
=0 means that the elbow (bend) is instalied directly downstream of
iJ --
2P /!7
/'
10 tf(J IPP t2Q /# IIP 0
 Flow with Changes ofthe Stream Direction 435
434 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

37 Elbows with rounded corners at 0.05 < rlDo ::; 0.5 and
Elbows with rounded and diverging or converging exit Diagram6.9
Diagram 6.8 0< 0::; 180°; lo/Dh ~ 10
(Fl/Fo:e: 1.0); 0 < 0::; 180°; lo/Dh ~ 10

beon is the width of the contraeted seetion.

1) Srnooth walls (1'1 == 0) and Re = weonbeon;:: 2 X 103 ;

v .

where S, =exp (-k-l J=/ (F I

F.b r J' see graph a;
n ar 0 eon

Sfr=(l +0.0175 ;" ÖJA; for A, see Diagrarns 2.1 and 2.6; at A "" 0.025~fr = 0.02 + 0.00035~;

Al =/(ö), see graph b; Cl =/(b::

n
=~J' see, tentatively, graph d of Diagram 6.1;
k l = 2.3 log t; So is the resistanee eoeffieient of the elbow at nar == FtfFo = 1.0 and Ö == 90°; weon is the rnean

velocity of flow in the eontracted seetion.

2) Rough walls (1'1 > 0) and Re ;:: 10
4
: 1) Srnooth walls (1'1 == 0) and Re = woD" ~ 2 x 105:
v
S=kJ:R.,AjCIS' +Sfr' _ I1p
for kt, and kRe , see Diagrarn 6.1. S=-Y-/2
pWo
== Sloc + Sfr '

t where Sloc == AjBICI ; S[r == (1 + 0.0175Ör/D,,)A; for /c, see Diagrams 2.1 and 2.6; at /c "" 0.02, Sfr == 0.02 +
(a) 0.00035Ör/D,,; Al == f(Ö) and Cl = f(ar/b o), see Diagram 6.1; BI == f(r/Do), see the table Of, tentatively, B j '"

Je~~ - -
as - ::-
O!\OV 10- ,-I--
ko- ~ Values of t.;'
0.155(rr/Do)-O·595.

~~ ..-- ~~
2) Rough walls (1'1 > 2) and Re ;;: 104 ;
/0.1. ;,-
0 ".,.
r Fl/Fo S= kt,kReSloe + Sfr '
///.0.3 0~ ~ :,......- V
0.5 beon 0.2 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 for kt, and kRe , see Diagrarn 6.1.
h~V
I1I / ~ O 0.10 0.20 0.45 0.69 0.78 0.83 0.88 0.91 0.93
,/ I I
O.tt
0.15 0.13 0.32 0.57 0.68 0.76 0.83 0.87 0.89
al; 'l>~'O
f/I/h (\~~ 0.20 0.08 0.20 0.45 0.58 0.67 0.76 0.81 0.85

(J.2
rV//1 0.30
0.40
0.06
0.04
0.13
0.10
0.30
0.25
0.45
0.40
0.56
0.51
0.67
0.64
0.74
0.70
0.79
0.76 r/Do (r/bo) 0.05 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60
lW 1.00 0.04 0.09 0.21 0.35 0.47 0.59 0.67 0.73 0.87 0.70 0.44 0.31 0.26 0.24 0.22
~
p 1.0 2.17 .J.17

Ö, deg o 20 30 45 60 75 90 110 130 150 180

o 0.31 0.45 0.60 0.78 0.90 1.00 1.13 1.20 1.28 1.40 8, r------ .

_I...--'
(b)
t2ß
h"\
/" V f-""""
'\
'"r---- -
./
V
VI"" az
tJ {J,f tU tU 129 rj])p (r/bo)
{) 20 917 6t7 B/J tOf) f20 1'1/J f(iD 5"
 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition
Flow with Changes of the Stream Direction 437
436

Elbows of rectangular cross section with different shapes of inner

Elbows of rectangular cross section with different shapes of inner Diagram 6.10
Diagram 6.10 and outer corners of the turn at 0 = 90°; lo/Dh - 0-25 ,30,37
and outer corners of the turn at 8 = 90°; lo/Dh == 0-25 ,30,37

•
Reslstance coefficlent '" == - 2 -
. y Jl"p No. Characteristics ofthe elbow Resistance coefficient S== ~
No. Characteristics of the elbow pwo/2
pwo/2
4. Inner corner cut by two chords; S is the same as under No. 1, but Sioe == 0.47
1. Rounded imler corner, sharp outer corner: 1) Smooth walls (JI" == 0) and Re == woboiv > 2 x 105:
the outer corners is sharp
4Fo
S == CISloe + Sfr '
Dh==rr;;-
where Sfr == [1 + 1.57(rr/bo)]A.; A. == f(Re and JI,,),
see Diagrams 2.1 and 2.6; at A. == 0.02,
Sfr == 0.02 + 0.031(rr/b o); Cl == f(ar/bo),
see graph d of Diagram 6.1.
4
2) Rough walls (JI" > 0) and Re > 10 :

S == k~ReCISloe + Sfr '

where for k", and kRe , see Diagram 6.1; Sloe == f(rr/bo), 5. Inner and outer corners are beveled S is the same as under No. 1, but Sioc == 0.28
see graph a or, tentatively, Sloe '" 0.39(rr/bo)-O·352

ro/bo 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.5 0.7 1.0

Sloe 1.10 0.88 0.70 0.56 0.48 0.43 0.40

':J~W I I I rI
() tU tU 126 tJ.8rg!b,
6. Right-angle elbow (0 == 90°) of rectangnlar a) r/bo == 0
2. Rounded inner corner (rr/bo == 1.0), S is the same as under No. 1 at Sloe == 0.20. cross section with circular fairing S is the same as under No. 1, but Sloc is determined
beveled outer corner from graph c

,. wo,fq
~-
ro/bo 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
Sioc 1.13 0.88 0.69 0.57 0.55 0.58 0.65

3. Beveled inner corner, sharp outer corner S is the same as under No. \ but Sloe == f (taJ' (cl
see graph b or Sloe ;::;: - - - - - 1.1 \
0.72 + L85t1/b o

0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.9 \

1.10 0.90 0.88 0.69 0.60
0.7 \
c
'\~V
[fJ (bI t 0.5
rlo • o 0.2 0.4 '0.6 r oIbo

tlß b) rr/bo == 0.45;

r/b o == 0.45
IM S is the same as under No, 1, but Sloe == 0.49
(lf 142 (lJ 1Ft t,lb17
 r Y' !0 !"""'
~. ~ ~
~
po CO CO CO CO ~ o 0 00
~C;CO 11 S :;:
oll S. 11
11 11
() f2l '"
~
0\
V ::s 'D (1) ~
0\
q, ::r o 0
~O ..., 0
~(p
.-. (1) 0 §
o CL ~ ,§
,.0
",.0
X
O~~
(1) ~
{J~
'" (1)
0\(1)
lr 8'
~
[
(1)
[ Sl· ~
o (I)
~
CD
U\ .....
~. ;::t.o..

I ~ ~
o~
9'(1)
§ o 0
::; .....,
::s ~
~:::
(1)
(p
o.~ g, '"
~~ ~
,.

S-~po
{Jq
2:50 ~ ;:;
1Z
;:; ;:;
f{
~
er
6]
-

o
(I)

p
8
;i f{
§
f{
f5
f{
§
o
::s
IV

0j:1g
...... (I)

~~ °ct {Jq
~
~~
(p
[ t0 W 10
q, q, N
\.AO 'f';:>;.
::::0..
$' ..r< ..r< 8' -!3 ~ o ~
~
..r<

§ f{
::t'

s....
V;

f{ f{ F
.... ..r<
11
:;d
g
(1)
(jl
..r<
11
Vl
g i. Ei
rf~(J~rr~ § Ci..'?
~
'"
~~ ~ ~ "'r I~I~ ~ ~ S -lf' 1:' ::s 11 + ::s D; ~
~ ,7
B (1) ~ r ~ E ~ ~
o
o .~
~
~
~ f);
~ I::.... ~ ~ t> ~ (/) C)
V § '2." I>
~ '" V ::p
..r< (D' C)

~I§ ~ a
tJ "" ?<;-
/ ?t ~ S'
(J"l 8 11
8 ..r<
~
Z
~ ~ S ~
~
§
~
) 111

~
? 0. "-
1I o
e;1~ :-" :-" :-"
~ :;d
(1)
01::::1
,.
0.
:;d
1-0~'t:l
::t I> >::l..
":
er er er \:l
g ;:;
II
(1) 10 1
g g
~ . IV
--, 11 ~
(:; .
?IN
w
00
0
0
..r<
g
..r<
::p
r o
....,. a
;>'

o
{, >;;,
~ ~ t:J
'"'"0:;'
'l:S o ~ o 13 ~.
?IN ;......

~
IV
~ u. ..r< N S
~ --
w U. q.
- NO 11 X
s ;::s
"
P S'"
-
?IW ;:;
ß ~VI E: -t:..
~
;>'
wO
~
",-
00
"-
~
~5'
o
?IW W
o
U.
0
13
;::s

.~

~
Segmented elbows of circular cross section at 0 = 90°; 101Do> 1071 •68
C)
Diagram 6.12 ;t
;t
§:
No. Elbow characteristics Resistance coefficient S== I':.f g
pwo/2 \:l
;::s
Ciq
~
1. Made from five elements at the angle 22.5° 1) Smooth walls (I':. = 0) and Re = woDoIv ~ 2 X 105; '"
~
SIOC =f(lelDo) , ~
~

where Sloc = f(lelDo), see graph a or ~

ni '"\:l~
Sloc = L aj(Ro/Do) ; (1) t;
i;Q :::,.
22.S·
at RolDo S; 1.9 ao = 1.100609; al =-0.2413919; "'"g-;::s
a2 =-2.257211; {/3 = 3.920123;

a4=-3.270671 as= 1.464781;

a6 = -0.2737305; flj=6;

at 1.9 < RolDo < 10 ao = 0.6408985; [/1= -0.5625683;

a2 = 0.2448837; a3 = -0.5663924 x 10-1;
2
[/4 = 0.7245266 x 10- ; as = -0.4796866 x 10-3 ;
tl oe .---,-- . .. ~ 4
a6 = 0.1279164 x 10- ; flj=6;
!a) i

fl9 ..-_. at rolDo~ 10, Sloc =0.14

!

Sr. = (flelem - 1)lcl/Do; flel em is the number of elements in the elbow.

0.7 2) Rough walls (I':. > 0) and Re;;: 104 :

45
_\ I; = kL\.kRcl;loc + Sn·

0.3 \ for k/1 and k Re , see Diagram 6.1;

flf
(J
\ f 2 3 9 f 6 lel/Do
levDo

RO/Do
0.2

0.50
0.4

0.98
0.6

1.47
0.8

1.90
1.0

2.50
2.0

5.0
3.0

7.50
4.0

10.0
5.0

12.5
6.0

15.0
p 2..5 du 7.5 lao 12,5 )Ra/D 'o SloC 0.75 0.45 0.34 0.15 0.12 0.16 0.42 0.14 0.14 0.14
+0-
W
\0
 J;;..
71 J;;..
Segmented elbows of circular cross seetion at Ö = 90°; la/Da> 10 ,68 Diagram 6.12 <::>

No. Elbow characteristics Resistance coefficient 1; == t'J.:

pwa/2

2. Made from four elements at the angle

1; is the same as under No. 1, but Sloc = f(letfD O) is determined as a function of le/DO from
graph b frOJ? formula (1):

at RolDo < 7.5 ao = 1.110851; a\ = -0.6822401;

a2 = 0.3342034; (/3 = -0.2609621; (/4 = 0.127691;

3 2
= -0.3035488 x 10- ; x 10-
~
a5 (l6 = 0.339646 ;
~
(l7 = 0.144361 x 10-3
; ni=7; ~
C)
C)
~
at Ra/Do? 7.5 1;;loc=0.2
~
tl oc
(bl ~
~
aJ 1\.~

a7
, ,
E..
;:;.
~
tI:>

""'
E:;'
tlf 1\ ~
~
\ o
lei/Da 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0. 6.0 "
51>
flJ .J::.
i\ Ro/Da o 0.37 0.75 L 12 1.50 1.85 3.70 5.55 7.40 9.25 11.0 S.
;
~ ;
,J --'lel/Do ~o'
tll I -'
() f 2 J 9 § 1; 1.10 0.92 0.70 0.58 0.40 0.30 0.16 0.19 0.20 0.2 0.20
o 1.85 1.7'0 5.55 z~o 9.25 Ho/h' ~

.,..od

~
C)
:;t
:;t
;::..
;::,..
Q
~

~
3. Made from three elements at the angle 45° 2;
~
S.
tI:>
S is the same as under No. 1, but Sloc == f(RaID o), see graph c or from fonnula (1):
~
~
at RolDa < 4.5 ao= 1.118112; al := -0.697757; ~
\:)
a2 = -0.481815; = 0.7030898; ~.
(l3 a4 = -0.2244795;

a5:= -0.6968263 x 10-3 ; a6 = 0.1058802 x 10-1;

"~.
~

2
a7 = -0.1241125 x 10- ; ni = 7;

at Ro/Da ? 4.5 1;;loc =0.4

!"\oc
(c)
a9 \
1
tl7 \
...... -.- i--- .

a!f \ .- _. lei/Da 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0
\
1::2 t- Ro/Da 0 0.24 0.48 0.70 0.97 1.20 2.40 3.60 4.80 6.0 7.25
(J.J
() t '" 2 J
L .....

.v 5 lallDo 1; 1.10 0.95 0.72 0.60 0.42 0.38 0.32 0.38 0.41 0.4 0.41
p du 2.417 J.60 ?oRO 6.017 K;/JJ; J;;..
J;;..
f-I.
Z-shaped elbows with sharp corners (raibo Diagram 6.13 "'"
~
N

4Fo
Dh=n;

No. Elbow characteristics Resistance coefficient 1;, == t;

pwül2

0) and Re = wobolv ~ 2 x 10 :
5
1. Made from two 90° elbows; flow turning in one plane; 1) Smooth walls (,i =
Ir/bo = 0-2; rectangular cross section
1;, = GI Slac + Sfr '

W~l ~_ ~I srr
=
where Slac f(le/bo), see graph a; srr =
Al~/bo; for '11" see Diagrams 2.1 through 2.6; at
= 0.021;/bo; for Cl, see, tentatively, graph a of Diagram 6.5.

2) Rough walls (A > 0) and Re ~ 104 :

'11, "" 0.02,

1;, = kßkReC I Slac + srr ,

for k ß and kRe , see Diagram 6.4 g:
~
§::
C)
tl oc C)
?;-

:llIlllllllllllfll![I~~,
~
~
l~l/bo 0 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0
~
E.
c:;-
Sloc 0 0.62 0.90 1.61 2.63 3.61 4.01 4.18 4.22 4.18 ~
~
2 c..,
0:;-
l~l/bo 2.4 2.8 3.2 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 9.0 10
§
(")
Sloc 3.65 3.30 3.20 3.08 2.92 2.92 2.80 2.70 2.45· 2.30 .~

-l:..
;:s.
0
(J.I; a6 fU 1 2 J 9 5 0 7 fel/be
~S·
~

~
~
4FO ~
D"=rr;;- §:
g
~
~
()q
No. Elbow characteristics Resistance coefficient S== Af ~
pWö/2
~
2. Made from two 90° elbows; flow turning in two mutually ;:s.
S is the same as under No. 1, but at Sloc = jU:l/bo), from graph b ~
=
perpelldicular planes; Zr/bo 0-2; rectangular cross section
~
~
~
tJ
~.

l~l/bo o 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 9-.
C)
~
t;,loC 1.15 2.40 2.90 3.31 3.44 3.40 3.36 3.28 3.20 3.11

l~!/bo 2.4 2.8 3.2 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 9.0 10

t;,ioc 3.16 3.18 3.15 3.00 2.89 2.78 2.70 2.50 2.41 2.30

fl oe rttmTl 'I tI~"" i ti I" Htliiil!ftj 'i i

2 J q. S P 7 1~llbo ~

"'w"
 Flow with Changes ofthe Stream Direction 445
444 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition
32
Z-shaped elbows with rounded comers
Diagram 6.14
rlDh::; 0; lo/Do;::: 10

o No. Characteristics ofthe elbow Resistance coefficient S== C;.f

'-Ci PWö12

1. Made from two 90° elbows; Normal turbulent velocity profile at the entrance at
tuming of the flow in one plane
o Re::: wODh ~ 104
vi V

S== Sl~c + Sfr '

where S ::: f(leVDh), see graph a; Sloe ::: k/1kReSloe, see Diagram 6.1;
Sfr '" (5.0rlD h + leVD,J)...; for A, see Diagrams 2.1 through 2.6; at A
'" 0.02,
Sfr:::0.1r1Dh+0.021elD" .
Nonuniform velocity profile at the entrance

Snon :::k~SI~e + Sfr '

where for k, see below

:11~rl·~1 I I~
No. of velocity profile from Fig. 6.18 1 2 4
o
V kl (at alllev'DIz) 0.8 1.05 1.2 1.2
::;
..0 Values of 1;
ci
Z (J f 2 J # 5 #/etf1Jh rlDo l."ID"
(rolbol 0.4 0.6 1.0 1.5 2.0 3.0 5.0 . 10
0.2 1.20 1.11 1.05 1.10 1.10 1.09 1.09 1.05 1.0
o o o 0.5 0.94 0.82 0.81 0.81 0.81 0.85 1.0

Normal turbulence velocity profile at the entrance at

Re ~ 10
4
2. Made from 90° elbows; flow tuming in two :
mutually perpendicular planes

where S ::: !(lel/Dh), see graph b; sioc ::: k/1kReSloe' see Diagram 6.1;
for Sff' see No. 1.
Nonuniform velocity profile at the entrance:
g e
o
.S :§ ~ ~ Values of k 1~non =k ~loc + ~fr
~
~ "~ No. of velocity pro- lel/Dh
file from Fig. 6.18 1-3 4 5 ~7
t.c-, ~
~ 1 0.85 0.87 0.89 0.94
<::) 2 1.10 1.15 1.20 1.32
~ ~
N 1.05 1.13 1.18 1.34
4 1.15 1.17 1.20 1.26
~ ~
l.c1
Values of~
~ ~
r.;
rlDo l"ID"
(rolbol 0.4 1.0 1.5 2.0 3.0
~
0.6 5.0 10
~
w 0.2 1.20 1.11 1.05 1.10 1.10 1.09 1.09 1.05 1.0
\ ........ -::::,
0.5 0.94 0.82 0.81 0.81 0.81 0.85 1.0

~
 T

Flow with Changes oj fhe Stream Direction 447

446 Handbook oj Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

II-shaped elbows (180°) with sharp corners (r/bo =0);

TI-shaped elbows (180°) with sharp corners (r/bo = 0); Diagram 6.15
rectangular cross section;36 FI/Fo ~ 1.0; {albo - 0-2
~
rectangular cross section;36 Fl/Fo 1.0; lo/bo = 0-2 Diagram 6.15

The resistance coefficient ~ == /1{

F b pwo/2
j l tloc Fj bj
1. Ta=To == 0.5 (cl 3. Ta=b;;"= 1.4:
5 I'. I
1) Smooth walls (/1 = 0) and Re == wObh/v ;::: 2 X 10 :
. . . r-. I--. bel/bl}""a,
~ is the same as under No. 1, but ~Ioc == f{letfb O)'

S== CI~joc + ~rr ' from graph c.

!
where ~joc == !..letfbO)' see graph a; Srr'" A(1 + lelbo); for A, see Dia-
grams 2.1 through 2.6; at A '" 0.02, Srr == 0.02 + 0.02/etfbo; Cj, tenta-
r-........... e-
?f.P"
tively, see graph a of Diagram 6.7.
2 r-.....
2) Rough walls (/1 > 0) and Re;::: 10
4
; ~ == kdcReCj~Ioc + Sf" where for
r-.... r-- b6i~J}-2.1
kll and kRe , see Diagram 6.6. i I

laI

Values of Sloc

bel lei/bo
Ta 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0
0.5 7.3 6.6 6.1 5.7 5.4 5.2 5.1 5.0 4.9 4.9 5.0
0.73 3.9 3.3 3.0 2.9 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.9 2.9 3.0 3.2
1.0 2.3 2.1 1.9 1.8 1.7 1.7 1.8 1.9 1.9 2.0 2.1
2.0 1.7 1.4 1.2 1.0 0.9 0.8 0.8 0.7 0.7 0.8 0.8

f-~~=:~=-':+-FFW!
r... . 1
FI bj
4. Ta""'b;;"=2.0:
. . . . r- ~ Del1bo:: ai ~ is the same as under No. 1, but ~joc == f(lel/bo),
from graph d.
-r- r- i-- t-- tl73
f-. i -...... 1,()
2
b e llb!J=2.0
""'"'"
(J p.~ aB 1.2 f.o 2.0· lel/bo

Values of Sloc

bel leI/ba
Ta 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0
0.5 8.4 7.8 73 6.8 6.3 5.9 5.6 5.3 5.2 5.0 4.9
0.73 4.1 3.9 3.8 3.6 3.5 3.4 3.2 3.1 3.0 3.0 2.9
1.0 2.5 2.5 2.4 2.3 2.2 2.1 2.0 2.0 1.9 1.9 1.9
2.0 1.2 1.1 1.0 1.0 0.9 0.9 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.9 0.9
 Flow with Changes oi the Stream Direction 449
448 Handbook oi Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

U-shaped elbows (180°); rectangular cross section;36

Diagram 6.17
D-shaped elbows (180°) with rounded corners (r/Dh = 0);32
Diagram 6.16 Fl/Fo ~ 1.0; lolbo 0-2 =
FI/Fo - 1.0; lo/Dh> 10
. . r - IIp
ResIstance coeffiClent .., = - 2 - .
pwo/2
F I bl
Normal turbulent velocity profIle at the entrance 1. P:;;=Z;;;=O.S,

Re = wrPh ~ 104 , 1) Smooth walls (Il = 0) and Re = wobofv ~ 2 x 10 ; S = CIS loe + Sf" where Sioe
5
v = Nelbo), see graph a; Sfr Z (1.5 + 2/el/bO)'A; for 'A, see Diagrams 2.1 through 2.6;
_ IIp -, at 'A "" 0.02, Sfr = 0.03-O.04lerlb o; Cl' tentatively, see graph a of Diagram 6.7.
~ =-2-= SSloc+ Sfr , 4
pwo/2 2) Rough walls (Il = 0) and Re ;;: 10 ;

where ~ = f(lerlDh)' see the graph; ~(oe = k",kReSloe' see Diagram 6.1; S = k"kReCISloe + Sfr
Sfr = (5.0rlD" + lellDh)'A; for 'A, see Diagrams 2.1 through 2.6; at 'A "" 0.02, for k" and kRe , see Diagram 6.1;

Sfr = O.Ir1Dh + 0.02lerlD ". Values of Stoc

tloc
Nonuniform velocity profile at the entrance ~non = k~S(oe + ~fr . bel lel/bo
Ta 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0
0.5 2.6 1.3 0.8 0.7 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2
0.75 1.1 0.8 0.7 0.7 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.7 0.7 0.7
1.0 1.8 1.1 0.9 0.8 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.5
2.0 2.1 1.9 1.7 1.5 1.4 1.3 1.1 1.0 0.9 0.8

2. ~=!l'= 10
F
o bo .,
\ (bI S is the same as under No. 1, but Sioe = JUel/bO) from graph b.
~ bel/b o =0.50 I
J Values of Sloc
a7S
bel lel/bO
2\ \. V 2.0
Ta
\ X -7 bet/bo = 1.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0

-- 0.5 4.5 2.6 1.9 1.7 1.5 1.3 1.2 1.1 1.0 0.9
\-. \( ~ ....... 0.75 2.5 1.5 0.9 0.7 0.5 0.5 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.3
Values of k
::::::!'--.. Z .L 1.0 1.6 0.9 0.5 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.3

levD" Q
az (1.5
- 1.0 f.~
2.0
FI
1.6
bl
1.0 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.5 0.4 0.4 0.4

No. ofvelocity profIle (Fig. 6.18) 3. p:;;=Z;;;= lA

1-3 ~4
tloc
0.80 0.80 1\ (cl S is the same as under No. 1, but 1;loc = f(le/bo) from graph c.

1.05 J
\ Values of t;;toc
2 1.15
1.20 1.15 I'[>-. I--.... bel lel/bO

1.20 1.15 2~ Ta 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0
4 [\\ bet/bo = 0.50 - -
0.5 4.2 3.1 2.5 2.2 2.0 1.9 1.9 1.8 1.8 1.8
...... r--.... I/Y~ f.Q bet/bo = 2.0 0.75 2.8 1.8 1.4 1.1 0.9 0.8 0.8 0.7 0.7 0.7

Values of 1;
-. ~ k: Lt-4-,4 1.0 1.9 1.3 0.9 0.7 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.2
2.0 1.2 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4
-r-t- FI bl
lel/D " t/J 4. p:;;=Z;;;=2.0,
r/Do (r/bo)
2.0 3.0 5.0 10 ttoc
0.4 0.6 1.0 1.5
(d) S is the same as under No. 1, but 1;loc =f(le/bo) from graph d.
0.86 0.97 1.0 Jf
0.2 0.93 0.75 0.57 0.60 0.67 0.77 \ Values of Sloc
> 0.5 0.63 0.58 0.58 0.63 0.74 0.85 1.0
2.5
~ ~ ellb .=a5tJ
i'-...
-~-I...-
a7l
. ......
bel
Ta 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
lel/bO
1.0 1.2 1.4
'= ............ ,,,'
~bellb.;2."
f.(J
.- 0.5 6.0 3.5 2.8 2.5 2.4 2.3 2.2
1.6
2.1
1.8
2.1
2.0
2.0

- I
0.75
1.0
2.0
2.9
2.0
1.0
201
1.6
0.9
1.7
1.2
0.8
1.5
1.0
0.7
1.3
0.9
0.7
1.2
0.8
0.7
1.1
0.8
0.7
1.0
0.8
0.8
1.0
0.9
0.9
0.9
0.9
0.9
 Flow with Changes ofthe Stream Direction 451
450 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

Doubly curved turns at different values

Doubly curved turns at different values of 8; 10/Dh ~ 108- 10,26 Diagram 6.18
Diagram 6.18
of 8; 10/Dh > 108- 10,26

S-shaped bend ("gooseneck"-type); 3) 8 = 90 0 (rectangular cross section)

A
flow in one plane
\ c =
Sloc f(RrJb o, brJao), see Table 3; A = f(lelD,,),
1,0 see Table 3 and graph C or formula (1) (D o is replaced
Y - /',.p
pwo/2
Y' Y
~=-2-=A~loc+~fr ,
Z,8
~ by D,,); for Sfr> see para. 1.

where for SlüC' see Sloc of a single branch on Diagrams 6.1 and 6.2;
~ ~ ,/ z 11! I

'\ ~" ~ ~
2..&
lel o
Sfr = A (D + 0.035 R 8J; for A, see Diagrarns 2.1 2/1- ,
'i'... ~
" Dh ~
Z,Z ........ ......,
through 2.6; at A"" 0.02, Sfr = 0.02 lei
D Ro 8) ;
+ 0.0007 D Z,O ..........
( h h IJ 2 Ir- $ 8 10 12 14 t& tel/lJh
A =NeID,,), see Table 1 and graph a (correct at Re = 2 x 10'): Values ofA

A lel/Do
... (al
1.8 po... I-f-t- ....... _r - -
I-" " .-" I
No. of curve Ra/bo bo/ao Yoc o 6 12 18
f"1 i\ f-r- I- _I-
,.... v" I

1.9 0.75 1.25 0.75 2.87 2.60 2.33 2.0

I I'r'"r\ l-f(" ~r- l- /

V ~ 2 0.70 1.0 0.52 2.98 2.50 2.11 2.11

t.U '/-120' 90 75 50 45 JO q-tS'
I L f-~~ 3 0.60 1.0 0.45 3.20 2.33 2.26 1.93
1J.6 1/ I 11 1 I LI ~~ ~~
VV 1 I 11 U _1 I
1/ I I I I I I I
tl2 0 2 " 5 8 10 12 f9 fu 18 20 lel/D.
S-shapedjoined bends; sr.atial (flow in two mutually
perpendicular planes)8-1 ,26 Diagram 6,19
Values ofA

lel/Do
8, 14
0 2 4 6 10 12 16 18 20 25 40-50
deg
15 0.20 0.42 0.60 0.78 0.94 1.16 1.20 1.15 1.08 1.05 1.02 1.0 1.10 1.25 2.0
30 0.40 0.65 0.88 1.16 1.20 1.18 1.12 1.06 1.06 1.15 1.28 1.40 1.50 1.70 2.0
45 0.60" 1.06 1.20 1.23 1.20 1,08 1.03 1.08 1:17 ""
'!,.:J1J 142 1.55 1.65 1.80 2,0
60 1.05 1.38 1.37 1.28 1.15 1.06 1.16 1.30 1.42 1.54 1.66 1.76 1.85 1.95 2.0
75 1.50 1.58 1.46 1.30 1.27 1.30 1.37 1.47 1.57 1.68 1.75 1.80 1.88 1.97 2.0
90 1.70 1.67 1.40 1.37 1.38 1.47 1.55 1.63 1.70 1.76 1.82 1.88 1.92 1.98 2.0

1. Ra/Do <:: 1.0:

A 2) RrJDo = 0.8 (circular cross section): Y -

~=
/',.p Y'
-:r-/2 = A~loc + ~fr
Y
'
h pWo
2.6 S = ASloc + Sfr ,

2.4-
'\vi 1/ where Sloc = f(8), see Table 2; A = NelDo), see Table 2 and
where for Sloe> see Sloc of a single bend on Diagrarns 6.1
=
and 6.2; Srr A(lelD" + 0.035 öRrJDh ); for A, see
""""'- ~
........ graph bor Diagrarns 2.1 through 2.6; at A "" 0.02, S = 0.021e11Dh +
2.2 ~ ..... 0.0007 öRrJD,,; A =j(lelDh)' from Table 1 and graph a
_ 1.25 ( 1.25) (
2.0 """'l1lI .....
S = 3,)Sloc - 3 -Sloc AlelDO)0.33 Sloc + Sfr (valid at Re <:: 2 x 10\
o 2 -!< 5 a 10 12 leyOo
for Slp see para. 1. 2, RrJDo = 0.8 (circular cross section):
S = ASloc + Sfr '
Values ofA
where Sloc = f(b), see Table 2; A =f(lellD,,),
see Table 2 and graph b or
lel/Do
No. of curve 8, deg 0 10 15 S = 3.0SI~~25 - 3.3 (Sl~; + 2Dolel)(Ale/Do) ~I~c + Srr '
Sloc
45 0.23 2.39 2.26 2.13 2.0 for Sfr> see para. 1.
2 90 0.35 2.66 2.20 2.11 2.02
 452 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition Flow with Changes of the Stream Direction 453

S-shaped joined bends; sgatial (flow in two mutually

Diagram 6.19
perpendicular planes)8-1 ,26

1. Values of A
~
N
\Ci ~ N
0 0
N
la/D" "0
~ 1- "1'

0, deg 0 2 4 6 10 12 14 20 25 40 r-~~-----+----~~
\Ci
E ~ 1\\ \("J
\("J 0
60 2.0 1.90 1.50 1.35 1.30 1.20 1.25 1.50 1.63 1.73 1.85 1.95 2.0 0: 01
e N c::;olcf N ~
90 2.0 1.80 1.60 1.55 1.55 1.65 1.80 1.90 1.93 1.98 2.0 2.0 2.0 ~ r--
Ci E 0
0
c::
E!
~
0
0 c::i
"5c:: ä + 0
N
\("J
co
~
0
::;
,::-"IQ"'!,
e ~ eil
J:l
".[
N
0
..c
0) 0-
0
N
bb
.~
....
<8
c::i
~ 0
\Ci .. >J>
11
<l::: "0
c::
:! ::;"" ~
§ <l:::
eil
"-
0
~
00
N'
eil

~
eil
>J>
c2"lci~ 0 0)

Ci + "y \("J c::i Zeil

.. g r--
2. Values of A "y "" 11 f-; 0
~
0)
1;l
0
c::i « 0)
~ \("J
~ ~
11 + ~ 1;l
lei/Da
~IN~
;J ..JlIQ'"
~
0 \Ö
~ .... ~ N
NO.ofcurve 8, deg Sioc 0 5 10 15 /\1 <8 « ..c -"..
~
\0
11 ~ -" :2 "1'
45 0.23 2.09 2.04 1.95 2.0 Q 111
] <l::: ::t '< ~

~
>J> >J> 11
-0
2 90 0.35 2.28 2.23 2.20 2.03 Ce: ;;: ~ <I<) ~
'« ~ 'O...!
~
eS \("J
"! ~
"-
..::§

8 = 90 (rectangular cross section): Sloc = J(Rofba, ~

0 \("J
3. \0 "1'
,...;
bofaa), see Table 3; A =j(lellD,,), see Table 3 and
graph c or formula (1) (Da is replaced by Dh );
for Srf' see para. 1.
Cl '\("J
"1' "! :2

o 2. " S 8 :2 \("J

"" ,...; ~

~
\("J
C'l 0
,...;

3. Values of A
~
\("J
0\
c::i
lei/Da
No. of curve Ro/ba bo/aa Sioc 0 6 12 18
0 r--
1 0.75 1.25 0.75 2.33 2.21 2.11 2.06 0 Ir) "!
2 0.70 1.0 0.52 2.50 2.27 2.11 2.11 '<t!
0.60 1.0 0.45 0.67 2.34 2.20 2.06
""'0
'"
~
::: ~
0)
-; "0 0 0
.... 00
\0 01

...;
 Flow with Changes of the Stream Direction 455
454 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

Joined gate-like bends, turns;26 lolDh Diagram 6.21

1. 0 < 8 < 180°, RrJDo ;;:: 1.0 (scheme 1):

S == .1f "" 2S
pwQl2
1+ srr (tenmtively),

where SI is deterrnined as S from para. 1 of Diagrarn 6.18;

srr = AI~lDh; for A, see Diagrarns 2.1 through 2.6;
at A'" 0.02, srr = 0.021~lDh·
o
+ 2. 0 < 8 < 180°, RrJDo ;;:: 1.0 (scheme 2):
~g
..:P
~ S == .1f = SI + S2 + Srr (tenmtively) ,
pwo/2
~ Connected in ODe plane
where SI is deterrnined as S from para. 1 of Diagrarn 6.18;
~
L S2 is deterrnined as S from para. 1 of Diagram 6.19;
-"
"'-
for si"
see para. 1.
>S
N 3. 8 = 90°, RrJDo = 0.8 (circular cross section; scheme 1):
+
dg S = 1.55 + srr '
~ where Srr = A(2IelDO + l~lDo + 5.04);
~ ~ at A '" 0.02 srr = 0.1 + O.04letfD o + 0.021~lDo .
+ ~0..
4. 8 = 90°, RrJDo = 0.6 (square cross section; scheme 1):
~
,....;
~ S = 4.12 + Sr" where for Srf' see para. 3.

Connected in space

Joined curved turns and elbows, 3 X 90° and 4 X 90°

Diagram 6.22
of rectangular cross section at ao/bo = 0.5;8,10,88 leI/bo> 10
l)SmootlJ walls (A=O)and Re=wobolv~4x 10 :
5
Turns (RrJh o = 0.75)
_ .1p
S = ---'2/ = Sloc + srr .
pWo 2
4 5
2) Rough walls (,1 > 0) and 10 < Re < 4 x 10 :

~~
..0
I' where A = f{lelbo), see graph a;

Il\ J
,
lel l lelz
Srr= (To+To+ 3.5 A"
\
i"
\ for A, see Diagrarns 2.1 through 2.6; at A '" 0.02

\ ,...-r-t
lel l lelz J
...> \ \ "':.---
r \, Sfr=0.02 To+To+3.5 +0.07,
(
for kA, see Diagrarn 6.1; k Re =fiRe), see graph b.
\ \ (>.,j-
~ f\. ~

~\ ..... - V ~\ \ o 2 4

~ \ ~ A 1.63 1.53 1.16 1.07 1.03 1.0

 T

456 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition Flow with Changes ofthe Stream Direction 457

Joined curved turns and elbows, 3 x 90° and 4 x 90°, Joined curved turns and elbows, 3 x 90° and 4 x 90°,
Diagram 6.22 of rectangular cross section at ao/bo = 0.5;8,10,88 lo/bo > 10 Diagram 6.22
of rectangular cross section at aoJbo = 0.5;8,10,88 loJbo > 10
3. Turns, spatial (sharply curved) Without guide vanes:
flow direction a-a 5. Elbows at r/b o = 0 without vanes
~ = 12.5kRe ;

flow direction b-b

~ = 8.7kRe ;

With guide vanes:

~ = flRe), see the table and graph b

Here for kRe , see graph b.

4. Turns, spatial (sharply curved) Without guide vanes: flow direction a-a

6. Elbows at r/bo = 0.25 with guide vanes

~=6.9kRe ;
flow direction b-b
~ = 8.3kRe .

With guide vanes

~ =O.4kRe ; ~ = flRe), see the table and graph d
Here for k, Re see graph b.

Values of ~
~& I
(b)
Rex 10--4
i'\ Scheme
2.0 - !
f----

-- --
-'" r"\ - --
i I
. I- 1--
!
5. Graph c 9.70
2
9.70
10
9.25
20
8.75
40
8.75
1.3 1->- 6. Graph d 1.0 1.0 0.77 0.61 0.53 0.46 0.38
r'\. -
1.6
f'
"-
l\
'\
-'- ,- ... - -
\
...
1.2 +--- --~ f-- " t\.
I-f--- '-- - ---
--- --f-- -- .

.- - ..
\ t
tO I--- f-'i- -
I'J
r~~:
'\ !
{d)
t - _ .. t-
·t -+--f-- l - ~-
y
J /?e
fJ.9
i\
Ir-.,
I; /17
i i ! ~,) I !
115 ; ! I! I"ri-k I'r--
Rex 10--4 1.4 2 4 10 14 20 30 40 1 I : J i i ~
kRe 2.20 2.03 1.88 1.69 1.56 1.34 1.14 1.02 0.89 0.80 0.83 1.0 /1J r i ! 111 II1 1
.I
2 34 J3 8f!f I J Re
 T

Flow with Changes ofthe Stream Direction 459

458 Handbook 01 Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

By-passes 4 x 90° (sharply curved) of rectangular cross section

By-passes 4 x 90° (sharply curved) of rectangular cross section Diagram 6.23
Diagram 6.23 at aolbo = 0.5;88 lo/bo?:. 10 ~
at aolbo = 0.5;88 lo/bo?:. 10

Resistance coefficient Rex 10-4

By-pass characteristics Scheme
s=-*-pwo/2
kRe

14e 1.28
2
1.15 1.10
4
1.06
6
1.04 1.02
10
1.01
20
1.0
30
1.0
>60
1.0
kII
Re 1.40 1.26 1.19 1.14 1.09 1.06 1.04 1.0 1.0 1.0
IdH 1.86 1.60 1.46 1.37 1.24 1.15 1.10 1.0 1.0 1.0
kIV
Re 2.65 2.20 1.95 1.65 1.52 1.40 1.23 1.11 1.0

't
6 -
\
\
9
\ -
\
2
\
2,/J -- - /(~

r2
-=-=0
bo bo
r4
5.30k~e "-, l\
t6
i' k: ,
""<
......
i'-.
' .....
kh
K
.....
........
" ....
3.80k~e :-d l tt--... "':-- 1'-. ...
r-;... ......
'.......:
tO ~ I 1"-1' ...
tO; f..1- 2 J 'I i ' I i(/'!' 2 J I i Ke

Joined made from zinc-coated sheet at RolDo = 1.0;

rl r2 r3
ba =ba =0.25; ba=O; 1.65k~ Do = 100 nun and corrugated elbows at ro/Do = 0.7; Diagram 6.24
Do = 100 nun; Re = woDo/v > 1.5 x 105; lolDo> 1058
with guide vanes in elbows No. 1 and No. 4*

Resistance coefficient
Elbow characteristics Scheme
t=~
- pwcr12

with guide vanes in elbows No. 1 and No. 2*

Elbow; Ö' = 45° 0.60

~ =!i=!i=~ = 0"5
bo bo bo bo .-
with guide vanes in all the elbows *

*Position and construction of vanes are described under para. 64-72.

 Flow with Changes ofthe Stream Direction 461
460 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

Joined elbows made from zinc-coated sheet at Ro/Do - 1.0;

Joined elbows made from zinc-coated sheet at Ro/Do = 1.0; Do = 100 mm and conugated elbows at ro/Do =0.7; Diagram 6.24
Do = 100 mm and conugated elbows at ro/Do = 0.7; Diagram 6.24 Do =100 mm; Re =woDo/v > 1.5 x 105 ; lo/Do > 1058
58
= =
Do 100 mm; Re woDo/v > 1.5 X 105 ; lo/Do > 10
Resistance coefficient
Resistance coefficient Elbow characteristics Scheme r.=~
Elbow characteristics Scherne r.=~ - pW6/2
- ·Pw5/2

1.33
Elbow; 8 = 90°
0.92
Elbow; 8 = 90°
9
~"--"""'__.Ll15 ß/J

1.00
"Gooseneck", 28'= 2 x 45°
2.16
"Gooseneck," 28 = 2 x 90°

3.30
"Gooseneck", 28 = 2 x 90°

1.50
"Gooseneck" (tuming in two planes);
8 + 8' = 90° + 45°

1.93
"Gooseneck" (turning in two planes);
8 + 8' = 90° + 45°

1.60
"Gooseneck::;(tuming in"t'wo planes);
28 == 2 x 90°

"Gooseneck" (turning in two planes); 2.56

8 = 2 x 90°

2.65
Turns, 48' = 4 x 45°

0.53 Turn, 48' = 4 x 45° 2.38

Elbow; 8' = 45°

0.82
Elbow; 28' = 2 x 45°
 Flow with Changes ofthe Stream Direction 463
462 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

Flexible glass-cloth bends with furrowed surfaces;53

Diagram 6.25
Flexible glass-cloth bends with furrowed surfaces;53 Re ~ 105
Re ~ 105 Diagram 6.25
Values of ~Ioc at 0 =90 0 (numerator) and 0 =45 0 (denominator) (scheme a)

Ro/Do
Do.rn 0.75 1.5 3.0
2.28 1.78 1.70
0.100
1.25 1.18 1.04
1.30 1.30 1.18
0.155
1.12 1.07 1.05
1.12 0.86
0.193

0.90 0.71 0.52

0.250
0.44 0.39 0.25

Values of ~Ioc at RoJ'Do =1.5 and Ö= 90

0

Do, rn

where for SIoC> see the tables; Sfr = A(le/DO + 0.035 R oIDo), Scherne of the turn Nurnber ofbends nb 0.100 0.193
In one plane
1 1.78 0.73
2 3.55 1.29
b is the width of the tape wound on the wire framework of
Spatial
a gIass-cloth tube (see para. 72 of Seetion 2.1); D o is the nb
diameter of the tube, rn; nb is the nurnber of bends.
In one plane
2 3.11 1.40
L Sloc = 0.9%SIoc
d 2 1.33
5.06 1.89
4 6.03 2.40

Elbows and turns (8 - 90°) of rectangular cross section

Diagram 6.26
with guide vanes *5,15
e) f)
Values of ~Ioc at RoJ'D o =1.5 (scheme a) 1. Elbow (ra = rl = r;
t 1 = rl2) with profiled guide vanes; Re = wabo = 2 x 105 ,
V
Ö, deg

Da, rn 30 45 60 90

0.100 0.69 1.18 1.48 1.78

0.155 1.07 1.30
0.193 0.43 0.50 0.73 0.86 S '=
PWo
~/2
=Sloc + Sfr '
0.250 0.26 0.34 0.41 0.56
Re~2x105 ,

At D o < 0.3 rn
Sloc = 1.05a exp (-cD o) sin 8 ,
=
where a 3.86; c = 7.8 rn-I;
at D o ~ 0.3
'Disposition and design of vanes are described under para. 64-72.
Sloc "" 0.4
 T
Flow with Changes ofthe Stream Direction 465
464 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

Turns (0 =90°) with concentric guide vanes 46 ,68 Diagram 6.27

Elbows and turns (8 = 90°) of rectangular cross section Diagram 6.26
with guide vanes *5,15 1. Turn of rectangular cross section (rolb o = Rolbo - 0.5) with vanes
where ~loc =: j(r/bo), see graph a; ~fr = (1 + 1.57r/bo)A; for A, see Dia- at Re = 105 :
Normal number of vanes
grams 2.1 through 2.6; at A '" 0.02, ~fr = 0.02 + 0.31r/b o; k Re = j(Re), _ f1p
4
see, tentatively, graph b, or the formula k Re = 0.8 + 4.02 x 10 /Re. ~ = pW 612 = ~loc + ~fr '

(*J
-I
at Re (: 105
nnor=2.13 -1
Values of ~loc ~ = kRe~loc + ~fr ,

=2.13~-1 .
r/bo
where ~loc =: (0.46 R oIb o - 0.04)~w.v., see graph a; for ~w.v. see ~
tl Number ofvanes R
Reduced number of vanes (see graph a) 0.4 0.5 0.6 without vanes from Diagram 6.1; ~fr=: 1.57A~; for A, see Diagrarns 2.1
0 0.1 0.2 0.3
-I

nadv""1.4(*J -1= IA t· Normal (curve 1)

Reduced (curve 2)
0.33
0.33
0.23
0.23
0.17
0.15
0.16
0.11
0.17
0.13
0.22
0.19
0.31
0.30
through 2.6; at A'" 0.02, ~fr =: 0.03
Ro
Ta; .
for kRe , see, tentatlvely, graph e

Minimal number of vanes Minimal (curve 3) 0045 0.33 0.27 0.22 0.17 0.15 0.17 of Diagram 6.1; distance between vanes: rl = 1.26ri_1 + 0.07bo.

nmin "" 0.9 (* J

-I

- 1 = 0.9 t. Re x 10-4
kRe
4 6
2.10 1.80 1.60 1.50 1.35 1.23 1.12
10 14 20 30
1.0 0.90 0.80
~60
~10 c
a

ro/bo 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.3 1.5 9,2Q
k.....
20
\
(b) ~oc 0.24 0.15 0.12 0.10 0.09 0.08 0.07 0.06 0.07
'\ ,
1.8
~ 0.12
\
(6
\ a08 '''- ........ :--
[9 \ 0.011
1'\
0.5 1J.7 0.9 1,1 1.3 !.S Ko/Og
[2
Q:I 112 {J.J 49
tU
I
I
" i"-.
2. Turn of circular cross section with vanes:
_ f1p
I i~ ~=-2-=j(Re,Ro/bo), see graph b;
pwo/2
_ f1p"-.;:c"--
~ - 2 - =: jh/b o, Re),
see graph c.
Values of ~loc
=:

2. The same as under pwo/2

Values of ~ at different Ro/b o
No. 1, but guide vanes r/bo
Number ofvanes
are thin at qll =: 90-95°,
(see graph c) 0 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 ~loc Re x 10-4
~ is the same as under
No. 1, but ~loc =: j(r/bo), Normal (curve 1) 0042 0.35 0.30 0.26 0.23 0.21 0.20 1/(8.39r/bo + 2.58) Ro/bo 4 6 10 15 20 30
according to graph c or
Reduced (curve 2) 0042 0.35 0.30 0.24 0.20 0.17 0.14 004 x 0.037r/bo 1 (one vane) 0.32 0.3 0.29 0.25 0.24 0.23 0.22 0.2
the formulas.
Minimal (curve 3) 0.57 0.48 0.43 0.39 0.35 0.31 0.28 1/(5.43r/bo + 1.85) 1 (two vanes) 0.31 0.29 0.28 0.24 0.23 0.21 0.20 0.20
1.8 (one vane) 0.3 0.27 0.24 0.23 0.22 0.20 0.20 0.19

Values of ~ at Ro/b o = 75 and one vane Ci = 1)

n/bo

Re 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
5 x 10-4 0.60 0.42 0.35 0.31 0.32 0.35 0.39 0.44 0.49 0.55 0.6
10-5 0.54 0.34 0.29 0.27 0.28 0.30 0.35 0.39 0.44 0.49 0.54
2 x 10-5 0.48 0.29 0.26 0.23 0.24 0.26 0.30 0.35 0.39 0.43 0.48
 Flow with Changes of the Stream Direction 467
466 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

Smooth elbows of rectangular cross section at 8 = 90° and

Diagram 6.29
Elbows of rectangular cross section at 0 == 90° and with thin Diagram 6.28 with thin guide vanes 50
guide vanes* (pI - 95°)5,15
_ 6.p

*
Resistance coefficient S=- 2 - = kReSloc + I;,rr '
pwQl2
No. Elbow characteristics Scheme r.=~
- pw3/2 ro = rl = r, where I;,rr = (1 + 1.57 JA; for A, see Diagrams 2.1 through 2.6; at
number of vanes (most
1. Inner corner is sharp (tl == 0); S= 0.45kRe + ')..** , advantageaus) nadv = 11 r
Cf. = 45°; normal number of vanes:
').. "" 0.02 Sfr = 0.02 + 0.031 ba '
at ').. z 0.02, I;, z 0.47kRe ; for ').., kRe = j(Re), see, tentatively, graph b of Diagram 6.26; Sloc == j(9), see graph a.
ny =2.13 i - l . see Diagrams 2.1 through 2.6
t1
9, deg 106 108 110 112 114 116 118

~loc 0.52 0.46 0.43 0.42 0.44 0.48 0.52

2. The same as under No. 1, but Cf. = 50° S=0.40kRe +').. ,

3. The same as under No. 1, but with

reduced (most advantageous)
number of vanes:

n v "" 1.4~
at ').. z 0.02, I;, z 0.42kRe

1;,= 0.36kRe + ').. ,

at A z 0.02, I;, '" 0.38kRe S is

':PEkLEkt1
f(lV 1G5 f/JD
the same as under No. 1, but 1;,10c == f(9), see graph b.
IfO 1ft fl4 Ho 0°

t
1
ro = rl =r, S, deg 82 84 86 88 90 92 94 96 98
number of vanes (most
4. The same as under No. 1, but the S= 0.32kRe + 1.28A , advantageous) nadv = 5
SIoc 0.50 0.30 0.22 0.17 0.14 0.12 0.11 0.12 0.14
=
inner corner is beveled (tl 0.25b o)
at ').. "" 0.02, I;, "" 0.35kRe
~Ioc

\ (b)

flJ
\
"-'i'-......
5. Diverging elbow (F 1IFo = 1.35) rlb o
= 1.18; Cf. "" 53°, normal number
of vanes:
S= 0.40kRe + 1.28A ,
3.
F1
Fa = 2; ro = rl = r
112
11J
80 8'1 88 92

I;, is the same as under No. 1, but Sloc == f(9), see graph c.
96 -- 0<>

at A"" 0.02, S"" 0.43kRe '

ny =2.13 i-I. Values of t;loc
t (a) rlbo =0.2; 'PI = 154°;
1

nadv= 5 S, deg
S= 0.60kRe + 1.28A ,
6. The same as under No. 5, but with Curve 68 70 72 74 76 78 80 82
(b) rlb o =0.5; 'PI = 138°;
reduced (minimal) number of vanes: at A"" 0.02, S"" 0.63kRe . 0.39 0.36 0.34 0.33 0.34 0.37 0.40 0.44
2 0.32 0.29 0.27 0.26 0.26 0.25 0.25 0.25
nv "" 0.9~ 3 0.40 0.26 0.21 0.21 0.25 0.32 0.52 0.67
tl

~loc
Icl
IU
Vc I
fl5
' j ..J.-:::j
S

aJ ~ - V"
"- ./

*Disposition of vanes is described under para. 64-72. ~~ / b

tl2 V
**Por kRe, see, tentatively, Diagram 6.26. 08 7() 72 7v 78 80 9"
 Flow with Changes of the Stream Direction 469
468 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

Spatial (circular) turn through 180° (during suction);19

Diagram 6.31
Elbows of circular cross section at 8 = 90° with
*15
Diagram 6.30 R/D1 =0.2-0.5; Re =woDoIv 2: 4 X 104
profiled guide vanes

Resistance coefficient
A. Rounded corners at the turn (TlD o > 0):
Elbow characteristics Scheme s=~ _!1p h r
PW5/2 (=-2-=f 'D,n ar ,
pwo/2 D0 0

Smooth turn (rlD o = 0.18); normal see graph a.

( = 2.3kRe + 1.28A. ,
nurnber of vanes: nar=FI/FO
3Do at A. "" 0.2; ( "" 0.26kRe ; for A.,
n =--1
v t] see Diagrarns 2.1 through 2.6 Values of S

h/Do

r/Do nar 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.90 1.0 1.20 1.40 1.60 1.80 2.00

=
Smooth turn (rlD o 0.18); reduced (= 0.15kRe + 1.28A. , 0.75 5.80 2.90 1.90 2.40 2.80 3.00 3.25 3.55 4.00 2.80 2.10 1.95 1.90 1.95 2.00 2.03 2.05
number of vanes: 0.05 1.08 4.70 2.60 1.35 1.10 1.08 1.30 1.77 1.80 1.73 1.66 1.55 1.48 1.33 1.23 1.30 1.30 1.30
at A. "" 0.2, ("" 0.18kRe 2.05 3.45 1.50 1.00 0.73 0.60 0.50 0.50 0.70 1.20 1.37 1.37 1.30 0.80 0.60 0.55 0.55 0.55
0.76 4.10 1.40 0.98 1.17 1.33 1.60 1.80 2.00 2.15 2.20 1.20 1.00 0.96 0.48 1.03 1.07 1.10
0.10 1.06 3.30 1.12 0.42 0.40 0.47 0.90 1.10 1.17 1.20 1.25 1.43 0.90 0.60 0.60 0.60 0.60 0.60
2.07 2.20 0.60 0.40 0.30 0.22 0.23 0.35 0.52 0.66 0.75 0.77 0.75 0.63 0.46 0.40 0.40 0.40
Vanes are instalied according to
0.80 2.70 1.05 0.80 0.70 0.80 1.03 1.26 1.43 1.58 1.72 1.84 1.90 1.55 1.27 1.15 1.15 1.25
arithmetic progression at
0.20 1.07 1.40 0.50 0.33 0.32 0.40 0.68 0.90 1.00 1.06 1.08 1.00 1.00 1.05 0.90 0.55 0.53 0.55
2.10 0.50 0.23 0.20 0.18 0.16 0.16 0.18 0.28 0.43 0.55 0.58 0.53 0.45 0.32 0.27 0.26 0.25

( = 0.30kRe + 1.28A. ,
t I.. ';
Beveled corners of the turn i I 181
(tllDo = 0.25); normal number at A. "" 0.2, ("" 0.33kRe 16 1/1\ j-
I I!
\ I I J
of vanes \
J.Z' \
3Do / _J.
nv = -
t -1 2.8 L
l

N I 1
I ,\ I
( = 0.23kRe + 1.28A. , I I
Beveled corners of the turn i,fJ
J
(tllD o = 0.25); reduced number at A. "" 0.2, ("" 0.26kRe
of vanes

Vanes are smoothly embedded and

instalied according to arithmetic
progression at

Beveled corners of the turn

(:= 0.21kRe + 1.28A. ,
(tl/D o = 0.25); reduced number at A. "" 0.2, ("" 0.24kRe
of vanes (1st and 3rd vanes are m a81J t-
""
removed from the outer wall)
- ......
"
~-:;)ö=
J
11.07

/ I
*Disposition and design of vanes are described under paragraphs 64-72. For kRe, see, tentatively 1.1 tJ U 1.7 h/JJo
Diagram 6.26.
 Flow with Changes ofthe Stream Direction 471
470 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

Spatial (circular) turn through 1800 (with pumping);19

Spatial (circular) turn through 1800 (during suction); 19
=
R/D1 0.2-0.5; Re =woDo/v 24.10 4 Diagram 6.31
R/D1 = 0.2--0.5; Re = woDoIv 24 x 10
4 Diagram 6.32

A. Rounded corners of the turn (r/D o > 0):

B. Thlckened corners at the turn without rounding (r/D o = 0). For S, see graphs b-d.

Values of ~ S==
pw o/2
~f =l l~0,Dr0 , narJ '
see graph a.
h/Do
nar=F]/Fo ·
8/Do nar 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.90 1.0 1.20 1.40 1.60 1.80 2.00
0.75 8.70 3.90 2.20 1.70 2.80 3.10 3.40 3.70 4.25 3.40 2.30 2.00 1.90 1.95 2.00 2.00 2.00 Values of ~
0.10 1.08 3.90 1.75 1.20 1.00 1.40 2.10 2.66 2.66 2.10 1.60 1.30 1.20 1.16 1.17 1.18 1.20
2.05 4.20 2.20 0.80 0.62 0.56 0.45 0.50 0.70 1.00 1.38 1.60 1.87 1.20 0.93 0.73 0.60 0.57 h/Do
0.76 8.26 3.00 1.50 1.10 1.90 2.50 2.85 3.20 3.45 3.55 3.30 2.60 1.60 1.30 1.25 1.27 1.30 r/Do nar 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60
0.20 1.06 5.75 1.60 0.80 0.50 0.46 0.90 1.30 1.67 1.98 2.26 2.53 2.63 1.10 0.83 0.80 0.83 0.85 0.75 5.70 2.40 1.18 0.70 0.40 0.20 0.18 0.18
2.07 4.40 0.75 0.60 0.53 0.50 0.52 0.55 0.65 0.78 0.90 1.03 1.13 1.35 0.70 0.56 0.60 0.63 0.05 1.08 7.60 2.60 1.45 0.90 0.70 0.52 0.42 0.40
0.80 8.26 2.40 1.25 0.90 0.78 2.50 3.40 3.90 4.30 4.25 4.05 3.65 2.42 2.00 1.83 1.77 1.75 2.05 3.16 2.05 1.48 1.15 0.72 0.55 0.43
0.40 1.07 3.90 2.00 0.70 0.46 0.40 0.60 1.40 2.00 2.46 2.66 2.72 2.65 1.70 1.30 1.13 1.03 0.95 0.76 1.95 0.62 0.35 0.26 0.20 0.17 0.20 0.60
0.10 1.06 2.80 1.20 0.40 0.30 0.25 0.23 0.28 0.80
2.10 2.00 0.60 0.43 0.40 0.40 0.43 0.50 0.60 0.73 0.87 1.00 1.14 1.36 1.20 0.65 0.58 0.57
2.07 3.40 1.28 0.85 0.70 0.60 0.50 0.43 0.36
0.80 1.15 0.60 0.40 0.33 0.32 0.32 0.40 1.15
~
MI +- .tbl
0.20 1.07 1.20 0.50 0.32 0.23 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.30

l-l:wr -
I( 1\ 2.10 1.35 0.70 0.45 0.40 0.40 OAO 0.40 0.40
,[6 \ ß!JJo-(J.fO
~
tL 1- -. .. - (cl h/DO
.12 I -'1--- J2 iL h. _~C-I . ' , -Tl' r/Do 0.70 0.80 0.90 1.00 1.20 1.40 1.60 1.80 2.00
-- I \ _.... "
V 1\ ~ .lI/li, -(J.ZO
q= 0.75
2.8 _.. 28 r"- -~._-_.~ , : p.
0.19 0.20 0.75 1.08 1.10 1.00 0.80 0.60 0.40

-. -,
h \ --1- -_. - / 0.05 1.08 0.42 0.42 0.45 0.80 0.77 0.67 0.56 0.50
l.~
1/
J 1\
\
I- 2.+
1
~. . I 2.05 0.38 0.35 0.38 0.60 0.88 0.72 0.70 0.88
0.40
0.43

/~::~r·
m=(J.7S 0.76
2~

16 11
1 1\
\
\
\
~-
i
J
2.0
15
!I -_f 0.10 1.06
2.07
0.90
1.15
0.35
1.00
1.37
0.33
1.10
1.40
0.33
1.18
1.27
0.35
1.25
1.18
0.70
1.20
1.15
0.75
1.00
1.14
0.80
1.10
0.60
0.80
0.77
Vi!'-,!'-I . !i'f-.f~5
1 / 0.80 0.36
\
I

r-..~\
1.08' LI 0.80 1.53 1.70 1.76
I' T !
1.55 1.37 1.37 1.37 1.36
, -, _. ,/ ~ 1.15
,', f: T ~t- -7'~:-::- i,\ l: I 1':06
12
L I 020 1.07 0.73 1.30 1.45 1.45 1.40 1.30 1.30 1.27
,\ ...... 1 m-2.1J5 0.30
Oll (18 2.10 0.40 0.40 0.40 0.40
L /\
l ~b-'
~ \
1 1 I 1~L-j-'"
1 .J-<" -f-. i
i
)....:
I I
Jm~l:07

,;~
0.20 0.15 0.10 0.10 0.10

(l'! af 121 0;5 a7 rJ.9 1.1 f.J 1.5 1.7 h/J)" tU at a.J a5 0.7 119 U t.J 1.5' 1.7 hj.lJp
Jl 1
6 \! I
I
I (8) 1
I r/JJo-D.O!i
t-- I I (d) \\ '
4,U 11 I I 2
,,'I! i--!- ..:..- -, - .--!- - ' -

.16
.12
I
!f
1\
1\
\
'i'~>=MIJ

_.- f--I-r-
aN
tl~
1\\1\
1
~

·i
I\.
I'--t:--.
17
L
1/

....
/

I
- r-r-
m'"i!.I!)
;-...~tC'.;

~B~
1.08
1\ (J v
I/ -'- ._'-'- 1 ........
l.B 10--'" _\ a8 11.75
\ 1 .L'' : I
m"'2.07
2/1
I 1\ -' - 1----- tU
.~ 1 1 1
ZU
t5
11
\
l'-,.

--.
..
'l'f=fl.8-
TT-
-~:1.-
tz
tJ

1
I
I
I'
r-
I-~
--
r/lh a (J.11J
m=1.1J7

rn=/J.80
[2
iI
, f,
v
V-
'"" _-1..177 - 0.8 1
1i.1 1J
J r/.lJ/J=p.20
i I I
08 f
i\ 11
./
mL2~O 11/1 ~ 1'-
I
- I I I
r--.. /m",2,iO
I\. Jl.-A TT IJ J
04IJ.f D,J fl5 a7 ag 1.f f.J f,5 1.7 hQjJ)() Il.f tU fJ.§ a'l 11.9 1.1 fJ U 1.7 h/JJQ
 Flow with Changes ofthe Stream Direction 473
472 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

Symmetrie turn through 1800 in one plane (during suetion);47

Spatial (cireular) turn through 1800 (with pumping);19 Diagram 6.33
RIDI =0.2-0.5; Re =woDo/v > 4 x 104 Diagram 6.32
=
Re woao/v 2': 0.8 x 10
5

B. Thickened corners of the turn without rounding (rlD o = 0). For S, see graph b.

Values of ~ Vane A. Without dividers. S== I:!.[

pwQl2
= f(.!!..J
ao
' see graph a.
hlDo
81Do nar 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 Values of ~
0.75 7.70 2.25 1.20 0.60 0.40 0.25 0.23 0.24
1.60 1.10 0.83 0.60 0.48 0.46 Scheme hlao
0.10 1.08 5.70 2.10
2.50 2.60 1.32 0.80 0.56 0.45 and curve 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.50 0.55 0.60 0.65
2.05 6.60 3.90
0.76 2.90 1.35 0.60 0.40 0.22 0.24 0.70 9.5 7.9 5.5 4.5 4.1 4.0 4.0 4.2 5.2
0.20 1.06 1.80 0.85 0.46 0.35 0.28 0.27 0.50 2 10.5 7.5 5.7 4.7 3.9 3.5 3.4 3.7 4.5
2.07 4.10 3.00 1.60 1.10 0.90 0.65 0.50 0.45 3 7.9 6.3 5.0 4.4 4.0 3.8 3.9 4.0 5.0
0.80 3.10 1.45 0.70 0.50 0.38 0.60 1.60
4 4.2 2.6 1.8 1.6 1.5 1.5 1.6 1.8 2.1
0.40 1.07 2.45 1.00 0.50 0.33 0.27 0.40 0.77
5 3.8 2.3 1.7 1.5 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.8 2.2
2.10 2.40 0.80 0.56 0.48 0.45 0.40 0.36 0.35
hlDo
81Do 0.70 0.80 0.90 1.00 1.20 1.40 1.60 1.80 2.00
0.75 0.30 0.50 1.20 1.40 1.50 1.40 0.90 0.60 0.50
0.10 1.08 1.10 1.35 1.30 1.20 1.00 0.83 0.70 0.60 0.57
2.05 0.40 0.35 0.34 0.35 0.82 0.92 0.90 0.87 0.88
0.76 1.27 1.52 1.68 1.77 1.85 1.78 1.60 1.40 1.25
0.20 1.06 1.00 1.40 1.50 1.50 1.43 1.40 1.30 1.28 1.25
2.07 0.40 0.40 0.40 0.60 0.75 0.75 0.73 0.72 0.70
0.80 1.85 1.80 1.75 1.70 1.80 1.77 1.75 1.73 1.70
0.40 1.07 1.20 1.60 1.60 1.55 1.60 1.67 1.73 1.76 1.75
2.10 0.33 0.30 0.33 0.56 0.80 0.88 0.93 1.00 1.00

~ (b)
I
zQ I ~" 'ID.-l1lO
I _.
l
6 l / -~ 1
1/- --t. m=().75
2
I\i\ r--... V i.pJ
\ I
tl.8 J / -I- ~ 1.08
"I"-
"'\ ...... ::::.. ~
(l11 !
"- ~ _f-.
..... ~
IJ

t2
1ft'
~'-
;;-
-. . ~tJ)6
~
bIO =O.2()
/J.7,ff
B. With plane dividers. For S, see graph b.
'\
/1 m-2.07
0.9 '/ Values of ~
r~ --t. ./ J48
IU .... 1/ m-i.ßY
Scheme and holan
()
I blDo~ curve ~0~.2=0~--~0.~25~--~0-.3-0----0-.3-5----0-.4-0~~0-.4-5----0-.5-0-----0.-55-----0-.6-0----0-.6-5--
t2 ~,,=2.f()

(/.9 1\
IY
I
1/1/
./
I- -- 2 10.5
8.6
9.5
8.0
6.7
7.5
6.0
5.3
5.6
4.6
4.3
4.6
4.0
3.8
4.1
3.5
3.6
3.8
3.3
3.5
3.6
3.2
3.5
3.6
3.3
3.6
3.6
3.3
3.8
alt ~~ / I
4 3.6 2.3 1.7 1.4 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.4 1.5
.....:,.,
tl 5 3.0 '7.1 1.6 1.3 1.2 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.5 1.6
fl1 IJ.J tU 0.7 0.9 f.f 1.l 1.; f.7 IJ /JJfJ
 Flow with Changes of the Stream Direction 475
474 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

Symmetrie turn through 1800 in one plane (during suetion);47 Diagram 6.34
5
Re =woao/v 2:: 0.8 X 10

A. Without dividers. I.;, == /),f

pwol2
= f(~J'
ao
see graph a. b1l
c:
'C
:: r- co 0 V"l '1" N
\D '1"
"0 0: \D N N 0 0: 0:
,.....; cri N N
<U
c: '"'"'
Values of ~
~ b1l

h/ao
~
~ -"'i
,.;
0.60 0.65 0.70 '"
~~
~
Scheme 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.50 0.55 ,:p B
oS
5.2 4.6 4.3 4.2 4.0 4.0 4.0
$ 10 7.3 6.0 'Ö
ao 2 8.8 6.6 5.2 4.4
3.2
3.9
2.7
3.6
2.5
3.4
2.4
3.3
2.4
3.4
2.5
3.4
2.6
3.0
2.7 V"l
~
0
~
=
E
7.0 4.7 3.7 ("'l c: 8
4 3.8 2.3 1.7 1.4 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.7 '-Ci g
0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.4 Ei '"
::
1.7 1.2 1.0 0.9 0.9 "0
5 3.0
~ ~
'"
'C <U
,s s:; ~ ~ :! ("'l
("'l
N
N
0
N
0
N

a'" '" '"

Ei ci cO cO ,.....; ci ci ci cO

Im
<U
,s r:.""

- I ~~ =?
0
-Ei 11

j
.~ :.<
i ,....
. - - 1I!____
§

:1.$
11
.-- 'ü
1:8<U :.<
-J._ ._-. c
>..J'
I
8 .~
-Ei
8c: <;;
~

-+-
'C '"i"
>2 .~ ~Ei'" ~ ~ ~ c; V"l
,.....; ""1 \D
,.....;
0
cri
:.< ~ cri Ir) 0
+ :::
s ,s<U """'c:
0

11 0
'" .~
I ~N~ ,ji
1::<U ~
c:
..c:

Iffil
111
E

lk- ,
>..J' :s:
s .
~ -$- -$- -$-
q
C"lM")

~
_.J '"""t Oll 11 11
f 0 E 11

j
g
~
~
UJ
JJJ
()
()
82 tJ.J IJ9 a, 4oll/tT? tlt 0.3 IJIf a, (20 l1!tI(j (.)
.~

Ei
::
~
B. With plane dividers. For 1.;" see graph b. 0..
4-<
0
c:
Ei c: 0 ....
'.::: 1--1 <U

*
0
Values of ~
;1 ;r
(.) "'..0
;;;-. "B Ei
::
~ c:
h/ao .s~ t)t;
0.60 0.65 0.70
.S x <U 2
0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.50 0.55 E (.)
~ :s: ~
Scheme 0.20 0.25 ~ C'l
1\ z'" ~ '"32§~
4.0 4.0 3.9 0
9.7 7.3 6.0 5.2 4.7 4.4 4.2 ..0 "a ·5 d3 .~ 5
2 8.7 6.5 5.0 4.3 3.8 3.5 3.3 3.2 3.2 3.1 3.0 ä3
"0
c: ~ .g
(.)
~~:]
2.3 2.3 2.2 2.2 2.2
'" ~ '-
~ ~ 2~
3 6.6 4.6 3.6 3.1 2.7 2.5 0

~
1.3 11
4 3.6 2.3 1.7 1.5 1.4 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3
E- r::::
<U ~
E-
:::9 0 () 0
c.au
1.1 1.0 1.0 0.9 0.9 0.9 1.0 1.0
3.0 1.7 1.3
Turns and elbows in the system of pneumatie transport;69 ~
0\
5 Diagram 6.35
Re = woDo/vc > 2 X 10

Name Scheme Ro/Do SO SI

~+
ffl--JR O
1.5

3.0
0.19

0.15
2.05

1.84

Turn of square cross section

~. 1.5 0.23 1.98
~RO
with transition to an
inscribed circle 3.0 0.09 1.57

Name Scheme Geometrie characteristics SO SI g:

;:s
Turn of rectangular cross 0.15 0.51
!!..=1.0 ~
section A X B with A Cl
0.15 0.61 Cl
transition to equidimen-
sional circle: !!..= 1.8
A
"'"'
~
TCDg ~
~
AXB=T'
~
i:::
~
~
Turn of variable rectangular R, = R2 = 2Do 0.15 1.50
0:>

cross section with transi- R, = D o

'"
1:;'
B
tion from square to N1 = 2Do
0.18 1.57 ;::::
inscribed circle
R2
"-l:>..
,0:>

S.
~
~.
;:s

~
Cl
:;t
:;t
§:
Elbow with transition from =0
9\::l
~i
R, = R2 0.84 3.66 ;:s
inscribed circle to square _.I. O<:l
Do 0.56
0:>
R 1 = R2 =""3 3.17 '"
~
s.
0:>

~
\::l
2i

~
\::l
::;.
Elbow with guide vanes in D 1.80
= R2 =""3o
$- 0.24 0:>
transition from inscribed
circle to square ~ RI
0.20 1.48 ";:s~.
Two vanes
Ht Five vanes

Dol:;

1?=*
The same, but with guide plates 0.35
Two plates 1.87
Four plates 0.33 1.82

~
-....l
 Flow with Changes of the Stream Direction 479
478 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

23. Karpov, A. 1., Resistance of elbows of a small curvature radius under the conditions of pneumatic
REFERENCES transport, Izv. VUZ, Energetika, no. 8, 93-95, 1962.
24. Kvitkovsky, Yu. V., Hydraulic resistance of smoothly bent tubes, Tr. Mosk. Inst. Inzh. Zheleznod.
1. Abramovich, G. N., Aerodynamics of Iocal resistances, in Prom. Aerodin., vyp. 211, pp. 65-150, Transp., vyp. 176, pp. 6-63, 1963.
Oborongiz Press, Moscow, 1935. 25. Klyachko, L. S., Refinement of the method of theoretical determination of the resistance coeffi-
2. Agureikin, S. S., Spodyryak, N. T., and Ustimenko, B. P., Experimental investigation of the turbu- dents of side branches of different outline, Tr. Nauchn. Sess. LlOT, vyp. 1, 79-137, 1955.
lent flow hydrodynamics in curvilinear channels, Probl. Teploenerg. Prikl. Teplojiz., vyp. 5, pp. 26. Klyachko, L. S., Makarenkova, T. G., and Pustoshnaya, V. F., Correlating forrnulas for determin-
35-45, Nauka Press, Alma-Ata, 1969. . ing the resistance coeffidents of arbitrary assemblies of units from bends in ventilation systems, in
3. Aronov, I. Z., Heat Transfer and Hydraulic Resistance in Curved Tubes, Thesis (Cand. of Tech. The Problems of the Design and Mmmting of Sanitary-Technical Systems (Tr. VNIIGS), pp. 3-8,
Sci.), Kiev Polytechnic Institute, Kiev, 1950, 130 p. Leningrad, 1980.
4. Aronov, L Z., On the hydraulic similarity in fluid motion in curved tubes-coils, Izv. VUZ, Ener- 27. Koshelev, 1. 1., Eskin, N. B., and Abryutina, N. V., On the hydraulic resistance of bent small-di-
getika, no. 4, 52-59, 1962. ameter tubes of stainless steel with isotherrnal liquid flow, Izv. VUZ, Energetika no. 2 64-69
5. Baulin, K. K. and Idelchik, 1. E., Experimental investigation of air flow in elbows, Tekh. Zametki 1967. ' , ,
TsAGI, no. 24, 1934, 24 p. 28. Mazurov, D. Ya. and Zakharov, G. V., Study of some problems of the aerodynarnics of tubular
6. Berkutov, 1. S. and Pakhmatuin, Sh. 1., Experience in the reduction of hydraulic losses of the coils, Teploenergetika, no. 2, 39-42, 1969.
channels, Neft. Khoz., no. 1, 46-47,1964. 29. Maksi~enko, A. ~., ~oward the problem of the regard for the effect of shaped parts in hydraulic
7. Volkov, V. G., K.I'1orun, S. P., and Yakovlev, A. 1., Hydraulic resistance of plane channels with the calculatIOn of ventIlatIOn systems, Sudostroenie, no. 8, 35-40, 1959.
reverse symmetric turning, in Aerodynamics and Heat Transfer in Electrical Machines, vyp. 1, pp. 30. Migai, V. K. and Gudkov, E. 1., Some means for reducing losses in the elements of boiler gas-air
98-105, Kharkov, 1972. pipelines, Tr. TsKTI, vyp. 110, pp. 40-46, 1971.
8. Goldenberg, 1. Z., Study of the field of the axial flow velodty component in the ship pipeline 31. Nekrasov, B. B., Hydraulies, Voenizdat Press, Moscow, 1960, 264 p.
behind a side branch, Tr. Kaliningr. Tekh. Inst. Rybn. Prom., vyp. 22, 125-134, 1970. 32. Novikov, M. D., Aerodynamic resistance of twin turns of boiler gas-air pipelines, Tr. TsKTI, vyp.
9. Goldenberg, 1. Z. and Umbrasas, M.-R. A., Relationship between the hydraulic losses and the sec- 110, pp. 53-60, 1971.
ondary flow velodty in pipeline bends, Tr. Kaliningr. Tekh. Inst. Rybn. Prom., vyp. 58, pp. 36-42, 33. Paraska, D. 1., Technique for Improving the Hydraulic Characteristics of Curved Forced Channels
1975. by Visualizing the Flows of Two-Beam-Refracting Fluid, Thesis (Cand. of Tech. Sci.), Leningrad
10. Goldenberg, I. Z., Experimental investigation of the effect of interaction of flow turns on hydraulic 1982, 146 p. '
los ses in pressure channels, Tr. Kaliningr. Tekh. Inst. Rybn. Prom., vyp. 19, 29-34, 1966. 34. Permyakov, B. A., The influence of the number of turns on the aerodynamics of coils made of
11. Gontsov, N. G., Marinova, O. A., and Tananayev, A. V., Turbulent flow over the section of dr- helical tubes, Prom. Teplotekh., vol. 6, no. 2, 21-22, 1984.
cular tube bend, Gidrotekh. Stroit., no. 12, 24-28, 1984. 35. Polotsky, N. D., On inception of secondary flows during liquid motion along a curved channel, Tr.
12. Dementiyev, K. V. and Aronov, 1. Z., Hydrodynamics and heat transfer in rectangular curvilinear Vses. Nauchno-Issled. Inst. Gidromashin., vyp. 29, 60-70, 1961.
channels, Inzh.-Fiz. Zh., vol. 34, no. 6, 994-1000, 1978. 36. Industrial Aerodynamics, Collected Papers No. 7, 1956, 154 p.
13. Zubov, V. P., Study of Pressure Losses in Wyes During the Separation and Merging of Flows, 37. Rikhter, L. A., Thrust and Blasting at Steam Electric Stations, Gosenergoizdat Press, Moscow,
Thesis (Cand. of Tech. ScL), Moscow, 1978,65 p. 1962; 200 p.
14. Ivqnov, K. F. and Finodeyev, O. V., Conceming certain aspects of the process of flow stabiliza- 38. Rozovsky, 1. L., Water motion at the turn of an open channel, Izv. Akad. Nauk Ukr. SSR, Kiev,
tion downstream of the bend, Izv. VUZ, Energetika, 1985. pp. 41-47, 1957.
15. Idelchik, 1. E., Guide vanes in elbows of aerodynamic tubes, Tekh. Zametki TsAGI, no. 133, 1936, 39. Tatarchuk, G. T., Resistance of rectangular side branches, Problems of Heating and Ventilation
35 p. (Tr. TsNIIPS), pp. 17-28, Gosstroiizdat Press, Moscow, 1951.
16. Idelchik, 1. E., Hydraulic Resistances (Physical and Mechanical Fundamentals), Gosenergoizdat 40. Topunov, A. M., Rubtsov, Yu. V., and Izmailovich, V. V., Reduction of hydraulic resistances in the
Press, Moscow, 1954, 316 p. elements ?f gas pipelines of power engineering equipment, Teploenergetika, no. 11, 43-46, 1981.
17. Idelchik, 1. E., About the effect of the Re number and roughness on the resistance of curved chan- 41. Trofimovlch, V. V., Energy losses during turbulent motion of fluid in side branches, Sanit. Tekh.,
nels, in Prom. Aerodin., no. 4, pp. 177-194, BNI MAP, 1953. vyp. 5, pp. 156-164, 1967.
18. Idelchik, 1. E., On the separation flow modes in shaped parts of pipelines, in Heat and Gas Supply 42. Uliyanov, 1. E., Krumilina, N. N., and Vokar, N. V., The Design of Air Conduits of the Aeroplane
and Ventilation, pp. 43-49, Budiveinik Press, Kiev, 1966. Power Units, Moscow, 1979, 96 p.
o
19. Idelchik,1. E. and Ginzburg, Ya. L., Hydraulic resistance of annular 180 -bends, Teploenergetika, 43. Umb~asas, M.-~. A. and ?oldenberg, 1. Z., The influence of roughness on the magnitude of hy-
no. 4, 87-90, 1968. d~aultc losses In bends, In Hydraulics, Hydrmtlic Transport of Fish and Pertinent Technical
20. Ito and Nanbu, Flow in a rotating straight tube of circular cross section, Trans. ASME (Russian Means, vyp. 69, pp. 62-69, Kaliningrad, 1977.
translation), no. 3, 46-56, Mir Press, Moscow, 1971. 44. Umbrasas: J\I~.-R. A., Evaluation of the Failure-Free Performance of Ship Pipelines with Bends
21. Kazachenko, V. S., Local resistances of rectangular eibows, Vodosnabzh. Sanit. Tekh., no. 2, 7-11, when Deslgrung ~ea Water Systems, Thesis (Cand. of Tech. Sei.), Sevastopol, 1984, 155 p.
1962. 45. Heckestad, Flow m aplane rectangular elbow, Trans. ASME (Russian translation) no. 3 86-97
22. Kamershtein, A. G. and Karev, V. N., Investigation of hydraulic resistance of bent, weided, 1971. ' , ,
sharply bent and corrugated elbows-compensators, VNIIStroineJt i MIIGS, pp. 52-59, 1956. 46. Khanzhonkov, V. 1. and Taliev, V. N., Reduction of resistance in square side branches bv means
of guide vanes, Tekhn. Otchyoty, no. 110, 1947, 16 p. •
 Flow with Changes 0/ the Stream Direction 481
480 Handbook 0/ Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

74. Morikawa, L., Druckverlust in pneumatischen Forderungen von kornigen Guten bei grossen Gut-
47. Khanzhonkov, V. 1., Aerodynamic resistance of plane channels with areverse symmetrical turn, in belagen, Bul!. JSME, voL 11, no. 45, 469-477, 1968.
Prom. Aerodin., vyp. 21, pp. 151-166, Oborongiz Press, Moscow, 1962. 75. Morimune, T., Hirayama, N., and Maeda, T., Study of compressible high speed gas flow in piping
48. Shchukin, V. K, Flow regimes and hydraulic resistance of radially rotating channels, Izv. Akad. system, Bull. JSME, vol. 23, no. 186, 1997-2012, 1980.
Nauk SSSR, Energ. Transp., no. 3, 152-159, 1980. 76. Murakami, M., Shimuzu, Y., and Shiragami, H., Studies on fluid flow in three-dimensional bend
49. Shchukin, V. K., Heat Transfer and Hydrodynamics of Internal Flows in the Fields of Body conduits, Bul!. JSME, vol. 12, no. 54, 1369-1379, 1969.
Forces, Mashinostroenie Press, Moscow, 1970, 331 p. , 77. Nippert, H., Über den Strömungsverlust in gekrümmten Kanalen, Forsch. Geb. Ingenieurwes.,
50. Yudin, E. Ya., Elbows with thin guide vanes, in Prom. Aerodin., no. 7, pp. 55-80, Oborongiz VDl, no. 320, 1922, p. 85.
Padmar~aiah, T. P., Pressure los ses in 90 -bends in the region of turbulent flow, J. Inst. Eng.
0
Press, Moscow, 1956. 78.
51. Adler, M., Strömung in gekrÜmmten Rohren, Z. Angew. Math. Mech., vol. 14, 30-50, 1934. (India), Civ. Eng. Div., vol. 45, part 1, no. 1, 103-111, 1964.
52. Ajukawa, K., Pressure drop in the hydraulic conveyance of solid materials through abend in ver- 79. Richter, H., Der Druckabfall in gekrümmten glatten Rohrleitungen, Forschungsarb. Geb. In-
tical plane, Bull. JSME, vol. 12, no. 54, 1969, 57 p. genieurwes, VDI, no. 338, 30-47, 1930.
53. Bambach, Plötzliche Urnlenkung (Stoss) von Wasser in geschlossenen unter Druck durchstromten 80. Richter, H., Rohrhydraulik, Berlin, 1954, 328 p.
Kanälen, VDI, no. 327, 1-60, 1930. 81. Schubart, Der Verlust in Kniestücken bei glatter und rauher Wandung, Mitt. Hydraul. Ins!. Tech.
54. Benson, R. S. and Wollatt, D., Compressible flow loss coefficients at bends and T-junctions, En- Hoschschule Munchen, no. 3, pp. 13-25, 1929.
gineer, voL 221, no. 5740, 70-85, 1966. 82. Sharma, H. D., Varshney, D. v., and Chaturvedi, R. N., Energy loss characteristics in c10sed con-
0
55. Blenke, M., Bohner, K., and Mimer, W., Drucklust bei der 180 -Stromungsurnlenkung in duit bends (in air model study), in Froc. 42nd Ann. Res. Sess. Madras, vol. 2, pp. 11-18, Jamil
Schlaufenreaktor, Veifarenstechnik, vol. 3, no. 10, 444-452, 1960. Nadu, 1972.
56. Chun Sik Lee, Strumungeswiderstände in 900 -Rohrkrummem, Gesund. Ing., no. 1, 12-15, 1969. ° 83. Shimizu, Y. and Sugino, K., Hydraulic losses and flow patterns of a swirling flow in U-bends,
57. Cross, Ph. and Pemes, P., Etude des pertes de charge singulieres dans les coudes brusques a 90 Bul!. JSME, voL 23, no. 183, 1443-1450, 1980.
en polychlorure di vinyle, Bull. Tech. Genie Rural, no. 111, I-VII, pp. 1-33, 1971. 84. Shiragami, N. and Inoue, 1., Pressure losses in square seetion bends, J. ehem. Eng. Jpn., vol. 14,
58. Conn, H. G., Colbome, H. G., and Brown, W. G., Pressure losses in 4-inch diameter galvanized no. 3, 173-177,1981.
meta1 duct and fittings, Heating, Piping and Air Conditioning, no. 1, 30-35, 1953. 85. Smith, A T. and Ward, The tlow and pressure los ses in smooth pipe bends of constant cross
59. Decock, P. and Pay, A, Mesure des pertes de charge localisus dans des accessoires de tuyauterie- section, 1 R. Aeronaut. Soc., vol. 67, no. 631, 437-447, 1963.
coudes arrondis de 90°, Cha!. Clim., voL 34, no. 398, 27-31, 1969. 86. Spalding, D. B., Versuche über den Stomungsverlust in gekntten Leitungen, VDI, no. 6, pp. 1-17,
60. Eastwood, W. and Sarginson, E. 1., The effect of a transition curve on the loss of head at abend 1933.
in a pipeline, Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng., voL 16, no. 6, 129-142, 1960. 87. Spychala, F. A. S" Versuche zur Ermittlung von Druckverlusten in Rohrleitungen und
61. Fritzche, and Richter, H., Beitrag zur Kenntnis des Strömungswiderstandes gekrÜmmter rauher Formstücken von Luftungsanlagen, Schiffbaujorschung, voL 7, no. 5-6, 216-222, 1968.
Rohrleitung, Forsch. Geb. Ingenieurwes., vol. 4, no. 6, 40-90, 1933. 88. Sprenger, H., Druckverluste in 90° Krümmern für Rechteckrohre, Schweiz. Bauztg. (SBZ), voL 87,
62. Haase, D., Strömung in einem 90°-Knie, Ing. Arch., vol. 22, no. 4, 282-292, 1954. no. 13,223-231, 1969.
63. Hassoon, H. M., Pressure drop in 180° pipe bends, Build. Serv. Eng. Res. Techno!., voL 3, no. 2, 89. Takami, T. and Sudou, K., Flow through curved pipes with elliptic sections, Bull. JSME, vol. 27,
70-74, 1982: no. 228, 1176-1181, 1984.
64. Hofmann, A., Der Verlust in 90°, Rohkrümmem mit gleichbleibenden Kreisquerschnitt, Mitt. Hy- 90. Vuskovic, G., Der Strömungswidersland von Formstücken fur Gasroh leitungen (Fittings), Mitt.
drau!. Inst. Tech. Hochschule München, no. 3, 30-45, 1929. Hydraul. Inst. Tech. Hochschule Miinchen, no. 9, 30-43, 1939.
65. 19uchi, M., Ohmi, M., and Nakajima, H., Loss coeffjcient of screw elbows in pulsatile tlow, Bull. JSME, 91. Wasilewski, J., Verluste in glatten RohrkrÜmmern mit kreisrundem Querschnitt bei weniger als
voL 27, no. 234, 2722-2729, 1984. 90° Ablenkung, Mitt. Hydraul. Inst. Tech. Hochschule Miinchen, no. 5, 18-25, 1932.
66. Idelchik, 1. E., Some Amazing Effects and Paradoxes in Aerodynamics and Hydraulics, Mashinos- 92. Weisbach, J., Lehrbuch der Ingenieur und Maschinenmechanik, II Aufl., 1850 U. Experimentalhy-
troenie Press, Moscow, 1989, 97 p. draulik, 1855, 320 p.
67. Ito, H., Trans. JSME, Sero D, vol. 82, no. 1, 131-136, 1963. 93. Werszko, D., Badania iloseiowego wplywu chropowatosci i liczby Reynoldsa nu wspolczynnik
68. Ito, H. and Imai, K., Pressure losses in vaned elbows of a circular cross section, Trans. ASME, strat hydrauliznych 90° krzywakow kolowych, Lesz. Nauk Politech. Wroclawski, no. 173, pp. 57-
vol. D88, no. 3, 684-685, 1966. 78, 1968.
69. Jung, R., Die Strömungsverluste in 90 0 -Urnlenkungen beim pneumatischen Staubtransport, Brennst. 94. Wolf, S. and Huntz, D. M., Losses in compact 180-deg. return tlow passage as a function of
Waerme Kraft, vol. 19, no. 9, 430-435, 1967. Reynolds number, Trans. ASME, vol. D92, no. 1, 193-194, 1970.
70. Kamiyama, S., Theory of the tlow through bends with tuming vanes, Sei. Rep. Res. Inst. Tohoku 95. White, C. M., Strearnline flow through curved pipes, Froc. R. Soc. London, Sero A, voL 123, 20-
Univ., Sero B, High-Speed lvIech., no. 20, 1-14, 1969. 31, 1929.
71. Kirchbach, Der Energieverlust in Kniestücken, Mitt. Hydrau!. Inst. Tech. Hochschule lvliinchen, no. 96. Peshkin, M. A, Cavitation characteristics of local resistaces of pipelines, Teploenergetika, no. 12,
3, 25-35, 1929. 59-62, 1960.
72. Markowski, M., Wspolczynniki oporow przeplywu dwufozowego czynnika przez 1uki przenolnikov 97. Peshkin, M. A, On the hydraulic resistance of branches with agas-liquid mixture flow, Teploen-
powie-trznych, Arch. Budowy Maszyn., part 14, no. 2, 339-370, 1967. ergetika, no. 6, 79-80, 1961.
73. Machne, G., Perdite di carico prodotte da curve isolate on cambiamento di diresione di 90° in 98. Kutateladze, S. S. and Styrikovich, M. A, Hydraulics of Gas-Liquid Mixtures, Gosenergoizdat
tubazioni a serione circo1are costante in moto turbolento, Tee. Ita!., vol. 22, no. 2, 77-91, 1957. Press, Moscow, 1958.
 CHAPTER
SEVEN
RESISTANCE IN THE CASES OF MERGING
OF FLOW STREAMS AND DIVISION
INTO FLOW STREAMS
RESISTANCE COEFFICIENTS OF WYES,
TEES, AND MANIFOLDS

7.1 EXPLANATIONS AND PRACTICAL REC01\lIMENDATIONS

1. Different types of wyes are considered in the present handbook: nonstandard wyes when
Fs + Fst = Fe (Figure 7.1a and b) and when Fs + Fst > F (Figure 7.1c); normalized wyes of
ordinary design (Figure 7.ld); and normalized wyes with branching assemblies of industrial
construction (Figure 7.1e).
2. A wye is characterized by a branching angle a and the ratios of the cross-sectional areas
of its branches FsIFe, FsJFe, and FslFst . A wyecan have different ratios of flow rates Q/Qe
and QsJQe and velo city ratios w/W e and WsJw e. Wyes can be installed to merge or converge
the flows or to diverge or separate the flows from the main passage.
3. The resistance coefficients of converging or merging wyes depend on the parameters
named above, while those of diverging wyes of standard shape (without smooth rounding of
the side branch and without divergence or convergence of both branches) depend only on the
branching angle a and the velocity ratios w/we and Wst1we.
The resistance coefficients of wyes of rectangular cross section are assumed to be nearly
independent of the aspect ratio of their cross section, unless such coefficients are refined later.
4. When two streams moving in the same direction, but with different velocities, merge
(Figure 7.la), turbulent mixing of streams (a shock) usually occurs, which is accompanied by
nonrecoverable total pressure losses. In the course of this mixing, momentum exchange takes
place between the partic1es of the medium moving with different velocities. This exchange
favors equalization of the flow velocity field. In this case, the jet with higher velocity loses a
part of its kinetic energy by transmitting it to the slower moving jet.
5. The total pressure difference between sections before and after mixing is always a large
and positive quantity for a jet moving with a high er velocity. This difference increases the is

483
 484 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition
11.... 1:
:t f 1
Figure 7.1. Sehemes of wyes: Ca) with the same direetion of flows, Fs + Fst = Fe' Cb) and Ce) with flow
at an angle Ci at Fs + Fst = Fe and Fs + Fst > Fe' Fst = Fe' respeetively; (d) normalized; (e) with
branehing assemblies of industrial-type eonstruetion.
the gn~ater: the larger the part of the energy which it transmits to a jet moving at a lower
velocity .- Th~refor~, the re~ist;;ce coefficient, which is- defined as the ratio -of the difference
of total pressures to the mean velocity pressure in the given section, also is always a positive
quantity. The energy stored in the jet moving with a lower velocity also increases as a result
of this mixing. Consequently, the difference between the total pressures, and, accordingly, the
resistance coefficient of the branch in which the flow moves with a lower velocity , can also
have negative values (see paragraph 2 of Section 1.1).
6. In practice, the branch is connected to the common channel on the side (side branching)
at a certain angle a (see Figure 7.1b and c). In this case, losses due to turning of the stream
are added to los ses in a wye. The losses due to the turning of the flow are mainly due to the
flow separation from the inner wall, flow contraction at the point of the turn, and its sub-
sequent expansion (see Figure 7.1b). The contraction and expansion of the jet occur in the
region of merging of streams and therefore influence the los ses not only in a side branch, but
also in the straight common passage.
7. When the branches are conical rather than cylindrical in shape or when there is a sud-
den expansion, there are losses due to flow expansion (diffuser or "shock" losses). If a side
branch has a smooth turn, los ses in this turn are also added.
In general, the principal losses in a converging wye are composed of (1) the los ses due to
turbulent mixing of two streams moving with different velocities (shock), (2) the losses due
M erging of Flow Streams and Division into Flow Streams 485
Figure 7.2. Flow patterns in intake diverging wyes: Ca) Qs < Qst; Cb) Qs ?:: Qst; Cc) Qs = 0. 37
to flow turning when it passes from the side branch into the common channel, (3) the los ses
due to flow expansion in the diffuser part, and (4) the losses in a smooth branch.
8. The flow pattern in the diverging wye during flow separation into two jets (side branch-
ing and straight passage) varies with the ratio of velocities ws/wst or of flow rates QiQst. 37
9. When Qs < Qst, a large eddy zone is formed after the turn of the flow into the side
branch (much larger than in the place offlow turning). Tnis is due to the diffuser effeet, that
is, formation of a large positive pressure gradient at the place of wye branching, where the
cross-sectional area increases sharply as compared with the main channel area. This large
pressure gradient also causes partial flow separation from the opposite straight wall of the
straight passage (Figure 7.2a). Both zones of flow separation from the wall create local jet
contraction in both the side branch and the straight common passage. Flow contraction is fol-
lowed by flow expansion.
10. When Qs ~ Qst, the flow separates more vigorously from the outer wall of the straight
passage as weIl as from the wall of the side branch after turning (Figure 7.2b).
11. At Qs = 0, an eddy zone forms at the entrance of the side branch (Figure 7.2c), which
causes Iocal contraction with subsequent expansion of the jet into the straight passage.
12. The distributions of velocities in side branches and in straight passages of the diver a -
. 0
t
mg '!'ye with a ~ 90 and s = F st = ~c f~r the cases of QiQc = 0.5 and QslQc = l.0
obtamed by Aslanlyan et al. are shown m Flgures 7.3 and 7.4, respectively. These charac-
b
teristics are given as the profiles and the fields of the axial velocity components in sections
at different relative distances from the intersection of the wye axes.
13. The losses in the diverging wye are composed mainly of shock los ses on sudden ex-
pansion at the place of flow division, losses due to flow turning into the side branch, losses
 486 Handbook oj Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition Merging oj Flow Streams and Division into Flow Streams 487

I.IJS
b
Figure 7.3. The profiles and fields ofaxial velocity components in a side branching of a straight, Figure 7.4. The profiles and fields ofaxial velocity components in the passage of a straight, equally
equally discharging wye: 1 (a) Qs = Qc; Qst = 0; (b) Qs = 0.5Qc; Qst = 0.5Qc- 1
discharging wye: (a) Qs = O.5Qc; Qst = 0.5Qc; (b) Qs = 0.27Qc; Qst = 0.73Qc

in the smooth passage of the side branch, and losses due to a sudden contraction of the pas- or
sage (an industrial wye).
14. At certain flow rate ratios QsfQo the resistance coefficient of the straight passage can
have a negative value, that is, the energy of the flow can rise in this passage. Due to flow
division a portion of the slowly moving boundary layer adjacent to the wall passes into the
side branch and the energy per volume unit of the fluid medium moving in the straight pas-
sage becomes higher than that in the side branch.
In addition, at the time of passing into the side branch, apart of the momentum is trans- (7.1)
ferred to the flow in the straight passage.
An increase in energy in the straight passage is accompanied by an increase of losses in
the side branch, so that the whole flow process results in irreversible pressure losses.
15. The resistance coefficients of nonstandard converging wyes of normal shape (without Table 7.1 Values of A
roundings and divergence or convergence of the side branch or of the straight passage) can
be calculated by forrnulas of Levin 31 and Taliev. 43 These are obtained by comparing the pre- ::;;0.35 >0.35 >0.35
dicted results with the experiments of Levin,31 Gardei, 54 Kinne,60 Petermann,66 and Vogel. 78 ::;;1.0 ::;;0.4 >0.4
For the side branch:
A 1.0 0.9 (1 - g;) 0.55
 Merging of Flow Streams and Division into Flow Streams 489
488 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

Table 7.2 Values of K s and K;t for wyes of the type F s + F st = Fe

Fs/Fc
0.10 0.20 0.33 0.5
a,deg
Ks K~t Ks K~t Ks K~t Ks K~t - 2F
Fc (QsJ2
0 cos a + Kst" ,
s _c
15 0 0 0 0 0 0.14 0 0.40

30 0 0 0 0 0 0.17 0 0.35 where for the values of K;;

see Table 7.2.
45 0 0.5 0 0.14 0 0.14 0 0.30 16. The resistance coefficients of nonstandard diverging wyes of normal shape with a tur-
0 0 0 0.10 0.10 0.25 bulent flow can be ca1culated from the formulas of Levin 28 and Taliev43 with correction fac-
60 0 0
0.20 0 0.25 0 tors obtained by comparing the predicted results with the experimental data of Levin,28
90 0 0 0.10 0
Gardel,54 Kinne,60 Petermann,66 and Vogel. 78
For the side branch

For wyes of the type F s + Fst > F c, Fst = Fc at al1 va1ues of A is given in Table 7.1
compiled by Zubov on the basis of Gardel' s54 experiments. In a11 cases, the value of K s is
zero. For wyes of the type Fs + F st = Fo the quantity A = 1 while the value of K s is taken
from Table 7.2. or

Straight Passage
~e.s=-2-=A Qs F Qs Fe Qs Fc 2
2 ]

= Fc
_ jj.Ps
[1 + (-Qe Fes
I

- 2 - ycosa -Kst(OF
Qe s
I

I ,
For wyes of the type F s + F st > Fo F st . pwc /2
J _c s)

where K;;
is the coefficient of flow compressibility.
_ ~
Sc.st = - 2 - =
Qs
1 - 1 - -Q 0_s J(Q
2- (1.4 - -Q 0 J2 sm a
s .

pwc /2 ( c
J c _c
For wyes of the type Fs + F st > Fo F st = Fe the values of A' are given in Table 7.4,
whereas the values of K;
are taken to be equal to zero.
For wyes of the type Fs + Fst = F c, A' = 1.0 and the values of K; are given in Table 7.5.
(7.2) For wyes of the type Fs + F st > F c• F st =Fc (within the limits Wst1wc S; LO)

where the values of K~t are given in Table 7.3.

For wyes of type Fs + F st = Fo

~
Table 7.4 Values ofA'
( wst 2 st ws t 2 Fs (
~c.st=-?-= 1 + - - 2F- ( - 2 "
- 2 - -wsJ cos a+Kst '
pw~/2 Fc Wc
Wc
J Fc W c
J $;0.35 <0.35
$;4 $;6 >6
or
1.1-0.7 Qs/Qc 0.85 1.0-0.6Qs/ Qc 0.6

Table 7.3 Values of K~t

Table 7.5 Values of K;
Fs/Fc $;0.35 >35
$;0.6 >0.6 a, deg 15 30 45 60 90
0-10
0.5 0.8Qs/Qc 0.4 0.16 0.36 0.64 1.0
0.8Qs/Qc
 490 Handbook ofHydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition Merging of Flow Streams and Division into Flow Streams 491

where 1 st is given in Diagram 7.20.

For wyes of the type Fs + Fst = Fe> ~c.st = f(wst1wd, see Diagram 7.20.
17. Since the resistance coefficient of diverging wyes of normal shape is independent of
the area ratios F/Fc and FstlFe> generalized curves can be plotted for this coefficient as a
... --
function of wsfw c and, respectively, of Wst1wc rather than of Q/Qc and QstlQc' Therefore, in
some cases in Chapter 7, the curves of the resistance coefficient are given in the form ~c.s =
f(wst1wc) and ~c.st = f(wst1wc), respectively, though most curves are given as ~c.s = f(Qs;Qc)
and ~c.st = f(QstlQc)'
18. The resistance coefficients of standard wyes and wyes with branches of industrial de- Figure 7.5. Schematic of an improved wye.
sign can be ca1culated for turbulent flow from extrapolation formulas of Klyachko and Uspen-
skaya21 (see Diagrams 7.15 through 7.17, 7.25, and 7.26).
19. There is a simple relationship * between the resistance coefficients of wyes based on 22. An increased resistance is also observed in wyes made of sheet steel with the flat
the average velocity in the common channel and on the average velocity in branches: seamed parts (see Diagrams 7.22 and 7.36).
. 23. ~e resistance of both the diverging and converging wyes is very effectively reduced
S=~ ~c.s Sc.s If there lS a gradual enlargement (diffuser) of the side branch. This noticeably reduces the
s- pw~/2 (wst1wc)
2
[(QsI Qc)(Fcl Fs)]2 losses both due to relative decrease in the flow velocity in the diverging section and due to
decrease •
of the tme angle of the flow turn at the same nominal ano-le
Cl
of wye branchino-s
b
(rv
""1
and < (1., FIg~re 7.5) .. Combination of rounding and beveling of corners and widening of the side
branch glves a stIll larger reduction of the wye resistance.
~Pst Sc.st Sc.st The least resistance is achieved in wyes where the branch is smoothly bent (Figure 7.6);
Sst == such branches with small branching angles «60°) should be used wherever possible.
pW~t/2 (wst1wc)
2
(1 - QsIQc)2(FcIFst )
24. In converging wyes with QsfQc :::; 0.8 and threaded connection of branches the values
The total resistance coefficient of a wye based on the kinetic energy in the common chan- of the resistance coefficients are 1-10% higher than in the case of a smooth ~onnection.
ne1 17,66 is When Q/Qc > 0.8, the reverse phenomenon is observed: the resistance coefficient of the ma-
chined wye is 10-15% higher than in the case of a threaded connection of branches. 8,9 Prob-
ably, t~is is ~ue to the fact that the enlargement of the section at the place of threaded
connectlOn (Flgure 7.7) creates the condition like that in a stepped diffuser when a decrease
in the ~esist~nce is obs~rved as compared to_a:~iff.llser with straight walls (see Chapter 5).
20. The resistance of wyes of normal shape can be markedly reduced by rounding the In. dlvergI~g wyes with threaded connection of branches the values of the coeffi~ients ~c.s
junction between the side branch and the main passage. In the case of converging wyes, only r~malll practIcally the same as for machined wyes. The values of ~c.st are correspondingly
higher. 8,9
the outside corner has to be rounded (rb Figure 7.5). In the case of diverging wyes, both
corners have to be rounded (r2, Figure 7.5); this makes the flow more stable and reduces the 25: The values of the resistance coefficients of wyes increase with the growth of the reduced
possibility of flow separation from the inner corner. velocIty of the flow in the common channel 'Ac = wcfacr' The dependence of rand r on
'A d . . 47. ':>C.S ':>C.st
Virtually, the rounding of the inner corners between the side branch and the main passage c, presente III the work by Uhyanov et al. for certalll wyes, are given in Diagram 7.24.
is sufficient when r/D c = 0.2_0.3. 14
21. The above formulas suggested for ca1culating the resistance coefficients of wyes and
the corresponding graphic and turbulated data in Diagram 7.2 relate to very carefully manu-
factured (turned) wyes. Industrial defects occurring in wyes during their production ("depres-
sions" in the side branch and the "blocking" of its section by the miscut wall in the straight
passage [common channel; main tube, to which a side branch is attachedD become the source
of a sharp increase in the fluid resistance. The increase in the resistance of side branches is
especially significant if the diameter of the cut-out in the main tube for the side branch is
smaller than the diameter of the latter.

*Por an incompressible fluid. Figure 7.6. Schematic of a wye with a smoothly rounded branch.
 Merging oj Flow Streams and Division into Flow Streams 493
492 Handbook ojHydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

f)(JD
Q,~a,
S

~.
1 J
1.0
7~
.\ Os IV
-:::1.0
1.6
1\\ W,

\\
*5" \\. r-.. ~
1.2
[\ \. r-...Io.. -r--..
0.8
8=JO° \ F"""'-
r-..
\
(8) (b) 0.'1
"' I
Figure 7.7. Schematic of an annular step in a standard wye: (a) welded wye; (b) wye with screwed
pipes. o
1 2
)(10 2
'I (} 8101

a
2 xl0 3
"* 6 81Q !
xl0 4
Re,

26. In the case of a turbulent flow (Re c = wc/v 2:: 4000), the resistance coefficients of wyes
depend little on the Reynolds number. A slight decrease of Se.s with an increase in Re e is
8
observed only in converging wyes. ,9 ~s , f)/J0
27. In the course of transition from a turbulent to a laminar flow within the range Re e =
2 X 103 to 3 x 103 there occurs a sudden increase in the coefficient Sc.s for both converging
3. l
2 ~1 Q'~
Z
fJ
Qs :; 1
J
(j
and diverging wyes (Figure 7.8). The same occurs with the coefficient Sc.st of a diverging
2.'f
90° /
,\ {Je S

wye. For a converging wye, such a jump in Sc.st occurs at a > 60° and FsfFc = 1; when a
75'"
= 45° and F/Fc = 1, the coefficient Sc.st does not increase; in this case, it is independent of '15°
Re e. When a = 30° and FsfFc = 1.0, even a sudden decrease in Se.st occurs in transition from 1.6
turbulent to laminar flow. 8,9
28. In the ~ase of laminar flow, the value.s of the resistance coefficients of wyes depend sub-
stantially on the relative length of the inlet section lo/Do and increases wirh the increase in this
8.S
8=30°
J
-
._ ---..2.%._
--
-'
length within the velocity profile stabilization as is the case for branches (see Chapter 6).8,9
29. The expression for the resistance coefficient of wyes with laminar flow has generally o -
2 6 810 I
the form suggested by Zubov ,9
8 LJ
xlO 2
6 8/01 2
ItfO J
" 2
:<10'1 " 6 8/0 f I?ec
)(10 5

b
(7.5)
Figure 7.8. Dependence of the resistance coefficient Ss of wyes on data in Reference 8: (a) convercring
wyes; (b) diverging wyes. b

3
where N ~ j, {(:,) dF is the coefficient 01 kinetic energy (01 the Coriolis energy) 01 the
where S:s = Se.s, see Equation (7.1); A is the quantity which depends on the parameters a,
flow in section c-c; kl is a correction factor; superscripts land t refer to a laminar and a QslQo, an~ FsfFc but its numerical x~ue has not as yet been established; tentatively A "" 150.
turbulent flow, respectively. Accordmg to the data of Zubov,' for a straight passage
30. For a converging wye with a laminar flow N = 2, and for a side branch kl = 1, so
that, according to Equation (7.5),

rl = IIp _ rt , A (7.6)
~C.s - --?- - 2~c.s T -R '
pwc/2 ee
 Merging of Flow Streams and Division into Flow Streams 495
494 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

Table 7.6 Values of ao losses in the wye in this case are made up of (1) the losses on mixing (shock los ses) and (2)
losses when the flow turns through 90°.
:S:0.35 >0.35 34. The resistance coefficient of a flow stream that moves in one of the branches with
0-1.0 :S:0.2 >0.2 smaller velocity can have a negative value just as in a conventional diverging wye (due to the
additional energy from the higher-velocity flow).
ao 1.8-QsIQc 1.8-40s1Qc 1.2-QsIQc
Without a partition the flow pattern in a symmetrical wye is less c1early defined. The pres-
sure drops before and after merging of the flows mainly reflect the losses common to both
branches. The value of these is positive at any velocity ratio (flow rate) between the branch
where for S~.s' see Equation (7.6); for ao, see Table 7.6. and the common channel WsfWc(Qh/Qc) and is approximately equal to the losses in a diverg-
31. According to Equation (7.5), for a diverging wye wirh laminar flow (N = 2), the resis- ing elbow.
tance coefficient of a side branch is 35. The resistance coefficient of each branch of a symmetrical wye at a junction can be
ca1culated with the following formula of Levin: 32

2
r - ;),ps C
,:>c.s=-2-=1+y ) [F -Q -0'
+3 ( FeJ 2 [(QsJ2
Fs
Qs]
pwc /2 s c _c
t
where Se.s = Sc.s, see Equation (7.3); tentatively A "" 150; for k l see Table 7.7 (at FsfFe = 1).*
For a straight passage N = 2 and k = 2, so that, according to Equation (7.5), we have
36. If a symmetrical wye is used for the division of flow, the conditions of flow passage
in it are about the same as with a conventional turn. Therefore, the losses in this wye can be
l - flps rt A
Se.st = - - 2 - = 3':>e.st + R ' approximately determined from the data for elbows with different aspect ratios bl/bo. The re-
pwe /2 ee
sistance coefficient of this wye can also be ca1culated with Levin's formula: 32

where S~.st = Se.sb see Equation (7.4); tentatively A "" 33.

32. In equilateral wyes which are used for joining two opposite streams (merging) (scheme
of Diagram 7.29), the resistance coefficients of the two branches are practically equal.
33. When a partition is installed at the place of junction of a symmetrical wye, the two
flows are independent of each other before converging into the common channeL This is fol-
lowed by conventional turbulent mixing of two flows moving with different velocities. The
Table 7.7 Values of k 1
where kl "" 1.5 for standard threaded malleable-iron wyes; k l "" 0.3 for welded wyes.
37. A symmetrical wye can be fabricated to have smooth branches ("swallowtail"), reduc-
ing its resistance appreciably.
38. Tbe resistance coefficient of converging symmetrical wyes' at a· < 90° and Fe :::: 2Fs
can be ca1culated from Levin's formula: 32

4
a,deg
Sc.s =- -flps
2- Qs (0.9 + cos 2 a) + (Qs]
=4 -Q -Q
QsIOc 30 45 60 90 pwd2 c c

At FsIFc:S: 1
0 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9
0.2 1.8 1.8 1.5 LI
0.4 3.4 2.9 2.2 1.3
0.6 6.1 4.3 3.0 1.5
0.8 7.2 4.3 2.7 1.4
1.0 6.0 3.0 2.3 1.3
AtFsIFc ::::: 1
39. The resistance coefficient of diverging symmetrical wyes at a < 90° and Fc = 2Fs can
Up to 0.4 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 be ca1culated, approximately, just as for a side branch of a conventional wye of the type Fs
Above 0.4 0 0 0 o + Fst = Fe from Diagram 7.16.
40. Diagram 7.31 contains the values of the resistance coefficients of symmetrical wyes of
*For other values of F s /Fc the coefficient k1 is as yet unknown. the Fs = Fst = Fe at a = 45°. These data were obtained experimentally57 for wyes with
 496 Handbook 0/ Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition Merging 0/ Flow Streams and Division into Flow Streams 497

for a straight passage

2 2
r
~c~
== D.pst
?
= 1.2 + [Qst) _ (Qst) 1 + Qst/ Qc 2
pw~/2 Qc Qc (0.75 + 0.25Qst/Qd
Figure 7.9. Symmetrieally shaped wyes of the type F s = F st = F c ;57 (a) butt jointed branehing; (b)
threaded branehing at 8 = 0; (e) threaded branehing with dlD o "" 0.13. For standard crosses fabricated of malleable cast-iron at QstlQc > 0.7, the following quan-
tity is added to the values of Sc.st:

branches both butt jointed (Figure 7.9a) and threaded (Figure 7.9b and c). Two versions of
the latter were tested: complete screw threading of branches (Figure 7.9b, Ö = 0) and incom-
Ll.1;,,,~ 2.5 (~~ - 07)
pIete threading (Figure 7.9c, dlDo "" 0.13). In the case of butt jointing, the same work sug-
gests approximating formulas for ca1culating the coefficients (see the diagram indicated). 43. The resistance coefficients of cross es for flow division are determined approximately
41. The flow pattern in crosses is basically similar to that in wyes. just as for diverging wyes from Diagrams 7.18 through 7.20.
The resistance coefficients of double wyes of area F st = F c at stream junction (see Dia- For straight diverging double wyes (a = 90°) fabricated of sheet steel (with the parts flat
grams 7.31 through 7.35) can be determined approximately,z9,30 seamed), the values of the resistance coefficients obtained experimentally by Sosin and Nei-
For one of the side branches (for example, No. 1): mark40 for a turbulent flow are given in Diagrams 7.36 and 7.37.
44. When one side branch of the wye is c10se to the other, they influence each other. This
2 2 especially refers to converging wyes. The extent of this effect exerted by one branch on an-
Slc.s == ~~lS = 1 + (Qls Fc ) _ 8 (QlS) other branch depends on both the relative distance between them and the flow rate ratio QsfQc.
pwc/2 Qc Fis Qc
45. To date, there exist insufficient data on the correction factors for this interaction effect
for a11 types of wyes; in order to approximately determine this effect in the case of suction,
one can use the experimental results of Bezdetkina. 2
The values of the correction factor k2, expressed as the ratio of the resistance coefficient
Ss2 of the seeond side branch to the resistance coefficient Ssl of tbe first side branch, are
summarized in Table 7.8 for different relative flow rates QsfQc and different relativedistances
For the ot.her side branch (S2c.s) thc: subsciipts { al1d 2 are interchanged.
IdDc between adjacent branches.
For a straight passage: 46. At small relative flow rates (Q/Qc :::; 0.1) the mutual effect of the branches of the wye
is negligible (k 2 "" 1.0, see Table 7.8). Therefore, if there are many side branches in which
the ratios Q/Qc for each single branch are smalI, the mutual effeet can practically be ne-
glected and the values of the resistance coefficients for each of them can be assumed such as
for a single wye.

Table 7.8 Values of k 2

Qs/Qc
42. In order to determine the resistance coefficients of welded inflow (converging) crosses ::;0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
lel/D c
in cylindrical pipelines for steam, water, etc., with a = 90°, the following formulas are rec-
0-3 1.0 0.75 0.70 0.66
ommended: 29 ,30
4 1.0 0.83 0.77 0,74
for one of the side branches (for example, No. 1) 6 1.0 0.96 0.88 0.83
8 1.0 1.0 0.91 0.93

~PIs = 1.15 + (Qls

1.0 1.0
SIc.s ==
pw~12
F
c
Qc Fis
J 9 1.0 1.0

_ -
......_.,-_
..
 498 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition
Some additional data on the mutual effect of a wye will be given in Chapter 12 (in the
seetion "Mutual Effect of Local Fluid Resistances").
47. Gutlet and inlet headers (collectors) also fall into the wye-type sections (see Diagrams
7.39 through 7.44). The primary requirements of such collectors are uniform outflow and,
cOITespondingly, uniform inflow through all of their branches.
48. The degree of uniformity of the flow rate through the side branches of headers (collec-
tors) depends, as the theory shows,15-19 on a basic goveming criterion, that is, "the charac-
teristic of the header or collector" A1,2' which is a function of a number of parameters:
A 1,2 = <p (f,).l or Sbr, ScolV ,
where subscripts 1 and 2 refer, respectively, to supply and intake headers; f == Z/Fi
"" nsfslFin is the relative cross-sectional area ns of the side branches; fs is the area of the inlet
section of one side branch, m 2; Fin is the cross-sectional area of the header (initial for supply
2 distribution among the branches would be worse rather than better. *
and final for intake), m ; ).l = 1/--J(jslfa)2 + Sbr is the coefficient of discharge through a side
2 When A2 < 0.3, the intake header can be of variable cross section (to save metal), since it
branch; fa is the area of the outlet section of the final length of the side branch, m ; Sbr ==
~Pbr/(pw;/2) is the resistance coefficient of the whole branch, which includes the resistance
of all the adjacent sections, apparatus, or other devices; it is reduced to the velo city Ws in the
side branch
Sbr = Ss + Ssee + Sapp ,
where Ss == ~p/(pw;/2) is the resistance coefficient of the side branch alone; Ssee ==
~Psee/(pw;/2) is the resistance coefficient of all the sections of the side branch after flow
division (up to its merging) except for the resistance of an apparatus (device); Sapp ==
~Papp/(pw;/2) is the resistance coefficient of the apparatus (device) installed in the side
branch; Seoll == ~pcoll/(pwfn/2) is the resistance coefficient of the supplying (intake) part of
the collector (fieatler) reduced to the average velocityof tITe flOWWinin thc sectiorcFiIiofthe
header.
If there are no additional baITiers along the channels, it is assumed for practical ca1cula-
!ions that
L sections of both channels or with variable cross section of the outlet channel and constant
Seoll ~ O.5A~ ,
h.m
where L is the total length of the header, m; Dh.in = 4FinITIin is the hydraulic diameter of the
initial cross section of the supplying channel, m.
49. With constant cross section of the header and with other conditions being equal, the
degree of uniformity in t~ flow rate is the higher the greater is Fin (the condition of com-
pletely uniform supply is f -7 0).
In order to obtain uniform distribution of the flow rate without an increase in the cross-
sectional area of the header, it should converge in the direction of the flow (header of vari-
able cross section).
This can be done in different ways: a linear change of the cross section (see dash-dotted
lines in Diagrams 7.40 through 7.43), a stepwise change of the cross section (Figure 7.lOa)
or an appropriate shaping of one of the side walls (Figure 7 .lOc).
Merging of Flow Streams and Division into Flow Streams 499
Win
-WH
~Injn~n~' ·~~'n~n~nl
(al (c)
Figure 7.10. Headers of variable cross section: (a) stepwise change in the section with sharp branching;
(b) stepwise change in the section with smooth branching; Cc) with a shaped side wall.
When A2 > 0.3, the intake header should not have a variable cross section, since the flow
will not worsen uniformity of flow distribution among the branches.
50. The total resistance coefficient of isolated (single) headers of constant cross section
and of variable cross section with a linear change in the cross section along the flow is de-
50
termined from interpolation formulas based on experimental data and given in Diagrams
7.40 through 7.43.
51. In the majority of cases, the outlet and inlet headers operate jointly Goint headers). The
flow in them can have opposite directions (D-shaped collector, Diagram 7.42) or the same
direction (Z-shaped col1ector, Diagram 7.49). When the resistance coefficients of both (outlet
and inlet) headers are the same and Seol! < 1, a D-shaped collector provides a more uniform
distribution of flow than a Z-shaped one. At Seol! > 1, the situation is the reverse.
52. It is desirable that the outlet part of a Z-shaped header be of variable cross section
(contractiQn inthe flow direction) and the in take part of CQustant crosssectioQat A4 > 0.3.**
(See paragraph 49.) In some cases, a more uniform division of flow in a D-shaped header
may be achieved by contracting the cross section of the inta..~e header in the direction toward
its inlet and keeping the cross section of the outlet part constant.
53. The total resistance coefficient of joint D- and Z-shaped headers with constant cross
cross section of the inlet channel is determined from the interpolation formulas 50 given in
Diagrams 7.42 through 7.47.
54. In order to decrease the resistance of the side branches of the header, the transition
sections for them can be made as shown in Diagram 7.39. Their design is simple and their
resistance coefficients are minimal. These may be taken as standard.
*In the case of a dust-laden flow, the flow velocity along the length of the intake collector should
not be smaller than a certain limiting value 00-15 mJs) to prevent dust from settling. In this case, the
intake collector should be of variable cross section, though it entails worserung of flow distribution
among the branches.
**A4 is the characteristic of a Z-shaped collector.
 Merging of Flow Streams and Division into Flow Streams 501
500 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

7.2 DIA GRAMS OF THE RESISTANCE COEFFICIENTS

Converging wye of the type Fs + Fst > Fe; Fst = Fe;
Diagram 7.1
Cf. = 30031 ,43

, \. ............... ~ Values of ~c.s

r~/""/";.,j""./""j""j',.,lj""..)
~

0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

o -1.00 -1.00 -1.00 -1.00 -1.00 -1.00 -1.00
Figure 7.11. TI-shaped joint header with smooth branches of the supplying header. 0.1 0.21 -0.46 -0.57 -0.60 -0.62 -0.63 -0.63
0.2 3.02 0.37 -0.07 -0.20 -0.28 -0.30 -0.31
0.3 7.45 1.50 0.50 0.20 -0.01 -0.04 -0.05
Side branch
0.4 13.5 2.89 1.15 0.58 0.26 0.18 0.16

+(~~J2
The resistance of the side branches of a header decreases sharply if branching is smooth 0.5 21.2 4.58 1.83 0.97 0.47 0.35 0.32
(see Figures 7.lOb and 7.11). D.Ps =A[l
SC.s == pw~/2 0.6 30.4 6.55 2.60 1.37 0.64 0.46 0.41
Qe F s 0.7 41.3 8.81 3.40 1.77 0.76 0.52 0.46
55. The resistance coefficient of the ith branch Sis == ,6.Pis!(pWri-l)sI2) of the outlet (inlet) 0.8 53.8 11.5 4.32 2.14 0.84 0.53 0.45
box with transition sections made according to the scheme of Diagram 7.39 depends only on
the velocity ratio Wis!W(i-l)s'
-2 (1-~J2-
Qc 1.7~l(QsJ2]=AS'
F s Qc C.s
0.9
1.0
67.9 14.2
83.6 17.3
5.30
6.33
2.52
2.90
0.88
0.88
0.48
0.39
0.38
0.26
4
This coefficient is virtually independent of the Reynolds number, at least from Re = 10 , For S;.s' see the table and curves S;.s =f(Q/Qc) at
the aspect ratio of the cross section of the outlet box (within h/b = 0.5-1.0), and the area ratio different F/Fc (graph a); A f(F/Fc, = Q/Qe)' see
Table 7.1;
FsfFc ·
The resistance coefficient of the branch installed in the side of the outlet box is smaller r=
..",.-
f,ps
2
Se.s p~~~~~~~~
than the resistance coefficient of the branch installed above or below this box, since in the pw/2
-qcr-+-~~~~~~~~~A~~
latter case the flow successively turns twice through 90° in two mutually perpendicular direc-
.t6r-+-......j....-++i-...;.....-+=~~,I­
~,~~~-T-T~/~~--~
tions (see Diagram 7.39). fal
ZlI-l-44-+-l--l-if....l--l-.... ~1~4-~~--~4-~~~+-~~

00]2 f--+--+--

-~d f-+--l--+-i-~-+-l-+-1-~-I

~U~~~ __-1-~~__~~-L~~

Values of ~c.st

Qs
Qc 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
o o 0
0.1 +0.02 0.10 0.13 0.15 0.16 0.17 0.17
0.2 -0.34 +0.01 +0.13 0.19 0.24 0.27 0.29
0.3 -1.06 -0.27 -0.01 +0.12 0.22 0.30 0.35
0.4 -2.15 -0.75 -0.30 -0.06 0.17 0.29 0.36
0.5 -3.60 -1.43 -0.70 -0.35 0.00 0.21 0.32
see the table and curves SC.SI =f(Q/ Qc) at different 0.6 -5.40 -2.29 -1.25 -0.73 -0.20 +0.06 0.21
F/Fe (graph b); 0.7 -7.60 -3.35 -1.95 -1.20 -0.50 -0.15 +0.06
0.8 -10.2 -4.61 -2.74 -1.82 -0.90 -0.43 -0.15
S = D.PSI SC.SI 0.9 -13.0 --6.06 -3.70 -2.55 -1.40 -0.77 -0.42
sI - pw~/2 (1 - Q/Q/ 1.0 -16.4 -7.70 -4.80 -3.35 -1.90 -1.17 -0.75

*When a stream moves in the passage of a side branch past the ffee surface formed when QslQc =
0, some Ioss of energy always takes place, therefore, in real conditions at Qs/Qc = 0 the coefficient
~c.s is not equal to zero. Here and in subsequent tables ~c.s = 0 is obtained by calculation from the
formulas given.
 T

Merging of Flow Streams and Division into Flow Streams 503

502 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

Converging wye of the type F s + Fst > Fe; F st =Fe;

Converging wye of the type F s + Fst > Fe; Fst =F c; Diagram 7.2 a=60031 ,43 Diagram 7.3
a =45 031 ,43

Wst. Fst Wc, Fe

Values of '.s
Qs
..-....-~v=- Qs Fs/Fc
Qc 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Qc 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.6 .0.8 1.0

~r
0 -1.00 -1.00 -1.00 -1.00 -1.00 -1.00 -1.00 o -1.00 -1.00 -1.00 -1.00 -1.00 -1.00 -1.00
0.1 0.24 -0.45 -0.56 -0.59 -0.61 -0.62 -0.62 0.1 0.26 -0.42 -0.54 -D.58 -0.61 -0.62 -0.62
0.2 3.15 0.54 -0.02 -0.17 -0.26 -0.28 -0.29 0.2 3.35 0.55 0.03 -D.13 -0.23 -0.26 -0.26
0.3 8.00 1.64 0.60 0.30 0.08 0 -0.03 0.3 8.20 1.85 0.75 0.40 0.10 o -0.01
0.35 0.25 0.21 Side branch 0.4 14.7 3.50 1.55 0.92 0.45 0.35 0.28
0.4 14.0 3.15 1.30 0.72
Side branch 0.5 21.9 5.00 2.10 1.18 0.60 0.45 0.40 0.5 23.0 5.50 2.40 1.44 0.78 0.58 0.50
2 0.6 31.6 6.90 2.97 1.65 0.85 0.60 0.53 0.6 33.1 7.90 3.50 2.05 1.08 0.80 0.68

==~=A[l+(Qs~J
0.7 42.9 9.20 3.90 2.15 1.02 0.70 0.60 0.7 44.9 10.0 4.60 2.70 1.40 0.98 0.84
S 0.8 55.9 12.4 4.90 2.66 1.20 0.79 0.66 0.8 58.5 13.7 5.80 3.32 1.64 1.12 0.92

r
C.s pw~/2 Qe Fs 0.64
0.9 70.6 15.4 6.20 3.20 1.30 0.80 0.9 73.9 17.2 7.65 4.05 1.92 1.20 0.99
1.0 86.9 18.9 7.40 3.71 1.42 0.80 0.59 1.0 91.0 21.0 9.70 4.70 2.11 1.35 1.00
-21--[ Q,
Qc
-1.41--
F, [Q'J'l
Fs Qc
=AC

A =f(F/Fc, Q/Qc)' see Table 7.1;

for S:.s, see the tab1e and curves S:.s = f(Q/ Qc) for t;:.S' see the tab1e and curves Ses = f(Q/ Qc)
at different F/Fe (graph a); A = f(F /Fc, at different F/Fc (graph a);
Q/Qc)' see Table 7.1; Ss /),ps Se.s
/),ps Sc.s pw;/2 (QsP/QJi'
Ss pw;/2 [(Q/Qc)(F/Fs)]
2

Straight passage

Se == /!;Pst =1-(1- Qsf

.sl pw~/2 Qc
Values of ~c.st
Values of ~c.st see the tab1e and curves SC.SI = f(Q/Qc) at differ-
-141~(~n y
. Ti
~ s '''::~C)
ent F/Fc (graph b); Qs
n:-
~c O.l 0.2 0.3
Fs/Fc
0:4 0:6 0.8 1.0
Qs Fs/Fc
Qc 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0.1 0.2 0.3 S == /!;PSI SC.SI
see the table and curves SC.SI = f(Q/Qc) at dif- 0.1 0.09 0.14 0.16 0.17 0.17 0.18 0.18
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 pw;/2
ferent F/Fc (graph b); st (l-Q/Qi 0.2 0 0.16 0.23 0.26 0.29 0.31 0.32
0.1 0.05 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.17 0.17 0.17
0.3 -0.40 0.06 0.22 0.30 0.32 0.41 0.42
0.2 -0.20 0.17 0.22 0.27 0.27 0.29 0.31
0.4 -1.00 -0.16 0.11 0.24 0.37 0.44 0.48
0.3 -0.76 -0.13 0.08 0.20 0.28 0.32 0.40
0.5 -1.75 -0.50 -0.08 0.13 0.33 0.44 0.50
/!;PSI SC.SI 0.4 -1.56 -0.50 -0.12 0.08 0.26 0.36 0.41
SSI== 0.6 -2.80 -0.95 -0.35 -D.1O 0.25 0.40 0.48
pw;/2 (l-Q/Qi 0.5 -2.77 -1.00 -0.49 -0.13 0.16 0.30 0.40
0.7 -4.00 -1.55 -0.70 -D.30 0.08 0.28 0.42
0.6 -4.30 -1.70 -0.87 -0.45 -0.04 0.20 0.33
0.8 -5.44 -2.24 -1.17 -D.64 -0.11 0.16 0.32
0.7 -6.05 -2.60 -1.40 -0.85 -0.25 0.08 0.25
0.9 -7.20 -3.08 -1.70 -1.02 -0.38 -0.08 0.18
0.8 -8.10 -3.56 -2.10 -1.30 -0.55 -0.17 0.06
1.0 -9.00 -4.00 2.30 1.50 -0.68 -0.28 0
0.9 -10.00 -4.75 -2.80 -1.90 -0.88 -0.40 -0.18
1.0 -13.20 -6.10 -3.70 -2.55 -1.35 -0.77 -0.42
fCl,st

st I (bj
(J ~§r-+--r-+~~~~~~~+­
r---:::12~, h::'-')(:""07...... ~/4
~ ~ ~ ~=t.I
P.I
-a8 -t5 !--t--t--+'--l--"r-+--+"...-1-':;'~+-l
1"'- ~~"" ~ ::-
-t5
-t.~
i\ '" ." "-
~ 11'-
-2,9 f--+-+-+-~

-J,t

~p
f!~t:f.
\

-\
\.
\ o.z
" 't aJ
~2r-+--+--+~~+-~~-4-~4--l

-Wr-+--+--+--r-+--+-~~~~~-l

\
 M erging of Flow Streams and Division into Flow Streams 505
504 Handbook of Hydra~tlic Resistance, 4th Edition

Converging wye of the type Fs + Fst > Fe; Fst = Fe;

Converging wye of the type Fs + Fst =Fe; Diagram 7.5
CI. = ISO 31,43
= 90031,43
CI. Diagram 7.4
Side branch

Side branch

_ Ilps [(Qs FcJ2

~c.s = pw~/2 =A 1 + Qe F; - 2 ( 1- Qc
QsJ2] ,.
=A~c.s ' see the table and curves Sc.s = f(Q/Qc) for different F/Fc;

where ~c.s = f(Q/Qc)' see the table and graph a; A = f(F/Fc, ~ _ ;),ps Scs
Q/Qc)' see Table 7.1. s pw~/2 (QJclQcF,i
Straight passage

see the table and curves ~c.st =f(Q/ Qc) for different F/Fc;
Fs/Fc K st
Values of ~~:s 0-0.2 o
S!F$~"IZ1'...J 0.33 0.14
11 / (al
0.50 0.40
1/ L Qs
Q; 0.1 0.2 0.3
Fs/Fc
0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
I a~1 /
0 -1.00 -1.00 -1.00 -1.00 -1.00 -1.00 -1.00 Values of ~.s (in numerator) and Sc.st (in denominator)
f / I -0.37 -0.51 -0.54 -0.59 -0.60 -0.61
0.1 0.40
I V 0.5 / l7 0.2 3.80 0.72 0.17 -0.03 -0.17 -0.22 -0.30 Qs/Qc

/ (j / lL 0.3 9.20 2.27 1.00 0.58 0.27 0.15 -0.11 Fs/Fc 0 0.03 0.05 0.10 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 1.0
0.55 0.44
J 1/ J 11..t V, 0.4
0.5
16.3
25.2
4.30
6.75
2.06
3.23
1.30
2.06
0.75
1.20 0.89 0.77 0.06
-1.12
-0-
-0.70 -0.20 1.84 9.92 23.0 41.0 64.3
I I ./ t1j? . . . . V ~ 0.6 36.7 9.70 4.70 2.98 1.68 1.25 1.04 0.06 0.04 -0.13 -0.95 -2.50 --4.60 -7.50
/' ~
-1.22 -1.00 -0.72 0.01 2.80 7.17 13.1 20.6 29.7
1/ 1/ V/ ",;::? 0.7 42.9 13.0 6.30 3.90 2.20 1.60 1.30 0.10
ü.öl 0.10 0.12 0.02 -0.36 -1.20 -2.50 --4.10 -6.12
/k:%; ~ r;/.f=t./J 0.8 64.9 16.9 7.92 4.92 2.70 1.92 1.56
82.0 21.2 9.70 6.10 3.20 2.25 1.80 -1.50 -1.40 -1.22 -0.84 0.02 1.20 2.55 4.20 6.12 8.20 10.7
.d ~ ~ aJ 11.1 l2S tM a7 tZSQs/qc 0.9
1.0 101.0 26.0 11.90 7.25 3.80 2.57 2.00
0.20
0.06 0.15 0.20 0.22 0.05 -0.28 -0.89 -1.66 -2.63 -3.84 -5.22
-2.00 -1.80 -1.80 -1.40 -0.67 -0.16 0.42 1.05 1.67 2.30 2.95 4.20
0.33 ·0.40- OAl 0.42 0.47 0.42 0.24 -0.08 -0.52 -1.25 -1.80 -2.60 --4.66
o 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 -3.00 -2.80 -2.80 -2.24 -1.56 -1.00 -0.40 0.02 0.40 0.66 0.93 1.14
0.50
1.40 1.40 1.40 1.24 1.24 1.01 0.78 -0.43 -0.10 ·-0.82 -1.08 -2.46
o 0.16 0.27 0.38 0.46 0.53 0.57 0.59 0.60 0.59 0.55
Sc.st

Fs/Fc :::.0.06
Straight passage FufFe = 0.94

( = IlPst "'" 1 55 Qs
.e.st - pw~/2 . Qc 7.2
1.1-

-(~:r 5.4
4.1
see the table and curve ~c.st = f(Q/Qc)' ~p
which is virtually correct for all values of

'C~:lllH ttttff i I i I ! I j'j

F /Fc (graph b);
J.t

~e.st

Q tlt (J.2 o.J a~ a:; 0.6 a7 0.8 tl9 Qs/Qc

d
-U
-U~~~~~L-~~~~~
 Merging oi Flow Streams and Division into Flow Streams 507
506 Handbook oi Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

Converging wye of the type Fs + Fst = Fe;

Converging wye of the type Fs + Fst =Fe; a = 45°31,43 Diagram 7.7
a =30° 31,43 Diagram 7.6

Side branch

see the table and curves Se.s = .f{Q/Qe) for different F/Fe;
see the table and curves SC.SI = .f{Q/ Qc) for different F/ Fe;
(_ ~s Sc.,
_s pW 5/2 (Ql''/ QeF} (_ ~, Ses
Straight passage -, pw~12 (Ql',/QeF,)2

Straight passage

see the table and curves Se.st = .f{Q/Qe) for different F/Fe;

KSI see the table and curves SC_SI =.f{Q/Qe) for different F/Fe ;
0-0.2 0.05
Sc.SI K SI
0.33 0.14
0.50 0040 0.10 0.05 S- I1PsI ._ Sc.st
0.20 0.14 51 pw;r/2 (1- Q/Qe)2 (F,/Fi
0.33 0.14
Values of ~.s (in numerator) and ~.st (in denominator) 0.50 0.30

QsIQe Values of ~.s (in numerator) and Sc.st (in denominator)

F,IFe 0 0.03 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.3004 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 1.0
QsIQc
-1.13 -0.07 -0.30 1.82 JQ:l. 23.3 41.5 65.2
0.06 -0- FsIFc 0 0.03 0.05 0.10 0.2 0.3 004 0.5
0.06 0.04 -0.10 -0.81 -2.10 -4.07 -6.60 0.6 0.7 0.8 1.0
-1.22 -1.00 -0.76 0.02 2.88 7.34 BA 21.1 2904 1.12 -0.70 -0.20 1.82 10.3 23.8 4204 64.3
0.10 0.06
0.01 0.10 0.08 0.04 -0.33 -0.71 -2.14 -3.60 5040 ü.öO 0.05 0.05 -0.05 -0.59 -1.65 -3.21 -5.13
-1.50 -1.35 -1.22 -0.84 0.05 1.40 2.70 4046 6048 8.70 11.4 17.3 -1.22 -1.00 -0.78 0.06 3.00 7.64 13.9 22.0 31.9
0.20 0.10
0.06 0.10 0.13 0.16 0.06 -0.24 -0.73 -1.40 -2.30 -3.34 -3.59 -8.64 0.06 0.10 0.12 0.11 -0.15 -0.71 -1.55 -2.71 -3.73
':'2.00 --1.80 -1.70 -·1040 -0.72 ~12 -0;52 -HO -1.89 --2,56 -~30 - 4,.g0 -1.50 -1040 -1.25 -0.85 0.12 1.42 3.00 4.86 7.05
0.33 0.20 21Q... 12.4
0042 0045 0.48 0.15 0.52 0.32 0.07 -0.32 -0.82 -1.47 -2.19 -4.00 D.2O 0.25 0.30 0.30- 0.26 0.04 "-0.33 -0.86 -1.52 -2.40 -3.42
-3.00 -2.80 -2.60 -2.24 -1.44 -0.91 -0.36 0.14 0.56 0.84 1.18 1.53 -2.00 -1.82 -1.69 -1.38 -0.66 -0.10 0.70 1048 2.24 3.10 3.95 5.76
0.50 0.33
1.40 1.40 1.40 1.36 1.26 1.09 0.86 0.53 ü.i5 -0.52 -0.82 -2.07 ü.37 0042 0.45 0.48 0.50 0.40 0.20 -0.12 -0.50 -1.01 -1.60 -3.10
-3.00 -2.80 -2.60 2.24 -1.50 -0.85 -0.24 -0.30 0.79 1.26 1.60 2.18
0.50
T30 1.30 1.30 1.27 1.20 1.10 0.90 0.61 0.22 0.20 0.68 1.52
FsfFc =0.06
FstIFc=O.94 F$IFc =0.06
FstIFc =O.94

7.2
0.;
5.1
?ß
4.tJ
508 Handbook 01 Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition Merging 01 Flow Streams and Division into Flow Streams 509

Converging wye of the type Fs + Fst =Fe; Converging wye of the type Fs + Fst = Fe;
a =60° 31,43 Diagram 7.8 a=90031 ,43 Diagram 7.9

Side branch Side branch

see the table and curves ~e.s =j(Q/Qe) for different F/Fe; see the table and curves ~e.s = f(Q/QJ for different F/Fe;
~ _ t,ps Ses ~ _ t,ps Ses
s = pw~/2 (Q7cl QJi s pw~/2 (Q7c1QeF/

Straight passage

Fs/Fe Kst
0.06 0
0.10 0
see the table and curves ~.st =j(Q/Qe) for different F/Fe; 0.20 0.10 see the table and curves ~c.st = j(Q/ QJ for different F,/Fe;
0.33 0.20
Fs/Fe K st 0.50 0.25
0-0.2 o o
0.33 o 0.10
0.50 0.10 0.25 Values of t;c.s (in numerator) and Sc.st (in denominator)

Qs/Qe
Values of ~.s (in numerator) and Sc.st (in denominator)
Fs/Fe 0 0.03 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 1.0
Qs/Qe 1.12 -0.72 -0.20 2.06 112 25.0 46.2 72.5
0.06
0.02 0.05 0.08 -0.08
Fs/Fe 0 0.03 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 1.0
-1.12 2.00 10.6 24.5 43.5 68.0 0.10
-1.22 -1.00 -0.75 0.20 3.58 ~ ~ 25.5 36.7
-0.72 -0.20
0.06 0.04 0.08 0.10 0.20
0.00 0.05 0.05 -0.03 -0.32 -1.10 -2.03 -3.42
-1.40 -1.25 -1.10 -0.68 4.20 6.70
-1.22 -1.00 -0.68 0.10 3.l8 8.ül 14.6 23.0 33.1 0.20 0.50 ~ 9.70 1ll 17.0
0.10
o:m 0.06 0.09 0.10 -0.03 -0.38 -0.96 -1.75 -2.75
0.08
-1.80
0.12
-1.78
0.18
-1.50
0.25
-1.20
0.34
-0.45
0.32
0.56 1.59 2.70 4.05 5.42 6.93 10.4
-1.50 -1.25 -1.19 -0.83 0.20 1.52 3.30 5.40 7.80 10.5 13.7 0.33
0.20 0:45 0.50 0.52 0.52 0.66 0.64 0.62 0.58
0.60 0.10 0.14 0.19 0.20 0.09 -0.14 -0.50 ·-0.95 -l,50 -220
-2.75 -2.55 -2.35 -2.35 -l.f5 -0.35 0.42 1.25 2.05 2.80 3.ü-S- 5.25
2.73 3.70 4.70 6.60 0.50
0.33
-2.00 -1.81 -1.69 -1.37 -0.67 0.09 0.91 ~ 1.00 1.04 1.06 1.06 1.25 1.28 1.22 UD 0.88 0.70
0.33 0.39 0.41 0.45 0.49 0.45 0.34 0.16 -0.10 -0.47 -0.85 -1.90
-3.00 -2.80 -2.60 -2.13 -0.68 -0.68 -0.02 0.60 1.18 1.72 2.22 3.l0
0.50
T.25 1.25 1.25 1.23 1.07 1.07 0.90 0.75 0.48 0.22 -0.05 -0.78 F&lFc =O.06
FsI,Fst == 0.94
FsfFc =0.06
F stIFc =O.94
!;c.s:!;c..st

IJ r4f:.~~~YLL-LL1
·128 rn.1f-;''''b<'~~-=-:I--+--!-
-t.I "'--"'-..J...-jLJ..---L---L---J_.l....-...l.-_.....:.!::o.!!.J
 lVIerging 0/ Flow Streams and Division into Flow Streams 511
510 Handbook 0/ Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

Threaded converging wye made of mal1eable iron of the type Diagram 7.10
Fs + Fst > Fe; Fst =Fe; CI. =90° 13
Side branch

C == /).Ps ~
0
0 0
0'1 ~
00
_c.s PW~/2 M >n 0
ci ci ci N
'1
see the table and curves Sc.s == j(Q/Qc) for different F/Fc; ~
11
r =
'os-
/).Ps
2
e
M
pW/2
ci
Straight passage
z
k:'
~
C'l ~ 0 >n
~ 0
"<::
l/")
_ /).PSI k." '1 '+ ci N
C'l
k.~

SC.SI=~/ r-: ~
ci
PW c 2 E ~
~
<:: ~
see the table and curves SC.SI = .f(Q/Q); bll ~
'Ö
.9 ~ ....
Cl 'Ö <8
S = /).PSI SC.SI .... ,J:l
SI - PW~/2 (1 - Q/Qi <8 ..c
cd
..c s:; C'I [
C'I
~
0...
~
bll
:3 '1 '1
'-0 C'l
ci 0
+
....bll0
Values of C;c.s "-< N
0
0 cl
QsIQc cl 11
'"<"
Cll

~
0.9 1.0 "-
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.8 cl
FsIFc 11
86.9 110 136 ~
-0.50 2.97 9.90 19.7 32.4 48.8 66.5 C'l
'i;j
0.09 3.18
11 G
4.23 7.30 11.4 15.6 20.3 25.8 ci >...P
'"
-0.53 0.53 2.14 N~
0.19
0.27 -0.69 0 1.11 2.18 3.76 5.90 8.38 11.3 14.6 18.4 J
.,'"
Z
~
C'l r- C'l
C'l
0
M
~
t:;
cl
'"
'-0 'i;j

0.35 -0.65 -0.09 0.59 1.31 2.24

1.59
3.52
2.66
5.20
4.00
7.28
5.73
9.23
7.40
12.2
6.60
t:;
::>
G
>...P ~
Cll
'1 '1 0
+
0 13 J
., Cll
1
0.44 -0.80 -0.27 0.26 0.84 0
>n ()

2.92 4.00 5.36 6.00 ~ '.", -S 0

0.53 1.15 1.89
0.55 -0.88 -0.48 0 -E 9 "0

~I"'~
11 11
0.50 0.83 1.13 1.47 1.86 2.30 <1) ccd
I~
-0.24 0.10
1.0 -0.65 -0.40 ö 11
[ ., ~N;
'"'"'
~I"'~
~ 1C'l
",'c, i@cd :a.s
~ B.~ ,~ 0... ill
- . a.
11 flc .:cco ., 111
Values of Sc.st .;: ..@
111 S
., 111 0g G
>...P -s., J
~
., J -s J ~
M
r- 0
~ M ~ 0"l'
ci N v-i er.> ~
For all FsIFc 0.70 0.64 0.60 0.65 0.75 0.85 0.92 0.96 0.99 1.00
/\
"0
üi
<Ll
~ ;:::
0 '1 +
.;: ci
+ 11

~
~
.,
0...
-.:::,
.,
0

l . f~~l
~t~
-s ci
d., z

~~
C'l 0 0 l/") r-
~ 0 l"'i
ci .t ~ l/")
M
8-
"fji
cS
"0 .,
;>
80...
E ~
K
tlS .e~
~.~
"" ~t ~
~.,
j j I
.... ..,
~
Q

~i~ t.:.."'j~
"
:>.
~ '{. "'l
0- 61 '-0 ~
..
bll M
c "- ci 0 0
"§
., 4 ~ ~ ""'
0 d i'
;>
'"
<1)

u
c
0 .a
~
....
 ,....
0,
0 Diagram 7.11 t-,)
Converging wye of improved shape of the type Fs + Fst> Fe; Fst =Fe;66 a =45
Va lues of Sc.st

No. 1 (rilDs = 0.1) No. 2 (rilD s = 0.2) No. 3 (8' = 80 )

QslQc
FslFc
0.34 1.0 1.0 0.122 0.34
1.22
0.10 0.14 0.14 0.10 0.10
0.1 +0.10
0.00 0.19 0.18 0.36 0.09
0.3 -0.50
-3.20 0.00 0.19 0.18 2.20 0.40
0.6
-9.70 -2.90 -0.58 -0.61 -7.10 -1.95
1.0

W:&

-o.z

-0.11 ~
~

-Q.d
~
Cl
Cl

-OJJ ~
""
Converging wye of improved shape of the type f's + FSI> Fe; FSI =Fe;66 a =60060 Diagram 7.12 ~
>::l..
i3
~
(:).
Side branch >;:J
<I:>
c.,
NO.2
_ t:,p C::;.
Se.s = pW 2/2 B
e ~
<"l
see the table and the curves Se.s = !CQ/Qc) of graph a for different F /Fe; _<I:>

~
Ss=~
,Wst;r;. we,rc Se.s ;::,..

"~8.--~~~
~o'
No.3
pw;12 (Q/QGF / Fs)2
--:?: J'I
/i7 ~

~
Values of Sc.s <I:>
0,<
'"S·
QslQe No. 1 (rilD s =O.I) No. 2 (rilD s =0.2) No. 3 (8' = 80 ) 0,<

FslFe ~

0.34 1.0 1.0 0.122 0.34 ~

~

~2i
0.1 0.00 -0.43 -0.60 -0.60 -0.50 -0.56
0.3 5.s0 +0.42 -0.14 -0.16 +1.40 0.00
0.6 21.9 2.30 +0.30 +0.26 7.50 0.87 c.,
\:l
1.0 60.0 6.18 0.53 0.50 21.1 2.00
~
t:J
~'
1:;'
Straight passage
o'
~
_ t:,p
Sc.st=-Z12
S·
pWc C3'
see the (able and the curves Se.sl = !(Q/Qc) of graph b for different F/Fe; ~
~
S=~=~
sI pw;(2 (l - Q/Qi ~
\:l
2i
c.,

-2~'----~--~----~ ____L -__-J

Values of Sc.st

QslQe No. 1 (rilDs=O.l) No. 2 (rilD s = 0.2) NO.3 (8' = 80 )

1.0 0.12 0.34

0.1 +0.10 0.15 0.13 0.13 0.15 0.15
0.3 -0.10 +0.19 0.23 0.23 0.00 0.25
0.6 -lA5 -0.26 +0.14 +0.13 -0.78 0.00 u.
,....
1.0 -6.14 -1.65 0.30 0.35 3.10 0.75 w
 Ot
~
Converging wye of improved shape of the type Fs + FsI > Fe; Fst = F c;66 CI. = 60° 60 Diagram 7.12 .j:o.

Converging wye of improved shape of the type F s + Fst> Fe; F st =F c ?8 CI. =90° Diagram 7.13

r; l/;(,F,. __ _
w"Fc
Side branch
No.' -~(l.l-..:-~

Nd
JlS''7!-r(l
r,
FsaD.Zllt 0 ,,'
1 Se.s
l>.p
== pw~12
see the table and the curves Se.s = f(Q/Qc) of graph a for different F/Fe;
~
;::::
WSJf:'s &
~ ~'4~F'\if ;,. Ss==~
pW~/2
Se.s
(l-Q/Qei
~
<:::>
<:::>

"'"
~
\:l..
Ws,fs
Z
~
Values of Sc.s (C).
~
(1l
Q.jQe No. 1 (ri/Ds =O.I) No. 2 (ri/D. = 0.2) No. 3 (0' = 8°) t.,
c::;.
Fe ~
;::::
r,
1.22 0.34 1.0 1.0 0.122 0.34 SI:>
-l::..
0.1 -0.50 -0.36 -0.60 -0.64 -0.50 -0.43 ~

~
0.3 +4.60 +0.54 -0.10 -0.15 +3.24 +0.49
0.6 23.6 2.62 +0.43 +0.31 19.2 2.20
1.0 7.11 0.87 0.71 62.0 5.38
5"
;::::

cc..j

~
(1l

~s Straight passage ~
S·
6 SC.SI == l>.f.·, see the table and the curves
pwe /2
Oe)

~
~ <:::>
:t
* Sc .• = f(Q/Qc) of graph b for different F/Fe ;
~
(1l
2. \::l
21
t.,
S= l>.p_ Sc.st \::l
o sI - P\1~/2 - (1 _ Q/Qe)2 ;::::
\:l..
t1
~.
-aE C::;'
5'
;::::
Values oi' ~c.st S·
;S
Q.,/Qe ~
No. 2 (ri/Ds = 0.2) <:::>
:t
~
"'l
(1l
\::l
0.1 21
0.08 t.,

0.3 0.29 0.21

0.6 0.36 0.25

~c.st

01
0.5 D..6 /(3 Ne I-'
0.
 516 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition M erging of Flow Streams and Division into Flow Streams 517

Converging smooth wye (rlb s = 1.0) of the type F s + F st ;:::: F c

Diagram 7.14
of rectangular cross section; Cf, = 90° 44,49

Side branch

- t1ps
Se.s=-z-=ao -Q +b j
(QsJ2 Qs +cl
-
pw/2 e Qc
see the table and graph a; for ao, b l , and CI' see the table

S- t.P e Se.s
s = pw;12 (Q,F/QJs)2 ~
I~
'i'
N
Values of~.s 0
0
+
Fs Fs Qs/Qe ~ I~
r--: ~
Fs! Fc 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 <-~

~
0.9
Itt;
0.25 (0.25) -0.50 0 0.50 1.20 2.20 3.70 5.80 8.40 11.40 V
0.33 (0.25) -1.20 -0.40 0.40 1.60 3.00 4.80 6.80 8.90 11.00 Q 11
~"
0.50 (0.50) -0.50 -0.20 o 0.25 0.45 0.70 1.00 1.50 2.00
0.67 (0.50) -1.00 -0.60 -0.20 0.10 0.30 0.60 1.00 1.45 2.00 j
1.00 (0.50) -2.15 -1.45 -0.95 -0.50 0 0.40 0.80 1.30 1.90 ~
1.00 (1.00) -0.60 -0.30 -0.10 -0.04 0.13 0.21 0.29 0.36 0.42 c:i
1.33 (1.00) -1.20 -0.80 -0.40 -0.20 0 0.16 0.24 0.32 0.38 M
+ M
0 I~
2.00 (1.00) -2.10 -1.40 -0.90 -0.50 -0.20 0 0.20 0.25 0.30 0 + N
Vi I <0" +
ci
:s~
00
I dw'-'l
1\1 I~
""t;;I",," 0 11 ,--,
I b
Straight passage 11
~"
ci'"
I~ I
-:S
11 '. "',......,
- t.PS!
Se.sl=~=a2 (Qsf Qs +C2 '§; " '-.. 00
(] +b2Q IM
~"';:"
M

o'"I d
pw/_ -e c ..t:: I + ci
'.) 0.. N N I
r:: 111 """;(,)"'l
see the table and graph b; für a2' b2, and c2' see the table I~
] ;J
I'"0..
11

SSI=
t.PSI Se.s!
0)
"0
>J' <-
I~
M
i:i3
pw~!2 /1.- Q/Qi(F/Fsl K
<.)
'>t.
",~~'-. I~
0\
Values of ~c.st
(;;';,Ij

~ 11
'" ~~
Fst Fs Qs/Qe ~"I",,"" """"I",,t;;"
'---..:-...../
N,.....------...
Fe Fc 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
~ ~Icl,
~

cilcl

T
J
0.75 (0.25) 0.30 0.30 0.20 -0.10 -0.45 -0.92 -1.45 -2.00 -2.60 11
.... 11 oo -
ci I
1.00 (0.50) 0.17 0.16 0.10 0 -0.08 -0.18 -0.27 -0.37 -0.46 ö
IC c:t I + ~
Vi ~~M~
0.75 (0.50) 0.27 0.35 0.32 0.25 0.12 -0.03 -0.23 -0.42 -0.58 '"i::f 0 11

~I ~;:
0 VI 11
0.50 (0.50) 1.15 1.10 0.90 0.65 0.35 0 -0.40 -0.80 -1.30 ""§ ~I",," I~I~ p
~Ntj
1.00 (1.00) 0.18 0.24 0.27 0.26 0.23 0.18 0.10 0 -0.12
ß"
11 '"
~
. <l
0..
0.75 (1.00) 0.75 0.36 0.38 0.35 0.27 0.18 0.05 -0.08 -0.22 r:: I~
dlcl
r-
111
0.50 (1.00) 0.80 0.87 0.80 0.68 0.55 0.40 0.25 0.08 -0.10 0
'.)
'---..:-...../
cd: I~I~ J
"0 11
I 1 .....
~ ""t;;I",," '" ,...., +
I~
F St =075'
Fs
~
§
<'I
~
<o~ ~~ 11
Fe ., F;= 0.25 FslFs! FslFe FslFe ao bl Cl a2 b2 C2
0 """I,,,,"" -:S 0 I~ cd?
r::
f""'cilcl
' -"'
.~
0.25 1.00 0.25 19.82 -5.27 -0.03 -4.38 0.65 0.32 <.;...
0 ~Icl, 0) 'i'
1
>J'
0.33 0.75 0.25 11.43 3.97 -1.76 -0.45 -0.39 0.22 Ol)
0 '---..:-...../
;
<.)
>. 11

'"i/'"i
11
0.50 1.00 0.50 1.96 1.04 -0.58 -1.70 0.57 0.25 ~ ",I~
11 <0 <0

~)",~~.....
~
+
c..
~I"'i
0.57 0.75 1.96 -1.05 -2.68 0.42
Ol) 1
0.50 1.64 1.23 r:: ~
M ('1
1.00 0.50 0.50 -0.63 5.55 -2.65 -1.27 0.88 0.11 '§ ,;:"1;:"/ fo ..... 0 <j
11I o 0 C-
1.00 1.00 1.00 -1.55 2.88 -0.90 0.16 -1.30 0.84
<.)
>
r:: 11 "g 11 11I
1.33 0.75 1.00 -2.64 4.54 -1.60 -2.68 -0.42 1.23 U
0 (j~ CI) Vi 7 J
-a~
2.00 0.50 1.00 -4.46 -7.41 -2.77
-(}ß
 Ul
Converging wye of normalized construction?l ()( = 30° Diagram 7.15 '"'"
00

Values of Ss (in numerator) and /;st (in denominator)

fstav = FstlFe = 1.0 fst.av = 0.8 fst.av = 0.63 fst.av =0.5

0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.05 0.6 0.5 > 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4
-0.21 -1.02 -3.65 -0.05 -0.45 -1.49 -4.76
0.80
0.33 0.35 0.35 0.10 0.27 0.33 0.32
0.32 -0.04 -1.29 -7.40 0.38 0.21 -0.27 -1.83 -9.46 0.38 0.28 0.04 -0.58 -2.53
0.63
0.26 0.31 0.30 0.28 -0.03 0.21 0.30 0.31 0.28 -0.86 -0.14 0.16 0.30 0.30
0.79 0.63 0.02 -2.97 0.80 0.74 0.51 -0.25 -3.94 0.79 0.76 0.65 0.35 -0.61 0.74 0.68 0.53 0.15
0.50 0.31
0.13 0.26 0.28 0.27 -0.24 0.12 0.25 0.28 0.27 -1.21 -0.28 0.08 0.25 0.29 -l.20 -0.32 0.12
-21.44
0.40
1.03 0.95
- - -- 0.65 -0.88 023 1.02 0.99 0.89 0.50 -1.37 0.98 0.94 0.79 0.29 0.96 0.94 0.86 0.66
-0.08 0.17 0.24 0.25 . -0.55 -0.01 . ü.i8 0.24 0.25 -0.47 -0.04 0.18 0.26 -1.48 -0.47 0 0.26

-13.05
0.32
1.07 1.04 0.87 0.08 -10.19
0.21 0.21
1.05 1.04 0.98 0.78 -0.19
022
1.01 0.99 0.91 0.64 ~
;::s
-0.47 0.04 ü.i8 -1.02 -0.20 0.08 0.19 0.22 . -0.71 -0.17 0.09 0.21
~
C)
1.07 1.04 0.94 0.52 -432 1.01 0.98 0.85 0.35 -5.58 0.95 0.95 0.75 C)
0.25
-1.05 -0.21 0.06 0Ts" ü.18 -0.51 -0.07 0.10 o:T7 0.19 -0.35 -0.35 0.12 """
~
0.20
1.09 0.99 0.71 -1.75 : 1.00 0.90 0.58 -2.42 ~
~
-0.60 -0.11 0.07 0.14 -0.26 -0.01 0.10 0.19
~
1.12 0.88 -0.51 -14.68 1.111.00 0.75 -0.86
0.16 ~
-0.39 -0.06 0.06 0.09 -0.55 -0.15 0.01 0.09 >;:J
n:.
v,
1.38 1.12 0.25 -5.92 1.21 0.97 0.01 C;:;.
0.125 S
-0.95 -0.32 -0.07 0 -0.39 -0.12 0.01 ;::s
(J

~ 0.66 -2.33 .n:.

0.10 ~
-0.75 -0.28 -0.15 S
~
S·
;::s

Converging wye of normalized construction?l ()( =45° Diagram 7.16 ~

o~
S·
00
. . - F st
....1!st. F st Slde branch wlth ist = Fe ~ 0.5 ; ~
::.J
il~s =x,._2l- 0.3, where for xs' see Diagram 7.15.
=pw/2 C)
Sc.s ::t
Xs

2- ~
~
. h't passage wH
S trmg F -(QstJ
. h c.SVst &<05
- Qe Ist - . ~
~

ll.~t
;::s
~
\:J
~.
=::.1),
c;:;.
(3'
;::s

I"" = b.Pst 0.4 - O. 13x-O.5 S·

':>c.st --;., -2- = st (3'
pw/2 !si ~
C)
::t

~
where for X st and 1:, see Diagram 7.15;

Ss =. ilps Sc.s ~

pw~/2 (QsF/QcF,l ~

b.Pst Sc.S!
Sst= pw;(2 (I-Q/Qi(F/Fs i

Ul
......
\Cl
 (l.
Converging wye of norrnalized construction;21 Cl. =45° Diagram 7.16 N
o

Values of t;,s (in numerator) and Sst (in denominator)

jst.av = Fstl Fe = 1.0 fst.av = 0.8 .fst.av= 0.63 fst.av =0.5

0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.05 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4
0.23 -0.58 -3.21 0.39 -0.01 -1.05 -4.32
0.8
0.33 0.35 0.32 0.29 0.39 0.41 0.38
0.45 0.09 -1.16 -7.27 0.51 0.34 -0.14 -1.70 -9.33 0.51 0.41 0.17 -0.45 -2.40
0.63
0.26 03T 0.30 0.28 0.16 0.33 0.38 0.37 0.33 -0.12 0.28 0.43 0.48 0.44
0.53 0.37 -0.24 -3.23 0.54 0.48 0.25 -0.51 -4.20 0.53 0.50 0.39 0.09 -0.87 0.48 0.42 0.27 -0.11
0.50
0.l3 0.26 0.28 0.27 -0.05 0.24 0.33 0.34 0.32 -0.47 0.14 0.35 0.43 0.43 -0.14 0.27 0.50 0.57
0.40 0.59 2:2!. 9. 21 -1.32 -21.88 0.58 0.55 0.45 0.06 -1.81 0.54 0.50 0.35 -0.15 0.52 0.50 0.42 0.22
-0.08 0.17 0.24 0.25 0.23 -0.36 D.Tl 0.26 0.30 0.30 -0.05 0.23 0.36 0.40 -0.42 ü.T2 0.38 0.52
-13.45
0.32 0.67 0.64 0.47 -0.32 -10.59 0.65 0.64 0.58 0.38 -0.59 0.25 0.61 0.59 0.51 0.24
-0.41 0.04 0.18 0.21 0.21 -0.83 -0.08 0.16 0.25 0.27 -0.29 0.10 0.27 0.35 ~
;:::

0.25 0.83 0.80 0.70 0.28 -4.56 0.77 0.74 0.61 0.11 -5.82 0.71 0.66 2:2!. ~
C)
-1.05 -0.21 0.06 0.15 0.18 -0.39 0.01 0.16 0.22 0.23 -0.08 0.14 0.26 C)
~

0.20
1.01 0.91 0.63 -1.87 0.92 0.82 0.50 -2.50 ~
-0.60 -0.11 0.08 0.14 -0.18 0.05 ü.i5 0.19 ~
0.16
1.17 0.93 -0.46 -14.63
=0.39 -0.06 0.06 0.09
1.16 1.05 0.80
-0.47 -0.09 0.06
-0.81
0.13
~
E:..
(:)'
1.52 1.26 0.39 -5.78 1.35 1.11 0.15 >;;;
0.125
-0.95 -0.32 -0.07 0.00 -0.33 -0.07 0.05
''""
1:;'
1.56 0.87 -2.12 S'
0.10 ;:::
-0.75 -0.28 -0.15
.'""
;!':
;:;-.

~
;:::,'
5'
;:::

....

~
Converging wye of industrial construction;21 Cl. =45° Diagram 7.17
'"
~
F S'
Side branch with 1st = ;: ~ 0.5 Oq

~
r = /:;,Ps 0.1
'oe.s--2-=xs ---0.3,
~
~
pw/2 Xs
2?
0.8-cs ~
where Xs = cJ,I(5 f,f ; Y ; Si
0.86cs + 0.2 '"~
;:::
~

cs = (-
W)2 -
S
Ist=
(Q.,
-Q F
F e ]2 Fst ,
F'
-
fS=Ji;
Fs b
Wc e st e ~:
~,
2- C)
;:::
S . 11t passage
, trmg . h Csfst
Wlt - = (Qst]
Q fs 0 .5
=-::;
e Ist S'
B'
~
C)
~
0.12 - csls t . /:;,Pst 0.4- 0.13x~·5 't= x st -0.02 i:?
Se.st == pw~/2 X st - csfst(2].)\jf;
~
3· - - ;

'V = 0.02 -I- cslst '

.fs~ xst +0.11
'"
/:;,Ps ~, S = /:;,PSl ~e.st
Ss == pH~/2 (Q,F/QeFi' st - pw;l2 (1- Q/Qe)2 (F/Fsi

(ll
N
.......
 Merging 0/ Flow Streams and Division into Flow Streams 523
522 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

Diverging wye of the type Fs + Fst > Fe; Fst = Fe;

Diagram 7.18
a=0-90°. Side branching28
1. 0 < a< 60° and a = 90° at hjhc :::; 2/3:

°001 V')C'I
00 I'1ps
Sc.s=-2-=A
pw/2
,[ (
1 + -- wsJ
Wc
2 Ws ]
-2--cos a =A Sc.s'
Wc
"

V"l V"l ,..... V') V"l100

o 0 ""1° 00
00 "" "" where for A', see 16 and Figure 7.1. At a = 90°, A' is taken
11
to be 1.0
2. a = 90° and hjh c = 1.0 (up to wjwc '" 2.):

r-
o ;JI~
09
hs is the height of the cross section of the side
branch; hc is the height of the cross section _ I'1ps Y' [ (
Sc.s=-?-=':oc.s 1 +0.3 --
2 ] wsJ ,
&51~
c-;i 0 2l1~
of the common straight channel pw~12 Wc
-IV')
""o j 0
<'I""
00
where for S~.s' see the table and curves S~.s = f(wjw c)
~I~ ßI~
'90 0 0
V')
""Ir-
00
<'I at different ce

~~3r---~--~-r~rTTTr---TT,TWnI
"" V"l
~ 0 '"00-
"'1° M~--~~--~~I-HH+--~/~~
11
~ \0
~I~ 00
~I:!: Oll.{')
",q J2~---+--+-~~I~~~~/~~11H
I~ 0 09
2.8~--+-~~~~~~/~+i+lfIH
00

r-
o &~--4--+-4~+++M,/~~/~II~Ir-;
2.9 !---+---4--+-+-+ 'R( - ! /J 11
;;'r-;1'".
. <'I 0 0
""IV') t! ~Q~~?\VlWf-
o -0
1
00
~_-I---+--+-V~Hlt
$I~ ~I~ r-Io
"1"" at~::::;~~~~te'hr~~~y~~/t'/i,t=~
oN ~o 70 jo a8P;;=;;;;:~§;:::~::::-;;:",""",:l::-~--I-+....l---i--c';>i"!"';I*Y / I
t!4 "":::s. N-::t ~G;t.....J-'.--

~ ~I~ ~I~ ~I~

1

d -1°
"" ""
00 ·i ~~
gaL,----aL2--ML-p.~.9~a~5~a7~!~O--~Z.O~W~sMVc
r-I""
"i""" r--
°1'" ::218 81~
c::i 0 ,...; 9
00 c::io Valuesof ~~.s

Ws a, deg
Wc 15 30 45 60

o o 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0

V"l
"i" 0.1 0.82 0.84 0.87 0.91 1.01 1.0
~IO
V')
11 0.2 0.65 0.70 0.75 0.84 1.04 1.01
Ö °o ~ 0.4 0.38 0.46 0.60 0.76 1.16 1.05
0.31 0.50 0.65 1.35 1.11
~I~ 0
&ll~
0.6 0.20
o 09 0 0.8 0.09 0.25 0.51 0.80 1.64 1.19
1.0 0.07 0.27 0.58 1.00 2.00 1.30
11
"
N
0
<'11-
""<'I
00
1.2 0.12 0.36 0.74
0.98
1.23
1.54
2.44
2.96
1.43
1.59
1.4 0.24 0.70
~ d r-I"i" "i"100
r- 0
- g;ol~ 81~
1.6
2.0
0.46
1.10
0.80
1.52
1.30
2.16
1.98
3.00
3.54
4.60
1.77
2.20
11
1:;
"'<'I
00 0 00 ,...;l'
2.6 2.75 3.23 4.10 5.15 7.76
I~
~I~ 51~
3.0 7.20 7.40 7.80 8.10 9.00
r-N
"i"1'" r- -
""Ir- 00
-I c"i"
00 00 00 4.0 14.1 14.2 14.8 15.0 16.0
23.5 23.8 24.0 25.0
r-q I
V') 00 lt'll;g
0\
oj
.
5.0
6.0
23.2
34.2 34.5 35.0 35.0 36.0
09 8.0 62.0 62.7 63.0 63.0 64.0
lt'l
C'I °<'I 10 98.0 98.3 99.0 99.0 100
o 0
 lv/erging oj Flow Streams and Division into Flow Streams 525
524 Handbook ojHydra~dic Resistance, 4th Edition

Diverging wye of the type Fs + Fst > Fe; Diagram 7.19

8
= 0-90°. Side branchinl
Cf,

0 0
~ '1' C""l
ci ci

'1'
;;!;
a, deg 15 30 45 60 90 01 N s::
ci ci ci
0.04 0.16 0.36 0.64 1.00
V)
ci ';"
A
for S~.S == f(w/w c) at different a, see also the table and the graph. N
("l \0
V) ~
ci 00 N
ci ci ci
'1'
ci
A

d \0 01
..0::
0..
~
I
r-- s:: V)
0
ci
ci ci
E! "l al
bJl '0
'0
0
~
VI d1
N

0,)
N
'1'
::::
,~) .......
"
.......
<!f
;.vI-
-f' '"
~ \0 N
E-< ci ci ci I'... .......... ~I-
Values of ~.s ~ ..{'t\.
~ I--

0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5

ws/wc
0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0
0,)
~

'1' '0 ~8 ~
'1'
ci
VI '0
'1'
ci
A
'1'
ci
A
~
"' 1'\ \ I\.
~ i-
~
1.,; ;:
a, deg 0.1 ,Ji ci '1'
V)
ci "- ci "- 0 "- '0
15 0.81 0.65 0.51 0.28 0.20 0.11 0.06 0.06 0.14 0.30 0.51 0.76 1.00
k,"
....
..8
VI 2: ci >.{;
,...;
>.{; ~
M , .. f-.
1.00
30 0.84 0.69 0.56 0.34 0.26 0.19 0.19 0.15 0.15 0.30 0.51 0.76
cl ;S
C'i

r/~
11
0.51 0.76 1.00 '>~
45 0.87 0.74 0.63 0.45 0.38 0.29 0.29 0.24 0.23 0.30
0.51 0.76 1.00
k,:;;
CJl ~ 11-
60 0.90 0.82 0.79 0.59 0.53 0.43 0.43 0.36 0.33
1.00 -- 1.00
0.39
L00 - 1.00 1.00- 1.00 ~G
'-:::
p'"
~ "T
'1'
\0
'0
'1'
\S
0
-) I . I -I
90 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 A 11 - C>
0,) ci ci
er
~IN~
k,:;; ~

'0
+ I:JU:;
~ al _
0 k,~
111
.... "- "- po
~
:;; ..8 ~c5\ \0 N
~ ,...; C""l r--
,Ji ~ C""l 0 '0

~
0,)
ci ..0:: ci ci ci
Z ~ I
~
11 ~
~oO~
.. ~ \0 00

rc.s ~ :::; '1'

~&::'"
N 0
ci ci ci

~t
>.{; o' I
0
+ 01
0.8

0.6
>.{;2,
0,)

E ~.
11 i"! '1'
'0
0
\0
0
~~
"-'
0
ci ci ci
I
o Z
0.4 0,)'-'
>, " J......
~~ 0
0.2 .~~ rJl
aJ
::1 '0

~t
'0 '0
i:l + -;
a>.{; ;;;.-
0.3 0.5 1.1 1.3 1.5 ~ ,....;
 Ul
N
0\
Diverging wye of the type Fs + FSI >Fe; FSI = Fe (No. 1) and Diagram 7.20
8
Fs + Fst = Fe (No. 2); ()( = 0-90°. Passage ,28

No. 2. F s + F st = Fe at WsUWe ~ 1.0

~ ~--~~~~~~.-
'-
Wo1.Fst

Se.st == ll; , see the table and graph b;

~
pw/2

r =~-~_.
s,st-2 -
Wst Qst Fe
?' We = Qe F st
PWst12 (Ws/Wer

lc..st
.1.t
~
;::l
§::
Cl
Cl
?;-'

~
~
~
2l
~
1.6 ~ \ lEiH......' B'
>J
l.ll . k'1il--t ""v,t;;.
§
'"
S">
-k.
s-.
~(3'
() o.~ 0.8 t.2 f.6 W.st;IW, ;::l

2. Values of Sc.st ~
""
o~
Wst ()(, deg S·
Oq

~
We 11 J:' /1""\0
90°
FstlFe ~
~
0-1.0 0-0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 ~0.8

0 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00

~
\::l
::1
c.-,
0.1 0.81 0.81 0.81 0.81 0.81 0.81 \::l
;::l
0.2 0.64 0.64 0.64 0.64 0.64 0.64 \::l...
tJ
~.
0.3 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.52 0.50 0.50 t;;.
(3'
0.4 0.36 0.36 0.36 0.38 0.37 0.36 ;::l

S·
0.5 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.28 0.27 0.25 Ci
0.6 0.16 0.16 0.16 0.20 0.18 0.16 ~
Cl
~
0.8 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.10 0.07 0.04
~
"l
1.0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.10 0.05 0.00 ""
\::l
::1
c.-,
1.2 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.21 0.14 0.07

1.4 0.39 0.39 0.39 0.59 0.39

1.6 0.90 0.90 0.90 1.16
1.8 1.78 1.78 1.78

2.0 3.20 3.20 3.20

Ul
t-J
-...l
 iV/erging oj Flow Streams and Division into Flow Streams 529
528 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

Threaded wyes of the type Fs + Fe > Fe; F st = Fe; Diagram 7.21

made of malleable iron,13 Cf. = 90°
Side branch

t
.c.s
=~
pw;/2
see the table and curves Sc.s = f(Q/Qc) at different F/Fst;

t - "'Ps ~c.s trl C

0 «:t «:t C'!
.s pw;/2 (QsF/QJi N N ....;
Straight passage

S - "'Pst N
C.st = pw~/2 N
r-: IX!
trl
0 N.
N
~
see the table and curves Sc.st=J(Qs!Qc) at all F/Fc; § N
CJl
c:l
t - "'Pst Sc.st Q
.st pw;!2 (1 - Q/Qc)2 (F/Fsi
co 0
~ ....; ~ 0\
ci
tc.s-' tc.st
rrf s .1 t ~
..0
I r;=o.O~~~ \Cl
ci
.0
§"
12 / 11 CJl
-~c.s VI cd
~
r- c
trl 0\ @
....; ci ci k." "0
C
--- tc.st /1 I I .0 ;;; c:l

fd
_Jl7
<l)
0..
1/ S
CJl
Cf ~
/ I "0
C
c:l
11 0
-5
j I &,35 -0 ..!:l ~
N
C'!
trl
r-
ci ci
0
r- k."
-,. ~
~
,0 k.~
I / ? Zl

i ~IN~
6 'TI ~ 0 0

I V/ V d9# ~
\Cl
ci -5
/ / /
V CJl
c 11
~ c:l
0..
111
0.55 t;:: k."
Z ~/ Y k" :0Cl)
~It
0 \Cl
N 0 0
-" ~ r- r- .<Ö
2 k. ci >..J',
;,.- ..... ,..-- i--~
~r-p ci ci .~

~~
2
V S
0 g CI)

I <.I::
.g \.'! 111

()
-j-- -- -- -- -1 S
,0
0
"0
J
1J.7 » i-.ii r- r-
tU tJ.J a5 «:t r- r-
ci C! ci ci
~ [..s
='
2 . . .J . . .
~ ~
t '"
CI)

Values of ~c.s and ~.st .8u

@
~ti r-- ... ~ ~'~~':\~
} ~\
0.4
Qs/QcCQstlQd
0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
,0

öl
U
'2
N ::5
ci ....; ci ci
0
0\
0
0\
" I' _. ... \ [\,
Fs/Fc 0.1 0.2 0.3
6.00 7.88 9.40 11.1 13.0 15.8 20.0 24.7 8"0 " '\
,
0.09 2.80 4.50 .0'"'"
4.95 6.50 8.45 10.8 13.3 .-::: /\
0.19 1.41 2.00 2.50 3.20 3.97 ::: ;;. ~ \
7.18 8.90
~~
1.37 1.81 2.30 2.83 3.40 4.07 4.80 6.00 co trl trl
0.27 ~ 0 ~
0.35 1.10 1.54 1.90 2.35 2.73 3.22 3.80 4.32 5.28 6.53 0\"1::,
11 ;;:
'ä:I! 0
....;
'""
2.11 2.38 2.58 3.04 3.84 4.75 ;..

,.
0.44 1.22 1.45 1.67 1.89 Ö 11
1.94 2.20 2.68 3.30 '-'0 ~ 1
1.09 1.20 1.40 1.59 1.65 1.77
0.55 ~~ <.i
1.00 1.13 1.20 1.40 1.50 1.60 1.80 2.06 2.80 :::~ ~
1.00 0.90
.....0
.SO ~
..:;-
Values of ~c.st
....

W
trl 0
;>- *5
~
0 C<'l
At all 0.51 0.49 0.55 0.62 0.70 ;>-
11 '"::
QJ

0.57 0.55
Fs/Fc
0.70 0.64 0.60 Q ~ "a
;;...
~
 Ul
W
Diverging wye (a = 90°) with conical branches roughly made from roofing steel sheets o
4 Diagram 7.22
(al = var);35 Re =wclDelv > 10

Values of Sc.st (graph h)

*
(](j
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
0.30 0.272 0.263 0.250 0.225 0.200 0.163 0.125 0.100 0.063 0.050 0.082

15.45 0.243 0.236 0.185 0.185 0.160 0.135 0.100 0.060 0.032 0.65 0.050

lc.st ~OII"O;JO";fS"; 1;5"

b
0.2
-,............. ~
f". C"
O.t

'-
'" ~
I '~
-~
,-'r-~
~
, ..

o 0.[ 0.2 O.J 0.4 (1.5 0.6 (J.7 wst/w"

~
f}
~lYst.f'&
+=11 ;k--11-
tA, Straight passage FB/Fe = 0.67; F,JFe = 0.67:
C)
C)

"'"'
~
- !::.p
~e.st = - 2 - ' see the table and graph c.
pw/2
~
Ws,Fs ~
~
c:-;.
~
Values of Sc.st (graph b) n:.
c..,
c::;.
ws/we \i?
aj* ~
('")
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 ~
0 0.467 0.445 0.400 0.361 0.275 0.175 0.175 0.125 0.080 0.075 0.125 0.212 ~

15 0.325 0.325 0.325 0.300 0.220 0.167 0.167 0.09 0.067 0.050 0.050 0.125
s.
30 0.375 0.367 0.333 0.300 0.200 0.150 0.150 O.IO 0.067 0.06 0.075 0.150 ~
(3'
45 0.425 0.400 0.325 0.250 0.190 0.I33 0.133 0.10 0.05 0.006 0.075 0.15 ~

--i

~
n:.
~

-~
:;L~~_:
Jl.st
0.11 ~'
0.3 ~
0.2 51;t
0.1 V:l

o 0.2 lJ"It. (1..6 0,8 1.0 1.2 1.1, 1.6 UJ 1.0 "St/w, ~~
c..,
>:l
Diverging wye of the type Fs + FSI >Fe; FSI =Fe of improved shape 60
,66,78 Diagram 7.23 ~
>:l..
tJ
:;::.
Side branch c::;'
(3'
~
Sc... == !::.f ' see the table and the curves S'
pwe /2 ~

~
;t
~e.s = f (Q/ Qe) of graphs a, b, and c;

NO.3 ~B" wt:, Fe Wst. Fst

~
s:;:,
~
-~---- ~s==..3!. ~c.s c..,

~VVs\
cJ'~ pw;/2 (Q/Qe F /'F,i
\~~

Values of Sc.s (a. =45°)

No, 2 (r2/D s = 0.2) No. 3 (8' = 8

0
Q./Qe No. 1 (ri/D s = 0.1) )

0.122 0.34 1.0 1.0 0.122 0.33

0.1 0.40 0.62 0.77 0.77 0.40 0.62
0.3 1.90 0.35 0.56 0.56 0.90 0.35
0.6 9.60 0.90 0.32 0.32 5.40 0.60
Ul
1.0 30.6 3.55 0.32 0.32 17.4 2.00 w
I-"
 Ol
60 W
Diverging wye of the type Fs + Fst >Fe; Fst = Fe of improved shape ,66,78 Diagram 7.23 N

~c.st lNoy,? .. 0./22)_ I tJ=4j"°

8
[l'1 I 11 l'i:
11
5
NoJ (lUtz), I
Ir-.
4< ! 11 I 1
'fo.J(0,31j.),
J ..-I
2. 11 V No.3fU,.lIf) ty V
/ / jNo.1,2 (1.0)~~ P
~
......-
I) 9.2. a" 0.6 D.8 4s/11,

~
;::J
~c.st
~
I,;' T, I I (}(=60 o ~
C)
I'
No.1( -;; =Q./2Z)
I b
C)

8
J Va]ues of Sc.s (a. =60°)
"'"'
~
No.3 ( IJ. J!t) ..... J I ~
\Cl...
6 Q.,/Qe NO.l (rf/Ds=O.l} No. 2 (r2lD s = 0.2) No. 3 {O'=8°2
J ~II i3
F,.fFe ~
Ii
J / 0.122 0.34 1.0 1.0 0.122 0.33 c:;'
~
I 'I-io.l{D.lv.) 0.1 0.90 0.77 0.84 0.84 0.70 0.67 CI:>
V,
c;;'
z ) iIfro,?/u..l~) f'>. V 0.3 2.70 0.60 0.67 0.67 1.30 0.44
~
;::J
0.6 12.0
.... V"" VNo.1,2{l.q~ K t,......- i.--"" 1.0 36.7
1.10
3.16
0.53
0.62
0.53
0.62
5.70
16.6
0.68
1.85
(J
SI'
.J:..
T -1 ..L S.
(J
at Il.tr 0.8
~
IJ,$ Os/Oc

13'
;::J

'-1

Values of Sc.s (a. =90°) ~

CI:>
"i
Oq
QslQc No. 1 (ri/D s =O.I) No. 2 (r2lD s =0.2) No. 3 (0' = 80 ) S·
Oe)
Fs/Fe ~
0.122 0.34 1.0 1.0 0.122 0.33 :::J
C)
0.1 1.20 1.15 0.85 0.85 0.90 1.10 :;t
0.3 4.00 1.42 V:l
0.77 0.74 3.40 1.30
0.6
~
17.8 2.65 0.78 0.69 17.3 2.17 >:l
~
v,
0.7 6.30 1.00 0.91 5.20 >:l
;::J
\Cl...
\::.)
~c.st jNo.l(3.- /?) f (t "!lI)"
~.
c;;.
r- I'{; 91
• ~
(3'
IJ
NoJ ('!I22J...:::/1 :cl Straight passage ;::J
11 S·
tlf ' see Diagram 7.20 es-
I~ SC.Sl == -
5 pw~12 :::J
/
"
C)
:;t
11 77
4-
J. ~0.Jfu..11f) ... ~ 1/ ~
>:l

t.
/JNo.3/D..1Ifb<j t/' ~
v,

l.-1 ~.l(T.D)No.2{1.0)

I I I I "TI I
Q IU Q.1f f!./f IJ.I IJslflc

~l~-·
III'c,Fc t- - - Wst. Pst. Side branch with a = 900 and F jFe = 1.0

, il~,1 _ tlp

No" rI I
Se.s = ~-2- ,
pw/2
see the tables and the curves Sc.s = f(Q/ Qc. r/D c> of graph d.

u,
w
w
 {Il
60
Diverging wye of the type Fs + F s! >Fe; F SI =Fe of improved shape ,66,78 Diagram 7.23 W
J:;;..

Values of Sc.s (No. 4)

Qs/Qe = ws/we
r/D e o 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
0.07 0.89 0.84 0.81 0.78 0.76 0.75 0.76 0.79 0.84 0.91 1.0
0.22 0.88 0.78 0.71 0.66 0.64 0.63 0.63 0.65 0.71 0.78 0.8

Straight passage with a = 90° and = 1.0

- "'p .
Se.s! == ~/2' see the tables and the curves Se.s = JW/Qe' r/D) of graph d.
P e

Va lues of Sc.st (No. 4)

QslQe = ws/we
,./D c o 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
0.07 0.13 0.07 0.03 o 0.01 0.04 0.08 0.16 0.24 0.34 0.45
o
~
0.22 0.10 0.06 0.02 0.03 0.09 0.15 0.23 0.30 0.40 0.50
;=:;
~
Q
~ Q

~
""
$
~
E..
r;'
~
'"
1:;'
§
~
-!::..
S.

0.6 o.R ag/Qc

~
S·
;=:;

.....

~
('1:>
Wyes of improved shape (a = 90°) at high velocities, 47 Re > 2 x 10? Diagram 7.24
~
Si'
00

Ws. Fs- I ws.~ ~

.............--.--t-.---- ~
W___ I r
Side branch

Sc.s == "'f ' see the tables and the curves of graphs a, b, and c.
~
V:l
pw/2 ~2l
a. Symmetrical wyes of the type F s = F SI = Fe; rlDc = 0.5 '"
\:)

~t
~ Scheme 1
5.
t:i
;;::.
1:;'
S'
;=:;
Si'
Ci
---~

,[
'I --..
~
~
~
'{
('1:>

llVg, §

r Scheme2
'"

~s @
D.!I
1
.;
11.8

f/.l . / ""
(l6 2.

ns tIl
u.z fU a.,~ lJ.5 Q.D 2 W
tIl
 01
W
Wyes of improved shape (a = 90°) at high velocities, Diagram 7.24 0\

Values or Sc.s

No. of the eurve

as/ae 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
0.2-0.8 0.68 0.68 0.64 0.71 0.77 0.83
2 1.0 0.57 0.57 0.58 0.60 0.62 0.68

s .-."""-]"-...---..
tUI I ~,.. I
b. Flow-dividing wyes of the type Fs + Fst > Fe; Fs = Fst = Fe; r/De = 0.5 (scheme d, graph b)

MI :oE I I ~f
. I I

0,1f. I ~ ..... 'F I ~

;:s
§.:
Cl
Cl
?;-<
tl,2l--!- I I =1- ... q +-,-i
~
~
~
fl'l 1Itr. qq 1J8 ~,. ~
E..
~.

Values or Sc.s ~
""'"c:;.
No.ofthe ~
Cllrve 0.8 0.9 ;:s
as/ae 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 <"l
~
1 0.2 0.62 0.65 0.69 0.73 0.80 0.87 0.95 1.05
~
2 0.5 0.58 0.59 0.60 0.62 0.63 0.67 0.82 ~

4
0.8
1.0
0.51
0.58
0.52
0.59
0.54
0.59
0.59
0.6
0.62
0.61
0.68 0.77
~
\:3.
;:s

--1

~
? ""
~
S·
fllJ Oq

~
~
Cl
:<:
11.5
~
(I:>
c. Flow-dividing wyes of the type f .... + F st = Fe; Fs = F st ; r/D e = 0.5 (scheme, graph c) \:l
~
119 '"\:l;:s
~
b
~.
c:;.
9.2 \:3.
;:s
S·
C)
~
Cl
IJ 11.2 o.~ D.ö JLt :<:
~ \:l
Values or Sc.s ~
'"
No. of the cllrve
as/ac 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
0.25 0.87 0.88 0.90
2 0.6 0.57 0.57 0.57 0.61 0.73
0.8 0.46 0.46 0.47

Straight passage

Se.st == "'f ' see the

pw/2
and the curves of graphs b and c.

a. F1ow-dividing wyes of the!type Fs + F st > Fe; Fs = F st = Fe; r/De = 0.5 (scheme 2, graph b). o.
~
 01
W
Wyes of improved shape (a. = 90°) at high velocities, Diagram 7.24 00

Values of Sc.st
NO.ofthe
curve erst/erc 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
5 0.2 0.28 0.31 0.33 0.37 0.41 0.47 0.55
6 0.5 0.16 0.17 0.18 0.20 0.22 0.27 0.32
7 0.8 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.1 0.12 0.13 0.17 0.22
8 1.0 0.12 0.12 0.13 0.14 0.15

b. Flow-dividing wyes of (he type r"', + F st = Fe; Fs * Fst; r/De = 0.5 (scheme 2, graph c)
Values of Sc.st
"Ac = Wc/acr
No. of the curve
erst/erc 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
4 0.25 0.22 0.22 0.22 0.22
5 0.5 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.12 0.13 ~
~

6 0.8 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 f5::

c:l
c:l
?7'
~
Diverging wye of normalized construction; a. = 45° 21 Diagram 7.25 ~
w/we ::; 3:
Side branch with Ws = ~.::
wc.fc
.........
-
Wst,Fst
Ws (w
_ Aps 1-1.38-;-+
I;,c.s=-2-=
pw~/2

Straight passage with

s (ws)2
- )2 -0.06-
Me We

wst = wslfwe < 2:

Wc
~
>;:J
l1:>
V,
c::;.
B
~

I;,c.st == A~st = 0.28 _ 0.9 wst + 0.955 (WSl~

2_0.157 (2
WSl~
("")
S"
pwe/2 Wc we ) we ) ~
;;
1;, - Aps I;,e.s I;, = Apst Se.st
~
S pw;12 (Q sF/QeFs)2 sl- pw;/2 (1 - Q/Qi (F/Fsi 6·
't ~

--1

~
Values of ~~ (in numerator) and Sst (in denominator) l1:>
o~
~.
Qs/Qc

fsl.av=0.8 /st.av=0.63 /sl.av=0.5 ~

/st.av = Fsrl Fe = 1.0
~
c:l
Fs/Fc 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.10 0.05 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.10 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.14 ;S

0.8
1.31 2.21 4.41 0.89
0.20
1.31
0.13
2.21
0.14
4.41
0.15
~
~
0.20 0.14 0.13 ~
v,
6.44 0.60 0.80 1.27 2.48 6.44 0.50 0.60 0.80 1.27 2.48 ~
0.80 1.30 2.48
0.63
0.20 0.14 0.13 0.15 0.20 0.13 0.14 0.15 0.18 0.23 0.13 0.14 0.17 0.20 ~
t::J
~.
0.56 0.79 1.44 3.78 0.47 0.56 0.79 1.44 3.78 19.9 0.44 0.47 0.56 0.79 1.44 0.44 0.47 0.56 0.79 c::;.
0.50 0.18 0.20 0.23 0.13 0.14 0.17 0.20 0.14 0.14 0.18 0.21 :So
0.20 0.14 0.13 0.14 0.20 0.13 0.14 0.15
~

0.46 0.56 0.89 2.21 11.46 0.43 0.46 0.56 0.89 2.21 11.47 0.43 0.46 0.56 0.89 0.43 0.43 0.46 0.56 S·
0.40 0.14 0.15 0.18 0.20 0.13 0.14 0.17 0.20 0.14 0.14 0.18 0.21 Ci
0.20 0.14 0.13 0.14 0.16 0.20 0.13

0.43 0.46 0.61 1.31 6.81 0.44 0.43 0.46 0.61 1.31 6.80 0.44 0.43 0.46 0.61 ~
;S
0.32 0.14 0.15 0.18 0.20 0.13 0.14 0.17 0.20
0.20 0.14 0.13 0.14 0.16 0.20 0.13

0.43 0.47
~
~v,
0.44 0.43 0.47 0.79 3.78 19.09 0.44 0.43 0.47 0.79 3.78 0.44
0.25 0.20 0.14 o.T7 0.20
0.20 0.14 0.13 0.14 0.16 0.17 0.13 0.14 0.15 0.18

0.44 0.43 0.56 1.90 11.46 0.44 0.43 0.56 1.90

0.20 0.20
0.14 0.13 0.14 0.16 0.17 0.14 0.15 0.18

0.44 0.46 1.31 6.81 0.46 0.44 0.46 1.31

0.16
0.13 0.14 0.16 0.17 ' 0.22 0.15 0.18 0.20

0.45 0.43 0.79 3.78 0.45 0.43 0.79

0.125
0.13 0.14 0.16 0.17 0.15 0.18 0.20

0.44 0.56 2.21

0.10
0.14 0.16 0.17

01
W
\0
540 Handbook oj Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition Merging oj Flow Streams and Division into Flow Streams 541

Diverging smooth wye (r/h2 = 1.0) of the type Fs + Fs!?>. Fe

Diagram 7.27
and of rectangular cross section; a = 90° 44,49

Side branch

~~*'f~
;...;'
p
t.e.S=-2-=aO
- I1ps (QJ
Q +
bIQ+CI
Qs
pw c/2 c e
, ~
see graph a; far ao, b l , and Cl' see the table;

h ar l1',jl.~ I1ps ~c.s

~c.' Ss= pw;/2 (QsF/Qj<i

'" ~ Values of ~c.s

~~
\0
N
r-: ~ Qs/Oc
FFs[Fs)
st F;
s
El J ~ 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
~
es clI
0.25 (0.25)
0.33 (0.25)
0.55
0.35
0.50
0.35
0.60
0.50
0.85
0.80
1.20
1.30
1.80
2.00
3.10
2.80
4.35
3.75
6.00
5.00

"',--------.,
::::- 0.50 (0.50) 0.62 0.48 0.40 0.40 0.48 0.60 0.78 1.08 1.50
11 0.67 (0.50) 0.52 0.40 0.32 0.30 0.34 0.44 0.62 0.92 1.38
/1 ~"./
~I"'~
1.00 (0.50) 0.44 0.38 0.38 0.41 0.52 0.68 0.92 1.21 1.57
~I <l ~
V") _
0-
1.00 (1.00) 0.67 0.55 0.46 0.37 0.32 0.29 0.29 0.30 0.37
dl~ III 1.33 (1.00) 0.70 0.60 0.51 0.42 0.34 0.28 0.26 0.26 0.29
,--------.,
I t;
,-~"'I ~"./ N
,--------., >J'
~
2.00 (1.0m 0.60 0.52 0.43 0.33 0.24 0.17 0.15 0.l7 0.21
\0
0 ,-~"'I ~"-,
0 ~=0.25~::O.'2S Straight passage
I
N
V> _
V>I 0cl I~ c~
N
,--------.,
,;:""1 -;;.'-J ./ v
~ 1"-';'
::J
I
-o.JJ. !J.7I
/ff i laI - I1Pst
~c.st=~=a2
(QsJ2 Qs
Q +b2Q
~
+ >J' i6 o.S!J; Uq·· /V/ +c s
/
~ ~"'I ~" pw/2
Öri
+ '/ ~::; ::Q;..' v,.-~.~_ e c
VI
~" il~"
-;=cJl
0\
2l t2
1/ IV F st 'Fc - see graph b; für b 2, and see the table;
0 11 ;; .%. a2' Cz,
00
? .,,;IN~
0$ lO(J,jf.li'3_

~Ui~
:J I .."1:...-'
I~'" .... /::i;i~- ~e.st
00
N <l ~ k::;::' I
o;S 0 0- I
I~'"
II
.~
11 111 I I I I r-r T
'" IN
~
-I~:=
,.J; o.z
:3: "-
<!.l
b1l
~N:"l
{J O,f flif (U 17.5 06 a7 9.8 17.9 f.°VslfJ,
fit: ~r~ ~
~
<l
0-

i.:l III 0.. 111 ...."'1 ...." Values of ~c.st

..0 ci
.:E
b1l ci
11
>J' >J' I~
I~
<!.l

Fst(~) Q,IQc
"0
i:ii <Zl
Fe Fe 0.1 0.2 0.3 OA 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9

1.00 (0.25) -0.01 -0.03 -0.01 0.05 0.13 0.21 0.29 0.38 0.46
0.75 (0.25) 0.08 0.00 -0.02 -0.01 0.02 0.08 0.16 0.24 0.34
1.00 (0.50) -0.03 -0.06 -0.05 0.00 0.06 0.12 0.19 0.27 0.35
0.75 (0.50) 0.04 -0.02 -0.04 -0.03 -0.01 0.04 0.12 0.23 0.37
0.50 (0.50) 0.72 0.48 0.28 0.13 0.05 0.04 0.09 0.18 0.30
1.00(1.00) -0.02 -0.04 -0.04 -0.01 0.06 0.13 0.22 0.30 0.38
0.75 (1.00) 0.10 0 0.01 -0.03 -0.01 0.03 0.10 0.20 0.30
0.50 (1.00) 0.62 0.38 0.23 0.13 0.08 0.05 0.06 0.10 0.20
 T

Merging oj Flow Streams and Division into Flow Streams 543

542 Handbook ojHydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

Nonsymmetrie eonvergent wyes of the type Fs + F st ~ Fe;

Diverging smooth wye (r/b2 = 1.0) ofthe type Fs + Fst~Fe 53
Diagram 7.27 Fs =Fst =Fe with smooth branehing (Ro/D e = 2.0); Diagram 7.28
and of rectangular cross section: CI. = 90° 44,49
CI. =90°; Re =WeDe/v ~ 10
4

Fs Fst Fs
al bl CI a2 b2 C2
Fst Fe Tc Valnes of ~.s (in nnmerator) and ~.st (in denominator)
0.25 1.00 0.25 12.50 -5.80 1.07 0.64 -0.15 -3.03
0.33 0.75 0.25 8.57 -2.77 0.55 1.18 -0.83 0.14 Qs/Qc
0.50 0.50 3.75 -2.68 0.64 -0.15 -0.03 Scheme
1.00 0.56 0.1 0.2 0.3 OA 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
0
0.67 0.75 0.50 3.89 -2.88 0.79 1.36 -0.95 0.12
1.00 0.50 0.50 3.00 -1.60 0.57 2.80 -3.32 1.02 -0.80 -0.59 -0.35 -0.15 0.02 0.18 0.31 OAO 0.54 0.70 0.90
1.00 -1.74 -0.22 -0.02 0.11 0.15 0.19 0.22 0.24 0.24 0.23 0.21 0.20 0.19 0.17
1.00 1.00 1.39 0.84 0.75
1.33 0.75 1.00 1.09 -1.59 0.86 1.34 -1.07 0.18 -0.60 -OAO -0.27 -0.14 -0.02 0.05 0.12 0.15 0.20 0.24 0.27
2
2.00 0.50 1.00 1.04 1.60 0.77 2.13 2.63 0.85 0.28 0.30 0.29 0.28 0.25 0.20 0.15 0.10 0.05 -0.03 -0.08

tc.s:tc.st
Nonsymmetrie convergent wyes of the type Fs + F st ~ Fe;
Fs = F st = Fe with smooth branching53 (Ro/D e = 2.0); Diagram 7.28
CI. = 90°; Re = weDe/v ~ 10
4

Side branch
_ t1ps
~e.s = ----Z-/2
PWc
see the table and curve ~c.s =!(Q/Qe);
~==~=~
s pw~12 (Q/ Qi
Syrnmetrieal (equilateral) wye with a sharp 90° tum27 ,29 Diagram 7-29
1. The edge of the side branch is slightly rounded (rlD e = 0.1)
Merging of streams (countercurrent)
(a) without .partiti~~
_ t1Pls
~Ie.s = ----Z-/2
pWc

Straight passage
_ t1Pst
~c.st = ----z-/
pWc 2
see the table and the curves ~le.s=j{Ql/Qc) at different FtJFc on graph a; for A, see Table 7.1, para. 7.1
see the table and curve ~c.st = !(Q/Qc);
~ _ t1Pst Sc.st
~ == t1 PIs
Is PW;/2
st pw;r/2 (1 - Q/Qi
For the other side branch, subscript 1 is to be replaced by 2.
2. Side branch is smooth (RofD e = 2)
 T

544 Handbook oj Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition Merging oj Flow Streams and Division into Flow Streams 545

Symmetrical (equilateral) wye with a sharp 90° turn 27 ,29 Diagram 7.29
Symmetrical wye of the type Fe = FIs + F2s = 2Fs
Diagram 7.30
with sharp turn corners; a = 15-45°
Values of ~ic.s and ~lc.s
1) Merging of strearns (converging wye)
FIs Qs/Qe
Tc 0 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.90 1.0

Without partition (Sle.s )

0.25 17.0 12.7 9.30 6.92 5.48 5.00 5.48 6.92 9.32 12.7 17.0
0.50 5.02 3.94 3.10 2.50 2.14 2.00 2.14 2.50 3.10 3.94 5.00
0.75 2.78 2.30 1.92 1.66 1.50 1.57 1.56 1.66 1.92 2.30 2.78
a=300 ;
1.0 2.00 1.73 1.52 1.37 1.28 1.25 1.28 1.37 1.52 1.73 2.00
C = I1PIs
With partition (Sle.s) _Ie.s - pw~/2
1.0 -3.25 -2.40 -1.51 -0.80 0 0.75 1.45 2.15 2.85 3.50 4.15
= 6.6 ~lS + 0.25 [(QlSJ4 + (1 - QlSJ~ - 3.0 (QlSJ2 - 2.30
-e lQe l Qe Ij lQe
(b) with partition

S1c.s =. j(Q/Qe); see dashed line on graph a.

Division of flow (cocurrent flow)

- pw~/2
Sle.s = !1pls = 5.6 (QISJ lQ;:' II -
Q'; + 0.50 [(QlSJ4 + (QIsJl
Qe - 2.0 (QlSJ2
Q; - 1.80 ;
.
P
SIe s =. I1 21s = 1 + kl 2
pw/2 ' we
(~J z , see the table and the curves Ce-.s
for Sle.s' see the table and the graph.
j(w!we) on graph b, where k J '" 1.5 for standard threaded wyes made of
2) Flow division (diverging wye); Sle.s =. I1PI/(pw~l2) is deterrnined tentatively as for a side branch of a conven-
mal1eable iron; kz '" 0.3 for welded wyes.
tional wye of the type Fe = Fs + Fst from Diagrarn 7.19.

Values of ~lc.s

QIs/Oe
a, deg
0 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50.- 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.90 1.0
15 -2.56 -1.89 -1.30 -0.77 -0.30 0.10 0.67 0.67 0.85 0.97 1.04
30 -2.05 -1.51 -1.00 -0.53 -0.10 0.28 0.91 0.91 1.09 1.37 1.55
45 -1.30 -0.93 -0.55 -0.16 0.20 0.56 1.26 1.26 1.61 1.95 2.30

2.IJ !./
V
ttJ LV ~
~::;.:; ~t.f
~~ ~
Values of ~.s et=95:. Ja"
()
az/ r~v
~-
(16
rt-
Q$/Ii~
V'i/j
Type ofwye -tU [7
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 2.0 1711
-?,() I/li
Standard made ofiron (curve 1) 1.02 1.06 1.14 1.24 1.38 1.54 1.74 1.96 2.22 2.50 3.16 3.94 4.84 7.0
fL -I--. ._- 1--- -- I-- t-
Welded (curve 2) 1.0 1.01 1.03 1.05 1.08 1.11 1.15 1.19 1.24 1.30 1.43 1.59 1.77 2.2 -JU
 tJ\
7 +0.
Symmetrical wye ofthe type F s = Fst= F1 Diagram 7.31 0\

l. Mcrging of flows (converging vvyes) under the angles of 45° and 90° (schemes 1 and 2):

~
1) Butt-jointed branching:

r f'lp . . .
'::>1-3 == - 2 ' see the table and curve 1 of graph a, or It IS determmed [rom the formnlas:
~~2 pw/2
I ",",Z at 0::; Q2/Q3::; 0.4

~
Q0. 3
S]-3 = 0.33 + 0.51 (Q2/Q3)2 ;

-- GI

I
~z
at 0.4::; Q2/Q3::; 1.0

~ = 0.26 + 0.38Q2/ Q3 ;
Z 2.

?c»
2) Threaded branching with 0,= 0 (for 0, see Figure 7.9):
r
'::>]-3
f'lp
== - 2 - ' see the table and curve 2 of graph a; ~
;;::
pW3/2
~
C)

~~z
C)
3) Threaded branching with olD o "" 0.13: ;.;..
f'lp ~
3 ",,",Z ~]-3 == - Z , see the table and curve 3 of graph a.
,~
PWJI2
~
~
~
Va lues of 1;;1-3 <=;.
~
<1:l
NO.of V,
Branching 1:;'
the curve o 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 B
;;::
('J
Butt-jointed 0.32 0.34 0.36 0.38 0.41 0.41 0.50 0.53 0.56 0.60 0.66 ~~

~
2 Threaded connection with 0 =0 0.94 0.71 0.54 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.59 0.60 0.64 0.72 0.84 s.
3 Threaded connection with o/Do =0.13 1.15 1.12 0.68 0.60 0.60 0.60 0.63 0.60 0.73 0.85 0.87
g;
~.
;;::

..j

~
<1:l
1:,1- lf....... o~
® S·
Oq
\
~
1.0

\
0.8
,1\
, \
\ , 3 V
.LL--]
V
2. Flow division (diverging wyes) nnder the angle of 45° (schemes 3 and 4):

1) BUlt-jointed branching:
::J
~
~
~
5 l\, 11
l\ _ :..,...- ...- k
V
b::::: ~
1'0. l/ 2i
v,
I..,.... ~ r IJ"p . . . \:)
0.4I
'=>]-3 == - 2 - ' see the table and curve 1 of graph b, or tt IS deternuned [Tom the fonnulas: ;;::
!-,"!"" pw]/2 ~
I-- I- tJ
~.
0.2
at 0::; Q2/Ql::; 0.7 r:;.
o o.z 0.'1 Q.6 1!8 q~JlJs (3'
;;::
S]-3 = 0.33 ~ 0.45Q2/Ql + 0.85(Q2/Ql)2 ; S·
c:;-

7-~
at 0.7::; Q2/Ql ::; 1.0 ::J
C)
:;t
SI-3 = 0.44 + 1.70Q2/Ql ~ 0.65(Q2/Ql)2 ; ~
~t:l.f
"j
~
4
°= \:)
2 2i
2) Threaded branching with 0: v,

1:,1-3
~ J I == IJ,,; , see
J ]j
SI-3 the table and curve 2 of graph b;

~
I
'-1-' pW I 12
1.0

-~
'-1\ 2'
L- - i""'--. J
~
'r---

-
:=
3) Threaded branching with olDo '" 0.13:
I 'v 2 IJ"p
== - 2 - ' see the table and curve 3 of graph b.
,C SI-3
pw]/2
l-
I
J,..! P
0.4 [ ~ -
~
0.2 llr~-----JLl lTJ tJl
o o..z 11." 0,6 0.8.J2Ia, +0.
--.l
 u•
.j;;o.
Symmetrical wye of the type Fs = Fst = F e",7 Diagram 7.31 co

Values of Sl-3

NO.ofthe Q21QI
Branching
curve
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Butt-jointed 0.32 0.30 0.27 0.27 0.29 0.32 0.37 0.43 0.49 0.54 0.60
2 Threaded connection with 0 =0.13 0.94 0.96 0.90 0.85 0.83 0.81 0.82 0.82 0.82 0.82 0.82
3 Threaded connection with 01 DO "" 0.13 1.15 0.99 0.74 0.90 0.95 0.95 0.91 0.88 0.82 0.82 0.82

o ,,~.
-;"-
,2
~
3. Merging of sU'emus (co~verging wyes) under the angle of 45° (schemes 5 and 6):

1) Butt-jointed branching:

r "'p . . .
~
~
;:s
§:
C)
C)
?:;-<

5 ':>1-3 == - 2 - ' see the table aud curve 1 of graph c, or It IS determmed from the formula
pw/2 ~
~
~

at O:S; Q2/Qj :s; 0.7 "~

~

r;'
;:.;;,
SI-3 = 0.33 + 0.071Q2/Q3 + 0.80(Q2/Q3)2 ; (\:)
t..,
0;;'
&23 I:i
............ ;:s
("")
.(\:)
3 -I:..
S.

.6 ~5'
;:s

..;j

~
(\:)

SI-3
1.2

1.0
-, \
0 o~
Oq

~
S·

~
s . ,,\ 2) Threaded branching with /) = 0: C)
~
o.
\,
1.:1-3 == "'f ,see the table and curve 2 of graph c;
~
~
~
\' pW3/2

-
0.6i t..,

'~
~
",,3 ;:s
~
3) Threaded brauching with /)lD o '" 0.3:
r". ~,~
-
t;
004l ~.

""- 2'i'..' bp
(;;.
5'

",
SI-3 == - ? - , see the table and cllrve 3 of graph c;
0.2~
r-.... i.l..t ,\ .• pw3/ 2
;:s
S·
,~ .....1"\. es-
-'\ .- \; ~
o
"
C)
~
0.2 n.'4 U.6 ~8 Q2/~J
~

"\ " "

(\:)

-0.2~ ~
~
.. t..,

-0.4 \
Values oi' Sl-3

NO.ofthe Q21Q3
Branching
curve
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 l.0
Butt-jointed 0.34 0.35 0.32 0.27 0.23 0.17 0.09 0 -0.12 -0.25 -0.40
2 Threaded connection with 0 =0 0.90 0.87 0.54 0.46 0.45 0.36 0.25 0.14 0 0 -0.15
3 Threaded connection with 01 Do = 1.20 1.20 1.20 0.60 0.52 0.53 0.45 0.34 0.20 0.09 0.14 0
u•
.j;;o.
\C
 01
01
Symmetrie al wye of the type Fs ;:: Fst;:: F? Diagram 7.31 o

Ut

~
~~,
4. Division of flow (diverging wyes) under the angles of 45° and 90° (sehemes 7 and 8):

1) Bu,tt-jointed branehing:
7Y
r I':,.p . . .
== - 2 - , see the table and eurve 1 of graph d, or It determmed from the formulas:

~
~i
':>1-3 IS
pW l/ 2
..,,!!
:5 at 0 S; Q2/Ql :0; 0.7
~
8 Z SI-3;:: 0.33 - 1.72Q2/QI + 0.97(Q2/Ql)2 ;

'S"';5 at 0.7:0; Q2/Ql:O; 1.0

~
:::l
1.0 SI-3;:: -0.58 + 1.77Q2/Q, - 0.73(Q2/Q,)2 ; ~
Cl
Cl

0,8
2) Threaded branehing with 0 ;:: 0: ~"'"
~
\:)...
SI-3 == I':,.f ' see the table and eurve 2 of graph d; ~
a. pw,/2 ;S
;::;.
>::J
0. 3) Threaded branehing with o/Do "" 0.13: ~

'"c:;.
B
:::l

o. SI-3 == I':,.f ' see the table and eurve 3 of graph d.

pW l/2
"-t..
~

~
(J o.z DJI 0.6 0.8 Qz!at ~.
:::l

'~

Values of Sl-3 ~
~
NO.ofthe S·
Oe)
Branehing
eurve 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 004 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 ~
Butt-jointed 0,34 0.27 0.23 0.20 0.18 0.20 0.23 0.27 0.30 0.33 0.38
~
Cl
~
0,60
~
2 Threaded connection with 0 = 0.90 0.90 0.81 0.41 0.30 0.28 0.31 0.36 0041 0042 0048
~
Threaded connection with o/Do::::: 0.13 1.20 1.18 0.63 0.45 0040 0.38 0.43 0.45 0.50 0.54 0.55 >::>
~
'">::>
:::l
\:)...
t:J
~.
c:;.
(3'
:::l

~ S·

~
B'
~

~
Cl
~

~
5. Merging of streams (eonvergjng wyes) under the angles of 45° and 90° (sehemes 9 and 10):
>::>
1) Butt-jointed branehing: ~

9' '"
SI 13 == L\f ' see the table and eurve 1 of graph e, or it is determined from the formula
-t pw/2

Sl-3 = 1.13 - 1.38Q2/Q3 -- 0.05(Q2/Q3)2;

10
u.
u•
.......
 Ul
Ul
Diagram 7.31 l-.i
Symmetrical wye of the type F s =Fst =F;7

St-l
"'- 0
1.2
, i\
~ \
1.0
l' t\
I~
1\
\
2) Threaded branching with 0 = 0:

S1-3 == "'f ' see the table and curve 2 of graph e;

0.8J ~ ~, .~
pW 3/2

~ W 3) Threaded branching with o/Do = 0.13:

o. , '\ ~
~ 1\' 1;1-3 == "'f ' see the table and curve 3 of graph e; g:
~

o. t" ~, pw/2
fS:
C)

~ ,\ I~
C)
;>;-<

~
o. ? ~ '{ ~
\~ V
~ V ~
\ rsc:;-
a 0.2 0.'1 0.6 0.8 ...fl2/QJ ~
CI)
v,

~ \\ I \\ ~ 0:;'
~
-0.
~
~

I I I I T 1 I I 1\ ~
<J

~
~

~\3'
~

Values of Sl-3 ~
~
NO.ofthe Q2/Q3 ~-
Branching
curve 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
~
Butt-jointed 1.3 1.01 0.88 0.70 0.60 0.44 0.30 0.14 0 -0.15 -0.30 ~
C)
2 Threaded connection with 0 = 0 U7 1.08 0.90 0.73 0.62 0.48 0.32 0.18 0.15 0.10 0.14 ~
Threaded connection with 01 Do "" 0.13 1.36 1.30 1.06 0.90 0.77 0.60 0.44 0.21 0.14 0.40 0.30
~
~
~
v,
~
~
~

o !0 \::::I
:;::.
0:;'
6. Flow division (diverging wyes) under the angles of 90° and 45° (schemes 11 and 12): \3'
~

~~s 1. Butt-jointed branching:

;:s-
C)
1T "-! ~

7'%
C)

1;1-3 == "'f ' see the table and curve 1 of graph f, or it is determined from (he formula ~

~
pw /2
j

~
~ 1;1-3 = 1.13 - 1.40Q2/Ql + 1.03(Q2/Q1)2 ;
12 J
2. Threaded branching with 0 = 0:
I,'"3
CD
1,2 .~ 1/ '\ "'f '
) SI"-3 == pw /2 see the table and curve 2 of graph f;
J.,j

",
~ f'..... j

~ f' !/ "'" I
1.0 3. Threaded branching with o/Do = 0.13:
............
!\.. --. .-" 2 V! "
0.8 i'... "'f ' see the table and curve 3 of graph f.
' ...... r-o...
-
I
/'
S1'-3 ==
pw j /2

o-
0,6 - -- Ut
7},z 0.'1 0..6 o..a f.l2/ Q, Ul
tu
 Merging of Flow Streams and Division into Flow Streams 555
554 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

Symmetrical wye with smooth turn through 90° 44-53 Diagram 7.32

Circular cross section at

c:: V") V")

c::
0
0! r - f':,.Pls . d .
I:- ~lc.s = ~ IS etenmned:
d p~/2

0
0'1
d
0
I:-
d
~
:3 (a) for rnerging and RrJDc = 2, see the table and the curve
~lc.s =f(Q/Qc);
00 I:- 0 0
d
\Cl 0'1 "'l (b) for division and FJ!Fc = 0.5; Ql/Qc = 0.5, see below the
d d
table of the values of [~lc.s = f(RrJDc)J·
V") I:- \Cl
l:- 00 0'1
d
\Cl
d d 0 For the other side branch, subcript 1 is to be replaced by 2.
<'l
~
8
(:l \Cl I:- <'l
Oll \Cl \Cl 00 0'1 Qs/ Qc 0 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.90 1.0
<:S d d d 0
Q
SlC.s -0.13 -0.10 -0.07 -0.03 o 0.03 0.30 0.03 0.03 0.05 0.08
<Si V") 0'1
00
I:-
00
<'l
0'1
"
61
d d 0 0

'<t '<t I:- <'l Ro

d
I:- 00 0'1 0.50 0.75 1.0 1.5 2.0
d d 0 Dc
C'l Slc.s 1.10 0.60 0.40 0.25 0.20
<'l
d
00 0:: c::
d d

:
-
0 0
C'l
d
0'1
d
c:: $
I I I ./
'(J ./ I J
0
c:: c::
00
~ tZ2 Va-v fl.5 iN fs/(/c
0
s == pw;12
8,pls ~IC.s
Is - -ru V y
01 ~ :::; ~
,...;
. ~!12

<'l

d Rectangular cross section at RrJbo = 1.5 and QJ!Qc = 0.5

11

Oll
0
11
ß
c 00 ~ r - f':,.Pls
:.2 ~lc.s =~' see below
'?:' c'-'
oS
.~
oS
.~ pw/_
11 (:l
~ o:l c c0
11 oB0 oB
r.;:: '-'
c '-'
c
'-' c C

0
0. "'Cl
.l:l 8 8 Values of ~lc.s
C "'Cl "0
'-' '-'
~0
'0 --g'-' "0
<:S
.~ e ...<::e
'-' ...<::
;>, o:l E- E- State of the flow
::> '-' 0.50 1.0
~ '7 c;
ü-
'5'-' B Merging 0.23 0.07
8 ""'0 oS
'-' C'l
Dividing 0.30 0.25
8;>, '":=
Cl,)
'0
<Zl ci
';
>- Z
556 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition Merging of Flow Streams and Division into Flow Streams 557

Four-way wye piece of the type FIs =F2s =F s; F st =Fe; Four-way wye piece of the type FIs =F2s =Fs ; F st =Fe; Diagram 7.33
IX =15° 29.30 Diagram 7.33 IX =15° 29,30
1. Merging of streams (outlet four-way piece) Values of ~c.st
Side branch
2 2 Qst/Qe
i.\~ls = 1 + (Qls
Q2s
F J - 8 (Qls J
c
Slc.s == QIs
pwcl2 Qc FIs Qc 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
[Q/Qls - (1 + Q2/Qls)] z FIs/Fe =0.2
x
4-(1 +Q2/Qls)Ql/Qc 0.5-2.0 -4.37 -2.93 -2.04 -1.44 -1.08 -0.58 -0.22 0.03 0.16 0.14 0
1.0 -3.84 -2.93 -2.13 -1.44 -0.89 -0.45 -O.l3 0.08 0.17 0.14 0
- - - Dividing -L93(QI']' !cHQ"]' 1J
Qc FIs Qls FIs/Fe =0.4
see the table and the curves Slc,s =!eQs/Qc' QZ/Qls) at different FIJFc 0.5-2,0 -1.70 -1.19 -0.76 -0.40 -0.12 0.08 0.21 0.27 0.25 0.16 0
For the other side branch subscripts 1 and 2 change places.

r r
1.0 -1.42 -0.96 -0.58 -2.26 -0.02 0.15 0.26 0.29 0.26 0.16 0
Common passage
FIs/Fe =0.6

pw~2
S ==~=1+ Qst 2_ Qst 2 1 + Qs!Qc -193 Qst Fe 1+(Q2/Qls) QC_l 2(
c.st (Qc J (Qc J (0.75 + 0.25Qs!Qi . (Qc FIs (1 + Q2/Qli Qst
0.5-2.0 -0.81 -0.47 -0.19 0.04 0.20 0.30 0.36 0.35 0.29 0.17 0
1.0 -0.16 -0.31 -0.05 0.13 0.27 0.35 0.39 0.37 0,29 0.17 0
see the table and the curves Sc,st =!(Qs/Qc' Q2/QIs) at different FIJFc'
FIs/Fe =1.0
2. Division of flow (intake four-way piece); Sle,s and Se.st are deterrnined tentatively similar to diverging wyes from
0.5-2.0 -0.35 -0.11 0.l0 0.26 0.36 0.42 0.43 0.39 0.31 0.18 0
Diagrams 7.18 and 7.20.
1.0 -0.21 0.02 0.19 0.33 0.41 0.45 0.45 0.41 0.31 0.18 0
tc.s: tc.st

Values of ~c.s
Four-way wye piece of the type FIs =F2s =F s; F st =Fe; Diagram 7.34
Q2s Qls/Qc IX =30° 29,30
Qls 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
FIs/Fe = 0.2 1. Merging of streams (outlet four-way piece)
0.5 -1.0 -0.37 0.46 1.48 2.69 4.07 5.62
~'" Side branch

~~L
.
1.0 -1.0 -0.29 0.43 1.23 1.80 2.81 2 Z

2.0 -1.0 -0.32 -0.31 -1.13 1&.A" S

lc.sl
== i.\Pls = 1
pw~/2
+(QIs~
Qc FIs
J -8(QISJ
Qc
. Wst' Fst '" wc,Fc
Fls/Fc =O.4
t~ 'II,,/;t-- -~, [Q/Qls-(l + QzlQls)]2
0.5 -1.0 -0.50 -0.05 0.34 0.65 0.90 1.04
~ -Merging x 4-(1 + QZ/Qls)Ql/Qc
1.0 -1.0 -0.39 0.06 0.31 0.35 0.14 yJlt ..... __ Oividing
2.0 -1.0 -0.27 -0.10
Fls/Fe =0.6
-0.65
- 173 (QbJ !cHQ',]' 1
Qc FIs QIs
0.5 -1.0 -0.51 -0.11 -0.21 0.42 0.55 0.53
see the table and the curves Sle,s == f(QIJQe' Q2/Qls) at different FIJFe·
1.0 -1.0 -0.39 0.05 0.40 0.31 0.09 For the other side branch subscripts 1 and 2 change places.

r
2.0 -1.0 -0.22 +0.08 -0.18 Common passage
FIs/Fe = 1.0
S - - - i.\p- - 1 + (QsJ
- - (QsJ
- l+Qs!Qc - 1 73 (QsJ
- Fe 1+(Q2/Qli(Qe- - 1
0.5 -1.0 0.51 -0.12 0.20 0.39 0.49 0.37 c.sI- pw~2- Qe Qe (0.75+0.25Qs!Q} . Qc F Is (1+Q2/Qll Qst
1.0 -1.0 -0.38 0.09 0.36 0.44 0.28
2.0 -1.0 -0.18 0.27 0.19 see the table and the curves Sc, SI == !(Qs/Qc' Q2/Qls) at different FdFe'

2. Division of flow (in take four-way piece); Sc.s and Se,st are determined tentatively as for diverging wyes from Dia-
grams 7.18 and 7.20.
 Merging of Flow Streams and Division into Flow Streams 559
558 Handbook of Hydra u lic Resistance, 4th Edition

Four-way wye piece of the type FIs == F2s =Fs; Fst =Fe;
Four-way wye piece of the type FIs = F2s = Fs; Fst = Fe; = 45°29,30
Cf.
Diagram 7.35
= 30° 29,30
Cf.
Diagram 7.34
1. Merging of streams (outlet four-way piece)
Side branch
2 2
Se.s == 6~IS = 1 + (QIS!s..J
pw~/2 Qe Fis
- 8 (QISJ
Qe

Values of Se.s + Q2/QIs)f

[Q/QIs - (1
x~~~----~~~
" 4 - (1 + Q2/Q1s)QI/Qe

o 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6

- - - Dividing
_ 1.42 (QISJ2 Fe
Qc FIs
[1 + (Q2SJ2
QIs
1J
Fls/Fe =0.2
see the table and the curves Sle,s ::: ft.QJ!Qe, Qz/QIs) at different FJ!Fe·
1+-f--t--r--r--r--j---1 ~!§.::: a9 0.5 -1.0 -D.36 +0.51 1.59 2.89 4.38 6.10 For the other side branch subscripts 1 and 2 change places.
Common passage
c 1.0 -1.0 -D.27 0.51 1.41 2.12 2.91
--_... --- - r -
2.0 -1.0 -D.27 0.11 -D.72
!?!2=tlf. i--
flls ;::;:;; V
!.O! /"" ,~
1-- - ~":!o.
0.5 -1.0 -D.49 -D.03 0.40 0.75 1.06 1.44
"""- see the table and the curves Se,sr ::: j(Qs!Qe' Q2/QIs) at different FJ!Fe·
2.t7/{ff tU aSand2,O i' 1.0 -1.0 -D.38 0.10 0.40 0.51 0.34
1J~(J.2 IU (}'6 0.0 2.0 -1.0 -D.25 0.01 -D.42 2. Division of flow (diverging four-way piece); Se.s and Se.st are
/ VI Fis/Fe =0.6 determined tentatively as for wyes from Diagrams 7.18 and
,tl' %s=ab 7.20
0.5 -1.0 -D.51 -D.1O 0.25 0.50 0.65 0.68
-(18 Iff 1.0 -1.0 -D.38 0.08 0.45 0.42 0.25
r-~:I
~~ Values of Se.s
(14 2.0 -1.0 -0.21 0.15 0.08
:'-~IXj " ,, Fis/Fe = 1.0
,/ /1 /1.0 a5and2,0
Q,8~~
1J/t;.2 (}.{l 0.6 0.5 -1.0 -D.51 -D.11 0.22 0.43 0.55 0.55 o 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6

iL ~ t1::::~~
Re "Cl 1.0 -1.0 -D.37 0.10 0.40 0.51 0.38
FIs/Fe =0.2
2.0 -1.0 -D.17 0.31 0.28
0.5 -1.0 ~j6 0.59 1.77 3.20'-4.88 6.79
-113
ifL y~- {~S:r-t- ~$=f.O
--- 'ast 1.0 -1.0 -D.24 0.63 1.70 2.64 3.73
2.0 -1.0 -D.19 0.21 0.04
Values of Se.st FIs/Fe =0.4
0.5 -1.0 -D.48 -D.02 0.58 0.92 1.31 16.3
1.0 -1.0 -D.36 0.17 0.55 0.72 0.78
o 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
2.0 -1.0 -D.18 0.16 -D.06
Fis/Fe ==0.2
0.5-D.2 -3.81 -2.51 -1.81 -1.20 -D.86 -D.44 -D.13 0.08 0.18 0.14 o Fis/Fe = 0.6
1.0 -3.34 -2.53 -1.81 -1.20 -D.71 -D.32 -D.05 0.12 0.18 0.14 o 0.5 -1.0 -D.50 -D.07 0.31 0.60 0.82 0.92
Fis/Fe == 0.4 1.0 -1.0 -D.37 0.12 0.55 0.60 0.52
0.5-D.2 -1.42 -0.97 -D.58 -D.26 0.02 0.15 0.26 0.30 0.26 0.17 o 2.0 -1.0 -D.18 0.26 0.16
1.0 -1.16 -D.76 -D.48 -D.14 0.07 0.21 0.30 0.31 0.27 0.17 o
FIs/Fe = 1.0
Fis/Fe = 0.6
0.5-D.2 -D.52 -D.32 -D.07 0.13 0.27 0.35 0.39 0.37 0.29 0.17 o 0.5 -1.0 -D.51 -D.09 0.25 0.50 0.65 0.64
1.0 -D.45 -D.18 0.04 0.21 0.33 0.39 0.41 0.39 0.30 0.18 o 1.0 -1.0 -D.37 0.13 0.46 0.61 0.54
Fis/Fe = 1.0 2.0 -1.0 -D.15 0.38 0.42
0.5-D.2 -D.03 0.21 0.34 0.45 0.50 0.52 0.49 0.43 0.32 0.18 o
1.0 0.13 0.29 0.41 0.49 0.54 0.54 0.51 0.44 0.32 0.18 o
 560 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition Merging of Flow Streams and Division into Flow Streams 561

Four-way wye piece of the type Fis = F2s =Fs; Fst = Fe;
Four-way wye piece of the type FIs = F2s = Fs; Fst = Fe; Diagram 7.36
Diagram 7.35 a = 60°29,30
a = 45° 29,30

Values of ~.st
Values of ~c.s

o 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 . 1.0
o 0.1 0.2 0.3 004 0.5 0.6
Fis/Fe = 0.2
Fls/Fe =0.2
0.5-0.2 -2.92 -1.87 -1.29 -0.80 -0.56 -0.23 -0.01 0.16 0.22 0.l5 o
0.5 -1.0 -0.31 0.59 2,00 3.62 5,54 7,72
1.0 -2.54 -1.87 -1.30 -0.80 -0.42 -0.12 0.08 0.20 0.22 0.l5 o 1.0 -1.0 -0.20 0.80 2.07 3.30 4.77
FIs/Fe = 0.4 2.0 -1.0 -0.09 0.62 0.97
0.5-0.2 -0.98 -0.61 -0.30 -0.05 0.14 0.26 0.33 0.34 0.28 0.l7 o
1.0 -0.77 -0.44 -0.16 0.05 0.21 0.31 0.36 0.35 0.29 0.17 o 0.5 -1.0 -0047 -0.06 0.60 1.12 1.63 2.10

FIs/Fe = 0.6 1.0 -1.0 -0.34 0.25 0.73 UO 1.31

2.0 -1.0 -0.15 0.27 0041
0.5-0.2 -0.32 0.08 0.11 0.27 0.37 0.43 0.44 0.40 0.31 0.l8 o
Fl s /F e =0.6
1.0 -0.18 -0.04 0.21 0.34 0.42 0.46 0.46 0.41 0.31 0.18 o
0.5 -1.0 -0.50 0.04 0.38 0.74 1.03 1.23
1.0 -1.0 -0.36 0.18 0.67 0,82 0.87
0.5-0.2 0.11 0.36 0.46 0.53 0.57 0.56 0.52 0.44 0.33 0.18 o 2.0 -1.0 -0.15 0040 0.47
1.0 0.29 0.42 0.51 0.57 0.59 0.58 0.54 0.45 0.33 0.08 o Fis/Fe = 1.0

0.5 -1.0 -0.50 -0.07 0.30 0.58 0.58 0.88

1.0 -1.0 -0.36 0.16 0.53 0.74 0.74
Four-way wye piece of the type FIs = F2s = Fs; Fst =Fe; 2.0 -1.0 -0.13 0046 0.61
Diagram 7.36
a = 60°29,30

1. Merging of streams (outlet four-way piece)

<~
Side branch

! w.~?J, .
__ J
S = "'Pis = 1 +
le.s - pw~/2
(Q1S !3...J- 8 (QISJ2
Qe Fis Qe
Values of ~c.st

~
[Q/QIs - (1 + Q2/QIs)]2
x~--------------
4 - (1 + Q2/QIs)QI/Qe
Ci. -Mel'lling
,/ - - - Dividlng o 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Fis/Fe =0.2
0.5-2.0 -1.77 -1.02 -0.64 -0.30 -0.15 0.06 0.20 0.26 0.26 0.16 o
see the table and the curves Sle,s = j{Q/Qe' Q2/QIs) at different FI/Fe· 1.0 -1.50 -1.03 -0.64 -0.30 -0.05 0.13 0.24 0.29 0.26 0.16 o
For the other side branch subscripts 1 and 2 change places. FIs/Fe =0.4
Common passage 0.5-2.0 -0040 -0.14 0,07 0.24 0.35 0.41 0.42 0.39 0.30 0.18 o
- "'P ( QstJ 2 (Qsl)Z 1 + QslQe ( QstJ 2 Fe 1+(Q2/Qli(Qc J" 1.0 -0.25 -0.02 0.16 0.31 0.40 0.44 0.45 0040 0.31 0.18 o
Se.sl == pw~12 l
= 1 + Qe -lQe) (0.75 + 0.25QslQJ - Qe Fis (1 + Qz/Qli Qst - 1 Fls/Fe =0.6
0.5-2.0 0.06 0.23 0.36 0.46 0.51 0.52 0.50 0.43 0.32 0.18 o
see the table and the curves Se,s! =!(Qs!Qc' Q2/QIs) at different FJ!Fe· 1.0 0.16 0.32 0.43 0.51 0.55 0.55 0.51 0.44 0.33 0.18 o
Fis/Fe = 1.0
2. Division of flow (diverging four-way piece); ~e,s and ~e,sl are determined tentatively as for diverging wyes from 0.5-2.0 0.44 0.54 0.60 0.65 0.65 0.62 0.56 0.47 0.34 0.18 o
Diagrams 7.18 and 7.20. 1.0 0.50 0.59 0.64 0.67 0.67 0.63 0.57 0.47 0.34 0.18 o
 Merging 01 Flow Streams and Division into Flow Streams 563
562 Handbook 01 Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

Four-way wye piece of the type FIs =F2s =F s ; F st = Fe;

a = 90°29,30 Diagram 7.37

1. Merging of streams (converging cross)

Side branch

~1 == Ilpls =1 + (Q1s FeJ2 -8 (.QlSJ2

es pw~/2 l Qe FIs l Qe
[Q/Qls - (1 + Q2/Ql,)]2
x----~--------~
4 - (1 + Q2/Qls)Ql/Qe

see the table and the curves ~le,s =

ftQdQc, Q2/Qls) at different
Fi/Fc-
For the other side branch subscripts 1 and 2 change places.
2 2
~ =~-1 (QstJ -(QstJ 1 + Qst/Qe
C.st - pw~12 - + l Qe Qe (0.75 + O.25Qs/Qi
see the table and the curves ~c,st = j(Qs/QC' Q2/Qls) at different
Q2/Qls'
Common passage For standard crosses made of malleable iron at Qs/Qc > 0.7

r' =
"'lc.s - - Ilpst
-2- = r --Q - 0.7 J
"'c.st + 2.5 (Qst
pw/2 e
o
~
2) Flow division (diverging cross); ~e,s and ~e,st are determined ten-
tatively as for diverging wyes from Diagrams 7.18 and 7.20.

00
ci
Values of ~c.s

\0 tn
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 00
ci ci

0.5 -0.85 -0.10 1.09 2.72 4.77 7.25 10.1

1.0 -0.85 -0.05 1.35 3.12 5.05 7.40 o
00
2.0 -0.85 -0.31 1.77 3.37 ci
Fls/Fc = 0.4
0.5 -0.85 -0.29 0.34 1.03 1.77 2.56 3.37
1.0 -0.85 -0.14 0.60 1.33 2.05 2.71 o00 00 o o
0- 0-
ci ci ci ci
2.0 -0.85 0.12 1.02 1.68
Fl s/Fc =0.6
0.5 -0.85 -0.32 0.20 0.72 1.22 1.70 2.13
o
~t
1.0 -0.85 -0.18 0.46 1.02 1.50 1.85 00
ci
2.0 -0.85 0.09 0.88 1.37
Fl s/F c =0.8
'!
0.5
1.0
·.{J.85
-0.85
-0.33
-0.18
0.13
0.41
0.61
0.91
1.02
1.30
1.38
1.54
1.68 I o o tn
ci
tn
ci
2.0 -0.85 0.08 0.83 1.26
F1:/Fc =1.0
0.5 -0.85 -0.34 0.13 0.56 0.93 1.25 1.48
1.0 -0.85 -0.19 0.39 0.86 1.21 1.40
2.0 -0.85 0.07 0.81 1.21

1.0 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0

1.20 1.19 1.17 1.12 1.05 0.96 0.85 0.72 0.56 0.39 0.20
 u.
Straight diverging crosses with ()( = 90° made of roofing sheets;40 Re > 104 Diagram 7.38 0\
"'"
l';4 s
!;IJ'
. I
I !-I
5..6
Common passage:
1 I
5.2 t- Fs IFc""a#.
........
SC.Sl == D.f ' see the tables and graphs c and d.
pw/2
1(,8
Fs!F. .. 11,11'1
f,+.,
/
"JII

1.5: tc.s
I j
J.1 If. I

2.
J 111
/
1 M
11
2.
~
2.
,\
;Slrt- f
\
f
'i
I1 I +.0

J.6
/ ~

~
()

Y.tf
V ()
~
J.2 I
~
1. 1--, J I-':';/Ii:-(!'ZIJ~
~
a
,h) t / 2./1

u
I \::l..
i:l
!S
Ii. I

(1 11." tJ.ß T.2 ws/wc Z.O IV r)'

::t1
I/-
(\;)
f's/f'i: =(/.~~!"
1,5 '"c:;.
~

7.2
/ ~
Cl
~

IJ.D ./
V ~
~

17.+
V ------ -_._- ~---- -- - -" -- ....... _. ,..•....•. ._- ~
o &!i' aß f.t 1.5 2.IJ 2.{J wS/"'1! S·
~

~
'~
Oe)

Values 01' Sc.st at Fst =const, at any FIJF2s and any Fs/Fc (graph c) ~.

~
Wst1wc 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 004 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 :::J
()
:;f
SC.SI 0.63 0.62 0.40 0.15 0 -0.05 -0.08 -0.08 -0.05 0 +0.05
~
~
~

~
~
Values oi' Sc.st in the presence of a conical transition in theeommon passage (graph d)
~
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2
tJ
Wst1wc ~.
c:;.
~c.st 0.6 0.55 0.45 0.25 0.10 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.07 0.10 0.17 0.2 S·
~
S·
Ci
:::J
~
lc.s fit. s ~
M ..... ® 0.5
I~) ~
~
,~
o.J \ U,5
"\
~

Il.t; \, 0.*
\
II.J
0.1
II.Z
\ /
i\

(J
0.2
(J.f \
\
!J.2lZ.,~"A""c
f I
.I
J
0.1

"
1--1-
0.2 o.~ 0.5 " 'I'
tJ..8
..... ' /
.~~L.....J-_l-.-J.---..I-J-____ -
1.0 U t* t5 f.8 2,0 wo,,/w..

-0.1

UI
0\
u.
 Merging of Flow Streams and Division into Flow Streams 567
566 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

Header (diverging) box with transition sections

61
Diagram 7.39
Oudet headers at (J. =90° and LlDh.in < 150 (without additional Diagram 7AO
barriers in the channel);50 Re =WinDh.in/V :2: 104
t.C.S =- --z-/
/::,pjs ' see the curves
pwc 2
~i.s = f ( -Ws-
wU-l)c
J, where wU-l)c is the average velo city in the box before the ith branch. O.%A{:S; 2.6 0< K j < 0.3:

r-" =
- -/::,P 6 '
2 - z 2. 3-0.54A j
pWin/2
0.3 :::;Kj <0.6

Sz 2.28 - 0.51A; + 0.40K1 + 0.0066L1D/t.in -- 0.0015A'lLiD/t.in

fapp 0.3 :S:Kj :::;0.9

fsec
<l
s z 2.20 - 0.57A { + 0.60Kl + 0.0086L1Dh.in
Y",j" -- O.02A{LlDh.in = !CA{KjLlDh .in ) ,
, - 1
where Al =f
.,j0.6 + (fs/fa/ + ~sec + ~app
D . = 4Fin
/t.m D ~sec == /::'Pse.!(pw;12); see the data of the handbook for corresponding
in
seetion connected to side branches before and after the apparatus;

~app == /::'Pap!(pw~!2); see Chapter 12 or other literature sources of data for this type of apparatus (devices), adjacent
to side branches; f = nof/Fin (no is the number of branches); K j = 1 - FfiiFin .

Values of (,
Ai
0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4

~
j LlDh in = 10 UDll.in=5-1O
..! "---'-- 2.00 1.80 1.65 1.60
2.40 2.10
2.2 Klag l 0.3 2.30 2.20 2.13 1.97 1.83 1.70
k' I IM -_. 0.6 2.40 2.28 2.23 2.07 1.90 1.77

Dimensions in the scheme (h is the height of the box cross section) t 8'''' I"-
"-........:KII"
r....
/a)
0.9 2.60 2.50 2.43
LIDh.in=60
2.26 2.10 1.94

f'.. I"":
I-- -
~ ~ ~(J
,
2.30 2.10 2.05 1.93 1.80 1.70
Scheme D A' B' A B L R ~ 0.3 2.40 2.30 2.20 2.18 2.04 1.90
t4 .... ~ ~
a 0.6-0.9h z1.7D D 1-1.3D "- ~
"-.
~ 0.6 2.70 2.55 2.45
2,70
2.33
2.56
2.16
2.37
2.00
2.20

"'"' ' f<. >-

_0.9 3.00 2.85

0.6-O.9h
l.5··1.25h -·().30·0.45h 1-1.5h
z1.7D
O.6-0.9h
D
0.6-·1.1h.
0.2D
' ....
.........::::::
2.2 L/DilJn= 120

d 1.5-1.25h 0.30-0.45h 1.5-1.25h 0.6-0.9h

t'.... LlDh.in=60
._._- 2.30 2.10 2.25 2.13 2.00 1.87
~ 1/~ 'r--...
0.6-O.9h 0.3-O.4h 0.3 2.70 2.60 2.55 2.48 2.31 2.15
/(:<ag -......., ><::::t--...t'-... 1.8 0.6 3.05 2.80 2.77 2.71 2.51 2.33

Values of (,i.s I f- a6 ~t---.~ ;:- , 0.9 3.45 3.30 3.10

Ai
2.97 2.75 2.55

\.1\, 'r-....IJ.J K=()1;;>- .......... ~

t9 Kl
1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6

~
Ws/W(i-1)c UDhJn=5-1O
Branching }.. '-.
2.6 /.0 1.50 1.38 1.30 1.20 1.13 1.07
0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0
~ "- =120
""-
LlDh,in 0.3 1.59 1.48 1.39 1.29 1.20 1.12
Side 4.30 1.60 0.88 0.60 0.24 0.20 0.19 0.18
Upper or lower 3.00 1.80 1.43 0.92 0.90 1.12 1.67 21 .....
...... ~ 0.6 1.65 1.59 1.41 1.31 1.20 1.12

~ ><
1.67 1.54 1.43 1.23
~
0.9 1.80 1.33
"-...
...... UDhJn=60
I
f.8 f-j=1l.9 '" ~
...... '>.
I<... I"- 1.60 1.50 1.40 1.31 1.23 1.15

f-r-f-(J.6
K ~ t'-... r-...... 0.3 1.77 1.65 1.54 1.44 1.34 1.25
1\ ai' " ........... .~ 0.6 1.86 1.72 1.59 1.48 1.37 1.27

t5 \\ ,./
~
1

I K;t/'" - '",'- -
0.9

0
2.04

1.75
1.89

1.65
1.75
UDil.in= 120
1.55
1.62

1.44
1.50

1.35
1.39

1.27

0.8 \''J '-.. 2

- V 1.0
/U tZ 1.6 0.3
0.6
2.01
2.16
1.87
2.00
1.75
1.85
1.63
L72
1.52
1.59
1.41
1.47
r--. I 0.9 2.37 2.19 2.03 1.88 1.75 1.62
 Merging oj Flow Streams and Division into Flow Streams 569
568 Handbook ofHydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

I1-shaped headers at Cf. = 90°; LlDh.in S 5.0; 0.5 S Fin/Pin S 1.0;

Intake headers at Cf. =90°;50 LlDh.in < 150; Re =winDh.in/V > 104 Diagram 7.41 Diagram 7.42
~ 10
4
Kl s 0.9 far supply and K =0 far intake channels;50 Re WinDh.in/V =
0.2 SA~:S; 1.4:
,
l
i 0.54 :s; A; :s; 1.6
S== t.p/(pw~/2) '" 1/(0.788A~ + 0.029K j
Ffin
+ 0.115FulF~ - 0.130A;K[
ts see the curves S= f(A 2, K j ), where <jJ = 0.09 +
- 0.353A;Fin /F; - 0.090)
rapp I • 0.50A; + 0.02Kj - 0.09A;K j
S== f(A;, K[,Fin/F~)
fsec A;==! 1
'>/0.6 + (fs/fa)2 + Ssec + Sapp A;=! 1
o a "';0.6+ if/f:)2 + Ssec + Sapp
va,Fa Ssec == t.PseJ(pw;/2); see the data of the handbook
for corresponding section connected to side branches Ssec == t.Pse/(pw;12); see the data of the handbook for corre-
D . _ 4Fin
h.rn - D before and after the apparatus; sponding section connected adjacent to side branches before
in
D,. = 4Fin and after the apparatus; Sapp == t.Pap!(pw~12); see Chapter 12
l.m D
in or other sources of data on apparatus (devices), adjacent to
side branches;
~app == t.Pap!(pw~/2); see Chapter 12 or any other sources of data on apparatus (devices), adjacent to side branches;
f = not/Fin (no is the number of branches); K) = 1 - Frm/Fin . ! == not/Fin (no is the number of branches); K[ = 1 - FfiulFin.

Values of 1;

Values of 1; A3
0.5 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6
FirV Ein = 0.5
K
A2 3.66 3.00 2.19 1.73 1.43 1.21 1.06
0.2 0.3 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 3.80 3.13 2.30 1.82 1.51 1.29 1.12
0.3
0.6 3.97 3.28 2.43 1.93 1.60 1.37 1.19
0 27.5 17.0 11.8 6.30 3.90 2.52 1.76 1.30 2.57 2.05 1.70 1.46 1.27
0.9 4.15 3.44
0.3 27.2 17.3 12.0 6.60 4.12 2.78 1.97 1.44 FirVF~=0.75
3.88 3.22 2.47 1.92 1.60 1.37 1.20
0.6 27.0 17.5 12.4 7.00 4.43 3.02 2.16 1.59 2.55 2.04 1.71 1.46 1.28
0.3 4.05 3.38
4.23 3.56 2.70 2.18 1.82-- L57 1,38
0.9 27.0 18.0 12.8 7.42 4.77 3.28 2.37 1.77 0.6
0.9 4.44 3.76 2.88 2.33 1.96 1.69 1.49
FirVEin= 1.0
0 4.12 3.50 2.68 2.17 1.83 1.58 1.39
0.3 4.32 3.69 2.85 2.33 1.93 1.70 1.60
0.6 4.53 3.90 3.05 2.50 2.12 1.84 1.63
0.9 4.76 4.13 3.27 2.71 2.31 2.01 1.79

~ j{=a9 FlnlFin=a§1J

J.{) ~~ a5
~~ J(43
~ ~ I ~' ~~~ K~IJ
20 ~
\
fII
-+-
I
ItJ ~K=t7.9
\ 7fT
~
2.{)

[f)
,-- ~~- ......~r--.l- --J
~=IJ.
MJ
"'J...: ~ I--F
3.0
2.5 ~\ 1\
\. : ~~ Fin IF in=a.75
22 11 ~",a.J
~

" Kf=t9 ~
'\ ~j(=49
\' ~. 'l.tJ
~~ " ,~
j(=(}
::-l. r ztJ

~~~ '\j
\
18 I 8,0 lO i
3.0
j{=(J9 ~~,
' ....... ~ 1.0
~ ~ ,..... FinIFin-f.O

"- r-.... -~~ ~ a!~~ 1J.6 f'::~ :-:::::-L

I
"- ~ F::: -:::j
14 f- 2JJ
~m
I f-J ~
K~O J(=(J K=tJ) - 0.3
/{=o
ftJ I I () ( I 1.() [0
a4 0.6 0.8 1.0 f.2 f.II AS
fl.!O t7.l5 fJ.JO IlJ5 fJ.4tJ MIJ MO 1.00 f.20 A;
 Merging oj Flow Streams and Division into Flow Streams 571
570 Handbook oj Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

REFERENCES
Z-shaped headers at a = 90° and L/Dh.in:::;; 50; 0.5 ~ Fin/Fin ~ 1.0; Diagram 7.43
K1 ~ 0.9 for supply and K1 =0 for intake channels;50 Re =WinDIJ.in/v ;:::: 104 1. Aslaniyan, O. 1., Goldenberg, 1. Z., Zyuban, V. A, et al., Study of the axial velocity fields in
uptake wyes, Izv. VUZ, Energetika, no. 11, 110-116, 1987.
0.54::; Ad ::; 1.6: 2. Bezdetkina, E. V., Specific features of operation of norrnalized wyes in industrial conditions, in
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S== 6p/(pw~/2) "'" 1/(0.692Ad - 0.073K j
gograd, 1971.
+ 0.128Fin /Fh; - 0.424AdFi~ - 0.013) 3. Vasilevskiy, V. P., Determination of the resistance coefficient for two flows converging at differ-
ent veloeities by the method of the theory of turbulent jets, in Technological Progress in the De-
S= f(Ad, K l , Fin/F;)
sign and Usage of Water Routes and Hydroengineering Constmctions, vyp. 176, pp. 15-19,
Ad=! 1 Leningrad, 1983.
-10.6 + (fs/fs*i + Ssec + Sapp 4. Gusev, V. M. and Rienas, F. R., Investigation of the paired installation of standard wyes having
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D . = 4Fin
h.m D
see Chapter 12 or other sources of data for the given appara- wyes of type Fe = Fst - Fs - Fw , Teploenergetika, no. 7, 44--46, 1983.
in J
tus (devices) adjacent to side branches; = nrf/Fin (no is the 6. Dergachev, B. A, The cases of the increase in the total head in the developed flow of a real fluid,
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Values of ~ 7. Dergachev, B. A, The specific energy balance equation in the case of the forced liquid flow divi-
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Kj
A:\ 8. Zubov, V. P., Investigation of Pressure Losses in Wyes with Converging and Diverging Flows,
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Firlru,=0.5 9. Zubov, V. P., Conceming the resistance of an ordinary wye with converging flows, in The Prob-
0 3.44 2.95 2.30 1.88 1.59 1.38 1.22 lems of Hydraulics (Tr. Mosk. Inzh.-Stroit. Ins!.), no. 124, pp. 55-60, Moscow, 1974.
0.3 3.72 3.15 2.42 1.96 1.65 1.43 1.25 10. Zubov, V. P., The physical meaning of the resistance coefficients of wyes with converging liquid
0.6 4.05 3.39 2.56 2.05 1.71 1.47 1.29 flows, Stroit. Arkhit. VNIllC, no. C, 25, 1981.
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FirlFln=0.75 of wyes on Reynolds number, in The Hydraulics of Blade Machines and the General Mechanics,
3.70 3.25 2.62 2.19 1.88 1.65 1.47 (Tr. VPI), pp. 107-112, Voronezh, 1974.
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~~
FinIF in=050 cow, 1983, 350 p.
r-- K;ag
JO .t I 17. Ide1chik, L E., Towards determination of the hydraulic resistance of seetions with division and joining
"ßn I. t-- of two-phase (multiphase) flows, Izv. VUZ, Energetika, no. 7, 1975.
\.y...... ,~ ~ (lJ
2.P i"""'- t'$;:E§ ~ b Klo t-- 18. Idelchik, 1. E., Forrnulas for calculation of flow delivery along contracting, filtering and other Z-
~R- shaped apparatus and collectors, Teor. Osn. Khim. Tekhnol., vol. 6, no. 2, 253-260, 1970.
;0<;
~~ ...... ~ I"F==: J(}
1.0 /(=Q.g 19. Ide1chik, 1. E. and Shteinberg, M. E., Towards the methods of calculation of flow distribution
al~~ ~ ::-;:
FinIF in=!J.75
[---1-
along the channels with flow delivery along the path, Teor. Osn. Khim. Tekhnol., vol. 6, no. 4,
\.
"'~
................
........ , ~of1T ~
2.0
20.
603-610, 1972.
Kiselev, P. G., About the magnitude of the lost head in merging of flows, in The Problems of
4,p
~
K=tJ.9 I a;in=f.lJ 41)
Hydraulics and Water Supply (Tr. Mosk. Inzh.-Stroit. Inst.), no. 174, pp. 5-9, Moscow, 1980.
J.tJ
.. 1-.
~ ~~
ar aJ
"f.......'h..~ ~f
... _-
K-()
21. Klyachko, L. S. and Uspenskaya, L. B., Calculation formulas for norrnalized ventilation wyes and
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i - I I .
 572 Handbook oj Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition iV1erging oj Flow Streams and Division into Flow Streams 573

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45. Tatarchuk, G. T., Local resistances of iron crosses, in Problems 0/ Heating and Ventilation, pp. 70. Rao, B. C. S., Lakshmana, R. N. S., and Shivaswamy, M. S., Distribution of energy losses at
31-45, Gosstroiizdat Press, Moscow, 1956. conduit trifurcations, l. Hydraul. Div., Froc. ASCE, vol. 94, na. 6, 1363-1374, 1968.
46. Terentiev, N. I., Investigation af the mutual effect of wyes and side branches on local pressure losses 71. Rao, P. V. and Sharma, S. N. P., Energy loss at abrupt pipe trifurcations, Univ. Rom'kee Res. 1.,
in pipelines of central pumping installations, Transport (Tl'. TsNII MPS), vyp. 43, pp. 40-47, 1971. voL 10, no. 3-4, part 1, 43-53, 1968.
47. Uliyanov, 1. Ye., Krumilina, N. N., and Vokar, N. V., Design 0/ the Air Ducts 0/ the Aeroplane 72. Ruus, E., Head los ses in wyes and manifolds, J. Hydraul. Div., Proc. ASCE, vol. 96, no. 3, 593-
Power Units, Mashinostroenie Press, Moscow, 1979, 96 p. 608, 1970.
574 Handbook 01 Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

73. Spielbauer, M., Die spezifischen Widerstande von Rohrverzweigungen und ihre Bedeutung fÜr die- CHAPTER
integration der Leistungsverluste sowie für die Quershnittsoptirnierung, Bautechnik, vol. 40, no. 1,
19-26, 1963. EIGHT
74. Spychala, F. U. S., Versuche zur Ermittlung von Druckverlusten in Rohrleitungen und
Formstücken von Lüftungsanlagen, Schifflauforschung, vol. 7, no. 5-6, 216-222, 1968.
75. Shisholm, D., Calculated pressure lasses in bends and tees during steamwater flow, Eng. Boiler
RESISTANCE TO FLOW THROUGH
House Rev., val. 82, no. 8, 235-237, 1967. BARRIERS UNIFORML Y DISTRIBUTED
76. Tsao, S. and Rodgers, W., Numerical solutions of transients in pneumatic networks. Part 3. Net-
work problems with branching, Trans. ASME, val. 36, no. 3, 594-597, 1969. OVER THE CHANNEL CROSS SECTION
77. Turton, R. K., Design of slurry distribution manifolds, The Engineer Technical Contributors Sec- RESISTANCE COEFFICIENTS OF' GRIDS, SCREENS,
tion, April, 29, 641-643, 1966.
78. Vogel, c., Untersuchungen über den Verlust in rechtwinkligen Rohrverzweigungen, Mitt. Hydraul. POROUS LAYERS, AND PACKINGS
lnst. Tech. Hochschule Miinchen, no. 1, 1926; no. 2, 85-105, 1928.
79. Williamson, l and Rhone, T. l, Dividing flow in branches and wyes, J. Hydraul. Div., pp. 747-
769, May, 1973.

8.1 EXPLANATIONS AND PRACTICAL RECOMlVIENDATIONS

1. Barriers that are distributed uniformly over the cross section of tubes and channels and
create uniform resistance to flow consist of grids, screens, beds, fabrics, packings of Raschig
rings, lumped or loose material, crosswise bundles of tubes, and so on.
2. The resistance created by plane grids (perforated sheets) placed in a straight tube is the
same as that of flow passage through an orifice plate. When approaching the grid, the fluid
contractsdUling its passage through the grid orifices andleaves the grid as separate jets en-
tering the tube with higher velocity. Thus, there appear losses that are associated with both
the entry into orifices and the sudden expansion at their exit (Figure 8.1).
_ The resistance coefficient of aperforated plate (grid) depends on the free-area coefficient
f = Llor/Fgr = FoIF1, by the shape of the orifice edges, and the Reynolds number Re =
wordolv. It is calculated by the same equations that are used for an orifice plate, that is, Equa-
tions (4.7) through (4.27), respectively:

3. At small values of the free-area coefficient I of the perforated plate (grid), the velo city
of the flow in the orifices and especially in the narrowest section of the jets in the orifices
can turn out to be very high even at low inlet velocities. In some cases, the velocity of the
flow in the contracted section of the jets can approach sonic velocity (Mach numbers elose to
unity). Under these conditions the resistance coefficient of the grid becomes a function of the
Mach number Mal = wl/a (see paragraph 38 of Chapter 4), that is,

575
 Flow through Barriers Distributed over the Channel Cross Seetion 577
576 Handbook 0/ Hydrmtlic Resistance, 4th Edition

.....
~.~~.
~
S,

••••
••or.
(8)

Figure 8.2. Disposition of orifices in a perforated plate (grid): (a) in-line, (b) staggered.

Figure 8.1. Pattern of flow through grid, perforated plate, and screen.
With staggered (triangular pitch) configuration of orifices at an angle e (Figure 8.2b)

0.63dor-ftlli18
{j

where kM is the correction for the effect of the Mach number obtained on the basis of the
experimental data of Come1l (see Diagram 8.7), ~ is determined as in the case of MI "'" 0
63

by equations of Chapter 4, and Wl is the average velocity of the flow before the barrier
(grids, screens, and the like, rnJs). In the particular case of equal distances between the orifices in both the trans verse and
4. When designing perforated grids, one can make use of the following relationship be- diagonal direction (S2 = si; e = 60°), we obtain
tween the number of orifices nor , their ~ansverse, Sr. and longitudinal, S2, pitches, their di-
ameter don and the free-area coefficient / of the grid.
The number of orifices is

_ 1.27 jFgr At SI = S2, we obtain Equation (8.2).

nor - 2 5. The resistance coefficient of noncontaminated screens at large Reynolds numbers is
dor

The distance between the orifices:

~= pWI/2 =ko
/j.p (FO] [Fl 1J2
1- Fr + Fo- (8.3)
with in-line (rectangular) configuration (Figure 8.2a)

0.785d~r For screens made of circular metal wires with a conventional (as received) surface (but nei-
Sl=----,
S2f ther rusty nor dusty) ko = 1.3 (according to Adamov); for new wire screens ko = 1.0; for
49
silk-thread screens ko = 2.1.
6. The resistance coefficients for circular-wire screens at Reynolds numbers Re < 103 and
0.785d~r
S2=---- . (8.1) for silk-thread screens at Re < 500 can be determined from the following formulas.
Sr!
.. Screens made from circular wire
3
In the first of Equations (8.1) the known quantity is the pitch S2, and in the second, the at 50 < Re < 10
pitch SI; in the particular case of SI = S2, we have

0. 89do
Sl= {j . (8.2)
at Re< 50

578 Handbook 0/ Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition
• Screens made from silk threads
at 40 < Re < 500
at Re < 40
where i;quad is determined as I; from Equation (8.3); kRe and kRe are determined from corre-
sponding curves kRe = j(Re) of Diagram 8.6.
34
7. The resistance coefficient of two-plane screens (see Diagram 8.6) can be determined as
f...p - -
S== -2-= 1.28(1- f)1/.
pwo/2
The nonuniform location of bars does not influence the resistance coefficient of the screen;
it depends only on the total free area J34
8. The screens made of nichrome wire as a base, with a dielectric kapron thread of the
same diameter (d = 0.5-1.2 ) running crosswise, were investigated by Leibenzon 40 when in-
stalled at different angles to the flow (<p = 0-75°). With an increase in <p within 0-45°, the
resistance coefficient of the screen grows relatively slightly. A sharp increase (almost double)
occurs when <p increases from 45 to 60°. Then the coefficient Sdecreases again with a further
growth of <po
9. Just as in the case of grids, the stream velocity in the orifices of a screen with small
free-area coefficients can approach the velocity of sound (Mal = 1.0). The effect of the Mach
number Mal is defined as
where k~1 is the correction for the effect of the Mach number (see Diagram 8.7).
67
10. A similar phenomenon can also be observed with other porous (filtering) materials.
The values of the resistance coefficients of some of these obtained at very high pressures (up
to 20 MPa) are given in Diagram 8.8 as a function of the Reynolds number. 58 This diagram
also shows the curves p = p2/pl vs. flow velocity WI for the same materials.
Neither the resistance coefficient I; nor the pressure ratio p depends on the pressure PI in
front of the porous material.
11. Theoretically, the installation of two screens c10se to each other should not lead to an
increase in flow resistance, since if the wires of the two screens were accurately superim-
posed, this would result in a screen of doubled thickness in the flow direction. In practice,
Flow through Barriers Distributed over the Channel Cross Seetion 579
however, the wires of both screens are partially displaced with respect to each other, and as
a result the c1ear area decreases slightly and the resistance increases, but this increase is rarely
twofold. When two screens are installed at some distance from each other (approximately
above 15 wire diameters) the resistance of the screens doubles. Therefore, in practical calcu-
lations the total resistance coefficient of screens placed in series can be determined as a sum
of the resistance coefficients of separate screens, that is,
i=l
where ns is the number of rows of screens.
12. When grids (screens) are used as bubbling trays (grid trays) in process apparatus where
mass transfer occurs (rectification, sorption, wetting of gases, etc.; Figure 8.3), their resistance
depends (1) on the conditions of tray operation (dry tray wetted by a liquid column over it
with and without bubbling) and (2) on the physical properties of the working media and the
tray dimensions.
13. The resistance coefficient of a dry tray is determined from the data given under para-
graphs 2, 5, and 6 for an ordinary grid (screen).
The resistance of a wetted tray with small orifices is higher than the resistance of a dry
tray, since a liquid forms in the orifices and its breaking requires a certain amount of energy
of the gas (air) flow passing through the orifice.
The resistance coefficient of a wetted tray (with small orifices) can be calculated from the
47
equation of Usyukin and Akselrod:
2
f...p
S==--2-=i;dry - (FO] +2·10-4 -cr/ao
- ?- ,
pgwo/2 FI PgW5/ 2
where i;dry is the resistance coefficient of a~dry tray determined as 1;; for an ordinary grid
(screen), see Diagrams 8.1 through 8.6; cr is the surface tension coefficient of a liquid at the
3
gas-liquid interface, N/m; Pg is the gas density, kg/m ; ao is the radius of the circular orifice
Figure 8.3. Screen trays in a rectification column.
 580 Handbook ojHydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition Flow through Barriers Distributed over the Channel Cross Section 581

or the width of a slit in the tray, m; and Wo is the average flow velocity in the clear area of )'- /}.P 1"
S =--2-= 21::
ß . 8
sm , (8.5)
the barrier (grid, screen, etc.), mJs. pW l/2
14. The resistance coefficient of a tray under normal operating conditions with bubbling47 is
where ß2 is the coeffieient of the bar shape (see Diagram 8.9); S' is the resistance eoefficient
2 -4 of an ordinary grid or orifiee plate with thiek-edged orifices, determined as S from the
1'=~=l'd
I:: 2 I::ry
[FO] + 2·10 G/ao +49 Pr ~
2' ') author's equation (4.12) or from Diagram 8.3.
Pgwo/2 Fl Pgwo/2 Pw Pgwö/2
18. When ao/Sl 2:: 0.5, the resistanee eoefficient of a bar grating having any shape of the
bar and placed immediately behind a flow turn at an angle of attack ao22 is
0 J2/3_1_')_,
+22.521.::::1.
Pw [ lsp Pgwö/2 (8.6)

where Pw and Pt are the density of water and of the working fluid, kg/m 3 ; hsp and lsp are the
height and length of the spilling partition of the tray, m.
15. The resistance coefficient of bubbling trays without special spilling devices can be cal-
culated, with sufficient accuracy for technical calculations, by the formula of Dilman et al.: 44
The free-area coefficient j of the tray slits through which liquid flows down is
where GI is a coefficient that depends almost entirely on the angle of attack ao (for the given
shape of the bar, see graph a of Diagram 8.10); G2 is a eoefficient that depends on the angle
of attack ao and on the free-area eoefficient ao/Sl (see graph b of Diagram 8.10).
19. When bar gratings are used in hydraulic struetures, the actual values of S for these
gratings turn out to be high er than predieted, due to fouling of the gratings and their special
design features. Therefore, Dulnev 15 reeommends introducing into Equations (8.4), (8.5), and
(8.6) the eorreetion factor c', whieh allows for the nature and amount of rubbish eontained in
water, the method of cleaning the grid, the possibility of deposition of silt before the grid,
and so on. In the case of mechanieal cleaning of grids, c' = 1.1-1.13, and in the case of
manual c1eaning, c' = 1.5-2.0. It is recommended that the special design features be allowed
for by the eorrection factor

where Go and L o are the mass flow rates of gas and liquid, respectively, kg/m2 ·s; J.lt is the
dis charge coefficient of the liquid through a slit (orifice) of the tray.
16. Just as for ordinary thickened grids, the totallosses in grids made of bars (bar grat-
ings) with different cross-sectional shapes (see Diagrams 8.9 and 8.10) consist of the entrance
losses, frictional losses, and losses for sudden expansion (shock losses) at the exit into the
channel from the constricted cross section between the bars.
The resistance coefficient of gratings at lIdm = 5 and ao/Sl 2:: 0.5 can be determined from
the equation of Kirschrner: 69
(8.4)
where ßl is the coefficient of the shape of bars (see Diagram 8.9); kl = (SI/ao - 1)4/3, 8 is
the angle of bar inclination toward the flow; dm is the width (diameter) of the midsection of
the grid bar, ao is the gap between two adjacent bars, m; SI is the distance between the axes
of two adjaeent bars, m; and I is the bar length, m.
17. The resistance coefficient of grids at any value of the free-area coefficient j = Fo/Fo
= ao/Sl and any relative depth of the gap (grid thickness) lIao ean be determined approxi-
mately from
eil:::::: 1
(l-A/L)2 '
where L is the internal height of the grating, m; A is the total height of the transverse ele-
ments (A = hnl + dn2) , m; hand nl are the height and the number of intermediate support
bars, m; and d and n2 are the diameter and the number of bracing elements, m.
20. In the case of flow passage through a porous medium, a gradual transition is observed
from a laminar to a turbulent regime. The smooth transition is due (1) to the tortuosity of the
pores, eontractions, and expansions and the surfaee roughness of the porous medium, whieh
favors vortex formation and flow disturbances, and (2) to gradual propagation of turbulence
from larger pores to smaller ones, whieh is associated with the size distribution of pores in
the medium.
21. Porous media ean be c1assified into three main groups:
1& Cemented or bonded media (porous eeramics, eoal, porous metal).
111 Loose or unbonded media (powders, various lump materials, packings made from ele-
ments of regular geometrie form: spheres, cylinders, rings).
111 Gridlike or chordlike paekings, packings of sereens or meshes, tubes, eorrugated strips, ete.
22. The porosity and magnitude of the gaps (the free-area eoefficient) of a bed composed
of identieal spherical bodies are independent of the grain diameter; they are functions of the
mutual disposition of grains, that is, of the angle e (Figure 8.4):
 Flow through Barriers Distributed over the Channel Cross Seetion 583
582 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

Table 8.1. Values of E' andf

E' =. 1 f= 1 - 0.25n:/sin 8 .
6(1 - cos 8)v'1 + 2 cos 8 ' e 60° 60°02' 61 °18' 62°36' 64°03' 65°37'

23. For a layer of loose bodies or lumps of spherical or irregular shape the resistance co- c' 0.259 0.26 0.28 0.30 0.32 0.34
efficient can be ca1culated accurate to ±20-35 %* from the expression resulting from the veri- f 0.0931 0.0977 0.1045 0.1155 0.1266 0.1337
fied 66 formula of Ergun: 64 e 67°21' 69°17' 71°28' 74°031' 77°10' 81°25' 90°00'

c' 0.36 0.38 0.40 0.42 0.44 0.46 0.476

r = ~ _11360( 1 - E,)2 B' (l - E') 1 /d _ "11 /d
(8.7)
'::> - - + 3 110 el - I\, 0 el, f 0.1491 0.1605 0.1719 0.1832 0.1946 0.2057 0.2146
pWI/2 L E,3 Rel E' J
where
A= 164/Reh+7.68/Re~·1l (8.11)
A- !1p (8.8) Equations (8.9) through (8.11) can be used also for determining the resistance coefficient
PWI/2Io/ deI of the bounded porous material.
25. The resistance of "regular" porous media, such as packings of Raschig rings laid in
Rel == Wider/v; deI = <Pldgr; dgr is the mean size (diameter) of the body; <PI is the coefficient
regular rows (Diagram 8.13) and chordlike packings of wooden laths laid in parallel (Dia-
of the body shape; B' = 1.8 for bodies with a smooth surface; B' = 4.0 for bodies with a
gram 8.14), is mainly determined by the frictional pressure losses in the absence of wetting
rough surface. The values of E', dgr' and <PI for bodies of different materials are given in
by liquid.
Diagram 8.11. The resistance coefficient of such packings can be calculated from Equation (8.9), where,
24. The resistance coefficient of a bed made of bodies of irregular shape and also of rings,
according to the refined data,16 within 0.4 x 103 < Relh < wldh1v :.:::; 8 x 103 (where Relh is
for which the hydraulic diameter of pores dh is known, is
based on the velocity upstream of the packing)

(8.9) (8.12)

where, according to Ishkin and Kaganer,32 at Reh == (l/E')(Wldh1v) < 3 3

while for Relh > 8 x 10

A =. 180/Reh , (8.10) A == 0.11 = const , (8.13)

and at Reh> 3
Figure 8.4. Relative position of spherical bodies in a packed bed.
*This accuracy is relatively good if it is laken into account that the applicabilily of the proposed
formula within the range of the Reynolds numbers fram 10- 1 to 103 varies the resistance coefficient by
two orders (from 0.5 to 50).4
rs
where dh = 4E' is the hydraulic diameter of the gap between the rings, rum (S is the specific
surface area of all the rings, m 2/m\
26. The resistance of packings of Raschig rings placed in staggered arrangement (see Dia-
gram 8.13) and chordlike packings placed crosswise (see Diagram 8.14), in the absence of
wetting by liquid, is determined by both the frictional losses and the losses due to sudden
contraction and expansion of the flow at the places of intersection of the packing rows.
27. The resistance coefficient of ceramic Raschig rings with outer-to-inner-diameter ratio
doutldin z 1.2 and relative height Vd out "'" 1.0 with a staggered arrangement can be determined
from Equation (8.9) where, within 0.4 x 103 < Relh :.:::; 6 x 103, A is calculated from Zha-
voronkov's equationl6 refined by the present author as
'}.._ 9.6
(8.14)
- Re?~75 '
and for Relh > 6 x 103 by
 Flow through Barriers Distributed over the Channel Cross Section 585
584 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

33. If the passage of agas through the packing is aceompanied by its cooling or heating,
'A == 0.36 = eonst . (8.15)
then the total resistanee coefficient must include an additional term ~~t allowing for aeeelera-
tion (retardation) pressure losses by the flow within the bed as a result of the deerease (in-
With a eertain approximation, Equations (8.14) and (8.15) ean be extended to the rino-s of 43
other dimensions as weIl. C
erease) in the density of the working medium:
28. The resistance eoeffieient of ehordlike packings laid crosswise is ca1culated from Equa-
tion (8.9), in whieh, within 0.4 x 103 < Relh < 6 x 103 , aceording to Zhavoronkoy16

(8.16) where ~ is determined from Equations (8.7)-(8.18) as

and for Relh > 6.103

'A ='A' =eonst , (8.17) (for heating ß~t is positive, while for eooling ß~t is negative);

where k1and 'A' are taken as functions of the number of the grid (see Diagram 8.14).*
29. The resistance to the motion of agas stream in a wetted packing is much higher than
in a dry paeking. The inerease in resistance is due both to reduction of the free area hy liquid
~nd to gas bubbling through the liquid retained in the stagnant zones of the packing. The
273 wlmdh
mfluence of the intensity of wetting on the resistanee of packing inereases with a decrease in Pm=PO Tm' Relh=-v-'
the size of the elements in the packing.
. 30. When a gas moves in a counterflow direction through the wetted packing three re-
Wl m is the flow velocity before the barrier front based on the arithmetic mean temperature Tm
gImes are observed: stable, when the liquid flows down completely; unstable, when at first
of the flow along this harrier, mls; Po and Pm is the density of the passing medium at T =
entrainment (capturing) of the liquid occurs; and then liquid flow reversal, which leads to
273 K and that ealculated on the basis of the arithmetic mean temperature Tm of the flow
choking and expulsion of liquid out of the packing together with the gas. Retention and chok-
along the barrier, respeetively, kg/m 3 ; v is taken depending on the arithmetic mean tempera-
ing of the liquid occur at agas stream velocity that becomes smaller, the larger the intensity
ture Tm (tm)·
A of wetting of the packing. 16
34. For dry filtration of gases (air) from highly dispersed dust, wide use is made of cloth
31. The resistance eoeffieient of a wetted packing, ordered or disordered, hefore the onset
3 2 filters. Unlike a cloth through whieh a clean (nondusty) gas passes, the resistance of the fil-
of liquid retention - that is, at a velocity WI Wllim at about A = 50 m /(m .h) -can be
Z
tering cloth to a dust-laden gas increases with time. The explanation is that the potes of the
approximately ca1culated on the basis of Zhavoronkov' s16 data by the formula
cloth on the side of the dusty gas entrance are filIed with dust particles, whieh form a "sec-
ond" porous layer in the pores and on the cloth surfaee. As the pores are filled with dust
(8.18) particles the thickness of the dust layer on the surfaee increases, and the resistance of the
filtering porous medium (cloth and dust) increases.
35. It is suggested 18 that the resistance of the dusty filtering cloth he considered as com-
where I;dry is the resistanee eoeffieient of a dry packing determined as I; from Equations posed of two parts: ßp', the resistance due to the dust left in the cloth, and ßp", the resistance
(8.7)-(8.17); A is the intensity of wetting of the paeking by the liquid, m 3/(m 2.h); 't is a eoef- of the dust layer removed periodically when the cloth is cleaned.
fieent allowing for the effeet of the type of paeking on the inerease in resistanee due to wet- 12
Following this suggestion, Gordon and Aladzhalov recommend that the total resistance of
ting (see Diagrams 8.12 to 8.14); Wlim is the limiting veloeity of the gas stream in a free the dusty cloth be calculated from
seetion of the apparatus (before the packing) at which retention or ehoking of the liquid starts
(see Diagrams 8.12 to 8.14).
32. The resistanee of of paekings ean inerease sharply (by a factor of 2 to 3 or greater) if
the gas passing through them is dust-laden; this should be taken into aceount in hydraulic where A2 is an experimental coefficient that depends on the kind of dust, type of cloth, and
ca1culations. dust content; * B2 is an experimental coefficient that depends on the bulk weight of dust and

*For more detailed information on the geometry and resistance of granular beds and beds made from
*Some refinement of coefficients A2 and B2 is made by A. F. Grigoriev,u
bodies of irregular shape, see the work of Aerov and Todes?
 Flow through Barriers Distributed over the Channel Cross Section 587
586 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

whereas Equations (8.10) and (8.11) become: at Reh< 3, respectively,

or

3<Reh< 1000
Figure 8.5. Layered (parolis) cylinder.

2
permeability of the dust layer I; Pd is the degree of dustiness of the gas, kg/m ; and Wl is the
filtration rate (specific loading on the cloth), m 3/(m2 .s).
36. In certain cases, the resistance of the dusty cloth is given in the form 50 or

where A3 and A3 are the proportionality factors that depend on the kind of dust, type of cloth,
and dust content; q = Q/Fl is the specific loading on the cloth, m 3/m2·s; and m is an experi-
where
mentally deterrnined quantity.
37. Porous materials used in contact, filtering, and other apparatus are frequently shaped in
the form of a cylindrical layer (Figure 8.5). Specific losses, that is, pressure losses per unit
thickness of the layer of a porous cylinder at the given liquid (gas) flow rate, vary with the
thickness of the cylinder walls. In the case where the flow escapes outside, the flow velocity
in the direction of escape decreases with an increase in the surface area of the cylindrical
layer (diffuser effect), and consequently the specific losses become smaller. In the case of
intake or suction, areverse effect (converging passage effect) is observed. WOin and wOex are the mean flow velocities in the free area of the layer at the inletto and exit
38. In application to a cylindrical layer Equation (8.7) acquires 20,21,25 the following form: from the layer, in mls.
39. The above equations do not allow for a certain difference between the resistances of
r. =~=f(l-E')Do the cylindrical layer in the case of flow discharge and intake or suction. In the former, the
~m 2 ,3
PWOin/ 2 Edel resistance coefficient calculated at the same velocity is smaller (due to the diffuser effeet)
than in the seeond case (due to the converging passage effeet). Experiments show that when
the relative thickness of the layer is not very great, this difference can amount to 20% or
more.
40. If the approach velocities are nonuniformly distributed over the cross section, then the
and barriers, uniformly distributed over the channel cross section, exert an equalizing effect on the
ineoming flow. The barriers (different grids, screens, beds of loose or lump materials, fabrics,
_ flp j{1- E')D ete.), ereating a resistance, make the ineoming medium (liquid, gas) spread over the front of
Sex = - - 2 - - =--,3;::---1 the barrier and simultaneously cross it through orifiees (channels).
pwoex /2 Edel
41. The degree of the equalizing aetion of such barriers depends on their geometrie pa-
rameters (free-area eoefficient, relative thickness of the bed, etc.). Sinee these parameters de-
x [180(1- E') In Dl +!B' [Dl - IJ~ , termine the resistance eoefficient of the barriers, the resulting degree of equalizing action (the
Reex Do 2 Do ~ degree of flow medium spreading) is a function of the resistance coefficient. The higher the
 588 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition Flow through Barriers Distributed over the Channel Cross Seetion 589

Sampies of grids D 11
of the grid. With increases of the resistance coefficient of the grid up to a certain value, there
arrives a time when all of the jets begin to depart to the periphery, moving further transla-
Initial profile t==O ~""o.95 (=9.f t=5.0 tionally only along the channel wall, while the central portion of the cross section not only
becomes free of the translational velocity, but also contains reverse currents entrained bv the
~
circurnferential jets (Figure 8.7). Thus the "overturned" velocity profile develops downs~eam
~ \ r'\ 1i ~

~ 1\ H I~ of the grid. 20,21

r-l
-
..

\ 1"- ~ 43. I. E. Ide1chik in his monograph 20 presented hydrodynmnic methods of ca1culation of

J
~ 'J'-...
flow deformation by using the resistance distributed over the channel cross section, i.e., the

".....
~ ~ 1"'\
.)
::;.; L-c. ~
-~
;;;7
flIf w'lwJ 0 /19 w7ivJ 0 t1Z wz,wJ 0 o.Z w$'w:
Figure 8.6. Flow profiles with regular nonuniform grids (according to Taganov).
resistance coefficient of the barrier, the greater is the degree of flow medium spreading over
its front. However, plane (thin-walled) grids (such as perforated sheets, wire or other screens,
or fabric), unlike three-dimensional (deep) barriers (beds of loose or lumpy materials, tubular
gratings, etc.) are notable for their specific features: when a certain (limiting or "critical")
value of the resistance coefficient in the cross sections is attained at a finite distance down-
stream of aplane grid, the velocity profile becomes "overturned" ("reversed"), that is, there is
a new nonuniformity of the flow at which the maximum of the velocities downstream of the
grid corresponds to the minimum of the velocities in front of it and vice versa (Figure
8.6).20,21,28,29
42. This can be explained as follows. When the medium speads over the front of the grid,
the streamlines become distorted. Since the grid is thin - that is, its orifices have no direct-
ing surfaces - then the transverse (radial) direction of streamlines is retained after the me-
dium has passed through the oiitkes. This, however, causes further spreading öf th~ medium,
,
1~ relationship between the velocity profile in the sections far upstream and downstream of a grid
is established. The book also contains a review of similar investigations for aplane and an
L...o-~ ........ t.-
L,..,...~ axisymmetrical flow, for stratified flows, of the stratifying effect of a pair of grids installed in
() (N wlJwl succession, and of transformation of the velocity profile with the aid of a curved grid. It is
indicated that from the viewpoint of the effect of the grid on the free stream it is indifferent
in principle to the design or shape of the grid - a perforated sheet, sieve, a row of bars, a
loose bed, etc. - it should merely offer certain resistance distributed over the section.
The example below presents ca1culations and describes corresponding experiments 86 on
transformation of a uniform velocity profile in a channel of rectangular cross section wirh the
ratio of the walls 1:2. Bars of diameter 1 mm were installed in four sections along the larger
side parallel to the smaller side and at such distances from one another that the resistance
coefficients of these sections could be equal to the ca1culated values. Measurements of the
velocity profile upstream of the grid have proved its entire uniformity. The measurements of
the velocity fields downstream of the grid are presented in Figure 8.8. The relative distance
from the grid is shown as the abscissa, the ratio of the velocity at the given point and of the
mean discharge velocity in the channel is shown as the ordinate. Measurements were carried
out at different distances from the grid. In Figure 8.8 these distances are shown in fractions
of the hydraulic diameter of the channel dh. Tbe agreement between the ca1culated and ex-
..... ..... .. - _._ .. -
:.'
.

that is, motion in the radial direction. The higher the resistance coefficient of the grid, the
sharper is the distortion of streamlines during spreading of the jet over the grid front, and
w,;,
1.2
j....;. ~ ~ iI!'~
.. •./~~dii ~h
~
consequently the greater is the departure of the jets issuing from the orifices to the periphery
1.0. .. ~ p-iJi .
I ol.~ l?
."'~
j""ft" 1-; 'i, I ! I }
0..8
~ "L " .... 'F I
0..6 J --. -1
-2 ~
-3
..
0
~

------- ..- -4
F" w, DA " -5
- 6
I--

- 7 ,--

0..2 0.4 0..6 0..8 xii

Figure 8.8. Distribution of velocities across the flow at different distances z from a grid with nonuni-
form resistance: W, local velocity; w m' mean velocity over the section; 1) calculation; 2-7) experimental
data; 2) z = 0.545 dh ; 3) z = 1.03 dh ; 4) z = 1.69 dh ; 5) z = 2.35 dh ; 6) z = 3.03 dh , and 7) = 4.55
Figure 8.7. Schematic of narrow flow jet incidence on aperforated grid in a tube. dh·
 Flow through Barriers Distributed over the Channel Cross Seetion 591
590 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

c;
1.6 L.e...
. ~ I

.1

1.2 I
I
! ••
. ..
.lL

- - -1
0.8 .. - 2 -

0.4
.. . ••1

I
[ . ".l2A Figure 8.10. Schematic diagram of the disposition of a turbulizer in the working section of the wind
tunnel.
I
:
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 xll
In References 88 and 89, a mechanical turbulizer is described. It is manufactured in the
form of a two-row grid of circular-section rods; the grid moves in opposite directions on end-
Figure 8.9. Calculated and experimental values of the local resistance coefficients of a grid: 1) calcula-
tion; 2) experiment. less chains (Figure 8.10). This allows one to obtain high levels of turbulence in the cross
sections with uniform distribution of velocity and intensity of turbulent pulsations over the
section.
perimental results is quite satisfactory. Here, within the limits of five hydraulic diameters the
deformation of the velocity profile is insignificant.
Total pressure losses in the flow upstream and downstream of the grid are shown in Figure
8.9. The values of these losses are related to the velocity heads on the grid which are also
shown in Figure 8.9. The agreement between the predicted and experimental values of the
resistance coefficients is also satisfactory here.
Thus, the well-known methods of ca1culation allow one to change the velocity profile be-
hind the grid.
In Reference 87, Kolesnikov and Ukhanova presented the results of an experimental inves-
tigation of a turbulent flow downstream of a flat and a curvilinear grid of rods; in addition to
the mean velocity and pressure profiles, the statisticaI characteristics of turbulence (three com-
ponents of velocity fluctuations, the kinetic energy of turbulence, Reynolds shear stresses,
spectra of velo city fluctuations, and turbulence scales) were also measured behind the grid.
In many cases, along with the high level of initial turbulence it is also necessary to
ensure uniform distribution of averaged and fluctuation parameters in the inlet section of a
wind tunnel or channel. The use of different kinds of grids has the drawback that flow turbu-
lization is accompanied by a nondesirable increase in the nonuniformity over the section; high
levels of turbulence can be obtained only at small distances from the grid where the flow
parameters are distributed nonuniformly over the section. In a number of investigations, at-
tempts were made to provide better equalization of flow by applying active grids (blowing of
air through holes in the hollow rods of the grid; a disk installed in a pipeline is rotated about
the 3.,1.is perpendicular to the pipeline axis, etc.). A review of such investigations is contained
in Reference 88.
 Flow through Barriers Distributed over the Channel Cross Seetion 593
592 Handbook oj Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

Grid with beveled orifice edges facing the flow or grid made with iran
8.2 DIAGRANIS OF THE RESISTANCE COEFFICIENTS corners with the apex facing the t1ow;22-24,26,30 Re WO/dlJV;::: 104
= Diagram 8.2

Thin-walled grid of perforated sheets of strips with sharp-edged

Diagram 8.1
orifices (l/Dh =0_0.015);22-24,26,30 Re =wo/dhlv;::: 105* ~ == ~ = [~(1- fiO·375 + (1 - /J]2i? '
pwil2
w,,;; w,,;;
::°0 0 ~ == 8.f = [0.707(1-/J°.375 + l-fi 1=M ' 2
where ~' = f{l/ d,,), see the table or graph a of Diagram 4.13.
::::::::::a o pW 1/2 l

1
00 o~oQOOQQ<o Grid IF 0 • Clear areal
::::::::::!: "'-
~=f~'*}
see the table and the graph. see the graph.
:::=::::::::
Q 0 0 ::: 0 :
w"F, w"F. f f ~ f Corners Grid
0.02 7083 0.22 418 0.50 4.37

11
'Ii ..
0.03 3089 0.24 33.8 0.52 410 - Fo Lfef
3.81 dlz = I1 f=-=-
F 1 F1
0.04 1716 0.26 27.7 0.55 3.10 0
0.05 1081 0.28 23.0 0.60 2.24 fer is the area of one orifice,
0.06 733 0.30 19.2 0.65 1.60 F o is the dear area of the grid,
-'-~~ ; TIo is the perimeter of the orifice.
0.08 402 0.32 16.2 0.70 1.13
0.10 250 0.34 13.8 0.75 0.79
0.12 168 0.36 11.8 0.80 0.54 Values of ~
410 - Fo Lfef 0.14 10.1 0.85
d" = I10 f=-=- 119 0.38 0.34
F F] 1 0.16 88.1 0.40 8.75 0.90 0.19 f
lid"
feris the area of one orifice, 0.18 67.2 0.42 7.57 0.95 0.09 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.90 1.0
Fo is the dear area of the grid, 0.20 52.6 0.45 6.12 0.01 0.46 6840 1656 708 388 241 98.2 50.7 29.5 18.5 8.39 4.18 2.13 1.08 0.51 0.18 0
I10 is the perimeter of the orifice. 0.47 5.31 1.00 0.02 0.42 6592 1598 682 374 232 94.5 48.7 28.4 17.8 8.05 4.00 2.03 1.02 0.48 0.17 0
0
0.03 0.38 6335 1535 655 360 223 90.6 46.7 27.2 17.0 7.69 3.80 1.93 0.97 0.45 0.16 0
0.04 0.35 6140 1488 635 348 216 87.7 45.2 26.2 16.4 7.40 3.66 1.84 0.92 0.43 0.15 0
1
'0 j I i I t
0.29 5737 1387 592 325 201 81.5 41.9 24.4 15.2 6.83 3.35 1.68 0.83 0.38 0.13 0
0.06
I I
0.08 0.23 5300 1281 546 300 185 75.0 38.5 22.3 13.9 6.20 3.02 1.51 0.74 0.33 0.11 0
tJO'() !
0.12 0.16 4748 1147 488 267 165 66.7 34.1 19.7 12.2 5.40 2.61 1.29 0.62 0.27 0.09 0
12/J.'0 I 0.16 0.13 4477 1081 460 251 155 62.7 32.0 18.4 11.4 5.02 2.42 1.18 0.56 0.24 0.08 0

+,----- ~~=
i
IfC'0- I
-
!Of),0- +}Of) -10
! I
glXJ >-: t-90 t-~ -9

IJtlO .... i:-8Q i:-'-i:-8

700 ' - ,.....70 i:-- t-7 \r- ~~~

'-I -10(} -- --5 - 1 - t--
I
SilO - -SO 1-- -5
\
- T- \

=- --
400 1- 40 '-4

JOD - -Jt) --'-

2/JO - 20 --\
t
~ff) Ir-...
100 -- i\.
1
I I ......
I !
o P.! az a.J Cl; as aq 0.7 (lß 0.9 j

*The author's formulas given in Diagrams 8.1 thraugh 8.4 have been somewhat refined (see Chap-
ter 4).
594 Handbook oj Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition
Flow through Barriers Distributed over the Chwmel Cross Seetion 595

Grid made of thickened laths or perforated thick plate Diagram 8.3

(l/dh> 0.015);22-24,26,30 Re =wo/dIJv:2: 105
~ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Grid (F o' Clear areal
~ 00 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 8 8
ci ci ci ci ci ci ci ci ci

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

JJ.I
ci ci ci ci ci ci ci 0 ci
dor

d, =4fo
- - Fo Lfor
f=-=- 80
I TI o F I F I ' b
for is the area of one arifiee; Fo is the c1ear area of the grid; TIo is the perimeter of the orifiee. 0 dor

Values of ~1 at '). = 0.02

l=.l f
dh 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.90 l.00
~ 8 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
o 1.35 6915 1676 716 394 244 99.5 5l.4 30.0 18.8 8.56 4.27 2.19 1.11 0.53 0.19 0 o ..,f C"'i C"'i C"'i N N N
0.2 1.22 6613 1602 684 976 233 95.0 49.0 28.6 18.0 8.17 4.08 2.09 1.07 0.51 0.19 0
0.4 1.10 6227 1533 655 360 223 91.0 47.0 27.4 17.2 7.83 3.92 2.01 1.03 0.50 0.19 0.01
0.6 0.84 5708 2382 591 324 201 81.9 42.3 24.6 15.5 7.04 3.53 1.82 0.94 0.46 0.18 0.01
0.8 0.42 4695 1137 486 266 165 67.2 34.6 20.2 12.7 5.77 2.90 1.50 0.78 0.39 0.16 0.02
1.0 0.24 4268 1033 441 242 150 61.0 3l.4 18.3 11.5 5.24 2.64 1.37 0.72 0.37 0.16 0.02
1.4 0.10 3948 956 408 224 139 56.4 29.1 17.0 10.7 4.86 2.45 1.29 0.68 0.36 0.16 0.03 l:,s
2.0 0.02 3783 916 391 215 133 54.1 27.9 16.3 10.2 4.68 2.38 1.26 0.68 0.36 0.17 0.04 Ie;I
3.0 0 3783 916 391 215 133 54.3 28.0 16.4 10.3 4.75 2.43 1.30 0.71 0.39 0.20 0.06
4.0 0 3833 929 397 218 135 55.2 28.6 16.7 10.6 4.88 2.51 1.35 0.75 0.42 0.22 0.08
.,.,+
5.0 0 3883 941 402 221 137 56.0 29.0 17.0 10.8 5.00 2.59 1.41 0.79 0.45 0.24 0.10 t"-

6.0 0 3933 954 408 224 139 56.9 29.6 17.4 11.0 5.12 2.67 1.46 0.83 0.48 0.27 0.12 ~I
7.0 3983 966 413 227 141 57.8 30.0 17.7 11.2 5.25 2.75 1.52 0.87 0.51 ·0.29- 0.t4
8.0
9.0
0
0
4033
4083
979
991
419
424
231
234
143
145
58.7
59.6
30.6
3l.0
18.0
18.3
11.4
11.6
5.38
5.50
2.83
2.91
1.57
1.63
0.91
0.96
0.54 0.32
0.58 0.34
0.16
0.18
~ 11

~IN~
10.0 0 4133 1004 430 237 147 60.5 31.6 18.6 11.9 5.62 3.00 1.68 0.99 0.61 0.37 0.20

111
_ /!'p
~I
,J:
= pWII2

=[0.5(I-ip·75 +"C(1-iJ1.375 + (l-iJ2 + Ai] / ?,

where for "C, see the table or determine from the
formula
"C = (2.4 - T)'{1(I) ;

<p(!) =0.25 + 0.535[8;(0.05 + f) .

For ~I = f(l,/) at A = 0.02, see the table and the L...
sl~
graph.
0,210 11 ~ ~ M ~ ~ ~ ß 8
7'11C:~1~ ci ci 0 ci ci ci ci ci

-cf I J:,
 Flow through Barriers Distributed over the Channel Cross Seetion 597
596 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition
Grids with different shapes of orifice edges; transitional and
Diagram 8.5
laminar regions of flow (Re = woldhiv < 104_10\ tentatively30
4 5
1. 30< Re <10 _10 :

S - IIp S'I'-
1 = pwi/2 = 1
+ Co ReSlquad .

2. 10 < Re < 30: 1;;1 =~+EoReSlquad .

(Rel)
3. Re< 10: Sl==~'
(Rel)
where S<p == fI(Re, F/Fo) and EoRe = h(Re),
see the tab1es, or determine from the formulas
r-'--.--.--r--r-~~--~-r~
J.~~~h~~--T--r~~~~~~
4/0 - o F Llor given below; ~lfluad is determined as SI
I10 1==-=-
r--t---t-.-t-+-i---f--+--f--+.,t:...m//J ~ 1--+--I----1I---I--+---f-1:I ~
dlz == F F 4
1 1 at Re > 10 _10 5 from Diagrarns 8.1, and 8A.

/VI ~ ~ lor is the area of one orifice,

Fo is the dear area of the grid, ~<I> == [18.78 -7.768//+ 6.337/12]
"G~~~ / /1 ~ ~.
I---I----il---lc--!~ Y ~/ / D o is the perimeter of the orifice.
x exp \(--0.942 -7.246/- 3.8781 ) log Re}
2

~~-+~-r/~J~~~)I~~~~~~~~~
103
2 2 2
Re 10 20 30 40 60 80 10
2
2x 10 4 X 10 6x 10 2x 10 2

~V'" A" /,
~~~~:s~.--~--~~~--~~~~-~~-L--~~
t-..
t--t--t--t-f--/-if-/;+;lI---1 ~
tORe
Re
0.34
14.10 3
0.35
6.10 3
0.36
104
0.37
2.10 4
0040
4.104
0043
6.10 4
0045
lOS
0.52
2.10 5
0.58
3.105
0.62
4.10 5
0.65 0.69

"" ..... c::,; ~ c:::; ~ 0.74 0.76 0.80 0.82 0.85 0.87 0.90 0.95 0.98 1.0
tORe

~~~-+-+~~-r~~~+-~~~~/~/~~~ Values of Sq>

~ ~ ~ ~ LV /'f'/ Fo

~+-~-r-+~~r-~~-+~~~~'~_'~~~~~~~~~~r~~~~
l---4--f--4--l---+-t--+-4--i
F;
0 1.94 1.38 1.14 0.89 0.69 0.64 0.39 0.30 0.22 0.15 0.11 0.0 0.01 0
V--..- V'-:v" 0.2
0.3
1.78
1.57
l.36
1.16
1.05
0.88
0.85
0.75
0.67
0.57
0.57
0043
0.36
0.30
0.26
0.22
0.20
0.17
0.13
0.10
0.09
0.07
0.03
0.02
0.01
0.01
0
0
OA 1.35 0.99 0.79 0.57 0040 0.28 0.19 0.14 0.10 0.06 0.04 0.02 0.01 0
0.5 1.10 0.75 0.55 0.34 0.19 0.l2 0.07 0.05 0.03 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.01 0
0.6 0.85 0.56 0.30 0.19 0.10 0.06 0.03 0.02 0.01 0.01 0 0 0 0
0.7 0.58 0.37 0.23 0.11 0.06 0.03 . 0.02 (J.OI ~ 0 0 0 0 0 0
0.8 0.40 0.24 0.13 0.06 0.03 0.02 0.01 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0.9 0.20 0.13 0.08 0.03 0.01 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0.95 0.03 0.03 0.02 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
 Flow through Barriers Distributed over the Channel Cross Section 599
598 Handbook of Hydra u lic Resistance, 4th Edition

Screens 24,26,34,49 Diagram 8.6

Screens24,26,34,49 Diagram8.6
3. Two-plane screen made from bars of circular cross section:

I 1 1.
'#,. F1. ~ Screen (F 0 • Clear areal
S=+=1.28
pwii/2
:
!
j
!

1$0 ~~ ~l-l4--<I-l-+-~-t-H-l--I-I--+- (a I
1. Circular meta! wire: 1\ d

120 1-1-
\
:=t ~wir == ~ 2 == 1.3(1 -1)+ (1- 1J2

"'"
11JQ 8 H -\t-\-I-H-+--I-H-+-1-H-4--I-I

IIJI-~f-
f-I- ö'H4-l-H-+-+-H-+-l-H -+-H pW 1/ V 2
~ Seglme~t A f-
3
1-'-1- -,;; " see graph a; 50 < Re < 10 :

10::\-=2 " ..... ~ ~

#QI-~_ 1I
I I ~Re == PWj
L'!.f/ == KReSwir ; .....

---
I--\-IJ ~..l
2 ~
20 \. (12 fA~ M 0.5 0.6 IJ.7 "IJ ~ 9 22
""""--...
'-I 1 ! I T 1Segment A T rr Tl Re <50: ~Re "" Re + ~wir , o ~
I -,.....w.,J. J I -, I I 1 T T fU 0.3 0.$ 1J.7 0.8 tU I-
o 0.1 U203 Q4 05 06 07 oa 09 1.0 r where for k~e' see graph b.
For n scr number of rows

~Im IIIIIII~~
! 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 0.95
of successively installed screens
5.12 2.99 1.92 1.28 0.85 0.55 0.32 0.14 0.07

Grids and screens at h~h subsonic flow velocities Diagram 8.7

or (large Mach numbers)
() fI() 2f)(} Jf)() ~D §()(J iQO 7Q(J 8lJfJ jI){) f(J()O He
Grids with sharp-edged inlet orifices
- /1p
s,

;;/14 III 111 ~I

SM=--2-=kM
Plwj/2
2. Silk threads
_ L'!.p
~It, W""' ~ where for ~ see Diagram 8.1 at Maj '" 0; kM = !(Maj) at different f, see, tenta-
tively, graph a. Grids with rounded or beveled orifice edO'es facing the flow and
Re > 500: ~sil = - 2 - == 1.62~wir ;
pW I/2
s~reens: ~M == k~~, whe~e for ~, see Diagrams 8.2, 8.4, and 8.6 at Maj '" 0;
p fOO 21JO JOD 400 Be kM = }\Mal) at different! (for grids, tentatively) see graph b. Maj = wj/a is the
40 < Re < 500: SRe == k~e~si1 ; Mach number before the front of the grid (screen).
7
Re < 40: ~Re "" Re + Ssil '
where for k~e' see graph c. Values ofkM

Mal
f 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0,45 0.50 0.55 0.60 0.65
f 0 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20
~wir 363 82.0 33.4 17.0 10.0 6.20 4.10 3.00 2.20
0.2 1.00 1.09 1.30
f 0.50 0.55 0.60 0.65 0.70 0.75 0.80 0.90 1.00 0.3 1.00 1.03 1.13 1.51
~wir 1.65 1.26 0.97 0.75 0.58 0.44 0.32 0.14 0.00 0.4 1.00 1.00 1.03 1.14 1.41
0.5 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.03 1.10 1.27 1.85
Re 50 100 150 200 300 400 500 1000 1200 0.6 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.04 1.12 1.30 1.77
0.7 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.03 1.08 1.16 1.35 1.68
Lie 1.44 1.24 1.13 1.08 1.03 1.01 1.01 1.00 1.02
0.8 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.01 1.03 1.07 1.12 1.20 1.37 1.63 2.01
Re 40 80 120 300 350 400 500
0.9 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.02 1.04 1.07 1.13 1.21 1.33 1.50 1.75
!.:Re 1.16 1.05 1.01 1.00 1.01 1.01 1.03
600 Handbook 0/ Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition Flow through Barriers Distributed over the Channel Cross Seetion 601

Grids and screens at high subsonic flow velocities Filtering materials at high pressures of the flow medium (clean)58 Diagram 8.8
Diagram 8.7
(large Mach numbers) 61
I;, ==~, see the curves i;, = ftRe) of graphs a and b; p = p?/Pj, see
Pjwj/2 -
A;;,
the curves p ::: j(Wj) of graph c; Re :::; w]d/v .
2P
(8
1.6
f."
12 ~Vt~1
50IJ SO ='" .......... IJ 11 !al
MlJIO '\ I I
!O t>- "- !\ 1I
11 tl.le CJ{) ~~~tI aS{) 1160 Hf
.lPDtJII
20tJ tD
, rJ I
~
Values of k~l
flM f{)
K/ K~ Y
f
Mal

f 0 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.50 0.55 0.60 0.65
t 7
0.35 1.00 1.01 1.04 1.12 1.30 J (b)
d Sr;!'
0.4 1.00 1.00 1.02 1.10 1.25 1.55 ....-" ~.,
7
0.45 1.00 1.00 1.01 1.07 1.19 1.40 1.82 V-",,;]
6
0.50 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.04 1.13 1.30 1.64
S - ...... ~
0.55 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.04 1.17 1.42 1.93
0.60
0.65
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.02
1.01
1.11
1.07
1.32
1.22
1.68
1.47 1.90
- ;/

--
0.70 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.05 1.16 1.33 1.60 2.12
0.75 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.03 1.12 1.23 1.42 1.73 2.40
r---
0.80 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.01 1.06 1.15 1.28 1.49 1.81 ~ ~, r-..... tel
0.85
0.90
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.01
1.00
1.08
1.00
1.20
1.01
1.40
1.08
1.80
1.32
2.71
1.75 2.65 tl8

1i7
~ '\
r~ \\ i
""', \
J-) \-5 f
I
1\7
t7.6

tlS

p
~ \
I
tIJ !D lD Wt,ro/s

K; Average size of thread Thickness of Graph (number of curve)

2.! Name
(grain) Ö, mm filter,mm 1;,=j(Re) p=j(wl)
2,6 0.048 (warp is 32 j..lm
Metallic streen 685/6250 0.128 a (1) c(7)
2.4 two 64-j..lm c1eats)

2.2 ö= ÖcI+Öw
2
2.0 Black chamois GOST 3717-84 0.024 1.5 a (2) c(2)
tß Capron complex threads of cloth
0.300 0.275 a (3) c(6)
interweaving (material 23759)
tfi
Metal ceramic 0.100 b
~q (1) (1 and 5)
2 (2) (4)
f? -
(3) (3)
tU (4) (3)
{l O,.;C t1JO I1r
(5)
 Flow through Barriers Distributed over the Channel Cross Seetion 603
602 Handbook oj Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

Grating made from bars with the angle of attack 15 ,26,69,82

Diagram 8.9
Filtering materials at high pressures of the flow medium (c1ean)58 Diagram 8.8 ao == 0; Re == woaolv > l04

Values of S No. ofthe bar 2 4 7

ßI 2.34 1.77 1.77 1.00 0.87 0.71 1.73

Curve of Re
graph a ß2 1.0 0.76 0.76 0.43 0.37 0.30 0.74
2 4 6 10 15 20 25 30 50 100 150
55 32 20 15 13 21 50 ao
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
600 400 350 315 310 360 420 s;- 0

190 180 160 130 130 130 kI 18.7 6.35 3.09 1.72 1.00 0.58 0.32 0.16 0.05 0

Values of S
k, 2. Contaminated grating (in hydroengineering systems):
Re t2 '\
Curve of
f* \ Seon == e'l; ,
graph b 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 tJJ where c' == 1.1-1.3 with mechanical c1eaning of the
4.2 4.1 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.7 12
118 \ =
grating; c' 1.5-2.0 with manual cleaning of the
\
5.2
6.1
5.1
6.0
5.0
6.0
5.0
6.0
5.1
6.2
5.2
6.2
6.5
6.6
, \,
fO
44 \ Sector A
I
grating.
3. Grating with an additional frame
4 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.9 7.4
tt~
~ (in hydroengineering systems):
5 7.1 7.2 7.4 8.0 9.5
I . . 1\... Sfr == c"t;eon ,

Grating made from bars with the angle of attack 15,26,69,82

Diagram8.9
I
2 t
:\'\ fI.2
11
'0.9 ll.S
~orA_ct:1
fJ.6 0.1 .1.1
-
..........
8 ll'~l1L
where eil = 1/(1 - AJL)2; A hzn ] + dz~ is the
total height of transverse elements; nl is the
=
number of intermediate supporting bars; n2 is the
number of binding elements; L is the internal
ao == 0; Re = woao/v > 104 11 height of the grating.
tlf tU /iJ a; fJ.S U lI.1 lJ.8 "II/Sf

Grating made of bars with the angle of attack 15 ,26,69,82

Diagram 8.10
.w, ao > 0 at aolS! 20.5; Re == woaolv > 104
i ltf fit', tll'l IIlY IW' t~

tl
~

i~ ...

I
" ~ ~ .... Gratiog

:~An
~ , ~ "i> .
f
... '"
!.. ... ...~
li ."

t&" "' q1.

No.f 2 4 # 6 7
Number of the bar profites f
Shape of bars of the grating tw, jw,
tltt t~ tliY

~1I
tIr" :t", tim

tJ
{
~ ..... ~
.!
1. Clean grating: 1;= 8f
pWj/2
=0'10'2'

a) l/dm == 5 and arJS] > 0.5 Nci·I I I I fIJ

where for 0'1' see graph a; for 0'2' see graph b. Shape of grating bars
1;1 = 8f == ß1k l sin 8 , far ßl, see the table; ff
pWI/2
k j = (S/ao - 1)4/3 see the table and the graph k j == !(arJSj);
b) arbitrary l/dm and arJSj:

1;1 =4-
p l/2
W
== ß2 S' sin e, for ß2, see the table;

1;' is determined as S of a thickened grid from Diagram 8.3.

 604 Handbook oj Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition
Flow through Barriers Distributed over the Channel Cross Seetion 605

Grating made of bars with the angle of attack 15 ,26,69,82

Diagram 8.10
ao > 0 at ao/Sl ~ 0.5; Re =woaolv > 104
Values of 0"1

NO.of ao, deg

curve o 5 10 15 20 25 30 40 50 60
1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
0.76 0.65 0.58 0.54 0.52 0.51 0.52 0.58 0.63 0.62
0.76 0.60 0.55 0.51 0.49 0.48 0.49 0.57 0.64 0.66
4 0.43 0.37 0.34 0.32 0.30 0.29 0.30 0.36 0.47 0.52
5 0.37 0.37 0.38 0.40 0.42 0.44 0.47 0.56 0.67 0.72
0.30 0.24 0.20 0.17 0.16 0.15 0.16 0.25 0.37 0.43
1.0 1.08 1.13 1.18 1.22 1.25 1.28 1.33 1.31 1.20
1.0 1.06 1.10 1.15 1.18 1.22 1.25 1.30 1.22 1.00
10 1.0 1.00 1.00 1.01 1.02 1.03 1.05 1.10 1.04 0.82
11 1.0 1.04 1.07 1.09 1.10 1.11 1.10 1.07 1.00 0.92

4...f-i'oo. (al
~~
r,.-g 'r--...
:;..--- ff 10 I- '" '\
:J' ~-
L~
~
- ...,.
f
......:- ,-" '\
~~
"\
5
\.
~~ ...::::~ ~
::?+
"~ --.-? Jl,... .J
f1S :;:;;; ~
~ '/' 9_ ~
~
r::: ~ "",/
I'
'/'6 11

- ~+~
........
r--... /'
O,f
111
P 21 JO >J>

Values of 0"2

ao ao, deg
SI o 10 15 20 25 30 40 50 60
0.50 2.34 2.40 2.48 2.57 2.68 2.80 2.95 3.65 4.00 4.70
0.55 1.75 1.80 1.85 1.90 2.00 2.10 2.25 2.68 3.55 4.50
0.60 1.35 1.38 1.42 1.48 1.55 1.65 1.79 2.19 3.00 4.35
0.65 1.00 1.05 1.08 1.12 1.20 1.30 1.40 1.77 2.56 4.25
0.70 0.78 0.80 0.85 0.89 0.95 1.05 1.17 1.52 2.30 4.10
0.75 0.60 0.62 0.65 0.70 0.75 0.85 0.95 1.30 2.05 3.90
"-<
0.80 0.37 0.40 0.45 0.50 0.55 0.64 0.75 1.06 1.75 3.70 o
0.85 0.24 0.25 0.30 0.36 0.42 0.50 0.60 0.88 1.40 3.50 :.s'-'o
(:0
 0\
Packing - a bed of spherical or lumpy irregular-shape bodies3.64.66 _ Diagram 8.11 <:::>
0\

Ur , Hf

8 1: 8
\ 7
Values of Al and BI 6 Ii
1\-7
BI atB' 5 5
t' Al
1.8 4.0 '"~ 'I
\ 'I
0.25 12,960 86.4 192
I(

.1\
\,/3 \ J
0.30 6534 46.7 103.7 \
0.35 3547 27.3 1
60.6
2 \ .l: 2
0.40 3025 16.87 37.5
\ 1\
0.45 1195 10.9 24.1 1\ \. l
0.50 720 7.20 16.0 1'1 \ '"S':!,..'
0.55 438.1 4.87 10.8 1\\7 l/Z \ 1
0.60 266.8 3.33 7.4
10
'{ 1\ 1
10 ~
;:::
8 S

,
\ \ §::
0.65 160.56 2.25 5.1
{j
\ \ 1\
C)
C)
6
0.70 98.32 1.58 3.5
J
\ \ 1\ s
""
~
\ I
~
~
" il
r [\
\
~
"c 1 : I E-
\ \ r;'
::tI
2 \ \ '(
~ z '"c:.;.
v,

11
I \S'
;:s
1\ \ ,'""
i\ 1\ \ -I::.
lt 1 \ \ 1 1
~
0.2. lJ,J il* o.S 0.6 0.7 e' ~
5-
;:::

~
C)
:;;s
3. Bodies and particles of irregular shape ~
25
With smooth surface With rough surface o~
;::,-
Material dgr,mm t' <PI Material dgr,mm t' <PI tr::I
\:l
...,
Polydisperse beach sand 2-3 0.35 0.66 Activated charcoal 1-2 0.500 0.64 :.::!.
'";:;
1.5 0.35 0.76 1.5 0.445 0.92
ti
1.5-4.5 0.400 0.79 c:.;'
Bank sand 2.5-5 0.445 0.80 ~
;;::
~
1.2-2.5 0.390 0.76 \:l...
C)
Activated alumina Limestone -<:::
1-3 0.500 0.68 1.6 0.640 0.77 ...,
'"
3-5 0.500 0.49 Coke 5.25 0.480 0.77 ;:,t.

9-10 0.520 0.50 Quartz sand 0.2-0.3 O.430-D.460 0.63-0.70

'"
9
\:l
;:::
1.2-5 0.390-0.445 0.76-0.80 ;:::
~
Alumina silica gel 2.5 0.520 0.56 ()

3.5 0.480 0.68

25
~
4.5 0.500 0.49 V:l
'"go
Anthracite 1.0 0.540 0.66 Silicagel KSM 3-5 0.490 0.50 ";:::
2.1 0.520 0.67 Shale 5-25 0.43-0.52 0.68-O.?
3.5 0.510 0.66 2.6 0.480 0.77
7-8 0.520 0.07 Crushed stone 30-25 0.500 0.62
12-18 0.465 5-10 0.460-0.500 0.54
18-25 0.475
Gravel 3.7 0.470-0.540 0.73
12-20 0.370 0.68
0\
~
 0\
Packing - a bed of lumpy and loose bodies of irregular shape at the prescribed d,,3,64,66 Diagram 8,12 o
00

I
Type of material (b"m E',m3/m3 S, m 2/m 3
Andesite lumps 43.2 mm I 0.0333 0.565 68
Circular gravel 42 mm 0.0193 0.388 80
I
Catalyst for ammonia synt*esis 6,1 mm 0.00194 0.465 960

Catalyst for CO conversior\ made in 11.5 X 6 mm pellets 0.0033 0.380 460

I
Vanadium sulf1ll1C acid cat,l1llyst made in 11 x 6,5 mm pellets 0.00415 0.430 415
Wl,F1 t Iron rings 35 X 35 X 2.5 ml~
1

0.0372 0.830 147

50x50x5 mm I 0.036 0.970 104

A X 102 m 3/m2·s Wllim m/s
Ceramic rings 15 X 15 X 21nm 0.0085
~
0.700 330
0 i ;:s
25X25x3~~m
0.14 0.8
0.0145 0.740 204 ~
C)
C)
0.28 0.7 35 x35 x41nm 0.0225 0.780 140 ?<;<

0.7 0.6
~
50x50x5 mm
1.4
0.0360 0.785 88
~
~
0.5
Porcelain rings 8 x 8 x 1.5 mm 0.0045 0.640 570
;;:
Ceramic saddle-shaped elements 12.5 mm 0.710-0.760 ~
~
~
25mm '"0:;'
§
<l
,SI)
~
s.
~
S:
C)
;:s

Dry packing:
~
~
~
S=~- 10 1
s.
;::;
iil! PmwTII/2 - A d;, E,2 + ASt = Sdry + ASt ' ~
~ OQ
;:s-
Reh = wlmdh..l< 3 . tö
\:)
'"5::!
~
V E' .
3.
~
A = 180/Re" = f(Re h), see the graph; ~
3< Reh< 1000: \:;
~.
~ :::i.
>( A = 164/Reh + 7.68/Re?,·1l = ARe), see the graph. ~
~

Wetted packing (tentatively) at A:::; 1.4 x 10-2 ; [

C)
~ WI < wUim; 5< dh < 30-35 nun: ~
'C; ~
"'i
~ "" ~dry(1 + 2.15 x 10 A) + ASt;
2
l' =
2
2.15 X 10 ;

~ f tllllllllllllll~lI
S.
~

A is the intensity of wetting by liquid, m3/m2 sec;

9
\:)
Tex -Tin . . ;:s
ASt = 2 -r;;- , for V dependmg on Tnl' see SectJon 1.2; ;:s
~

Tm = 0.5(1jn + Tex); Pm = 273Po/T,,,; Wjm = Wj T m/1jn . 2

~
VJ
~
<l
Re 1 X 10-3 5 X 10-3 1 X 10-2 5 X 10-3 1 X 10-1 5 X 10- 1 ~.
2 ;:s
A 180,000 36,000 18,000 3600 1800 360 180 90 61.5
Re 4 6 7 8 9 10 15 20 25 30 35
A 47.9 39.7 33.7 29.6 26.5 24.3 22.4 16.8 13.7 12.0 10.7 0.90
Re 40 45 50 60 70 80 90 100 150 200 250 300 350
A 9.24 8.70 8.30 7.62 7.16 6.80 6.52 6.27 5.62 5.12 4.84 4.65 4.49
Re 400 450 500 600 700 900 1.000
A 4.37 4.29 4.21 4.07 3.97 3.81 3.74 0\
o
\C
 Flow through Barriers Distributed over the Channel Cross Seetion 611
610 Handbook oi Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

16 Packing of wooden laths (chordlike) 16 Diagram 8,14

Packing of ceramic Rasehig rings (deJdin "" 1.2) Diagram 8.13

No.Z 1) Parallel arrangement.

No. I
In-line arrangement 2) Crosswise arrangement.

2 3 2 Dry packing:
A10 , m /m s Wllim, mls
0-0.28 2.0
SI =~=A!Q.J...·
0.42---D.70 1.5 Pmwim/2 dh e'z '
0.83-1.40 1.0 2 4
1) 4 X 10 < Re 11, = Wlnß,/v < 10
Staggered arrangement
, 3.2
I\, = ---o::m = fiRe 11')' see curve 1;
Re11,
A, m 3/m2 s Wllim, mls
4
0-0.28 1.5 Re 11, > 10 : A""O.lO=const.
I'.
0.42---D.56 1.2 2 4
i" 2) 4 X 10 < Rell' = Wlmdh/ v ::; 10
N'l 0.83-1.40 0.8
I', S !Cl
Q5 ...... '" i'. ........... , A = ---o::m = fiRe)
Re 11,
...... "'"
I"-- Q'....: f': 4
dex,mm da,rn e' lIe' lIe'z S, m 2/rn3 !'--.
i'-o.1. .... ........ t:--..:.. ..... ~!'--. see curves 2-5; Rell,> 10 ; A.=A.'.
........
L- I '~ ...... .::::::: 1'-- ...
-
50 0.027 0.73 1.36 1.85 108
80 0.036 0.72 1.39 1.93 :--- -I-
I .J
100 0.048 0.72 1.39 1.93
150 0.075 0.72 1.39 1.93
200 0.100 0.72 1.39 1.93 Basic characteristics of chords arranged crosswise

lIe'z 2 3 A']
Curve dm,mm ao,mm k,mm dh,mm E' s,rn /rn J(I

Values of A. 2 10 10 100 22 0,55 3.31 100 4.4 0.14

3 10 10 50 22 0.55 3.31 100 5.7 0.18
2
Reh x 10- 4 10 20 100 41 0.68 2.16 66 6.7 0.21
Curve
10 30 100 63 0.77 1.69 49 8.5 0.26
4 10 15 20 40 60 80
0.34 0.29 0.26 0.24 0.21 0.19 0.14 0.12 0.11
1.0- 0:85 0.76 0.71 0.62 0.55 0.42 0.37 0.36
Wetted packing (tentatively) (at A ::; 1.4 ~ 10- ; WI ::; ';"llim):
2 Values of Wllim mlsec
SI = A(loldh )(l/e'Z)(l + "C'A) + 8,SI' where A is the intensity
Dry packing: 3 2 2 2 3 2
of wetting by liquid m /rn s; "C' = 1.4 X 10 for scheme 1 A x 10 m /m ·s
2
and 2.15 x 10 for scherne 2; for 8,SI' Pm' wlm' and v, see
SI =~=A!Q.J... Scheme 0-0.28 0.42-0,07 0.83-1.40

"'" t'
... ~ 2
j
Pmw im/2

0.4 x 103 < Rell, == wlmdh

dh e,2 '

< 8 X 103 ,
Diagram 8.12.

2
2.0
1.0
1.5
0.7
1.0
0.5
0.7 v
"'- ....... ~
I\, =
3.2
---o::m
Relh
= f(Rell,)' see curve 1; Values of A.
'- . . . r--.... 3
Re11, > 8 x 10 ; A."" 0.11 ==const. Re]"

...;"
-"
- , 9.6
=---o::m =j(ReI0, see curve 2; 4x 102 6x 10
2
8 X 10
2
103 1.5 X 10
3
2x 10
3
4x 103 6 X 103 8 X 103 104

--
I\,
11:1 r-,.....;H0- Rell'
t-.!. Re~if15
3
!--~ 0.4 x 10 < Relh ::; 6 x 103 Curve 9.5 11.0 12.3 13.3 15.5 17.3 22.4 26.1 29.1 31.6
3 1 0.33 0.28 0.25 0.23 0.20 0.18 0.14 0.12 0.11 0.11
Rell' > 6 x 10 , A "" 0.36 == const. Wetted pack-
2 0.46 0.40 0.35 0.33 0.28 0.25 0.20 0.17 0.15 0.14
ings (tentatively) (at A::;: 1.4 x 10- ; WI ::; WI~ :
2
0.60 0.52 0.46 0.43 0.37 0,33 0.25 0.22 0.19 0.18
3 2 0,70 0,61 0.54 0.50 0.43 0.39 0.30 0.25 0.22
SI "" ~/(Pmwim/2) == A(lo/d,,)(l/e,3)(1 + 1.4 x 10 A) + 8,SI' where A is the intensity of wetting, rn /m ·sec; 4 0.21
2

2 0.90 0.78 0,69 0.64 0.55 0.49 0.38 0.32 0.28 0,26
T = 1.4 X 10 ; for SI' Tm' Pm' W]m, and v, see Diagram 8.12.
 Flow through Barriers Distributed over the Channel Cross Section 613
612 Handbook ojHydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

Filtering fabries (according to Adamov) Diagram 8.15

REFERENCES
1. Altshul, A. D. and Krasnov, N. S., Towards calculation of the effect of contamination on the hy-
draulic resistance of screens with square cells, in Motion of Homogeneous and Inhomogeneous
Fabrie m Liquids (Tr. Mosk. Inzh.-Stroit. Inst.), vyp. 2, no. 55, pp. 70-75, 1968.
1. Calico (without nap) 1.347 2.0
2. Altshul, A. D., Hydraltlic Resistance, Nedra Press, Moscow, 1970, 216 p.
2. Moleskin (without nap) 1.155 48 3. Aerov, M. E. and Todes, O. M., Hydraulic and Thennal Foundations Underlying Operation of
3. Cottonthread flannelette (medium nap on the two sides) 1.097 87 Stationary and Fluidized Granular Bed Apparatus, Khimiya Press, Moscow, 1968, 510 p.
4. Aerov, M. E., Todes, O. M., and Narinskiy, D. A, Stationary Gramtlar-Bed Apparatus, Moscow,
1979, 175 p.
Ap,Pa
5. Basovskaya, A. A and Reisig, V. A., Investigation of heat transfer and of hydrau1ic resistance in
1000
#JOD I
micronozzle grids, Inzh.-Fiz. Zh., vol. 39, no. 5, 798-801, 1980.
l-' V 6. Basovskaya, A. A and Reisig, V. A, Experimental investigation of heat transfer and hydraulic
lUf)f)
~ V resistance to air flow through a wire mesh, Inzh.-Fiz. Zh., vol. 33, no. 4, 734-739, 1977.
101/0
iOfJ 7. Belov, S. V., Porous Materials in Machine Building, Moscow, 1981, 184 p.
MO 8. Bemshtein, R. S., Pomerantsev, V. V., and Shagalova, S. L., A generalized method for calcu1ating
! ~ i.-'
21/1/ the aerodynamic resistance of loaded sections, in Problems of Aerodynamics and Heat Transler in
ptJ V Boiler-Furnace Processes, Knorre, G. P. (Ed.), pp. 267-289, Gosenergoizdat Press, Moscow,
IOD
if) 1958.
40 9. Voskresenskiy, A K., Oblivin, AN., and Sagal, S. Z., Hydrodynamic characteristics of porous
.; f 111
211 bodies, in The Problems of Heat Transfer (Tr. Mosk. Lesotekhn. Inst.), vyp. 130, pp. 5-21, 1981.
fl/ JQQ
J...H1' III 10. Derbunovich, G. 1., Zemskaya, A S., Repik, Ye. U., and Sosedko, Yu. P., Hydraulic resistance of
perforated grids, Uch. Zap. TsAGI, vol. 15, no. 2, 114-118, 1984.
Values of Ap, numerator in kg f /m2, denominator in Pa 11. Goldshtik, M. A., Transfer Processes in a Granular Bed, Inst. Teplofiz. SO AN SSSR Press, No-
vosibirsk, 1984, 163 p.
q, numerator in m3 1m2 h, denominator in Pa 12. Gordin, G. M. and Aladzhalov, 1. A., Bag Filter Gas Cleaning in Nonferrous lv!etallury, Metallur-
600 800 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 gizdat Press, Moscow, 1956, 180 p.
Fabrie 13. Grigoriev, A F., Dependence of the hydraulic resistance of a bag filter on dust content in fabric,
0.167 0.222 0.28 0.556 0.833 1.11 2.39 1.67
1.40 1.80 2.30 5.20 8.70 12.6 17.0 21.0 in Collected Papers on Sanitary Engineering, vyp. 3, pp. 72-76, Volgograd, 1971.
1. Calico 22.6 14. Oryabin, V. A., Galershtein, D. M., and Zabrodskiy, S. S., Hydraulic resistance of a stationary
13.7 17.7 51.0 85.3 124 167 206
9.00 10.9 l1! 29.5 46.0 66.0 83.0 ~ granular bed to adescending dust-laden gas flow, Inzh.-Fiz. Zh., vol. 34, no. 5, 828-832, 1978.
2. Moleskin
88.3· 107 135 289 452 648 815 1030 15. Dulnev, V. B., Determination cf pressure head los ses in grids, Gidrotekh. Stroit.,- na. 9, 31-35;
10.9 13.9 17.0 35.0 53.0 73.0 93.0 115 1956.
3. Cottonthread flannelette
107 137 167 343 520 716 912 1130 16. Zhavoronkov, N. M., Hydraulic Foundations of a Scrubbing Process and Heat Transfer in Scrub-
q, numerator in m 3/m 2 h, denominator in m 3/m 2 s bers, Sovetskaya Nauka Press, Moscow, 1944, 224 p.
17. Zhavoronkov, N. M. et al., Hydro- and aerodynamies of packings of scrubber and rectifier col-
7000 8000 9000 10,000 20,000 30,000 40,000
Fabrie umns. Critical phenomena in sprayed non-ordered packings, Khim. Prom., no. 3, 75-79, 1949.
1.94 2.22 2.50 2.78 5:56 8,33 1T.1
18. Zaitsev, M. M., Calculation of a bag filter, Tr. NIItsement, vyp. 3, pp. 80-89, 1950.
27.0 32.0 39.0 45.0 126 229 369
1. Calico 19. Zindra, N. N. and Sukharev, M. I., Study of increase in the resistance of cloth filters in cleaning
265 314 3s3 442 1236 2250 3620
of aerosols, Tr. Leningr. Inst. Tekstil. Lyogk. Prom., vyp. 10, pp. 31-35, 1969.
129 145 167 195 457 759 1080
2. Moleskin 20. Idelchik, I. E., Aerohydrodynamics of Technological Apparatus, Mashinostroenie Press,Moscow,
1270 1420 1640 1910 4480 7450 10,600
138 160 182 209 479 767 1080 1983,351 p.
3. Cottonthread flannelette 21. Idelchik, 1. E., Aerodynamics of Industrial Apparatus, Energiya Press, Moscow, 1964, 286 p.
1355 1570 1785 2050 4700 7525 10,600
22. Idelchik, I. E., Equalizalion action of a barrier placed behind a diffuser, Tr. BNT MAP, no. 662,
Do/Deon 1.2 1.4 1.8 pp. 25-52, 1948.
~ 0.3 0.7 2.2 23. Idelchik, I. E., Hydraulic resistance during inlet of flows into channels and passage through ori-
fices, in Prom. Aerodin., no. 2, pp. 27-57, Oborongiz Press, Moscow, 1944.
24. Idelchik, I. E., Hydraulic Resistances (Physical and Mechanical Fundamentals), Gosenergoizdat
4 530(1,;)1.25 *
At Re < 10 for all of the values SRe = --R-e- . Press, Moscow, 1954,316 p.

*See the footnote in Diagram 3.1

 Flow through Barriers Distributed over the Channel Cross Seetion 615
614 Handbook 01 Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

52. Chertkov, B. A., Hydrodynamic regime on screen-type trays at small spraying moisture content, in
25. Ide1chik, 1. E., Towards calculation of the hydraulic resistance of contracting and filtering appara-
Processes of Chemical Tekhnology, pp. 36-43, Nauka Press, Moscow-Leningrad, 1965.
tus of cylindrical shape, Khim. Prom., no. 11, 60-62, 1964.
53. Chukin, V. V. and Kuznetsov, R. F., Hydraulic resistance of a packed bed of lumped materials,
26. Ide1chik, 1. E., Determination of the resistance coefficients during discharge through orifices,
Khim. Tekh. Top!. Masel, no. 8, 10-12, 1967.
Gidrotekh. Stroit., no. 5, 31-36, 1953.
54. Shevyakova, S. A. and Orlov, V. K., Investigation of the hudraulic resistance and heat transfer in
27. Ide1chik, 1. E., Ca1culation of the hydraulic resistance of dry grid trays and partitions, Khim.
heat exchangers made of perforated plates, Inzh.-Fiz. Zh., vol. 45, no. 1, 32-36, 1983.
Prom., no. 3, 247-251, 1960.
55. Shemurin, V. A., On the dependence between the filtration coefficient and specific resistance of
28. Ide1chik, 1. E., Means of uniform gas flow distribution in industrial apparatus, Khim. Prom., no. 6,
sand-clay species, Gidrotekh. Stroit., no. 9, 35-40, 1962.
31-37, 1955.
56. Shepelev,1. A, Fundamentals of Calculation of Air Screens, Intake Jets and Porous Filters, Stroi-
29. Idelchik, 1. E., Forced flow delivery in gas-cleaning, heat exchanging and other apparatus, Tr. NI-
izdat Press, Moscow, 1950, 139 p.
IOGAZ, no. 1, pp. 151-207, Goskhimizdat Press, Moscow, 1957.
57. Shimansky, Yu. N., On the resistance coefficient of a bed of solid partic1es, Khim. Prom., no. 6,
30. Idelchik, 1. E., Account for the effect of viscosity of the hydraulic resistance of diaphragms and
476-477, 1966.
grids, Teploenergetika, no. 9, 75-80, 1960.
58. Idelchik, I. E., Voronin, 1. B., Gordeyev, 1. V., and Matveyev, Yu. P., Experimental determination
31. Iljin, Yu. V., Gas flow through porous metallic walls, Izv. VUZ, Aviats. Tekh., no. 1, 65-73, 1959.
of the hydraulic characteristics of porous materials at high pressures, Teploenergetika, no. 1, 81-
32. Ishkin, N. P. and Kaganer, M. G., Hydraulic resistance of parous media, Kislorod, no. 3, 25-36,
83, 1973.
1952.
59. Benton, E. R. and Knapton, D. A, Supersonic drag of porous wire screens, ARS J., vol. 32, no.
33. Derbunovich, G. 1., Zemskaya, A S., Repik, Ye. u., and Sosedko, Yu. P., Concerning the hydrau-
10, 1608-1610, 1962.
lic resistance of screens, Uch. Zap. TsAGI, vol. 2, no. 2, 133-136, 1980.
60. Bemt, J., Heidenreich, E., and Tittel, R., Zur Bestimmung des Druckverlustes bei Filtermitteln,
34. Konobeyev, B. 1., Malyusov, V. A, and Zhavoronkov, N. M., Hydraulic resistance and film thick-
Chem. Tech., Bd. 26, Heft 11, 692-693, 1974.
ness during reversed liquid flow under the action of gas in vertical tubes, Khim. Prom., no. 3,
61. Böhlen, B., Rürki, H. U., and Guyer, A, Über den Druckverlust strömender Gase in Schüttse-
21-26, 1957.
hichten bei erhöhtem Druck, Helv. Chim. Acta, vol. 48, no. 1, 1270-1278, 1965.
35. Kollerov, D. K., Hydrodynamics of porous media, Khim. Prom., no. 2, 18-23, 1959.
62. Bruniak, R and Sockel, H., Widerstandsmessungen an Rohren und Gerustteilen, Osten'. lng. z.,
36. Handbook: Construction Materials and Carbon-Based Items, Moscow, 1980, 63 p.
vol. V4, no. 9, 320-325, 1961.
37. Krasnov, N. S., On the resistance coefficient of screens with square cells in the region of small
63. Comell, W. G., Losses in flow normal to plane screens, Trans. ASME, no. 4, 45-53, 1958.
Reynolds numbers, Tr. Kolomensk. Fi!. VZPI, vyp. 5, 64-66, 1971.
64. Ergun, S., Fluid flow through packed columns, Chem. Eng. Prog., vol. 48, no. 2, 89-94, 1952.
38. Kuzmin, Yu. M., Formula for determination of the pressure head losses in metallic screens, Vo-
65. Flachsbart, 0., Widerstand von Seidengauzefiltem Rundracht und Blechstreifensieben mit quadra-
dosnabzh. Sanit. Tekh., no. 2, 27-29, 1966.
tischen Marchen, Ergeb. Aerodyn. Versuchsanstalt Göttingen. IV Liefenmg, pp. 30-40, 1932.
39. Kurbanov, A Z., Kreinin, 'ye. V., and Bergauz, A. L., Investigation of the hydrodynamies and
66. MacDonald, 1. F., EI-Sayed, M. S., Mow, K., and Dullien, A L., Flow tbrough porous media -
heat transfer of single screens, Inzh.-Fiz. Zh., vol. 40, no. 5, 916-918, 1981.
the Ergun equation revised, Ind. Eng. Chem. Fundam., vol. 18, no. 3, 199-208, 1979.
40. Leibenzon, L. S., Motion of Natural Liquids and Gases in aPoroLlS Medium, Gostekhizdat Press,
67. Huesmann, K., Druckverlust und Durchflusskoeffizienten von parallel engeströmten perforierten
Moscow, 1947, 150 p.
Platten, Gesund. Ing., vol. 87, no. 6, 158-160, 1966.
41. Minsky, E:~L, On turbulent filtration in porous media, Dokl. Akad. Nauk SSSR vol. 78 no. 3
85-93, 1951. .... . "." ......, ..... _. ""." " ..' , ~ , 68. Ingmanson, \V. L~, Resistance of ·v.lire. screens' to ~ftow-- of water~ Tappi, vaL- 44', no.· 1, 47-54,
1961.
42. Mints, D. M. and Shubert, S. A., Hydraulics of Granular Materials, Izd. Min. Kommun. Khoz.
69. Kirschmer, 0., Unlersuchungen uber den Gefallsverlust an Rechen, Mitt. Hydraul. lnst. Tech.
RSFSR, 1955, 112 p.
Hochschule Miinchen, no. 1, 91-100, 1926.
43. Mikheyev, M. A. and Mikheyeva, 1. M., Fundamentals of Heat Transfer, Moscow, 1977, 344 p.
70. Klinger, l, Zur Bestimmung des Widerslandswerters von Drahlseibgeweben, Wiss. Z. Tech. Univ.
44. Dilman, V. V., Darovskikh, Ye. P., Aerov, M. E., and Akselrod, Z. S., Concerning the hydraulic
Dresden, vol. 15, pp. 93-99, 1966.
resistance of grid and hole trays, Khim. Prom., no. 3, 156-161, 1956.
71. Malhur, M. L. and Hachhara, N. L., Pressure losses in flow through screens, Indian Eng., vol. 12,
45. Petryanov, I. V. et al., Fibrous Filtering Materials, Znaniye Press, Moscow, 1968, 90 p.
no. 10, 19-27, 1968.
46. Rekk, E. E., Comparative estimation of fabries used for cleaning air of dust in ventilation filters,
72. Millon, P. and Francis, J. R, The aerodynamic drag of perforated plates at zero incidence, J. R.
Otop!. Ventil., no. 4, 10-15, 1934.
Aeronaut. Soc., vol. 62, no. 568, 301-303, 1958.
47. Usyukin, 1. P. and Akselrod, L. S., Fundamentals of hydraulic calculation of screened rectifying
73. Monahan, RE., The resistance to flow of perforated plates and wire screens, Pulp Paper Mag.
columns, Kislorod, no. 1, 60-65, 1949.
Can., val. 66, no. 1, 33-38, 1965.
48. Uchastkin, P. V., Investigation of the efficiency and hydrodynamic resistance of eliminators,
74. Margan, P. G., Fluid flow tbrough screens of flow solidity, J. R. Aeronaut. Soc., vol. 66, no. 613,
Otop!. Ventil., no. 6, 21-30, 1940.
54-56, 1962.
49. Khanzhonkov, V. 1., Resistance of screens, in Prom. Aerodin., no. 2, pp. 101-114, Oborongiz
75. Osborn, J. F., Reclangular-bar trashrack and baffle headlosses, J. Power Div., Prac. Am. Soc.
Press, Moscow, 1944.
Civil Eng., vol. 94, no. 2, 111-123, 1968.
50. Khovansky, O. M., On the coefficient of hydrodynamic pressure head loss in perfarated grids and
76. Pinker, R A. and Herbert, M. V., Pressure loss associated with compressible flow through square-
screens of square weaving, Izv. VUZ, Mashinostroenie, no. 2, 101-106, 1963.
mesh wire gauzes, J. Mech. Eng. Sei., vol. 9, no. 1, 11-23, 1967.
51. Tsirlin, A. M., Voronin, B. D., and Khodov, G. Ya., Hydraulic resistance of tubes with a nozzle
77. Rummer, R R and Drinker, P. A., Resistance to laminar flow through porous media, J. Hydraul.
of irregular shape during high-temperature gas passage, Inzh.-Fiz. Zh., vol. 7, no. 8, 103-107,
Div., Proc. Am. Soc. Civil Eng., vol. 92, no. 5, 155-163, 1966.
1964.
 616 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

78. Sakra, T., Kuchier, M., and Lecjaks, 1., Tlakove straty pri prutoku lekutin sily, Sb. Ved. Pr. Vys. CHAPTER
Sk. Chemickotechnol. Pardubice, sv. 2, 189-203, 1967.
79. Sharan, V. R., Characteristics of flow through two-dimensional screens and perforated plates, 1. NINE
Sei. lnd. Res., vol. 34, no. 2, 89-92, 1975.
80. Smith, P. 1. and Van Winkle, M., Discharge coefficients through perforated plates at Reynolds
numbers of 400 to 3000, AlChE J., vol. 4, no. 5, 266--268, 1958.
RESISTANCE TO FLOW THROUGH PIPE
81. Sockel, H., Abströmung hinter Schaufelgittern, Brennst. Waermewirtsch., vol. 19, no. 8, 393-395, FITTINGS AND LABYRINTH SEALS
1967.
82. Spandler, r., Unlersuchungen über den Verlust an Rechen beischräger Zuströmung, Mitt. Hydraul. RESISTANCE COEFFICIENTS OF THROTTLING
lnst. Tech. Hochschule München, no. 2, 63-70, 1928.
83. Stengel, H. and Fischer, H. Y., Ergebnisse von strömungstechnischen Untersuchungen an
DEVICES, VALVES, PLUGS, LABYRINTH SEALS,
Netzluchem im Windkanal, Schiffbau technik, vol. 14, no. 7, 374--381, 1964. AND COMPENSATORS
84. Wen, C. Y., O'Brien, W. S., and Fan, 1., Pressure drop through packed beds operated cocurrently,
1. Chem. Eng. Data, vol. 8, no. 1, 47-51, 1963.
85. Zabellitz, Ch., Gleichungen fÜr Widerstandsbeiwerte zur Berechungng der Strömungswidwestande
von Kugeln und Schüttschichten, Grundlag. Landtechn., vol. 17, no. 4, 148-154, 1967.
86. Riman, 1. S., Grid-induced change in the velo city profile in channels of variable section, in Prom.
Aerodin., no. 20, pp. 216-238, Mashinostroenie Press, Moscow, 1961.
87. Kolesnikov, A. V. and Ukhanova, 1. N., Experimental investigation of a turbulent flow down-
stream of a flat and a curvilinear grids of rods, in Prom. Aerodin., no. 3(35), pp. 64--83, Mashi-
nostroenie Press, Moscow, 1988.
88. Guinevskiy, A. S., Kolesnikov, A. V., and Ukhanova, L. N., Investigation of the structure of a
flow downstream of a mechanical turbulizer, in Prom. Aerodin., no. 1(33), pp. 250-276, Mashi-
nostroenie Press, Moscow, 1986.
9.1 EXPLANATIONS AND PRACTICAL RECOMlVIENDATIONS
89. Guinevskiy, A. S., Kolesnikov, A. V., and Ukhanova, 1. N., Degeneration of flow turbulence
downstream of a two-row grid of cylinders with the rows moving oppositely, lzv. Akad. Nauk
1. The resistance coefficient of flow-stopping, throttling, or controlling devices depends on
SSSR, Mekh. Zhidk. Gaza, no. 3, 17-25, 1979.
their design and the shape of the internal parts that detennine the unifonnity of the flow,
uniformity of the cross section, and so on. The quality of the inner surface finish also influ-
ences the resistance coefficient of the device.
2. The length of some types of globe and gate valves does not vary in proportion to their
flow section; therefore, when the diameter of this section is changed, eomplete geometrie sl-
militude is not preserved. Moreover, the smaller the size of the casting, the greater is its
roughness. As a result, the resistance of some globe and gate valves varies with the flow
cross-sectional diameter; the resistance coefficient S of globe valves of large dimensions in-
creases with the flow cross-sectional diameter, while in globe valves of small dimensions it
increases with a decrease in the diameter.
3. The resistance of gate valves is similar to the resistance of flow obstructions in which a
sudden contraction of the flow is followed by a sudden expansion (Figure 9.1a). The phenome-
non in butterfly valves, taps (faucets), and globe valves is more complex (Figure 9.1b, c, and
d). Here, in addition to abrupt contractions and expansions, there are complex bypasses and
turns of the flow. All this is associated with the local increase in velocities and flow separa-
tions and, consequently, eddy formation, which increases the resistance of these elements.
The resistance of each type of throttling device depends on the position of the shutoff
component.
4. The resistance coefficient of open gate valves of different dimensions and designs dif-
fers in magnitude. This difference is mainly due to the relative dimensions of the valve disk
cavity or recess. The smaller the diameter of the gate opening, the larger are the relative di-

617
 Flow through Pipe Fittings and Labyrinth Seals 619
618 Handbook ofHydrmtlic Resistance, 4th Edition

~
A I
I

I'>.. b 1:\ i :

10 I~"'=
\\ '1~

a..' '>,
It
J
:::
r-
\ ~ I
r-

•
(a) (bI (cl 0 J
111

':-l.ij
9
~
10

0.1
f !fJ !li1 Ill' Re

Figure 9.2. Function ~ =ftRe) for a disk throttle (CI. = 90° - Ö):5 1) CI. = 9°; 2) CI. = 18°; 3) CI. = 27°;
(d)
4) CI. = 36°; 5) CI. = 45°; 6) CI. = 54°; 7) CI. = 63°; 8) CI. = 72°; 9) CI. = 81°; 10) CI. = 90°. Left side of
line A, laminar region; between lines A and B, transition region; right side of line B, turbulent region.
Figure 9.1. F10w pattern in throttling and control devices: (a) gate valve, (b) butterfly valve, (c) disk
valve, and (d) globe valves.
8. Flow-stopping devices display the same three characteristic regions of the flow regime
(Figure 9.2) as do orifice plates (see paragraphs 32 and 33 of Chapter 4): purely laminar, tran-
mensions of the recess. Therefore, the resistance coefficients of open gate valves of the same sient, and purely turbulent (quadratic) regimes.4-6 Equation (1.3) also holds for these devices
type of design are smaller for large disk or gate diameters.
5. When the valve disk is instal1ed on the side of the gate opening, this distorts the syrn-
metry of the flow. As a result, pressure fluctuations and vibrations of the pipeline increase
substantially. From this point of view, a rectangular gate with va1ve disks on two sides mov-
ing simultaneously is advantageous. 35 ,36 which characterizes the law of resistance for a wide range of the Reynolds mlmber [where
6. In order to reduce the size of the gate valve, as weIl as the magnitude of forces and Squad is the resistance coefficient in the (square law) quadratic region and A is a coefficient
torques required to control it, the flow seetion in the valve casing is usually contracted. The that depends on the type of stopping device].
5
contraction is usually symrnetrical, but for a one-side motion of liquid it can also be asym- 9. For a regulating va1ve (at Do = 0.05 m), Arzumanov and Vizeryan ,6 suggest the f01-
metric. ll The contraction of the passage increases the resistance coefficient of the gate valve. lowing equations for ca1culating the resistance coefficient: *
7. Gate valves and various plugs (conical, spherical, segmented, rollerlike) used in water
• For an angular single-seat valve within 1.7 ::; hlDh ::; 30
supply systems, pressure delivery pipes of hydroelectric stations, and gas and petroleum pipe-
lines and other structures and plants can operate both within the system and at its exit (ter- 2
minal). In the first case, they are installed in the straight pipe, in converging-diverging 4.1h/Dh + 23 + ( 1 -Fh)
transition units, or in a converging transition unit (see respective schemes on Diagrams 9.5,
R
eh p- +0.18. 0
9.7 to 9.13, and 9.20). The values of S given in these diagrams do not allow for the addi-
tional losses of velocity pressure at the exit and, correspondingly, the los ses in transition With complete opening of the valve (hlDh ::; 1.7)
pieces. 33,34
The total resistance coefficient of the terminal (and) gate va1ves and plugs, and similarly
of gate valves and plugs installed in transition pieces, is determined as Stot = S + 1, and, - + [ 1 -FhJ2
S= 30 - +0.18
Reh FO
correspondingly, Sov = S + Str, where the S's are the values of these coefficients for the ter-
minal gate valves and plugs and Str is determined as S of the converging-diverging and other *Quantities with subscript h at w, Re, F, and TI refer to the flow cross section of the stopping device.
transition pieces in Diagrams 5.25 and 5.26.
 620 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition Flow through Pipe Fittings and Labyrinth Seals 621

• For a double-seat valve within 4.0 < hlD :::.; 6.0 1 + 0.5Dd (1 + sin 8)
A = 120 ??
(9.2)
(l-Dism 8t
~p
2
/' _ 0.5h/Dh + 27 + [
1F
h (Fh )
- -)2 +4.7-
':>=--=
pw~/2 Reh Fo Fo
8 is the angle of valve opening, in degrees; Dd = DiDo; Dd is the disk diameter, in meters;
Re = woDoIv; at Re :::.; 50, the value of (1 - 501Re) is assumed to be equal to zero.
With complete opening of the valve At 8> 20°

2
1;=-+ FhJ
_ 30 [ 1 - - 2 +4.7 - h ) (F , /'
,:>quad =(1.56 (9.3)
Reh Fa Fo 1-Dd sin 8

where Reh = WhRh/V = WhDh/4v and Dh = 4FhlTIh.
10. The relative depth of the plunger stroke (depth of the channel in a throttling device;
see scheme of Diagram 9.21) h/Dh for different types and dimensions of valves is different
and depends on the degree of opening of the regulating valve H = H/Hmax , where Hand
H max are the instantaneous and maximum values of the plunger stroke, respectively.5
The value of h is assumed to be equal to the height of the seat hs for the case where a
shaped part of the plunger with fun opening of the valve (H = 1.0) leaves the seat com-
pletely or where the profiled part of the plunger is at the upper edge of the seat during
intermediate positions.
11. The best design of a stopping device, with respect to hydraulic resistance, is that of
a straightway globe valve. The resistance coefficient of such a valve as a function of the
valve lift hlDh at Re = wODh/V ~ 3 x 105 can be determined from the following equations of
Murin: 22
13. In the range of variation of the quantity 8 from 0 to 30°, the resistance coefficient of
a throttling device is noticeably affected by its shape and size (relative thickness blDo, state
of its edges, etc.). Within these limits, the actual values of S are higher than those ca1culated
from Equation (9.3). Within the above limits of the values of 8, the stability of the charac-
teristics of the valve operator is also degraded. Therefore, it is recommended that the working
range of application of throttling devices used for automatic control be bounded by the limits
of 8 from 30 to 90°, at which the throughput capacity is almost independent of the design
features of the valve.
14. To determine the resistance coefficient of throttling valves in a rectangular tube at
small Reynolds numbers, one can make use of Equation (9.1) to determine with definite ac-
curacy the values of A from Equation (9.2) for the case of a circular cross section.
15. The resistance coefficient of certain types of lifting valves can be determined from the
equations suggested by Bach: 37

at Do = 38 mm GI for a tray valve without bottom guides within 0.1 < hlDo < 0.25 and 0.1 < btrfDo < 0.25

I; == ~; = 1.28+ 0.084 , I; == ~ = 0.15 + 4 btr + 0.155 ,

pwo/2 (h/Da)2 pw6/2 Da (h/Doi

at Do = 200 mm where btr is the width of the tray flange, in meters;

GI for a tray valve with bottom guides within 0.125 < h/Do < 0.25 and 0.1 < btrfDo < 0.25

btr +
S = (0.8 - 1.6) 0.15 + 4 D 2
0.73 J
2 '
( o (h/Do) (n - iSsh/Do)
With full opening of the valve within Do = 25-200 mm
where Ssh is the width of the guide shoulder (Diagram 9.24) and i is the number of guide ribs;
/'=~
':>05 (D
0, 'm mm.
) 11 for a conical valve with a flat seat within 0.1 < hlDo < 0.25 and at btrfDo = 0.1
Da'

12. The resistance coefficient of throttling valves with disk seal gates in a circular tube can S=26-~+~'
be ca1culated for the entire range of Reynolds numbers from the equations5.6 . h/Do (h/Do)2'

GI for a conical valve with a conelike supporting surface within 0.125 < h/Do < 0.4
(9.1)
1'=06
':> . +
~. ? '
where (h/Dot
 Flow through Pipe Fittings and Labyrinth Seals 623
622 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

", for a spherical valve with a spherical seat within 0.1 < hlDo < 0.25

16. In some cases, for example, in bag filters with the reverse blow-through (BFR), the gas
stream from the outlet header (supplying section, see Diagram 9.27) enters the sections to be
filtered. The c1eaned gas is directed through outlet tray valves into the intake header (outlet
channel) and is withdrawn from the apparatus. When the regeneration of any section is re-
quired, it must be separated from the main stream with the help of a discharge valve and
connected with the blowing bellmouth by opening the blowing valve.
The values of the resistance coefficients of a tray valve operating according to the schemes
16 fs)
given in Diagram 9.27 were obtained experimentally by Koryagin et al. and are presented
in the same diagram. Figure 9.3. Cone plug in a spillway: (a) flow pattern and (b) plug design.
17. Since the motion of agas through a throttling device is accompanied by appreciable
pressure losses, the density of the gas can also vary considerably. This should be considered
when determining the resistance of the device from the equation 11 where (PI/PO)er is the critical ratio of pressures before and after the throttling device at which
the flow velocity in the constricted section becomes equal to the Iocal speed of sound; for air
~ - k PinwOin
2
and a diatomic gas (PI/PO)er = 0.53 and 1 - (PI/PO)er = 0.47.
p- eom 2 The values of ~p, PI/PO, and keom are calculated by the method of successive approximations.
18. The resistance coefficient of a conical gate installed in a spillway is independent of the
where WOin is the mean stream velocity before the throttling device at apressure Po, mls; Pin tailwater level h t (Figure 9.3a), that is, it is the same in the case of discharge into the atmos-
is the gas density before the throttling device, kg/m 3 ; k eom is the correction for gas com- phere and discharge under water. 25 When a conical gate is installed in a special chamber,
pressibility, which depends on the ratio between the pressure Po before the throttling device which ensures reliable dissipation of the kinetic energy of the flow in the tailwater (Figure
and the pressure PI following it: 9.3b), its resistance coefficient varies somewhat (see Diagram 9.9).
19. The total resistance coefficient of stopping devices, placed one after the other or after
PI = 1- ~P . bends, is lower than the sum of the single resistance coefficients of these elements taken
Po PO separately (in the absence of their interaction effectL
The degree of the interaction effeet of curved parts depends on the relative distance lellDO
Then the values of the correction will be between them. The larger lel/DO, the smaller is the effeet of this parameter. This effeet virtu-
ally disappears at lellDO = 30-40.
20. The interaetion effeet of the stopping device (fitting) during compiete opening ean be
26
k eom ~ 1.0 , defined by the formulas suggested by Skobeltsyn and Khomutov:

at Re < 160

2
Sl+2 = 31.-
0
.785 (SIquad + ~2qua~ (2 - ß) ;
Re

at 160 S Re S 500
or approximately 7

In the quadratie region at Re > 500

 624 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition
s and the losses at entering the next gap, where
{bI
(al
Figure 9.4. F10w pattern in labyrinths: (a) cell of a simple labyrinth and (b) labyrinth with complex
flow passage.
Sl+2 = 0.5 (Slquad + S2quacV (2 - ß) ,
where Sl+2 is the total resistance coefficient of a pair of stopping lock devices that influence
each other; Slquad and S2quad are the single resistance coefficients of stopping devices that
comprise a pair in the quadratic region of the resistance (Re > 500); and ß is a coefficient
that depends on the relative distance between the stopping devices.
The coefficient ß for the straightway stopping fitting is
2
ß = 22.2 X 10 -5 (leI) leI + O. 8 .
Do - 26.7 X 10 -3 Do
For the remaining types of stopping devices it is
21. In a labyrinth seal, in which baffles are interstitially located on one side and on one
level, the flow passes uniformly. Entering the first gap (Figure 9.4a), the flow contracts in the
same way as in the case of entrance into a straight channel mounted flush with the wall, or
as in the case of passage through an orifice in a thin wall. When the flow enters the labyrinth
chamber, it expands and, due to turbulent agitation, additional fluid is entrained at the ex-
pense of the surrounding medium. When the relative dimensions of the chamber are suffi-
ciently large (as compared with the gap), a core of constant mass separates from the jet at the
chamber end and, contracting, enters the second gap. The entrained masses of the surrounding
medium separate from the core at the chamber end and move with a circulatory motion in the
chamber until they become once more mixed with the flow. Since the constant-mass core has
a high kinetic energy before it enters the second gap, it will contract less than in the first gap.
22. The resistance of the labyrinth cell (Figure 9.4b) is due to the frictional los ses in the
gap and the energy losses in the constant-mass core. The latter are made up of two parts: the
difference between the energy stored in the constant-mass core at the beginning and at the
end of the cell, and the losses at the entrance into the next gap.
Flow through Pipe Fittings and Labyrinth Seals 625
If the dimensions of the chamber are relatively small so that
then the jet issuing from the gap into the chamber will fill the entire section. The resistance
in this case is made up of the frictional losses in the gap, the losses at a sudden expansion,
00
is the half-width of the labyrinth gap with
recesses on both sides, or the width of the jet in the labyrinth with a recess on one side; Ob
is the half-width of the free jet at the end of the chamber (or, correspondingly, the width of
the jet), in meters; and hch is the height of the chamber of the labyrinth cello
According to Abramovich,2
where S is the length of a free jet (the length of the chamber of a labyrinth cell), m, and astr
is the coefficient of the structure (turbulence) of flow, taken, in this case, to be equal to O.I.
23. In labyrinth seals with protuberances or with a staggered arrangement of baffles and
with large chamber dimensions between the baffles, the jet, being compressed in the gap,
moves toward the protuberances of the labyrinth (Figure 9Ab). Here, it deflects through 90°
and moves directly to the lower wall of the chamber. It then circulates in the chamber and
moves along the second chamber toward the second gap. The jet, flowing in the labyrinth
chamber, entrains stationary masses from the surrounding space, causing them to move with
eddy zones forming as a result. Protrusions between the baffles of the labyrinth lengthen the
path of the free jet, which contributes to its attenuation. Labyrinths with tortuous flow paths
are more efficient, since their jet path length, and correspondingly their resistance, is mark-
edly larger than in labyrinths with straight flow passage.
24. The resistance coefficient of labyrinths with an oblong gap is calculated from the
author's equations: 13,14
- /)"P y' y
1; = - 2 - = 1 + S + z (ao + ':> bl + ':ofr)
I
,
pwo/2
where ao and b1 are the coefficients that depend on the relative length of the labyrinth cell
(see Diagram 9.28); ~fr = A(l/Do) is the friction coefficient of the gap; A (see Diagrams 2.1
through 2.6); S' is a coefficient that considers the effect of the inlet edge shape of the gap (i!
is determined in Diagrams 3.4 and 3.7 as a function of the degree of the inlet edge rounding
or beveling);
., at hch/D~ < Db/8~
 626 Flow through Pipe Fittings and Labyrinth Seals 627
Handbook 0/ Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

9.2 DIAGRA~IS OF THE RESISTANCE COEFFICIENTS

Variüus glübe and gate valves;26,35,37 Re =woDIJv > 104 Diagram 9.1
where

25. The flow pattern in fittings, parts of tubes of complex shape, and channels having a
number of closely spaced sharp turns, abrupt expansions and contractions, bypasses, and so
on, as weIl as the entry and exit of an infinite space (see Diagrams 9.29 through 9.31), is in
many respects similar to the flow structure in curved channels, valves, and labyrinth seals
"Rey"-type globe valve
with large gaps.
When estimating the resistance of such complex shaped parts, it is necessary to consider I; = 3.4
the mutual interaction effect of separate elements of fittings, which substantially increases the
total resistance over a simple sum of the resistances of its separate elements. In many cases, Forged globe valve
this resistance increases by a factor of 3 to 5. I; = 7.8
26. When a complex fitting is used as a labyrinth seal, its resistance is useful, since it 1S
more efficient in operation as the resistance increases (air passage through it is reduced). In
the remaing cases - for example, when the complexity of the fitting is dictated by a limited
overall size of the device - the resistance is detrimental and it should be lowered. The losses
in such fittings can be substantially reduced by enlarging its separate cross sections. The re-
sistance can also be decreased very efficiently by installing guide vanes at sharp-corner turns
(see Section 6.1). This does not entail a change in the dimensions of the shaped part. The
resistance can also be reduced markedly by rounding the corners of the turns.
The installation of fairings is very useful when the obstructions placed in the stream have
an irregular shape.
Wedge-type gate valve Steam gate valve with lever gate
~ = 0.2 I; =0.75

Conduit-type gate valve

DoID 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.8

S 0.1 0.3 0.7 2.2

With two successively instalIed globe valves (gate valves) the total resistance coefficient is 26

where far 1;1' see 1; of the fIrst stopping device; for 1;2' see 1; of the second stopping device; ß= 4.2 X 10-5 (llD o)2
- 5 X 10-3 lIDo + 0.15; I is the distance between two stopping devices.
 Flow through Pipe Fittings and Labyrinth Seals 629
628 Handbook of Hydra ulic Resistance, 4th Edition

*2~
Direct-flow angle globe valve - Diagram 9.3
"Kosva" angle globe valve at complete opening;*34,37
Diagram 9.2
Re =woDiJv 2 104

Incomplete opening
a) D o = 38 rum and 0.2 < h/Do < 0.8
_ t..p 0.084 .
~ = - 2 - = 1.28 + - - 7 ' see graph a,
pw o/2 (hID o)-

b) D o = 200 rum and 0.2 < hlD o < 1.0

~=~, see graph a.

(hlDot
Complete opening for diameters Da = 25-250
~ "" J&, see graph b.

2. Re< 3 X 103

I 11 (a) SRe = kRe~ ,

Section A where for k Re , see graph c
[\ I I 1
~ I 1 1
I"t 'lJ1I-J8mm :p1)-!OOmm Values of I.;
With a 30% contracted section of the seat (along arrow A) i'. "i-+-.l ! 1
'N_V I ]] hlDo
Do,rum 60 80 100 150 200 250 300 350
I l t .1 J
2.70 2.40 2.20 1.86 1.65 1.50 1.40 l.30 Do, 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4
mm
38 12.0 4.40 2.60 2.00 1.70 1.50 1.30 1.11 0.95 0.85
200 13.0 5.80 3.20 2.00 1.40 1.00 0.80 0.50 0.40 0.36

With fuH seat section t

Do,rum (inches) ~ (flow along arrow A) ~ (flow along arrow B) QJ \ {bI

Do, 25 38 50 65 75 100 125 150 200 250

mm
25
32
(1)
(IV4)
1.80
2.00
1.70
1.60 o.J r\ ~ 1.04 0.85 0.73 0.65 0.60 0.50 0.46 0.42 0.36 0.36
40 (IV2) 1.70 1.60
't'-...
~ ........I--

2.2 \ (cl,
j\..
I'.
. . . r-.,.
............... "'"
-- -- kRe 1.40 1.07 0.94 0.88 0.91 0.96 1.0
1.4 tO "-
tU
~
'i'.. ~~

GO 100 1M 130 220 Ob, mm

~For two consecutively instalied valves I.; is taken from Diagram 9.1.
*For two consecutively instalied globe valves I.; is taken from Diagram 9.1.
630 Handbook oj Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition Flow through Pipe Fittings and Labyrinth Seals 631

Standard globe valve with dividing walls at compiete Gate valves in a straight tube (without a recess for the valve
Diagram 9.5
opening;*34,37 Re = woDhiv > 104 Diagram 9.4 disk);12,14,17,35 Re =WODh/V > 104

r,=~=j(Do), see the table, or according to the formula

pW 6/2 fll t

r, =
nj

L a;DS (Da, in mm);

w"F, ~ .-
i=O

at Da< 0.08 m llil

ao = 17.73; a1 = -i585.26;
Ic\
a2 = 11634.4; a3 = -i55479.34; I tJ ,::r
Circular cross section

t=~
.. w"F, H .-
at Da ;::0.08 m
- pW 6/2' r-
see the curves r,=j(hID o or hlao) i ~
ao = 3.2; al = 8.67; ~
~
Of determine from the formula
a2 = -i5.06, nl = 2.
Rectangular cross section
1. Dividing walls at angle 45° (curve 1) ,= exp [2.3 ~ OWVOI] .
Do,mm 13 20 40 80 100 150 200 250 300 350 where ai is given below.
10.8 8.00 4.90 4.00 4.10 4.40 4.70 5.10 5.40 5.50
At 0.2:S; hlDo < 0.9

ao =7.7; al =-72.6;
2. Vertical dividing walls (curve 2) a2 = 345.8; a3 = -897.8;

Do, mm 13 20 25 30 40 50 a4 = 1275.9; as = -938.8;

r, 15.9 10.5 9.30 8.60 7.60 6.90 a6 = 278.8193.

At hIDo c.0.9

r, = 0.6 - 0.6(hIDo) ,
4Fo
Dh=TI;; .

Values üf I; für single disk gate valves (graph a)

hlDo (hlao)
0.10 0.15 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
If two globe valves are instalIed successively, then the

, I
overall resistance coefficient is
r,1+2 = 0.5 (SI + r,z) (2 - ß) ,
ao
bo (ao x bo)
0.25
Fizi Fo for circular cross section
0.38 0.50 0.61 0.71 0.81 0.90 0.96
IIJ where r,1 is determined as r, of the first globe valve,
Circular cross section (Da = 25 mm)
1\
\ r,2 as r, of the second; Curve 1 35.0 10.0 4.60 2.06 0.98 0.44 0.17 0.06
2
1\ 'i ß=4.2xI0-5 ~I J2 -5xlO-3~+0.15
I
Rectangular cross section
{J

~
f-~ R("
o !t0 80
1 - - ~-
120 f50 ZOO ZW D01 mm
- ( Do Do
(Zcon is the distance between two stopping devices).
0.5 (25 x 50 mm). Curvt? 2
0.5 (150 x 300 mm). Curve 3
193
105 51.5
44.5
30.6
17.8
13.5
8.12
6.85
4.02
3.34
2.08
1.73
0.95
0.83
0.39
0.32
0.09
0.09
1.0 (150 x 150 mm). Curve 4 155 72.0 42.3 18.5 8.78 4.54 2.43 1.23 0.55 0.17
1.0 (225 x 150 mm). Curve 5 330 122 58.2 19.6 9.10 4.68 2.66 1.23 0.47 0.11

'For two consecutively installed globes I; is taken from Diagram 9.1. 2.0 (300 x 150 mm). Curve 6 203 86.5 48.7 17.9 8.78 4.47 2.25 1.12 0.51 0.13
 Flow through Pipe Fittings and Labyrinth Seals 633
632 Handbook 0/ Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

Plane-parallel gate valves of the Ludlow type, with a recess

Gate valves inß straight tube (without a recess for the valve
Re = woDhfv > 104
disk);12,14,17,3:l Diagram 9.5 for the valve disk, in a straight tube of a circular cross section;95 Diagram 9.6
4
Re =woDo/v > 10

L Gate valve in the system:

(a)
\ ~=~
f~O
~
- pW 6/2 '
see the curves ~ = j(h1Do) or
iJ
~ determine from the formula

!()/J
\
(J() to i\
~ ~ = exp [2.3 ± alhIDO/] ,

\ 4/!\~
,=0
80
M l\

01)
~~
\\
f;:! D,()\\
~, p vi
6 \\' vf
46,\' ~ ~s
where at 0.1 :::;; hlDo : :; 1
ao = 3.2; ai = -7.3;

~ ~f
~ J f\' 4
a2 =-44.8; a3 = 337.7;
~ k--} [\' ~ 3
,~ M\ l.>; ~~ 41\ ~ .,,2 ~ I--
a4=-967.6; a5=1405;
(a) (b)
~~ 1"- ................~ ~ '§ ~ a6=-1023; a7=295.3.

~
20 2.D
~~ ~ r--... ~~
.....
()
tU 1).2 IJ.]
-I~
IJ.# fi5 tl.6 (}.1 118 """ ~
j/~("
~
ce,) 2. Exit gate valve (tentatively)
_ t1p
~tot=-2-=~+1 .
pwo/2
Values of ~ for two-part disk gate valve of rectangular cross section (graph b)

ao hlao
~(aobo)
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
0.5 (150 x 300 rum). Curve 1 112 30.6 13.1 6.64 3.26 1.52 0.71 0.28 0.06
1.0 (150 x 150 rum). Curve 2 95.3 31.7 14.1 6.95 3.63 1.83 0.91 0.36 0.08
287
Values of ~
1.0 (225 x 150 rum). Curve 3 50.1 17.9 8.31 4.22 2.22 1.02 0.39 0.10
2.0 (300 x 160 rum). Curve 4 2L5 48.7 18.5 8.48 4.17 2.14 1.02 0.42 0.12 hlDo
Position of the gate valve
0.10 0.15 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.90 1.0
With a recess for the valve disk (graph a)
In the system (the gate valve is
200 77.0 33.0 11.0 4.70 2.35 1.23 0.67 0.31 0.11 0.05
\ (b) followed by a straight tube), curve 1

{) \ t ~
\
f{},IJ \
:41J 1.0

8
0). ~
, 1
~O \\
1l8~\
[\\ Position of the gate
hlDo

0.10 0.15 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.90 1.0
60 ,
\\
..--9
J ap~~
.......
I~ I.- 1--]
_# OJ \1
~ 1\
Terminal (gate valve at
the exit), curve 2
200 64.0 36.0 14.2 7.10 3.85 2.30 1.40 0.75 0.21 0.11
~t;
e-- #-~ I--
~ ',--2 \ .~ V $
With a hollow ring on the valve (graph b)
40 ~ IM
~ \ "'~f 1'\ ~ 2
f ~ i-- In the system, curve 1 400 43.0 12.8 5.30 2.48 1.19 0.51 0.22 0.08 0.03
20
1,\l\.
lj/
,,~
112 ~ Terminal, curve 2 3900 260 70.0 22.0 87.0 4.00 1.85 0.78 0.15 0
~~
"~ t::..... ~
~ ~
~!::..
 634 Handbook 0/ Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition Flow through Pipe Fittings and Labyrinth Seals 635

Plane-parallel gate valves of the Ludlow type, with a recess Plane-parallel gate valves of the Ludlow type, with a recess
for the valve disk, in a straight tube of a circular cross section;95 Diagram 9.6 for the valve disk, in a converging-diverging transition piece Diagram 9.7
Re = woDo/v > 10
4
of circular cross section; 14,36 Re = woDo/v > 104

, (
(a) !
Values of ~ for an asymmetrie transition *
I i
t2Q 12.0 tZ \
\ Dj h/Do
Do 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.90 1.0
10.0 tU
Z i\
f 1.25 (eurve 1) 200 77.0 34.0 12.5 6.50 3.65 2.15 1.35 0.71 0.24 0.07
80 0 0.8 \
1.5 (curve 2) 200 77.0 33.0 12.5 6.10 3.15 1.85 1.10 0.58 0.18 0.06
00
1\ 01\ ~
~\
fl.6 \ *Yalves of ~ for a gate valve in a converging-diverging transition piece do not allow for the los ses
\ f~ ~2~ -
I~ "- fl.9
in these transition pieces
4.0 \ \ 1\
tP . " ~~
'''-. 2
"- .......

r--.. ~
'\
'-' I-.. ,

,
o r"""" ~
\ i- -..-, - - ..- ! \ .. ..
Ilf lJ.2 {J,l il9 fZJ /l6 (1,7 0.0 1l.9 II/])q IJ
_';2
'10,1\ --- tU
110 6 tlß
-\!\ -. . . ... -

t \ 'i f - 1
'-
16tJ
1\
'\
I'
}.io I1
(

f.6
(b)
f2fJ \ d
~ ..~
,-- - r - - I-- i -
116 & ....

\ T 1\ \ \\
\
.\.- _.. "-
tJ \ }4u l
" 10 4 t\ IN \
f.9 \ '\:-..., .\ c--
!2tJ }zo f2 \ t
'"t-... '\
'"4;
~
f_ 2 2
"'- 1"'- ~
100 \ jao 1 tU 1 .--..;:;
\ \ \ 4f tl2 41 tU OS 0.6 tl7 tU (/JJ "14.
80 \ 10 a8 \
\ \
oll \ aU \ \ 2. Symrnetrical transition:* Complete opening.
i\ \
Qo
\
i\ \ _ Ap
,lll \ 1
\ S=-z-'
\ '\ pw /2
ttJ , 2.0 k! , ~2 '\
"-
\ where Wc
c
is the velocity in the narrow seetion of the gate valve. For Case 137

o i- ""o-i ...... '1;:--

Bf fll tU fN fH tl5 0.7 118 ag np, (1)

4
at Re< 10
Plane-parallel gate valves of the Ludlow type, with a recess
for the valve disk, in a converging-diverging transition piece Diagram 9.7 ~Re = S + 530S 1.25/Re ,
of circular cross section; 14,36 Re = woDo/v > 104
where S is deterrnined from fonnula (I)Y

Do, mrn 300 300 200 250

Asymmetrie transition 0.67 0.67
Dc/Do 0.75 0.80

S= P$2 =f(~o} LIDo

S(without a guide pipe)
2.50
0.30
1.68
0.36
1.33
0.19
1.50
0.16

sov= pwAfö/2 =S+t-rr , S(with a guid pipe) 0.25 0.28 0.18 0.15

**Yalues of ~ of the gate valve with symmetrical transition allow for the contraction and subsequent
where Srr is detennined as S from Diagrarn 5.25.
expansion losses.
 Flow through Pipe Fittings and Labyrinth Seals 637
636 Handbook oj Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

4 Diagram 9.9
Circular outlet seal gates;35,36 Re = woDo/v > 10
Rolling seal gates;35,36 Re =woDoIv > 104 Diagram 9.8

I litt I !? t {a}
'2 j
11
"2~ I }#U f2bo
J
I

tO
I IJ[
1/
I }, I I...
III h 1;2;J
116
-- 2r1 11 J
I
I /2 J. ih
~ 11 'PO '- ::t: 2. With a streamlined thrust element for S,
"'.jß V 1. With a thrust cone (th.c)
2 VI 8tJ see the curves S = f(slD o) of graph b.
fj
1//)'
8
fV,
~
ruf
vt' !fO
A
.T s=~
1. Seal gate in the system:
112
t/
~
:"""-V;: itJl,dV 5/
pw 2 '
~~
:::;;;
see the curves S = f(slD o) of graph a.
s=~
fO 20 JO 90 50 iO 70 80 9Q tPQ ffO J
pW 6/2 '

see the table and the curves S =f(6) . 3. Seal gate in a transition piece (tentatively):
2. Exit seal gate (tentatively):
= =
S Lip/(pw6/2 S + Sfr where Sfp is determined as S
from Diagrams 5.25 and 5.26.
s= wLif/2 =S+l.
p ö

Values of l;

DilDo; place ofinstallation 8, deg

of the breechlock 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 20 90 100 115
Straight flow (direction A-B; graph a)

1.0; in the system (li> 0); curve 1 0.02 0.08 0.36 1.08 2.80 6.80 16.9 44.0 108 277 540 620
3. Discharge tube is contracted at the exit
1.0; at exit (11 =0); curve 2 0.03 0.17 0.90 2.13 4.70 9.50 21.6 49.0 112 277 540 620
at complete opening
1.25-1.5; in converging-diverging 0.02 0.13 0.60 1.60 3.70 7.5 18.0 44.0 106 277 540 620
transition piece Cll > 0); curve 3 s=-~=03
p 6/2 ..
W
Reverse flow (direction B-A; graph b)
1.0; in the system ([1 > 0); curve 1 0.1 0.19 0.70 1.70 3.8 7.70 15.8 35.0 81.0 191 549 820
1.0; at exit (11 =0); curve 2 0.03 0.24 1.00 2.60 5.50 10.8 21.5 44.0 92.0 191 540 820

*Por Zr, see scheme a of Diagram 9.20.

I ~ ? Tt (b)
1.2 I 2~ i40 ,to~
J l
tO ,20 2~O ,bOI) Values of l; (scheme 1, graph a)
"/
I 11 16 IL, J '-- s
li J 1/1 / Dl Do
Do
f}
12 /~D ("'IJ / 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80
'I ! I 2// 1,'2- ' - - 1.50 1.35 1.30 1.26
7~V 1.5 (curve 1) 1.80
IU /" 8 I 8Q f" '/ rOD I 0.82
// 77 C W I 1.75-2.0 (curve 2) 1.44 1.15 0.97 0.88

112
VI
'I
\ ..-:: 7
// j?()
l.,..-::9'
1/ ioo l
I
3.0 (curve 3)
00 (curve 4)
1.58
1.82
1.20
1.50
1.05
1.30
0.95
1.19
0.90
1.12
:::::? I
{} tO 20 JO ~O 50 6() 70 80 90 iOO flO r
638 Handbook 01 Hydra ulic Resistance, 4th Edition Flow through Pipe Fittings and Labyrinth Seals 639

Circular outlet seal gates;35,36 Re =woDo/v > 104 Revolving, conical gates;35,36 Re = woDo/v > 104 Diagram 9.10
Diagram 9,9

Values of ~ (scheme 2, graph b) L Seal gate in the system:

DI
s s== pwQl2
~ , see the curve S = f(o) .
Da
Da 2. Seal gate at exit (tentatively):
0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5 0,7 1.0
1.5 (curve 1) 13,0 3,10 1.04 0,51 0,39 s,x=~=S+l.
1.75 (curve 2) 13,8 3,08 1.45 0,85 0,59
033
0,41
032 pW 5/2
0,35
2,0 (curve 3) 9,42 3. Seal gate in the transition piece (tentatively):
3,50 1,50 1.01 0,76 0.58 0.51
2.5 (curve 4) 11.9 431 2.17 _ I'lp
1.44 1.10 0.84
3.0 (curve 5) 16.0
0.76 Sov = ---Z-I? =S+ Str '
4.92 2.51 1.66 1.28 1.00 0.86 PWa -
where Str is determined as S from Diagrams 5.24 and 5.25.

Values of ~
r\ (a)
DIlDo; place ofinstallation 0, deg
2.IJ \ of the seal gate o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 85
~
Seal gate in a straight tube
\ \ f
7.8
1\\ # 1.0; in the system (11 > 0), curve 1 0.04 036 1.60 5.00 15.0 42.5 130 800 2500 6000

\ \~ 1.0; at exit (h =0), curve 2 0.05 0.51 2.75 7.70 17.5 48.5 150 810 2500 6000

~ Seal gate in a converging-diverging transition piece: <Xcon = 40°; (X,jiv =7°

1.1j. \\ 2 "\
\' ~3 ~
" 1.25-1.5; in the system, curve 2

*For [" see scheme a of Diagram 9.20.

0.04 0.36 1.60 5.20 16.0 45.0 110 250 490 2500

1.2 \\ ----
-....... -.....;.;;;
"- ..........
"0- ~

IJJ "~,
.........
11.8
fl.J5 (J.'f5 0.55
'" I'--
0.55
r---...
r-.....
9.75 SIDg
I I~ ?
LI} 1
2.1l
'r
I1
I
200

16
I .1
l"~\
1.5 f5~
(b) J
\ J I 1/// fJ
'l\ fI f. r{j 2
2. f-.-J
~\ \ ,
\\ 1\.' r--..... 5 0.0
I-- 1;1
2_ r fI
8
1. ftj, 1180
J.

!\ 1\
\~
, i'.. Ir ""'- '--
J
I-- ~
//
1/ J
V)
) 7/
~
~(J
AI(
Jj

!J 'v V
~

~ "- i'--...
.....,;;
2 -~
./ A '7
f-.- V ~
I} A
f- f-- f--
~ a
Q.J 0.5 (J7 sj.D()
o 10 20 JII 50 I
 0\
J;;..
SpheIical seal gat~s with one-sided sealing of the valve?5,36 Diagram 9.11 o
Re = woDo/v > 10

1. Seal gate in (he system: Values of t;

Place of installation of the 8, deg
S=~
- p 6 ' seal gate 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 85
W /2
Straight flow (direcHon A-B; graph a)
see the curve S = f(8).
In the system (li > 0), curve 1 0.02 0.23 0.98 2.70 6.40 14.8 35.7 116 815 4450
2. Seal gate at exit
(tentatively): At exit (l! = 0), curve 2 0.04 0.44 1.52 3.70 8.10 17.5 38.6 118 815 4450
Stat == bf = S+ 1.
pw /2
Reverse flow (direction B-A; graph b)
o
In the system (li> 0), curve 1 0.02 0.22 0.93 2.30 6.00 13.5 30.0 74.5 288 425

At exit (11 = 0), curve 2 0.04 0.41 1.40 3.25 6.95 15.0 31.5 74.5 288 425

*Por LI, see scheme a of Diagram 9.20.

~
;:::
~
i-- tf (8) f t (b) B:
tf
il I !4 r-- t- r- 11
C)
C)

I I 1I J ""
L ~
2$0 r- t- t- ~l 111
t'2
i r fl
(2
L 111 ~
tO -,- i-"O
11
I 'iM
J
tD r-- t- t-ltp fL. I ~
,_. J J E-
([$ L I fJP I J llJ 'IQ 1I r;'
I r 111 I
1/6
j1 '(f IL :::0
t"Il

f-r-- ~t6
V,
I ~6
~~
lJ6 'dU (16 t- J 1.'''0 c::;.
I 2../ J l:!
;:::

~
2 J./'1 I I tj--, f
7ft IL
fit I 8P IN t- t-tL ~
I 811 "

~-
'} 11 j
,t"Il

~
i/ 1'i 2r:: VV
/' 1
02 r- 2 I1 2 112 #IJ V ;::;..
L '( YL V ... . /
.. .. .. .. ~
11 AA
- ». o
I?{
fP
I
2IJ JI/ ~O 50
F"(
#0 70 6"
;:::

-< :;cl(/) ~
I~
'I:I*
o
I;;>
x
::;.'
5"'
e-
(1)
r.n
::s2
~
(1)

g,
S-r.g
lJo =2ol':;r,
(1)"0
11
~
g
;So
C)
~
;;t.
~ S ~ ~. ~ i::J~ ~
CI>
(D
~
'-'-;:::
s ~
Ü'< '<...'"
"< (D
v g.
1:::
00
;:::-
(1)
~ 7t* g. ....... fJq
'"CI

-
o~
~
CI>
n ::I '"\3'
::r (1)
0
:y g, ""'"~ t"Il

'I::>
~
1\:0 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
~ N ~ e-
(1)
11 §.
:;. ~
po
[ @ S·
~ g,
~ ~

~ "0 . .
...... , ........ r.:l I~
t)
~.
o
o.,.
0
i ö.:
(D
p..
CI>
§
\::l...
t-<

~
8 0N o (1)

~ ~I...l ~'-.. t-..~ ~ .,... \0

!l'
S-
~ ~ fJq
;::s
\\ o
U.
o
10
0
<:)
o
H,

g
;;t.
~ ~
\0

~ !0 >:l

~ .... "[ <!

1:;'

~ti
C/.l C/.l
00 ;.- ~ [
~lr
o .r<
~ 0 .r<
J § 111 0cij
t o~ ~

*I~
111 5
~~ ..... .J:>. w
-vy. tl~
u, w Er
-- W ;:?
~ ~ I=::=::~~- o 0
o
~ ~ c:s 10 ~. So
~
(1)
11
1'\, I 9
>-' \0
U. 2:;1g.
co .r<
+
f? ~
(1) ~
<n

w 0 oq ~I't. g ~
~ "- ........ ~
~
"
N N
N,... N ,.... VI
~
~
: ~ N r- -..
- 00

VI
\0
o
w
VI
\0
0
o

0\
o
.r<
11
><
~
t:I
i;)'
fJ~
po
8
\0
;......
N
~ ~ -...j
o
00 00

po p 00
0\
o
0
0
o ~
o 0 I-'
 Flow through Pipe Fittings and Labyrinth Seals 643
642 Handbook 01 Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

Spherical seal gates with a spherical valve disk and seat;35,36

Sectür gate valves: Re =woDoIv > 104 Diagram 9.14
Diagram 9.13
Re =woDo/v > 10 4

~ 11 taj
2IJ
'IJ
1. Seal gate in the system: 20, (f 11
j ~
S== tJ.f ' see the curves S == f(8). '.~
pwol2 11 L
2. Seal gate at exit (tentatively): .JtL, ifil .... I
t- rt· J-I. 'J/ IJ
- t"p
Stot=-2-==S+ 1.
pwo/2
d1. lVi 10

3. Seal gate in a transition piece (tentatively):

IV lVI /)1
IU "1 9 / [h #f) ,li
- t"p .t ~~ '{l.J
Sov =-2-== S+ Str '
pw /2 o ~~
;;..-'

IU 50 '0 I
.
where Str is determined as S from Diagrams 5.25 and 5.26.

L Gate valve in the system 2. Exit gate valve 3. Gate valve in transition piece:
(tentatively): (tentatively):
S=~
- pW 6/2 ' _ tJ.p - t"p
Stot=-2-=S+1. SOV=-2-=!;+Str'
Values of ~ see the table and the curves
pwQl2 pw /2 o
where Srr is determined as S from
DilDo; place ofinstallation _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _0_,d_e_g_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
S =/(8). Diagrams 5.25 and 5.26.
of seal gate 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 75 85
Seal gate in a straight tube (graph a)

1.0; in the system (!i > 0);

0.02 0.21 1.07 3.35 9.20 24.0 65.0 204 330 624
curve 1
1.0; at exit (11 == 0); curve 2 0.03 0.47 1.90 4.75 12.4 27.5 65.0 204 625

Seal gate in a converging-diverging transition piece (graph b) C4:on == 40°; C4Jiv == 7°

1.25; in the system, curve 1 0.04 0.38 UO 4.35 10.9 25.5 70.0 204 330 624
1.5; in the system, curve 2 0.06 0.57 2.00 5.00 11.5 28.0 70.0 204 330 624

*Für h, see scheme a of Diagram 9.20.

Values of ~

DIlDo; place of installation of 0, deg

the gate valve
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80

Straight flow (direction A-B; graph a)

( {li (a) ? '11 !b) 1.0; in the system (!i > 0); curve 1 0.02 0.27 1.10 3.20 8.70 23.5 79.5 272 624
2,0 - f - W20 1/ ZIJ 1--'--1-- ;0 111
I ' 11 1.0; at exit (i! == 0); curve 2 0.03 0.44 2.10 5.25 12.0 30.5 91.0 277 624
io 1 l'fJIJ 1.25-1.50; in a converging-diverging
0005 OA7 1.64 3.94 9.40 28.3 90.0
I .! I I1 11 I transition piece (11 > 0); curve 3
277 624

f-I- 1- 1,2
1 l1
f20 'I (2 L VI 120 I Reverse flow (direction B-A; graph b)
./1 /11' _l ~l
2.J /, 2j J
~:-
a6 00 /19 1--1-- Vi _1
30 I 1.0; in the system (11 > 0); curve 1 0.02 0.12 0.59 1.82 5.62 18.8 79.0 398 773
-I- ~[ f- -- ~~. I' /
2 A ,- '1-1.2_ == 0); curve 2
~
':1;2- I- 1.0; at exit (h 0.04 0.53 1.60 3.42 8.65 18.8 73.5 398 773
V f>.V V 'j
l}j
1--79 1 / / !"o
V IN -9
.?
9
' (lV
I "Für LI, see scheme a of Diagram 9.20 .
Y V I" f:?r I
o 10 20 J(l 4(l f(l uD I 11 ftJ 20 3D 90 50 ,,0 I
644 Handbook 0/ Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition Flow through Pipe Fittings and Labyrinth Seals 645

4 47
Sector gate valves; Re =waDliv > 10 Diagram 9.14 Cylindrical valve in the system
4 Diagram 9.16
Re =waDwv > 10

{ r (1;)

16 A
I I1I J

. k 'L
Ir
I 1; = ~
- pW 612 '
see the curves ~ = f(8)
/ 1-1;2_
118
)
8
v/ 80 IJ
11 2r7 LI' )
2"-1 i~ / 'J #) 11
V X V ./ /'
b:::: l,....--'''' ~~
/J ff) JD SP 117 r
~
Flap (in the system);7 Re =WaDliv > 104 Diagram 9.15
100

~ == --Ej- "" 0.35 exp (0.07448) 80

pwö/2
Wo,,, ---i
........,..( from the curves ~ = f(8)
50

I /.J.IJ

20
? l

/
40 /
0 10 20 :10 4O 50
20
I
V
IIJ I
IJ 1. Cylindrical tube
6 ;
.;' 8, deg 10 20 30 40 50 55 67
V
'" 7
Flv'Fo

~
0.93
0.05
0.85
0.31
0.69
1.84
0.52
6.15
0.35
20.7
0.19
95.3
0.11
275
0

1
/v
10 20 30 40 50 60 1 9 2. Rectangular tube

8, deg 10 20 30 40 50 60 82

40 F,,/Fo 0.93 0.85 0.69 0.53 0.38 0.25 0.14 0

8, deg 20 30 50 60 70 75
~ 0.05 0.29 1.564 5.47 17.3 52.6 206
1.7 3.2 6.6 14 30 62 90
 646 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition Flow through Pipe Fittings and Labyrinth Seals 647

Butterfly valves (throttling, plane disks) in a tube T'nrottling butterfly valves in a tube o~ rectangular
Diagram 9.18
Diagram 9.17 cross section at any Re = WoDh/v 6,28,3:J
of circular cross section at different Re = woDo/v 5

S =~"" 120 1+0.5Dd (1 +sin8)

pW6;2 Re (1 - D] sin 8)2

+(1-;~J(I-~J~m8 Ir =~e +(I-~~JSquad'

Curve 1: where X[l + 0.5 (1 +s~ 8)]
(I-sin 8t
DO=25-40 mm ,
- Dd A "" 120 ,r1 + 0.5D (1 + sin 8)1,.
d Re = woDo
Dd = Da =0.98, L (1-Dlsin8)2 J' v 1. Plane valve 2. Beveled plane valve

- Fh
!=F;""0.92 (at 8=0°).
1=ta"" 0.99 (at 8=0°)
- Fh
!=To=0.725 (at 8=0°)
at Re S; 50, the value of 1 - 50/Re
is assumed to be equal to zero;
Dd =Dd =1.0 Dd = 1.0
Curve 2: Squad =!(8), see the graph.
~ _[ 1.56 1)2 ao
Dd =1.0, uad = 1- D] sin 8

t"" 0.99 (at 8=0°) .

:s: 50,
for all 8: Squad = !(8), see the graph; at Re the Value Values of ~quad
of 1-50/Re is assumed to be equal to zero.
8, deg
EQ. (ao)
bo 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 65 70
Values of ~quad 1. Thin plane valve
0.5-1.0 (150-300 mm), curve 1 0.04 0.30 1.10 3.00 8.00 23.0 60 100 190
8, deg
1.5-2 (150-300 mm), curve 2 0.04 0.35 1.25 3.60 10.0 29.0 80.0 230
Curve 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 75 0.5 (25-40 mm), curve 3 0.45 1.34 3.54 9.30 25.0 77.0 158 368
I 0.60 0.85 1.70 4.00 9.40 24.0 67.0 215 400 2. Beveled plane valve
2 0.52 1.54 4.50 11.0 29.0 108 625 0.5-1.0 (200-400 mm), curve 4 0.50 0.65 1.60 4.00 9.40 24.0 67.0 120 215

uad rqUad ~quad

~8
LO
ad
-.
f quad
I1 * T"
I I--
- O' -~

10 f--....-- -2fJO i 2 ~, iM
-- -- I--... v0 . ./ I I
1.0
~m
]t
i

8 - - -tl ~11
f~~o
~
I
I
I
--1.--·....-
i
-- tlj I Q, 8
(. rl 'I 1.
2~
I--

~.I ~ V /iI" t I/
f
5
r-- T I
I
-itV Ja
J 1),5 '/1 12
......V I/I
'11 120
11/
,-.,2
A
I /
--i--'I( ~~~ '1
f-- --l-- -- 80 .1l,4
'1/ 8
/)/
80 1//
l 1/ I /J J ), 1/)
~'1 *
I
40"W
J 2'A
2 /i0 0.2 / I I [di
d ~ V ~
f:::=;~ . ~P' / ~
u 70 20 30 1;0 50 o 10 20 30 49 .ff/ 00 §<>
648 Handbook 01 Hydra ulic Resistance, 4th Edition
649
Flow through Pipe Fittings and Labyrinth Seals

Thin-walled disk throttling valves, with parallel and nonparallel

6 29 Diagram 9.19
flaps, in a tube of sguare cross section at any value of Re =woDiz/v •

Wg,Fs. ___. _ . _
N!J
8<:'1

I'"'' f = 0.725 at (8 =0°)

~ ~ ~
ci
I
c-
o
. I

~
~ ~ 9
ci d S
ci
at Re :::; 50, the value of 1 - 50IRe is taken to be equal to zero;
Squad = j{o), see the graph. 0\
c:
o
I

Values of Squad
ad
,,1-1-1- tquad 1-1-1- ~uad (s)
Number of flaps _ _ _ _ _ _8_,---'='--_ _ __
I
L (no. of curve) 0 10 20 30 40 s §
ci ci
11'
J I Parallel flaps (scheme 1, graph a)
tJJ T t r f 2 (curve 1) 0.07 0.40 1.10 2.20 5.50 Vl 00
t...j c: o
tU
! 2 (j ~& 2 J 3 (curve 2) 0.14 0.25 0.80 2.00 4.50 o
I
ci
--i-,~ 'I .17 '-I. 21 4 (curve 3) 0.12 0.22 0.73 1.70 4.00
os -~
~ .tlJ. 'fj J"-!.
$71'V' !/..\." 5 (curve 4) 0.15 0.20 0.65 1.50 3.00 +
I/ 7i7 / 'VI 6 (curve 5) 0.20 0.35 1.00 2.30 4.80 ~

t/h
~
~I/ 60 /" !.i 11

~IMl
Nonparallel flaps (scheme 2, graph b) 8
11. ;-'1' V C'i
2g ,;;;:, ~ # / //7 8
A
A
~r ,/ ....... ;;::;~-- 2 (curve 1) 0.70 0.95 1.50 3.00 7.50
~~ ..... Parallel flaps on a side branch (scheme 3, graph b) I11
3 (curve 2) 0.28 0.40 1.10
Streamlined (scheme 4, graph b)
2.50 5.00
~Ii
111
>..J'
2 (curve 3) 0.57 0.92 2.50 5.80 .....
o
Number of flaps _ _ _ _ _ _0_,_de-=g=--_ _ _ __ g
~
d
I-f- I-- fquad
tquad
, (b)
(no. of curve) 50 60 70 80
Parallel flaps (scheme 1, graph a)

I·,t .!o
'[ 2 (curve1)
3 (curve 2)
11.5
10.0
30.0
20.0
80.0
40.0
300
140
!2
IJ 111
'7
"
f 4 (curve 3) 8.00 14.0 30.0 110

/ I :""
.L 5 (curve 4) 7.00 13.0 35.0 70
I 6 (curve 5) 8.50 16.0 35.0 150
/ 2 -11 6b 1J;{p
/ I! CI f Nonparallel flaps (scheme 2, graph b)
J,A
i.O 11 f1!O
'--I I 2 (curve 1) 20.0 55.0 180.0 800
1/ / llJ: 7 il 2. J
T
ill
J7)
SO L J. r Parallel flaps on a side branch (scheme 3, graph b)
L_
;;.;-'
/
...
11
2(}~ --'- - - qf) --L /~ 9· 3 (curve 2) 10.0 18.0
Streamlined (scheme 4, graph b)
42.0 200

I
I!I .
.(!JQ 40';0111
~~ -- -
,./..

'!Pr
2 (curve 3) 12.5 28.0 58.0 130
 650 Handbook 01 Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition Flow through Pipe Fittings and Labyrinth Seals 651

Regulating valves at any Re (Do =50 mm)5,6 Diagram 9.21 Check valve and suction valve with screen 15 Diagram 9.22

1. Angular single-seat valve within 1.7 < hlD" :::; 30:

\

where

Al=4.1~,+23 ~r+0.18
'I
1\..2
1,;lQUad=[l
5 "-
"-
P:~2 =s[~ :e:, [~r +~Olquad J
-" ....

r
s== r = ' ~
f
f ,... ....-
wh"" ~,~",," 'lq",{~ '~lh,,~, t;,lq"~"1(;';1 ,tI 10 8IJ flJl) 2IJO 1110 Da. mm

at complete opening of the valve hlD" :::; 1.7: 1. Check valve 2. Suction valve with a screen
a) Re ;::: 104
30 30 (
S = Re + ~lquad So = -R -F FoJ 2 + ~Olquad . S== L1: = f(D o), see the graph, table or determine from the
h e" h pw'"012
2. Double-seat valve within 4.0::::; hlDh ::::; 60: formulas (D o in mm):
1,;- L1p A2
= P 2 = Re + S2quad ' Scheme 1
wh /2 h
S= 1.07 +5.16Do-6.7ID6+4.93zYa ; (1)

whereA 2 =0.5
D
h
+27
"
S2qUad=(1-~J2 +4.7
l Fo
(!iJ
Fo
2
Scheme 2

S == P:t2 =S[~r =:~, [~r +S02quad ' S=La;D~ , (2)

whore t;,~"'"" "'"'~

at complete opening of the valve h/Dh
r'" t"',,~, t;"q"~ "1(;';j :::; 4.0:
where
i=D

ao = 22.13;
a3 =-22,160.8;
a6 = 118,353;
al

a4

a7
=-382.4;

= 70,762;

= -44,643.
a2 =3320.9;

as =-126,777;

;~ .,.: S2quad'
2
3Oo
S= So = Re (-FFJ +S02quad
h h h Values of'
FIFo 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 DO,mm
SOlqUad 99.0 20.5 7.50 3.40 1.72 0.95 0.55 0.34 0.24 0.18 Scheme 40 70 100 200 300 500 750
S02quad 86.0 21.0 10.5 7.20 5.70 5.20 4.90 I 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.9 2.1 2.5 2.9
4.75 4.70 4.70
2 1.2 8.5 7.0 4.7 3.7 2.5 1.6

~ b) Re < 10
4

80 SRe = ~ + 530(~)1.25/Re ,
t5~ JBfqua~
- -
30
where ~ is determined from formulas (I) and (2).

50 0.8 Disk valve without bottom guides

' ,37 Diagram 9.23

-
tHquad
...... _ L1p
(ilzquad ""-...i
0 S=-2-=aO +ßo,
O.s 8.7 pwQl2
Fit/fit
where lXo = 0.55 + 4[(b t!Do) - 0.1], see graph a: bo = 0.155/(h/Do)2, see graph b.
20

-
The formula is valid within
\..
~o < 0.25
o "'"
1).2
1-0... 0.1 <
652 Flow through Pipe Fittings and Labyrinth Seals 653
Handbook of Hydrmtlic Resistance) 4th Edition

Disk valve with bottom guides 30,37 Diagram 9.24

Disk valve without bottom guides 30,37 Diagram 9.23

Ffl/Fo 0.80 0.81 0.82 0.83 0.84 0.85 0.86 0.87

btr/Do 0.10 0.12 0.l4 0.16 0.18 0.20 0.22 0.24 0.25
'Yo 1.60 1.48 1.36 1.23 1.14 1.02 0.92 0.92
ao 0.55 0.63 0.71 0.79 0.87 0.95 1.03 1.11 1.15

h/Da 0.10 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.20 0.22 0.24 0.25

:mtm~Hm
ßo 15.5 10.8 7.90 6.05 4.78 3.87 3.20 2.69 2.48

(bl 010 082 0.34 085 Ffl/F o

""- I'. h/Do 0.125 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.20 0.22 0.24 0.25

""'- ~
r-.... ßI 111 88.4 67.5 53.5 43.3 35.8 30.0 2.77
,.......,
2
tJ.1. tJ.II alB tJ.2IJ fl.22 h/~ 1
~ {cl
~
"- ..... ~
Disk valve with bottom guides 30,37 Diagram 9.24 ....... .......
.... _-
20
y_ tJ.p ßl /111, /lft (/.18 u.tfJ 1122 0.14 h/lJ~
'" = pwV2 = 'Yocxo + (1t - iSsh/ D o)

where <Xo = 0.55 + 4 (~: - 0.1} see graph a; for Yo, see graph b; Conieal valve on a eonieal seat30,37 Diagram 9.25

ßl =~, see graph c; i is the number of fins; Ffl is the true flow area
(h/D a) .

The formula is valid within

0.125 < ~o < 0.25 ...

see the graph. The formula is valid within 0.125 < hlDo < 0.4

0.l0 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.20 0.22 0.24 0.25

t
0.55 0.63 0.71 0.79 0.87 0.95 1.03 1.11 1.15 IJ \
ff\
9
\
5
\ h/Do 0.l0 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40

"m --
15.6 7.27 4.35 3.00 2.27 1.82 1.54
~
J
!-- - I -
f
I1fIJ tZI# at8 P.,26 4.]1) D,J# h/;,
 Flow through Pipe Fittings and Labyrinth Seals 655
654 Handbook oj Hydra ulic Resistance, 4th Edition

16 4
Disk valve under eomplex conditions Re ~ 10 Diagram 9.27
Conieal valve on a flat seat and ball valve
Diagram 9.26
on a spherieal seat30,37 a-d, the valve is open in the direction of the high-pressure volume;
e, the valve is open in the direction ofthe low-pressure volume;
a) = =
blow-down valve; b 0.9-2.0; C 1.1-3.3; a 2.5-2.8; =
mj = =
1.2~2.0; n) 0.6-1.7
where b) = = =
discharge valve: b 1.1-2.0, C 0.8-3.5; a 2.2, ml =0.7, nr =1.4
0.8
ß2= h/D o
=/1 (h
D'
0
J 0.14' (-D .
ß3=--2=fz
(h/Do) 0
hJ c)
d)
discharge valves;
intake valves;
1) supplying section; 2) seat; 3) tray of the valve;
~r
The forrnula is valid within
4) movable rod; 5) discharge channel
~

1. Conical valve 2. Ball valve Values of ~ch

H/dch
No.of
h/Do 0.10 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.20 0.22 0.24 0.25
the curve Scheme Ci 0.15 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
ß2 8.00 6.66 5.71 5.00 4.44 4.00 3.63 3.33 3.20
d 4.41 8.85 5.35 5.40 6.20 5.15 5.12 5.10
ß3 14.0 9.73 7.15 5.46 4.32 3.50 2.90 2.43 2.24 3.71 8.00 5.80 5.00 4.60 4.45 4.45 4.45
2
a 2.81 8.50 6.05 5.00 4.15 3.75 3.50 3.50 3.50
3
p~ b 2.56 8.50 6.05 4.75 3.90 3.95 3.25 3.20 3.20
4
3.60 3.35 3.15 3.05 3.05
fI i\ 5 2.42 7.60 5.65 4.30

1f}
\ ~h
, ......... \
6 r-.... ~
#
2
-.......: ~
-- r--.:::::
Ps
IlfU (Jt/ tlH Illl Im IlN It/JI.
{,

Disk valve under eomplex conditions 16 Re > 104 Diagram 9.27

Labyrinth seal with an enlarged gap13,14 Diagram 9.28

r _!!.P r'
"'=-2-= 1 +.., +nc(ao+.., b1+"'tr)
1'" r
pWi/2
hCh<~
8~ 8~
S=1 + s' + nc (az + S'b 2 + Str) ,
where
8b S
-=0.24-+1 a =F
o
(J..].
Il8~'
8~ 8~
 Flow through Pipe Fittings and Labyrinth Seals 657
656 Handbook 0/ Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

Labyrinth with flow passage from one volume

Labyrinth seal with an enlarged gap13,14 Diagram 9.28 Diagram 9.29
into another through a 90° turn (data of the author)

and b
1
= fz(5/8~), see graph a; a2 = [1 - (FrJFeh )]2 and B 2 1 - (FrJFch )' see graph b; ~' is determined as ~ =
= Resistance coefficient
f(r/D ) from Diagram 3.4; at 5/8~ = 0; ~' = 0.5; ~o = A(D,,; for A see Diagrams 2.1 through 2.6; nc is the number
o
of cells of the labyrinth, D" is the hydraulic diameter of the gap; Fo is the sectional area of the gap; Feh is the area
Elbow characteristic Scheme
~=~
p~2
of the chamber cross section.

ao bl With beveled inlet (exit)

5/80 ~in ;:::;4.8
section without vanes
0 0 0
~exit "" 3.7
(a) 0.15 0.08
.r,,_ ...- 10 0.28 0.16
""...,

-
--
.... / 20 0.53 0.91
~in "" 2.8

.--- r;-
0.65 0.40 The same but with vanes
/' 30
/ 40 0.73 0.47 ~exit "" 2.3
/" 50 0.78 0.52
"V/ 0.82 0.55
60
~ 70 0.84 0.58
o f()!/J 1() f/J SO 60 70 DO 3/lg 80 0.87 0.59
90 0.87 0.61 ~in "" 4.3
With Wet (exit) length
100 0.87 0.63
10 = ao, without vanes ~exit "" 3.7

The same with vanes ~in "" 2.3

~exit "" 1.7

Fo 86 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Feh = heh
--~-~~,~~--~

0.04 - 0
Labyrinth with flow passage from one volume
0.81 0.64 0.49 0.36 0.25 0.16 0.09 0.01 Diagran19.30
a2 1.0 into another through an oblong 180° turn (data ofthe author)
0.80 0.70 0.60 0.50 0.40 0.30 0.20 0.10 0
b2 1.0 0.90

Values of ~ with a baffle; blao =1.0 (see graph a)

b/ao

~~
(b) Flow direction 0.2 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2.0 2.4 2.6
lnlet (curve 1) 7.3 4.6 4.3 4.3 4.3 4.3 4.4 4.4
f" ...........

"
~ 111.
............
r-J!.t , ...........
Exit (curve 2) 13 7.6

Values of ~ without baffle (see graph b)

6.8 6.6 6.3 6.1 6.0 5.9

Ilt
'-... ..... ..........
-~ r-- f--...... :---... ' b/ao
Flow direction 0.5 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4
rnlet (curve 1) 9.5 8.0 5.8 4.4 3.6 3.2
Exit (curve 2) 12.0 10.1 7.4 5.7 4.6 4.1
 Flow through Pipe Fittings and Labyrinth Seals 659
658 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

Labyrinth with flow passage from one volume

Diagram 9.31
Labyrinth with flow passage from one volume Diagram 9.30 iuto another through different elbow turns (data of the author)
0
iuto another through an oblong 180 turn (data ofthe author)
b) Values of ~

/J
I (a)
!\.
-" !I\. "\1
! Cb)

Flow direction 0.18 0.2 0.4

blao
0.6 0.8 1.4
r'I, (c} _

," "-
\ !
\
, \ 2
8
'\. r-...
!
Inlet (curve 1)
Exit (curve 2)
13.3
14.2
12.4
13.9
6.2
9.4
5.7
8.0
5.7
7.5
5.5
7.0 10 '~
1-r"\ ~2
'" -r-- t i'.. 'i
5
~ 1
I r'-- l.....
c) Values of ~ I
" ~
...... :-
""- z
a~ f.lB t28
1-
t.U /Jlaq
Flow direction 0.5 0.6 0.8
blao
1.0 1.2 1.4
6
115 11.7 t1/J
-
~ r-.....

Inlet (curve 1) 13.5 12.0 9.0 7.4 6.6 6.9

Labyrinth with flow passage from one volume Diagram 9.31 Exit (curve 2) 13.0 11.7 9.5 8.0 7.1 6.3
into another through different elbow turns (data of the author)

34
Expansion joints Diagram 9.32

a) Values of ~ Resistance coefficient

Type Scheme
s=~
pwV2
Flow direction 0.5 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4
Inlet (curve 1) 11.0 9.0 6.7 5.5 4.9 4.5
0
a) Short 180 turn Exit (curve 2) 17.2 14.5 10.2 7.4 5.8 5.1

Stuffing box s= 0.2

\ 1\ (al

··
."~~. I··· 1 \ !
\ i'\
9
'\. !\.
f-'I'\. 2.... 1\.

"' .....

ft
~ .~
~i: ......... s= 1.6 + 2Do (Do, m)
1.4..- ~.... ~ Lyre-shaped smooth ~. '.~ Da, mm 50 100 200 300 400 500
b) Hood with three-sided inlet (exit) 5
0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 bch/ao RoIDo =6 1;; 1.7 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6
~.' .~.
rlDo '" 5
,\ (b)

11
\
1 r"\
\ I\. Lyre-shaped with folds s= 1.9 + 3Do (Do, m)
\~1 Ni--2 Da, mm 80 100 200 300 400 500
--~ RoIDo '" 6
7 1;; 2.1 2.2 2.5 2.8 3.1 3.5

"
r/D o '" 6

5'
c) Hood with a straight section at the inlet (exit) f.lZ tl4 0.0 0.8 tU b/oo
660 Flow through Pipe Fittings and Labyrinth Seals 661
Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

Expansion joints 34 Diagram 9.32

REFERENCES
1. Abelev, S. A, Hydraulics of gates and valves, in Investigations in Hydraulies, pp. 30-40, 1962.
Resistance coefficient 2. Abramovieh, G. N., Theory of Turbulent Jets, Fizmatgiz Press, Moseow, 1960, 715 p.
Type Scheme ~=~ 3. Altshul, A. D. and Kalitsun, V. 1., On pressure head losses in eonverging-diverging units with a
- pw5;2
gate valve, Gaz. Prom., no. 2, 35-39, 1960.
4. Altshul, A. D. and Arzumanov, E. 5., Pressure losses in regulating valves during flow of viseous
liquids, Neft. Khoz., no. 7, 51-56, 1967.
Lyre-shaped, made
S'" 2.875 + 4.25Do (D o, m) 5. Arzumanov, E. 5., Caleulation and Choice of Regulators of Automatie Systems, Energiya Press,
from corrugated tube Do, mm 50 100 200 300 400 500 Moseow, 1971, 112 p.
6. Arzumanov, E. S. and Viziryan, R. E., Pressure losses in valve gates during flow of viseous liq-
3.1 3.3 3.7 4.2 4.6 5.0
RoiDo == 5 uids in pipelines, Neft. Khoz., no. 9, 66-68, 1971.
r/Do '" 3.0 7. Aronovieh, V. V. and Slobodkin, M. 5., Regulating and Loeking Fitting, Mashgiz Press, Moseow,
1953.
8. Balanin, V. V., Hydraulic eharaeteristics of disk valve gates fairings, Tr. Leningr. Inst. Vodn.
Transp., vyp. 112,4-17, 1967.
S'" 1.9 + 2Do (D o, m) 9. Baulin, K. K., Testing of labyrinth seals, Tr. VIGM, vyp. 10, 50-65, 1940.
Do,mm 50 100 200 300 400 500 10. Gubarev, P. 5., Loeal resistanees of fittings of high-pressure air pipelines, Sudostroenie, no. 3, 41-
IT-shaped 44, 1957.
2.0 2.1 2.3 2.5 2.7 2.9
W•• F. 11 11 11. Gurevieh, D. F., Fundamentals ofCalculation of Pipeline Fitting, Mashgiz Press, Leningrad, 1956,
230 p.
12. Idelchik, I. E., Hydraulie resistanees during entry of flow into ehannels and passage through ori-
fices, in Prom. Aerodin., no. 2, pp. 27-56, Oborongiz Press, Moseow, 1944.
13. Idelchik, I. E., Towards ealeulation of labyrinth seals, Kotloturbostroenie, no. 3, 40-45, 1953.
14. Idelchik, I. E., Hydraulic Resistanees (Physieal and Meehanical Fundamentals), Gosenergoizdat
Wavy, sealing, lenslike, Press, Moseow, 1954, 316 p.
angular, axial ~ == 0.3 15. Kokaya, N. V., The hydraulies of eonieal seals and the ehambers for suppressing hydraulie energy,
in The Methods of Investigations and Hydraulic Caleulations of Water Spilling Hydrotechnical
Construetions, Proe. of Conf Meetings on Hydrotechnique, pp. 186--188, Leningrad, 1985.
16. Koryagin, V. 5., Ginzburg, Ya. L., and Shteinberg, M. 0., The eoefficients of hydraulic resistanee
of tray valves operating in eonstrieted eonditions, Teploenergetika, no. 3, 73-74, 1981.
17. Kremis, S. A., TowardsaetermiJiatlon of hydraulic resistanees in reverse valves, Izv. VUZ, Stroit.
Arkhit., no. 1, 65-70, 1963.
Diagram 9.33 18. Kuznetsov, L. A. and Rudomino, R V., Design and Calculation of Pipelines of Heat Power
Plants, Mashgiz Press, Moseow, 1949, 215 p.
19. Levkoeva, I. V., Coneerning determination of pressure head losses in loeal resistanees, in Investi-
gations in the Field of Theoretieal and Applied Aerodynamies (Tr. MAI), vyp. 111, pp. 155-160,
1959.
20. Levkoeva, N. V., Dependenee of the loeal resistanee eoefficients of pipeline fitting on the
ReynoIdl:> number, Tr. MAI, vyp. 143, pp. 131-139, 1961.
2l. Lyzhin, O. V., Throttling devices in a eompressibIe gas flow, Inzh.-Fiz. Zh., no. 4, 641-649, 1965.
_ !J.p
~ = pWlol2' see Diagram 6.2 22. Murin, G. A., HydrauIic resistanee of direet-flow valves, Otopl. Ventil., no. 5, 25-30, 1941.
23. PavIukhin, A V., On ealeuIation of aerodynamie resistanees of a eombination of flap valves with
other Ioeal resistanees, Tr. Inst. Okhrany Truda VTsSPS, vyp. 48, 130-145, 1967.
24. Poluboyarinov, Yu. G. and YakovIev, N. A., Loeal resistanee eoefficients of indireet-flow eonieal
valves in laminar liquid flow, Tr. Leningr. Politekh. Inst., no. 274, pp. 120-128, 1966.
25. Rolle, N. L., Resistanee and diseharge eoeffieients of a cireuIar valve, Gidrotekh. Stroit., no. 4, pp.
18-23, 1953.
26. Skobeltsyn, Ya. A. and Khomutov, P. V., Mutual effeet of shutters with differently shaped pas-
sages at low Reynolds numbers, Transp. Khranenie Nefti Nefteprod., no. 7, pp. 62-65, 1972.
 662 Handbook ofHydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

27. Kotelevskiy, Yu. M. (Ed.), Iv/odem Constnlctions 0/ Pipeline Fittings. Handbook, Moscow, 1970, CHAPTER
250 p.
28. Sotnikov, A. G. and Saidova, D. Z., Investigation of separate units in the air-conditioning systems, TEN
Sanitary Engineering (Tr. Leningr. Inzh.-Stroit. Inst.), pp. 115-120, 1967.
29.
30.
Teterevnikov, V. N., Hydraulic characteristics of flap valves, Tr. LIOT, pp. 53-54, 1955.
Frenkel, N. A., Hydraulics, Gosenergoizdat Press, Moscow, 1956, 456 p.
RESISTANCE TO FLOW PAST
31. Chebysheva, K. V., Towards the problem of calculation of a labyrinth sealing, Tekh. Zametki OBSTRUCTIONS IN A TUBE
TsAGI, no. 142, 25 p, 1937.
32. Churakova, S. V. and Yurkina, M. P., On the magnitude of the resistance coefficient of lense
RESISTANCE COEFFICIENTS OF SECTIONS
compensators, Energomashinostroenie, no. 8, 21-24, 1962. WITH PROTURBERANCES, TRUSSES,
33. Elterman, E. M., Local resistance coefficients of conical diaphragms, Tr. Inst. Okhrany Truda
VTsSPS, pp. 45-50, 1963. GIRDERS, AND OTHER SHAPES
34. Erlikh, A. M., Steam Pipelines, Their Fittings and Other Units, ONTI Press, Moscow, 1937,256 p.
35. Yanshin, B. I., Hydraulic Characteristics 0/ Valve Gates and Elements 0/ Pipelines, Mashinos-
troenie Press, Moscow, 1965, 260 p.
36. Yanshin, B. I., Valve Gates and Transition Units 0/ Pipelines, Mashgiz Press, Moscow, 1962,
179 p.
37. Bach, c., Versucheüber Ventilbelassung und Ventilwiederstand, 1884, 310 S.
38. Baumann, H. D., Die Einfürung eines kritischen Koeffizienten fÜr die Bestimung des Durchflusses
von Stellventilen, Regelungstechnik, Heft 11, 495-499, 1963.
39. Hearly, 1. H., Patterson, M. N., and Brown, E. I., Pressure losses through fittings used in return
air duct systems, ASHRAE J., vol. 4, no. 5, 70-76, 1962.
40. Hörnig, G., Druckerluste in Schnellkuplungsroluen, formstücken und armaturen heim Fliesen von 10.1 EXPLANATIONS AND PRACTICAL RECOMMENDATIONS
Klarschlamm, Wasserwirtsch. Wassertech., vol. 1, no. 11,374-377, 1969.
41. Kearton, W. 1., The flow of air through radial labyrinth glands, Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng., vol. 169, 1. The resistance of tubes and channel segments containing bodies over which the flow moves
no. 30, 539-552, 1955. is made up of the resistance of the section proper, Ssec (friction resistance in the case of a
42. Komotori, K., Probleme bei Labyrintstopflüchsen, Proc. Fujihara Mem. Fac. Eng. Keio Univ., vol. straight seetion), and the resistance of the body, S:
14, no. 54, 73-120, 1961.
43. Komotori, K., Flow observations in the labyrinth packing, Prac. Fujihara Mem. Fac. Eng. Keio _ I1p
Univ., vol. 9, no. 33, 33-41, 1956. SOV=-2-= Ssec+1; . (10.1)
44. Maione, U., Perdite di carico delle strozzature a spidolo vivo dedei possipiezometrici. Reicrca pwo/2
sperim, Energ. Elettr., vol. 45, no. 4, 237-253, 1968.
45. Reichert, V., Theoretisch-experimentelle Untersuchun en zur Widerstandscharakteristik von Hy- 2. The power required to overcome the flow resistance of the body in the tube is expressed
dralikventilen, Wissenschaftliche Zeit. der Technischen Univer. Dresden, Bd. 31, Heft 2, 149-155, in terms of the drag coefficient Pdr of this body3 as
1982.
46. SkalidCka, 1., Hydraulicke ztraty skriticich organech na potrubi a jejich zavislost na reynoldsove l1N =Pdrwloc . (10.2)
cisle, Sb. Vys. Uceni Tech. Brne., no. 1, pp. 57-63, 1965.
47. Weisbach, 1., Lehrbuch der technischen Mechanik, Berlin, 1875, 320 p.
The drag force is

(10.3)

where

W
Wloc (10.4)

Cxis the drag coefficient of the body, which depends on the shape of the body, the Reynolds
number Re' = wodm/v, and on other parameters and wh ich is determined from Diagrams 10.1

663
 664 Handbook oi Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition Flow Past Obstructions in a Tube 665

Table 10.1. Values of m and k 1

through 10.15; Sm is the midsectional area (m 2) and dm is the diameter or maximum width
(m) of the body; wl oc is the local velocity of the flow [in the free area (Fo - Sm)], that is, the
Re
velocity based on the tube net cross-sectional area, mls; W is the flow velocity at a given Coeffieients
point of the cross section in front of the body, mls, and 't is a correction factor for the effect
of the body shape and contraction of the transverse cross section of the tube; for smooth bod- m 5 6 7 8 9 10
ies 't ::; 1, for nonsmooth bodies 't > 1.0.3 1.32 1.26 1.23 1.20 1.17 1.15
In diagrams of Chapter 10 the values of 't are taken approximately with allowance for the
results of the experiments described in References 3 and 4.
3. The power indicated under paragraph 2 can be expressed in terms of the local hydraulic
On the basis of Equations (10.4), (10.6), and (10.7), we obtain
resistance coefficient of a tube section with a body in it by the equation

PW5 (10.5)
M=S-2- woFo .

Simultaneous solution of Equations (10.1) to (10.3) provides the relationship between the 5. For a stabilized turbulent flow, the velocity profile can be expressed approximately as
local resistance coefficient ~ and the drag coefficient of the body Cx :
2
~=kl 1-.-l JlIm , (10.8)
Wo ( Do
(10.6)
where for a three-dimensional flow 9
4. In the general case, the flow velocity in the tube is distributed nonuniformly over the
cross section; therefore the body resistance also depends on the relative location of the body. (2m + 1) (m + 1)
For a stabilized laminar flow, the velocity profile is expressed by 2m2

and for a two-dimensional flow

(10.7)

where for a three-dimensional flow (circ1e, rectangle at aolbo = 0.5-2.0) k 1 = 2, while for a
two-dimensional flow (plane or annular slit) kl = 3/2; Y is the distance between the axes (cen- m is an exponent which can generally vary over a wide range (see Chapter 4).
ters) of the body and the tube (Figure lO.la and b); in the case of an annular cross section of According to Equations (10.4), (10.6), and (10.8), we obtain
the tube, it is the distance between the body axis and the average circ1e of the annulus (Fig-
ure lO.lc), m.
r= !J.p cxSm/FOkI (1- 2y/Do)3/m
-:,- ?
pwö/2 (1 - 'tSm/Fo)3

6. For a turbulent flow in a straight tube the values of m and kl are given in Table 1 as
5
functions of Re' = wodm/v. In particular, at Re' = 6 X 10 , m = 9 and kl = 1.17, k2 = kI = 1.6.
The last value of k2 is valid for bodies in a three-dimensional flow at very small ratios
Sm/Fo, the midsectional body area to that of the tube. With an increase of Sm/FO' the value of
k2 decreases, approaching unity. The diagrams in the present chapter show values of k2 that
are calculated approximately, considering the above circumstances and experimental results. 4
7. The drag coefficient of an oblong body is detennined by two factors: the frictional re-
Ca) (b) {cl sistance and the shape resistance. The latter is due to flow separation from the body surface
and subsequent formation of vortices. The relationship between the magnitudes of the fric-
Figure 10.1. Loeation of the flow obstacle: (a) and (b) plane-parallel and three-dimensional flow around
a body in a tube; Ce) three-dimensional flow around a body in an annular tube. tional resistance and the shape resistance depends on the body shape and its position in the
 Flow Past Obstructions in a Tube 667
666 Handbook ofHydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

41 Re'« 1. At very smaIl Reynolds numbers the flow inertia is negligibly small, therefore
flow (angle of attack, slip angle), the roughness of its surface, the Reynolds number, and the
the flow past the barrier is ideally smooth and is symmetrical upstream as weIl as
degree and scale of turbulence of the incident flow.* For bodies having a poorly streamlined
downstream of the body (Figure 10.2a).
shape, the frictional resistance is very small in comparison with the total drag. For stream- 41 0.05 < Re' < (5-10) for a cylinder and Re' < (10-24) for a sphere. In this case, the
lined bodies, the frictional resistance is comparable to the shape resistance. inertia forces become noticeable. The streamlines become more curved as they approach
8. The dependence of the drag coefficient of such bodies as a sphere or a cylinder on the the body from the upstream direction. As a result, there appears an asymmetry of the
Reynolds number is very complex (see Diagr3.J.ll 10.1 and graph a of Diagram 10.7). streamlines between the upstream and downstream sides of the barrier.
The coefficient Cx has its maximum value at very small Reynolds numbers Re'. As Re'
increases, the drag coefficient decreases, reaching the first minimum at a certain value of An extensive parabolic stagnant zone (a noncirculation wake, Figure 1O.2b) is formed be-
Re' (of the order of (2-5) x 10\ With further increase in Re', there is a small increase in Cx hind the barrier. At each point of this zone the flow velocity is noticeably smaller than at the
to a certain constant value, which is retained up to about Re' = 105-2 X 105. As soon as Re' symmetrical point of a less stagnant nose zone formed upstream of the barrier. With an in-
attains this value (the critical Reynolds number), the value of Cx drops sharply down to the crease in Re, the asymmetry of the streamlines increases, while the length and width of the
second minimum, which corresponds to Re' = (3-5) x 105. This is followed by the next slight stagnant zone decrease.
increase in cx . But at about Re' = 106, the drag coefficient acquires an almost constant value. 41 (5-10) < Re' < (40-50) for a cylinder and Re' < 130 they for a sphere. A pair of op-
9. The complex dependence of the drag coefficient of cylindrical (spherical) barriers on the posite vortices (Figure 1O.2c) appears behind the cylinder and they form a steady recir-
Reynolds number is due to the highly variable pattern of flow past these barriers with in- culating wake [one toroidal vortical wake appears behind a sphere at Re' > (10-24)].
creases in Re', from very small values (Re' « 1) to very large values (Re' = 106-10\ The flow velocity in each vortex increases from the center to the periphery by a linear
The most important transition is that from a steady-state flow past a barrier to an oscillat-
ing flow, the latter being observed for cylindrical bodies within Re' = 30-50 and for spherical
bodies within Re' = 130-200. A very important phenomenon observed during the growth of
Re' is the formation and development of the nearest aerodynamic wake and then of the body
boundary layer.
10. At small and moderate Reynolds numbers [Re' ::; (40-50)] there occurs a consecutive
replacement of one pattern of flow past barriers of the types under consideration by another
(Figure 10.2):

Figure 10.2. Flow patterns in the wake behind a spherieal body with different modes of flow within the
ranges of small and moderate Reynolds numbers: (a) Re' ~ 1; (b) 0.05 < Re' < (5-10); (e) (5-10) < Re'
< (40-50).
Figure 10.3. Flow patterns in a wake behind a spherical body with different modes of flow at Re' > 50:
5 5
*The effeet of flow eontraetion (Mach number) on the drag eoefficients of various bodies is not (a) (40-50) < Re' < (150-200); (b) (150-200) < Re' < 1500; (e) 1500 < Re' < 2 x 10 ; (d) 2 x 10 <
6
eonsidered here. For detailed information, see the literature. 10,24,34 Re' < 3.5 x 106 ; (e) 3.5 < Re' < 8 x 10 .

668 Handbook 01 Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition
law. With increases in Re, the length of the attached wake increases continuously up to
the moment of loss of stability.
Five flow modes can be distinguished for Reynolds numbers exceeding Re' "" 50 (for a
cylinder) (Figure 10.3); see paragraphs 10-14.
11. (40-50) < Re' < (150-200). At the beginning of this range the mode of flow changes
sharply; the elongated vortices of the attached wake lose their stability, start to shed from the
cylinder altemately from each side, and are entrained by the flow (the Karman vortex street,
Figure 10.3a); from this moment the flow past the cylinder acquires an oscillating character
since the flow pressure on the body varies with each separation of a vortex.
The angle a at which the flow starts to separate increases with the Reynolds number and,
within the range of Re' considered, amounts to 115-130°. The length of the wake XL at Re'
= 50 is equal to 2.5dm and afterwards increases in proportion to Re'; the width of the wake
is b "" 0.85-1.05dm. The velocity of the reverse flow in the wake at the boundary between the
vortices increases from about 10 to 30-50% of the velocity of flow incidence on the cylinder.
The side boundaries of the wake are unstable; random vortices appear on them, which af-
terwards lead to more and more intensive turbulent agitation of the adjacent flow layers and
to mass exchange with the outer flow.
The attached wake of spherical and other three-dimensional bodies of rotation is charac-
terized by the formation of a single toroidal vortex (rather than a pair of vortices) separating
in spiral threads. The length of this vortex is less than that for a cylinder, while the frequency
of its separation is twice as large.
12. (150-200) < Re' < 1500. The stagnant region in front of the barrier becomes gradually
thinner and small compared with the barrier size.
As a result, only a thin film of the stagnant flow remains on the upstream side of the
barrier which forms a laminar boundary layer on both its sides (Figure 1O.3b). Reaching some
point near the midsection of the body (a "" 80°), the boundary layer separates from the body
surface and moves along the extemal boundary of the attached wake. On reaching the final
point of the wake, it joins the boundary layer which has separated from the other side of the
body. The boundary-layer separation is due to increased pressure along the body surface.
This phenomenon results in an increase in the bottom pressure. At the same time, an ir-
regular flow appears in the near wake, which develops into a dearly defined turbulent flow
downstream of the channel.
13. 1500 < Re' < 2 x 105 . The turbulence behind the body appears doser and doser to it.
As a result, the point of transition from the laminar to the turbulent boundary layer shifts
doser to the cylinder (sphere).
The process of transition, which is not accompanied by the shedding of vortices, starts
with sinusoidal oscillations that become stronger with increasing Reynolds number up to the
transition point. In this case, the bottom pressure drops appreciably especially within Re' = 2
x 103_104 . The velocity at the external boundary of the separated (free) jet increases, while
the distance up to the point of the joining of layers becomes shorter. In this case, transition
to a turbulent flow occurs very dose to the point of the boundary layer separation.
This results in very intensive velocity fluctuations near the rear part of the body, the
strength of which exceeds that of the averaged flow velocity at the same points of the wake
already at Re' = 8 x 103 .
When Re' > 5 x 103, complete turbulent mixing develops behind the cylinder (Figure 1.3c).
Flow Past Obstructions in a Tube 669
Figure 10.4. Drag Cx of cubic and prismatic bodies vs. different levels of turbulence of the incident
flow. lO
14. 2 x 105 < Re' < 3.5 x 106. This critical range of Reynolds numbers is distinguished by
the transition from a laminar boundary layer to a turbulent one. The boundary layer starts to
separate in the laminar mode of flow, almost in the same place on the frontal portion of the
cylinder at which it separates at smaller values of Re'. This separation is followed by the tran-
sition of the mode of flow and then by a second, but turbulent ("bubble"), separation on the
rear portion of the cylinder. Regularity in the boundary layer separation is not so marked as in
the case of smaller and larger Reynolds numbers. The bottom pressure increases sharply, while
the zone of separation becomes narrower (a = 110-120°, Figure 1O.3d). As a result, at Re'
"" 5 x 105, there occurs a sudden critical decrease in the drag resistance of the cylinder which
5
was mentioned earlier. This critical resistance for a sphere corresponds to Re' "" 3 x 10 .
6 6
15. 3.5 x 10 < Re' < 8 x 10 . Shedding of vortices becomes regular again, but this time
with a turbulent boundary layer (Figure 1O.3e).
All further variations, associated with an increase in the Reynolds number and accompa-
nied by a shift in the flow mode transition point to the stagnation transition point, are as-
sumed to be relatively weak.
16. All the characteristic ranges of the Reynolds numbers described under paragraphs 10
to 15 for different modes of flow past a cylinder (sphere) are valid only in the case where the
flow is laminar or slightly turbulent (Et < 0.01%, where Et = ~~~f2/wois~the degree of flow
turbulence; w' is the longitudinal oscillating velocity of the flow, rnJs).
An increase in the degree of turbulence of the incident flow in each mode of flow makes
the point of transition from laminar to turbulent boundary layer approach the wake region of
the body. It thereby displaces the characteristic range of the Reynolds numbers and, in par-
ticular, the critical region in which a sharp decrease in the coefficient Cx is observed toward
smaller values of Re' (see graph b of Diagram 10.7).
17. The position of the point of transition of the laminar into the turbulent boundary layer
is also affected by the condition of the body surface (the degree of its roughness ~). The
effect of different surface irregularities shows itself in perturbation of the laminar flow, dis-
placement of the point of transition forward (to the frontal portion of the body), and increased
length of the turbulent boundary layer.
In the case of a cylinder (sphere), the resistance crisis occurs earlier, that is, at a lower
Reynolds number, for larger degrees of roughness. At the same time, the higher the value of
~, the larger are the values of Cxmin and Cx in the postcritical region (see Diagram 10.2).
18. The initial turbulence of the incident flow also markedly influences the drag resistance
of poorly streamlined bodies (with sharp edges especially in the range of Et::::; 10%).
 Flow Past Obstructions in a Tube 671
670 Handbook oj Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

For cubic and prismatic bodies, as weH as for a t1at plate placed normal to the t1ow, the cx -- ~ + 4/(R e') 1/3 .
dependence of cx ' or equally, of Cx = c.tCt>oIcxct=o, on Et is qualitatively identical and of a Re'
critical nature with respect to Et (see Reference 7 in Chapter 4). This is also due to a change
21. The effect of the degree of turbulenee on the resistance coefficient of a sphere can be
in the mode of t1ow. When the intensity of turbulence of the ineident t10w inereases only 17
evaluated from the formula of Claymen and Guavin
slightly, the resistance coefficient C" increases (Figure 10.4) due to the enlargement of the
t10w separation zone behind the body. With further increase in the turbulenee intensity the 5
separation zone becomes stabilized or contracts slightly as a result of energy aceumulation 3990 4.47 x 10
x
from the main stream. This leads to a eonstant drag resistance or to its decrease eompared C = (log Re')6.1 Re'1.8 E?·97 '
with an incident t10w of low turbulence.
4
19. The drag coeffieient of a cylinder at Re' :::; 0.5 can be ca1culated from Lamb's equa- which is valid within 400/Et < Re' < 3 X 10 at Et = 0.7-3.5, for the cases where the turbu-
tion: 23 lence degree is small compared with the sphere diameter.
Up to Re' = 8 X 104 , a dose coincidence with the experiment is given by the formula
37
8n suggested by Kheven and Kyakhov:
(2.002 -ln Re') Re'
Cx =A exp [(nI + kIln Re') In Re'] ,
At Re' > 0.5, the value ofcx is determined on the basis of the data of Diagram 10.1.
20. The drag coefficient of a sphere at Re' < 0.5 can be calculated from the Stokes for- where A = 26.555; nl = -0.91528; kI = 0.049274.
mula 22. In order to determine the drag coefficient of particles of any isometrie sphere (the
6
shape of an equilateral polyhedron) for any mode of t1ow, Vakhrushev suggests the foHow-
24 ing generalized formula:
Cx =-,
Re'
28.47 4.565<p 0.491<P]
while for 0.5 :::; Re' :::; 1.0, by Oseen's formula C
s
= ( Re' log 15.38/<p + 3-fRi - W
24
cx =-+4.5. X (1 - tanh [0.01282 Re' (<p - 0.9805)])
Re'

In the range 0.1 < Re' < 103, an almost satisfactory agreement with experiments (at Re' = ±~.86 (<p -0.8531) tanh [g.01282 Re' (T::q·980?)]
3-400; the -error is <2%) is given by the empirieal fo~~ula of Kly~chko r8'~ -
+ [7.76 - 2.86'1' - 4!8) tanh [0.00104 Re' ('I' - 9(38) 1 , (10.9)
*Satisfactory agreement with experiments (with an average error of ±1O% and, for the range 10 <
Re' < 102, with an errorup to 36.9%) is provided by Adamov'sl formu1a for the wh oIe range of
Reyno1ds numbers up to the onset of the critical resistance: where <p is the coefficient of nonsphericity of the partides. This is equal to the area ratio of
the partide surface to the surfaee of the sphere of the same volume. The diameter of this
Cs = ~ [1 + (0.0167 Re') lInt for bodies of any shapes,
sphere, de, which enters the Reynolds number Re' = wode/v, is taken as the determining size
Re'
of the particles.
Cs = ~ [1 + (0.065 Re,)3/2]3/2 for spherical bodies. 23. At <p = 1 (a sphere), Equation (10.9) takes on the form
Re'
54
Within 0.1 < Re' < 20, the following formu1a gives elose agreement with experiment:
C
x
=(24 + 4.565 _ 0.491] (1 - tanh 0.00025 Re')
Re' 3{R7 {R7
Cx=~+ 1.66 ,
Re'
whi1e for 0.5 < Re' < 103, elose agreement is provided by the formu1a of Rumpf'° + 0.42 tanh 0.00025 Re' + 0.02 tanh 0.0001 Re' .
621
cx=-+ _r.:.:-:-+0.28 . This formula is valid for the whole range of Reynolds numbers, practically from 0 to Re~f'
Re''!Re'
63
Similar formu1as can also be found in other works, for examp1e, in the work of Tanaka.
 672 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition
For the range 0 < Re' :::; 53.5/(cp - 0.9732), one can use the following formula with an
accuracy up to 10%:
C 28.47 + 4.565<0 _ 0.491cp .
x
Re' log 15.38/cp 3~ {R7
For a sphere, the range is 0 < Re' < 2000.
24. When Re' ~ 150/( <p - 0.9732), one can use the following formula with an accuracy up
to 5%:
Cx =2.86 (cp - 0.8531) tanh [0.01282 Re'( cp - 0.9805)]
J
+ (7.76 - 2.86'1' - 4:8 tanh [0.00 104 Re' (<p - 9038) J .
25. The effect of the degree of turbulence on the drag coefficient of a cylinder can be
approximated by
where Cx = fl(Re') and Cx = j(Re') are taken from the respective graphs of Diagram 10.1.
The value of Cx is deterrnined from the c~rves Cx = fl(Re') obtained at t = t/dm = 7.7 and
different Ct (%) and from the curve Cx = j(1/t).7-10
_ 26. The drag coefficie,Et of a cylinder and other oblong bodies depends on the aspect ratio
t = I/dm' An increase in t leads to an increase of the drag coefficient.
27. The drag coefficient of a flat plate placed across the flow is virtually constant at Re'
= woDrJv and (woarJv) > 1000 and amounts to Cx = 1.12-1.16.
For a I~ctangular plate, the drag cQ_eificienLdepends OlLthe aspect ratiod.a/l1 and changes
from Cx = 1.12-1.16 (at dmll 1 = 1) to Cx "" 2.0 (at dmll1 = 0).
In case there is an orifice in the circular plate, Cx changes almost parabolically from 1.12-
1.16 (at d = O.2Do) up to 1.78 (at d = 0. 8D o).
28. When several bodies (a complex of bodies of different shapes and dimensions) are
placed at the same location in the tube, then the overall coefficient of local resistances of these
bodies is calculated by the author's formula,3 which is valid at Sm/FO < 0.3 and Re > 104 :
where i is the ordinal number of the body of the given complex; nb is the total number of
bodies in the complex.
29. The drag resistance of two bodies (spheres, cylinders, plates, etc.) placed one behind
the other in the flow is not equal to twice the drag resistance of a single body; the drag
Flow Past Obstructions in a Tube 673
Figure 10.5. Flow past two cylinders placed dose to each other.
coefficient of each of these bodies and their total drag coefficient depend of the relative dis-
tance (longitudinal spacing) I = 121dm between the bodies.
30. When two cylinders are placed elose to each other in the flow, then the rear cylinder
will be completely covered by the vortex zone created by the first cylinder (Figure 10.5) and
will not create any drag. In this case, the rarefaction behind the first cylinder will be larger
than that behind the second cylinder. This difference of pressures at the second cylinder will
cause the appearance of a force opposing the flow, with the result that Cx of the second cyl-
inder will become negative, causing the total drag coefficient of the two cylinders to be
smaller. With increase in the relative distance between the cylinders, the effect of "suction" of
the rear cylinder toward the front one decreases. However, since the rear cylinder remains in
the aerodynamic "shadow," that is, in a stagnant and strongly turbulized zone of the first cyl-
inder, then, with further increase in I its drag coefficient remains lower than Cx of an isolated
cylinder, slowly approaching this value.
A lower value of Cx is obtained not only for cylinders, but also for any bodies located in
the aerodynamic "shadow" of another body.
31. The mean value of the drag coefficient Cxm and correspondingly the value of the local
hydraulic coefficient 1;1 of one body placed in a longitudinal row of bodies increase with a
decrease in the number nb of these bodies in the row starting approximately from nb = 5. At
-% >6-50 almost constant mean values oL Cxm and 1;1 are established corresponding to the
given relative distance 121 dm between the bodies of the longitudinal row (see graphs of Dia-
grams 10.12 and 10.13).
32. The value of 1;1 for cylinders installed over the tube diameter in one longitudinal row
can be calculated from the formulas suggested by Bystrov and Mikhailov5 and given in Dia-
gram 10.13.
33. If several groups of bodies are placed in the flow channel, arranged in longitudinal
rows, the local resistance coefficient 'Am of a group over the tube length of one hydraulic
diameter of the tube cross section is ca1culated from the author' s formula, 3 valid at about
4
Sm/FO< 0.3 and Re' > 10 :
r
_ l1p k n 1 (SmiIFo) (1 - 2yIDO)3/m
'Am 2 = 2 L
CxIi ,
(p wo/2) (LIDh) i=1 (dmIDh)ili [n r J3
1 - ~ 'tiSml/Fo
1=1
where i is the ordinal number of a body in the given complex or the ordinal number of the given
longitudinal row of several bodies; nr is the total number of longitudinal rows; cxli is the drag
 674
Handbook oj Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition Flow Past Obstructions in a Tube 675

Table 10.2. Coordinates 2y/dm of the streamlined profiles

x/t
Prome 0 0.05 0.10 0.20 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
0 0.528 0.720 0.917 0.987 1.00 0.960 0.860 0.737 0.568 0.340 0
2 r= 0.08 a 0.490 0.750 0.960 1.00 0.980 0.930 0.840 0.720 0.560 0.370 r=O.lOa
Figure 10.6. Profile of a streamlined body.
3 0 0.530 0.720 0.940 1.00 0.995 0.940 0.860 0.910 0.520 0.300 0
ar is the radius of curvature of the nose and tail (leading and trailing edge) parts of the profile.
coefficient of a single body in the ith longitudinal row, which depends on the shape of the body
profile, the Reynolds number Re', and other parameters (see Diagrams ofChapter 10).
34. The hydraulic resistance coefficient of a group of bodies over the calculated length L the reasons for this reduction of resistance can be the destruction of vortices developing in the
of the tube is separated boundary layer by the flow disturbances produced by the re~esses. .
39. The drag resistance of poorly streamlined bodies (Table 10.3) lS reduced substantlally
- IIp L when smooth fairings are placed in front of and behind the body an~8also when correspond-
!;=-2-=Am - .
pwo/2 Dh ing screens are installed upstream and even downstream of th~ body.
40. The drag coefficient of systems of interconnected bod1~S, such ~s beams ~r u:usses,
The friction coefficient of a straight tube section is depends on the shape of their cross section, the method of therr connectlOn, ~e ~lre~tlOn of
the incident flow, and the Reynolds number. The effect of the incident flo~. drrectlOn m suc.h
systems is more complex than for a single body, since in this case the trmlmg edges are Ofl-
ented differently with respect to the aerodynamic shadow of the front elements of the system
(Figure 10.8). . .
Whence 41. The local resistance coefficient of a truss placed 1ll a tube lS

_ IIp L IIp * Sm/FO

s=-?-=(Am+Afr)-D ' ~=--=(1-1.15)cx(;( 3'
pwQ/2 h pw5;2 (1- Sm/Fo)

where Arr is the coefficient of hydraulic friction determined as A from Diagrams 2.1 through where Sm/Fo is the degree of filling of the tube cross section with the truss elements; Sm is
2.6. the total midsectional area of a11 the truss~lements. . . . . / " _ . . . __' __~_"._'_"~~_
35. An important factor influencing the drag coefficient of a body is the shape of its pro- The drag coefficient of the truss at the given Reynolds number Re = wodm/v and at the
file. The more streamlined the body, the weaker is separation of the flow and formation of given angle, a, of the incident flow direction is
vortices and, therefore, the smaller is the drag coefficient. Therefore, wherever possible, one
should use streamlined shapes. The streamlined shape of the body is characterized by a
smoothly rounded nose part and a tapering trailing edge (Figure 10.6).
The sharper the contraction of the profile behind the body midsection (and, consequently,
retardation of the flow), the earlier the flow will separate from the body and the more vigor-
ous will be the formation of vortices behind the body. By adequately selecting the profile of
the trailing part of the body, it is possible to avoid the flow separation.
36. As a guide for constructing some of the profiles of streamlined bodies, one can use the
values of their dimensionless coordinates (see Figure 10.6) presented in Table 10.2.
37. The dass of streamlined bodies also incorporates elliptical cylinders and circular cylin-
ders with tail fairings. The drag coefficient of these bodies is higher than that of bodies
whose profiles are constructed according to Table 10.2. However, they are frequently used in
practice because of the greater simplicity of their construction.
38. The drag resistance of poorly streamlined bodies (Figure 10.7) can be substantially re- Figure 10.7. A badly streamlined body of revolution: 32 (1) without recesses; (2) with recesses through
duced (by 40%)32 by arranging recesses on its trailing part (Figure 10.7, model 2). One of 90° respresenting a dihedral angle.
 Flow Past Obstructions in a Tube 677
676 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

0
\;
) tr) Cf')
Cf')
\0
tr)
Cf')
-::I"
'i"
c:rJ
Cf')
-::I"
C"l
11
ci ci ci ci ci ci
I\;

~ jJ ~•
;>,
"0
0
..0
~
'.,."
~
oS
.....
0 Slt ~
~
§- OE.
..0
C/J
~ m ~

0
\;
[I)
<:I.l
"-\; tr) \0 \0 Cf') r- \0
\0 -::I" C"l tr) N -::I"
;S 11 ci ci ci ci ci ci
0
,.Q I\;
Figure 10.8. Patterns of flow past truss systems. 36 "'0
<:I.l
.5
e

~ ~
C':I
.......
<:I.l ;>,
"0
*
Cxü [I) 0
*
Cxa = ' .a
..0

~ffi1!1
CXCi. C ~
xü "'0
C':I
oS
.....
<~«o
~ '~..
where CxQ, c:O, and Cxa are the drag coefficients of the truss respectively at a = 0 and Re' =
....
,.Q

0
~
0..

Rei, at a = 0 and at the unknown value of Re, and at the unknown value of a and at Rei
eJ)

...C':I
CI!
..0
C/J ft 01 ~ Ol t
at which the relationship Cxa =f(a) has been obtained. ....
"'0
0
42. Calculations for mine shafts and excavations are based on the dimensional coefficient
of the aerodynamic resistance expressed in terms of A in kg.s 2/m4 : 0==
~ ~
:I
"'0 "-\; 00 c:rJ r---
tr)
;:)
p A ...<:I.l q 00 r- \0
ci
\0
ci
<Xsh = 2g "4 . ci ci
11
<:I.l ci
I\;
....oS
0
The resistance of a portion of the mine (excavation) is expressed in terms of the coeffi- .i!l

!~ i~
IU

:m
cient ash (in Pa) as M
..
IÜ
==
<:I.l
,'0 .S-

~
;>,

= "0
0 iil ffi
R
22L
~ = 9.8ashW O Dh = 9.8ash Fo (QrIIOFo L . u
~
0
<:I.l ..0
~
oS
..... ~ ~
~
SI!

Q
0
~ SIt
~ ~ SI,
.-I 0..
CI!
<:I.l
1 1 + +
•
..0
:EC':I C/J

E-<
678 Handbook 0/ Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition Flow Past Obstructions in a Tube 679

43. In the works by Karlikov with co-workers 56,57 an experimental investigation of the
resistance of circular cylinders of various shapes and mass immersed in a cavitation-free flow
of water was carried out in the mode of transverse self-oscillations in a plane channel of rec-
~ tangular. cross section in the range of Reynolds numbers (based on the cylinder diameter) L7
x 104 ::; Re ::; 7.2 _x 104 with relative blockage of flow over the cross-sectional area S within
Q.l
:::
.5 <J
0
the range 0.76 ::; S ::; 0.9 and ratios of the densities of the cylinder and water L25 ::; pJp ::;
1:<:: "-
<J
$
tr)
M M
0
M
r- tr) 0 8.2. Only the case of intense transverse self-oscillations accompanied by shock interaction of
11
ci
01 r- 00
,<J ci ci ci ci ci the cylinders with the wall was considered. The relative blockage of the flow over the cross-
sectional area is S = 1/(1 + 8), where 8 is the difference between the width of the channel

~~
and the cylinder diameter.

~ ~ 11.;
>- In the indicated range of Reynolds numbers the resistance coefficient of the cylinders Cx
"0

0
,.Cl
0 and dimensionless frequency of vibrations St depend identically on the relative density of the
.ß
a.l
S" cylinders Pc/p and on the parameter 8/d that characterizes the degree of flow constriction, i.e.,
~ Sir
'+-;
0
a.l
~ OE
~ Cx =(8/D)-1 (pclp)-G·l (9.1 + 33,100/Re) ,
,.Cl
CI:J
+ f + f S"t St = (8/D)-1 (Pc/p)-O.l (0.4 + 2100/Re) .

Within the accuracy of the experiments carried out, direct proportionality between the
0 coefficient Cx and number St was established. Here, Re = VD/v, St =fDIV, and / is the fre-
<J
"- quency of the oscillations of a cylinder.
<J 0
'7
C\ C\ 01
M C'l
11
ci ci ci
\0 Somewhat different results were obtained in experimental investigation of a nonstation-
,<J ci
ary and stationary flow past a sphere in a cylindrical tube when the sphere considerably jams
the flow. A nonstationary flow was studied in the case of regular transverse self-oscillations

~
of the sphere that were accompanied by shock interaction of the flow with the tube wall. In

~ .~
"0
>- ~ the case of a stationary regime of flow the center of the sphere was fixed on the tube axis.
0
,.Cl The dependences of the local resistance I; caused by the sphere and its resistance coefficients

-":_-,~
a.l
.ß SI; on the main dimensionless governing parameters were found. Those dynamic characteristics
'+-;
0-"
-are comparedin a stationary and nonstationary~regimes:

~
a.l
~ Ot
,.Cl
CI:J
t + t 1; S1.5 pO.2= 0.53 + 7400/Re ,
CX S1.5 pO.2= 0.57 + 10,600/Re .

Here, 104 ::; Re ::; 105, p = psfp, 0.1 ::; S ::; 0.35, 8 is the maximum c1earance between the
~
"- sphere and the tube wall, and S = 8/D.
<J \0 '7 r- 0
11 ...... M '7 M In the case of a stationary flow past a sphere in a tube the resistance coefficient of the
,..... ci ci
,<J ci flow and the coefficient of the hJ'draulic resistance of the tube section with the sphere /;st
depend on the relative flow area S in the same way as in the case of self-oscillations of this
very sphere, Le., they are proportional to S-1.5:
"0
>-
0
,.Cl I;st S1.5 =0.35 + 4100/Re ,
a.l
-5 -1.5
=0.32 + 5600/Re
~
'+-; CXst S .
0
a.l
~ The presence of the oscillations of the sphere leads to an increase in I; and Cx , the values
,.Cl
CI:J 2o of which depend on the relative density and the Re number. As p decreases, the influence of
• Z the sphere oscillations becomes more and more noticeable.
 680 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition Flow Past Obstructions in a Tube 681

10.2 DIAGRAlVIS OF THE RESISTANCE COEFFICIENTS Circular smooth cylinder in a tube: plane-parallel flow;1O,48,58
Diagram 10.1
Sm/Fo < 0.3
Circular smooth cylinder in a tube: plane-parallel flow;l0,48,58
Sm/Fo < 0.3 Diagram 10.1

At Re' > 5 x 105

- D.p
s=--=c S"IFo ( 1-~
2 J 1/3
pW 5/2 x (1 - 0.5Sm/Fo)3 Da '

where at Er S 0.01 %, Cx = /] (Re'), see graph a; at ~ > 0

Cx =h(Re') of graph b;
At Re' ;:: 2 x 104
Values ofcx

s' =cxüSm/Fa(1- 2y/Do )1/3, where for cxü' see graph c; No.ofcurve Re' x 10-5
(E(,%) 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.5 6.0
Et ""O.Ol% 2.0
1 (0.3) 0.84 0.69 0.67 0.74 0.88 1.08 1.30 2.80
D" =no;o
4F
Sin =dml] Et
Wz
= - - is the degree of turbulence.
2 (0.8) 0.36 0.38 0.40 0.42 0.48 0.59 0.80 1.57
Wo 3 (5.5) 0.28 0.29 0.32 0.36 0.42 0.50 0.62 1.25

Re' = wodm ; Re = waDh

v V

On
~14.m/.2Io=q'2
es ~H-+++++t-+-f-+HH-+-t+H-t-+tt-H-M-tt--H (8)
4 X 10 1\ I/J V~
"""
n. V v
2X 10
10
1\
Vi V
_1-- .. 1-
~[1"
~
-J).
8 -'·1- ~l"~ F- 'C' ~-:..

G lOU 1\
\
4

.. 2 0.75
l\ 1
\
tU
aN i=
~ \
t'-l ~I-
QG
r-- r.: f-
aH- ,
0.1

Values of cx/f-t:= 0.01 %)58

f-t:= 0.1 % Re'x 10-5

dm/Da Sm/Fo
2 2 3 4 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 4 6
Re' 0.1 0.5 1.0 10 5 x 10 10 5 X 10 10 5 X 10 3 10
59.0 22.5 10.0 4.50 2.65 1.')0 0.50 0.25 1.95 1.92 1.75 1.38 0.88 0.50 0.50 0.50
Cx 1.65 1.50 1.00 0.90 1.05
0.33 0.111 1.54 1.60 1.63 1.62 0.32 0.35 0.34 0.34
4
Re' 5x 10 105 2x 105 3 x 105 4x 105 5x 105 6x 105 7 X 105 8 X 105 10
6
0.25 0.0625 1.41 1.49 1.52 1.53 1.50 0.40 0.38 0.38
Cx 1.25 1.25 1.20 1.10 0.80 0.60 0.32 0.30 0.32 0.35 0.167 0.028 1.28 1.35 1.39 1.42 1.44 1.35
 Flow Past Obstructions in a Tube 683
682 Handbook 01 Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

Single circular cylinders with fins or laths in a tube; Diagram 10.3

8
plane-parallel flow; Sm/Fo < 0.3

r---~--~r-~r---~~~~X
r---~--~~--~~~--~~
a:: = (1-1.1) Cx
S"./Fo .( 2y
3 x 1 -1)
]1I3 .
(1- O.5Sm/FO) 0

With fins, Cx =f(Re'), see graph a.

Values of Cx at a = 0°; b/dm =1

~ ~ ~ ~ i2 ~ ~ ~
,....;,....; ci ci ci ci
No.of Re' x 10-5
curve
andno. 2 4 5
offin

ooq~es~@~~~
1.70 1.40 1.40 1.47 1.46
,....; ci ci ci ci 2 1.40 1.25 1.27 1.26 1.26

~
(sI
f 3 1.0 1.05 1.08 1.11 1.12
~ 4 0.55 0.59 0.59 0.59 0.61
'\ "...- 2
'-"
1.3 '- ....,..
........
No.of Re' x 10-5
curve
{ andno. 7 10
6

s ~~~~~~~d~ ...-- I--"" offin

1.45 1.46 1.48 1.48
x 119
~ 2 1.28 1.29 1.29 1.29
I
~ ~ ~ ~ 5~ ~ ~ ~
fiT
~
3 1.13 1.14 1.15 1.16
/ 4 0.62 0.63 0.64 0.65
~
fl§
f 2 3 5 7 ß Re' X 10-5

~ ~ ~ ~
~ ~
es
~
~ 62
d
ad
,," Re'xlO-5
11 :3
'l
~ ~ ~ ~ ~
~ ~ ~
.....i c5 .....;
2

~It
0.5 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.5
0.88 0.93 0.97 0.99
\J") ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 0.027 (0.053) 1.05 0.92 0.66 0.80
111 ~ ......; ~ ,.....j ,....;
0.88 0.90 0.94 0.95 0.98 1.00 1.02 1.03
"-..P 0.041 (0.083)
1.15 1.08 0.85 0.94 1.00 1.01 1.04 1.05
0.055 (0.110)
0.85 0.61 0.70 0.93 0.99 1.01 1.05 1.06
0.087 (0.174)

Cx \ (b)

5 q q -
.\. .... ~ f.--e- -~ ' /
~ ~
~
~ :g
,...;,...;
:g
,..;
........ --
11 1.,./;.... /
bldm=Q()$ /: b?'/
With longitudinal laths Cx = j(Rej, see graph b .

O.o~~ 17
Q7
\ J 0.11'/
~
J b/dm =aI71t
X
1<1
() 2./J .1.0
 Flow Past Obstructions in a Tube 685
684 Handbook ojHydrmtlic Resistance, 4th Edition

Spacers in a tube; plane-parallel flow; Sm/Fo < 0.3 1•21 ,22,44,48 Diagram 10.4
Spacers in a tube; plane-parallel flow; Sm/Fo< 0.3 1,21,22,44,48 Diagram 10.4

Name of a spacer and scheme Drag coefficient Cx

WQ:~~~~~r.'t~' ~~l';
_tl;_ .,
Square beam Cx
2.0
ib)

~~
; ///~~~
.
""- ~ - :.-
i.- I-
~

~m
1.0
o /0 20 JD ldJ 01 0

a, deg 0 10 20 30 40 50 t '" 0.5

Cx 2.00 1.43 1.35 1.50 1.52 1.54 k2 = 1.0

Profiled steel tube (dtop-like profile);

Re' = wodm . Re; = wot 4
Re;" > 5 x 10
v ' v
tldx 3.0 5.0
Name of a spacer and scheme Drag coefficient Cx 0.2
Cx 0.1
Circular cylinder with fairing, Re;n > 106
1 '" 0.5; k2 = 1.0

Curve 1 of graph a (1: '" 0.5; k 2 =1.0)

4
ProfIled wire; Re;" > 3 X 103_10
tldm 2 3.5 4.0
Rldm 0 4.0 6.0 8.0 Cx = 0.3-0.4
Cx 0.20 0.10 0.07 0.06
t z 0.5; kz Z 1.0

:I·ma
Shaped spacer, Re;" > 106
C(l

~r 2 J*.j 6 ß!{J litt/dm

kiI,Ji,
----
~
Qg/co .. o,$
..
.q

Curve 2 of graph a (1::= 0.5; k 2 =1.0)

_i:Q,OZT
_:- ~-taQl1
tldm 2 4 5 6 12 14 20

- - i\ "
1.S
Cx 0.09 0.06 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.10 0.14 0.16 0.19 i' 1l.161
1\ t Z 0.5; k"" 1.0
l,D o.2~5

Plate with rounded edges, r/dm =0.5 \ -/

;;;;0-:
D.3» t=0.5; k= 1.0

r t \- :,...,...1= <:?46-o.rD
5 x 105
~ r///!itgQ~ J t;ffiw?i;:ww;j Re;"
Cx 0.78
2x 106
0.66
1-0.5
k2= 1.0
o
0,1 0,2 tJ,J o.s 0.7 1 2 R~"f1-1'

Wedge-shaped plate; dj/t = 0.0417; d2/t = 0.025

b,,_2S.mII
5 X 105 2 X 106 1"'0.5 0.6 ~/OO
" ....... 200
Cx 0.53 0.46 kz= 1.0 ;--"'i',
0.3
\r-.. )
ProfIles of different length; Re;" '" 106
0.2
,/
Curve 3 of graph a (1::= 0.5; k 2 =1.0)

~~~
0.1
O.11Ii
0.06
fld.< 3.0 5.0 8.0 12 18 I 2 J 4 6 10 I 1 3 4 6 10 I Z Rt'

~~
j
xJ0 4 xJO .10'
Cx 0.10 0;080 0.096 0.13 0.193
 0\
Spacers in a tube; plane-parallel flow; Sm/Fa< 0.3 1,21,22,44,48 Diagram 10.4 00
0\
5
Re' =wodm /2 = 10

Scheme Scheme Scheme

of the co/ba r/bo cx 1: k2 ofthe co/bo r/bo cx 1: k2 ofthe co/ba r/bo cx 1: k2
spacer spacer spacer

--0
Cp

i
1:2 1:2 0.5 1.6-1.7 -0.5 -1.0
0.021 }

~ffi I:2 - } '6 0.5 1.0 ~ 1:2 0.021 1.8 -1.0 -1.1 --0 1.5 0.10 0.5-0.6 0.5 1.0

1:2
Cil
1:2 0.021
--0 0.67 0.16 1.5 -1.0 -1,1

2:1 --D
~
1:2 0.083 1.7 -l.0 -1.1 0.67 1.5 -1.0 -1.1

fB 2:1

2:1
} 06 0.5 1.0 1:2·

1:2
0.167} 1.7

0.167
-1.0 ~ 1.1 -- <::::J JO·

--<]50'
1.85

1.00
1.0

1.3-1.45
0.5

-0.5
1.0

1.0
g::
1:2
0.021 }
\:1
O.OIS} -- <I 90· 0.50 1.6 -1.0 -1.1 ~

~
r 1:2 0.021 2.5 0.8 1.0 1:1 0.015 1.5 -0.5 -1.0 -- 4fZQ~ 0.29 1.85 -1.0 -1.1
C)
C)

nJ
?:;-

<>
C.'
l:2
1:2

1:2
0.021

0.083

0.250 )
1.9 0.8 1.0
~@ r...

CD
1:\
I:l

1:1
0.015
0.118 1.5 -0.5 -1.0
-;..- ~120' 1.85

t> 90·
- - [>1i0' 0.5
1.00
1.8

2.0

2.1
-1.0

-1.0
-1.0
-1.1

-1.1
~
$
~
~
~
0.235 } -LI
~
:::0
1:2 0.250 1.6 0.5 1.0 1:1 0.235 1.5 -0.5 -1.0 -(>oN' 0.29 2.0-2.1 l.0 1.1
(\)

""0:;'
§
"
.(\)

;!;-
;::,-

~
6"
~

:::0
(\)

""0:;'
~
~
1:1 2:.1 --0 4 -0.28 0.5 1.0
0.021 ) 0'042} . "
(10

es-
1:1 0.021 2.0 0.5 l.0 2:1 0.04-2 1.1 0.5 1.0 --C> 8 -0.2 0.5 1.0
~

~
C)

--~
~
c
1:1 0.021 2:1 0.042 1.2-1.3 0.5 1.0 ~

~
1:1 0.167 1.2 0.5 1.0 1/ 2:1 0.167 1.1 0.5 1.0 -- c) 1.3-2.3 0.5 1.0 ~
a
c::r-
1:1 2:1 ""
~
0.333 } 0.333

1:1 0.333 l.0 0.5 1.0 2:1 0.333 I .• 0.5 1.0 ~

0'
~

2:1 0.042 1:1 0.021

""5'
~

~
2:1 0.042 i.4 0.5 1.0 c t:l 0.021 1.2 0.5 1.0
~

ti 2:1
2:1
0.042
0.167 0.1 0.5 1.0
... ·r ~
1:1
1:1
0.021
0.083 1.3 0.5 1:0
c::r-
(\)

'
2:1 0.500 4 1:1 0.250
2:1 0.500 0.4 0.5 1.0 1:1 0.250 1.1 0.5 1.0

1:1 0.021

ir
..!!I
r
eil
"'"
1:1
1:1
1:1
1:1
1:1
0.021
0.021
0.083
0.250

0.250
2.0
1.9

1.8
1.0

1.0

1.0
1.0

1.0

1.0

--0 0,37 0.75 0.5 1.0

--0 2 0.5 0.5 1.0

~
 Flow Past Obstructions in a Tube 689
688 Handbook 0/ Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

Rolled and shaped profiles in a tube; plane-parallel flow;3,48

Pair of circular cylinders in a tube; plane-parallel flow; 5
Diagram 10.6
Diagram 10.5 Sm/Fa< 0.3; Re' = wadm/v > 10
Re' = wadm/v > 105; Sm/Fa< 0.3 21
,22

Profile tldm Cx k2 Profile tldm Cx k2

~ ~~
1.0 2.76 -1.0 -1.0 2.1-2.2 1.2 -1.0 -1.1
!!4... "Ez t
a_Oa 'l)
Cxtot d"O' .
-.
..-~

~
~ 2.2 2.08 -1.0 -1.1
1.6 ~
__ '3a.
LP"'"""

w~.
J 0.5 2.68 -1.0 -1.1
I -4.'b~'.. /0 bm
IJJ
11
d~ - LI

~
, 2 20 W PUz/dm 0.65 1.8 -0.5 1.0

~
1.08 2.66 -1.0 -1.1 2.2 0.9

W "
-4- 'b~
hldm 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 4.0 5.0 10 20 30 50 100 !i- 2.2 0.15 0.5 1.0
Cxtot 0.60 0.60 0.76 1.10 1.44 1.50 1.52 1.62 1.82 1.92 2.0 2.06

~
0.46 1.66 -1.0 -1.1
:? dm
50' raT

Rolled and shaped profiles in a tube; plane-parallel flow;3,48

~ . "-
~~ 2.2 0.5 -1.0 -1.1

Diagram 10.6
Sm/Fo< 0.3; Re' = wadm/v > 105

~
~@
1.0 1.76 -1.0 -1.1

~ 2.2 0.3 -0.5 -1.0

t t

-~ l1"e
--
~
where für Cx and 'C, see the table for a given profile at the given ~ 0.63 2.2 -1.0 -1.1 0 2.40 -1.0 -LI
angle of attack a. t
"" t
C
..t.=
d 0.29'
, J: = 0.42
m
690 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition Flow Past Obstructions in a Tube 691

Sphere in a tube; three-dimensional flow, Sphere in a tube; three-dimensional flow,

Diagram 10.7 SmlFo < 0.3 6,17,48 Diagram 10.7
SmlFo < 0.3 6,17,48
S / 1/3
r,=~=c
pW 5/2 x (1 -
nrFO
0.5Sm/FO)3
(1_ D2Yo] Re' 30 40 50 80
cx 2.14 1.80 1.58 1.23 L09 0.90 0.79 0.68 0.57 0.47 0.38 0.40

~
1. Ct = ~ "" 0 (where ~ is the degree of turbulence);
cx 0.49 0.50 0.49 0.40 0.18 0.19 0.20 0.21 0.21 0.22 0.22

a) Re' = wrflm< 1 O' c =1±.. Values of Cx

v - .. x Re,'
Re'x 10-3
b) 0.1< Re' < 103 ; c =24,+_4_.
x Re (Re')1/3' 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.15 1.34 1.6 1.7 1.9 2.11 2.36
0.11 0.42 0.33 0.29 0.20
c) 0< Re' < 5 x 105; = (24, + 4.565 _ 0.491J
C 0.13 0.40 0.35 0.25 0.20 0.19
Re 3-{Rei --./Re'
x l 0.15 0.35 0.35 0.23 0.18 0.19
Re' = wrflm x (I-tanh 0.00025 Re') + 0.42 tanhO.00025 Re'
v 0.50 0.40 0.29 0.23 0.18 0.18 0.29
0.17
+0.02 tanh 0.0001 Re'; for cx=j{Re'), see graph a.
0.19 0.58 0.40 0.30 0.23 0.18 0.16 0.31 0.51
2. Ct = 0.07-0.35 and 400 < Re' < 3 x 104 ; 0.21 0.42 0.33 0.25 0.16 0.14 0.33 0.52 0.68
Ct
0.23 0.60 0.34 0.25 0.18 0.14 0.35 0.54 0.70 0.83
5
c =~- 4.47
x (log Re,)6.1
X 10 - j{Re'cu
Re1.8 ~.97 - ,
see graph b. 0.25 0.40 0.24 0.17 0.12 0.36 0.57 0.73 0.85 0.95
0.30 0.40 0.14 0.10 0.17 0.45 0.84 0.97 1.07 1.14 1.19
0.35 0.80 0.20 0.09 0.25 0.53 0.91 1.18 1.26 1.31 1.35 1.36

Re'x 10-3
Ct
2.67 3.08 3.64 4.44 5.7 10 15 20 25 30
0.07 0.23 0.43 0.48 0.48 0.41 0.41 0.38
Re' 10-3 5 X 10-3 5 X 10-2 5 X 10-1 0.09 0.24 0.45 0.55 0.56 0.52 0.46 0.42 0.39
0.11 0.20 0.24 0.25 0.46 0.59 0.63 0.61 0.54 0.48 0.43 0.40
4 3 2
cx 2.4 X 10 4.8 X 10 4.8 X 10 24.4 x 10 50.70 0.13 0.21 0.26 0.47 0.61 0.69 0.68 0.65 0.56 0.49 0.44 0040
0.15 0.28 0.49 0.64 0.73 0.76 0.72 0.67 0.57 0.50 0.44 0.40
Re' 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5 10 20 0.17 0.49 0.65 0.76 0.82 0.82 0.75 0.69· 0.58 0.50 0.45 0.41
cx 26.90 14.80 10.65 8.45 7.12 4.32 2.74 0.19 0.67 0.79 0.86 0.89 0.86 0.78 0.71 0.59 0.51 0.45 0.41
0.21 0.81 0.89 0.94 0.94 0.90 0.80 0.72 0.59 0.51 0.45 0.41
0.23 0.92 0.98 1.01 0.99 0.93 0.81 0.73 0.60 0.51 0.46 0.41
0.25 1.02 1.06 1.06 1.03 0.95 0.83 0.74 0.60 0.52 0.46 0.41
c)( 0.30 1.21 1.21 1.17 1.10 1.00 0.85 0.76 0.61 0.52 0.46 0.42
(a)
6 0.35 1.35 1.31 1.25 1.16 1.04 0.87 1.77 1.62 0.53 0.46 0.42

2
10 I
~
<0

tU
aB
aß
a~

az
,
.~

01 tO 10 10 Z ftJ J 10 • lfJ•.5
 692 Handbook 0/ Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition Flow Past Obstructions in a Tube 693

Bornes of is 0meric shape; three-dimensional flow; Bodies of different shapes; three-dimensional flow;
Diagram 10.9
Sm/Fo < 0.3 6 Diagram 10.8 Sm/Fo < 0.3 38 ,48

C =~::::: C
J pW
Sn/Fo
6/2
x(I-Sm/Fo)3
(1- 2y
Do
]1I3
'

28.47 4.565q> 0.491q»

cx : ( RelogI5.38/q>+3-YRe'-1Re'
x (1 - tanh [0.01282 Re' (q> - 0.9805)]) + 2.86 (q> - 0.8531)
x taub [0.01282 Re' (q> - 0.9805)] + (7.76 - 2.86q> - 4. 88/q»
x taub (0.00104 Re' (q> - 0.9038)], see the curves Cx : j(Re');

q> == 1.182 for octahedrons; <p == 1.104 for cubic octahedrons;

<p == 1.50 for tetrahedrons.
1tfP
S :--"- Re': wOdm
m 4 v
Name of a body and scheme Drag coefficient Cx
for deo see para. 22.
Convex hemisphere-cup (without Re' : 4 x lOS; C
x == 0.36;
rr,d2
end plane); Sm ==--f Re': 5 x lOS; cx : 0.34

. 1td~ Re' : 1.35 X 105 ; x : 0.088

Hermsphere-cone; Sm = 4 C

Concave hemisphere-cup (without Re' : 4 X 105; Cx = 1.44;

rr,d2 5
end plane); Sm:--f Re' = 5 x 10 ; cx = 1.42

rr,d2
Cone-hemisphere-cone; Sm =--f
Values of ex

Re'
Curve
10-3 10-2 10-1 5 X 10-1 1.0 2.0 5.0
1 (octahedrons) 2.5 x 104 2.5 X 103 2.5 X 102 5.2 x 10 30 t/dm 0.5 2 4 5 7
15 8.0
2 (cubic octahedrons) 2.5 x 104 2.5 X 103 2.5 X 102 5.5 x 10 29 16 7.4 Cx 0.10 0.91 0.85 0.85 0.87 0.90 0.95 0.99
3 (tetrahedrons) 2.9 x 104 2.9 X 103 2.9 X 102 5.6 x 10 33 19 9.0 Circular smooth cylinder in a flow
~
Curve
Re'
parallel to the axis; Sm = --f
rr,d2
1.0
~
10 5 x 10 10
2
5 X 10
2
10 3
5x 103 10 4
5x 1 04 10
5 \ /
1 (octahedrons) 5.0 1.8 1.25 0.93 l/
~.
1.0 1.20 1.25 1.25 1.25 ~A --",V
2 (cubic octahedrons) 4.5 1.7 1.15 0.72 0.75 0.86 0.90 0.90 0.90 ---_. ~ ~ i'-..
3 (tetrahedrons) 5.6 2.2 1.80 1.90 2.0 2.05 2.05 2.05 2.05
t 0.8
IJ 1.0 4.17
 694 Handbook ojHydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition Flow Past Obstructions in a Tube 695

Bodies of different shapes; three-dimensional flow; Bodies of different shapes; three-dimensional flow;
Sm/Fo< 0.3 38 ,48 Diagram 10.9 Diagram 10.9
Sm/Fo < 0.3 38,48
Name of a body and scheme Drag coefficient Cx Name of a body and scheme Drag coefficient Cx

Curve 1 of graph b Rectangular plate; Sm = drrlll; Curve 2 of graph b ('t =1.5)

Re' =6x lOS
t/dm 1.0 2.0 5.0 10 40 li/dm 1.0 2.0 2.8 4.0 5.0 10 20

Cx 0.63 0.68 0.74 0.82 0.98 1.20 ~1.0 ~1.1 Cx 1.16 1.16 1.18 1.19 1.21 1.29 1.40 2.0
Circular smooth cylinder in a flow d/D 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 004 0.5
'! "" 1.0
normal to the axis; Sm =~; 1.16 1.16 1.16 1.18 1.20 1.22
Cx ~1.0 ~1.1

11
eil ....
Re' = 8.8 x 104 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
~~
d/D 1.0
t6 J ~j.oi'
Cx 1.25 1040 1.78 1.92 2.0
I.')," 1/
. . . V2 V
.J~ 1--"'"
CK

/2 :7
./ 1t
Washers;Sm=4'(D -d)
2 2

..... T.6
V
[0 Re' = 3.6 x 105
~
1.~
1 i."....-- ~
I- ~ ....
0.8
aß ~-
- 1.0
IJ az (l~ D.5 fl.lJ diD
tel 2.0 JO 4,05.0al1 4010 12 20 t,/dm
Cone (with the plane at the base); Prismatic body of square cross
1ti section; Re' > 5 x 10
5
Sm = -f; Re' = 2.7 X 105

0:, deg 30 60
0.5 1.0 Curve 3 of graph b
0.35 0.61
lI/dm 0.15 0.20 0.3 0.5 1.0 2.0 5.0
a,deg o -10 20 30 40 58 Cx 0.57 0.67 0.77 0.90 1.05 1.20 1.40 2.0
0.5 1.0
Cx 1.58 1.12 0.80 0.87 0.89 0.90 ~1.0 -1.1

Circular or square disk;

:I*,I ~·lli~
Re' = 6.2 x 105

Cx = 1.16 -1.0 -1.0

o 10 211 JI1 M CXO

Body of revolution; Re' = (5-6) x

0
las
angle of attack 0: = 0-20

t=t/dm 4
0.5 1.0
Cx 0.05-0.10 0.05-0.12 0.06-0.15 0.075-0.18
0.5 1.0
 Flow Past Obstructions in a Tube 697
696 Handbook oi Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

Rectangular plate and a pair of circular plates in a tube;

Eliptical smooth cylinder or ellipsoid in a tube; Diagram 10.11
three-dimensional flow; SmiFo < 0.3
Diagram 10.10 three-dimensional flow;1O·38.48 SmiFo < 0.3; Re' =wodm/v =(4--6) X 105

Elliptical cylinder: Cx = j{Re'), see graph a. 1. Rectangular plate: Cx = j{a), see graph a

Values of Cx (graph a) Values of Cx (graph a)

II
d;,
2.5
3.0
0.3
0.38
0.32
Re' x 10-5
0.4
0.31
0.26
0.5
0.26
0.22
0.22
0.19
0.6
-
wo/ö Curve (hit)

1 (0.2)
2 (1.0)
0.02
0.04
10
0.03
0.09
20
0.17
0.30
a,deg
30
0.44
0.70
40
0.76
1.10
50
1.02
1.13
60
1.08
0.98
3.5 0.28 0.24 0.21 0.18 3 (5.0) 0.05 0.14 0.30 0.47 0.64 0.80 0.90
4.0 0.25 0.21 0.18 0.16

l, Re' x 10-5 2. A pair of circular plates: Cx = cxov = fthl drJ, see graph b.
d;, 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
2.5 0.18 0.16 0.14 0.13
3.0 0.16 0.14 0.12 0.11
3.5 0.16 0.14 0.12 0.11
4.0 0.15 0.14 0.13 0.13 {al
Ellipsoid: = j{Re'), see graph b.

v-
Cx

Values of Cx (graph b) 2.0

)7
Re' x 10-5 1.6
d;,
t

0.2 0.5 1.0 2 4 5 6 . .V

0.75 0.62 0.59 0.58 0.57 0.31 0.20
1.2
-..... V
1.33 0.26 0.10 0.12 a8 ~
1.80 0.32 0.22 0.10 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.08 o aß lß Z* 12 ~IJ tz/dm
3.00 0.07 0.05 0.05 0.06
15 25 35 ~5 55 Ci"
Cx
tld~.o.7!1 (b)

r\ 12ldm 0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1.0 1.25 1.5 1.75 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5
ltf.JJ
1\ '):ldm=J.O\.
IZl
Cxtot 1.16 1.15 1.13 1.05 0.93 0.86 0.85 0.93 1.11 1.38 1.63 1.85 2.05 2.22

'" J
 Flow Past Obstructions in a Tube 699
698 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

Smooth cylinders in a tube arranged in one centrallongitudinal row; Diagram 10.13

Shaped profiles placed in one longitudinal row in a tube; 5
Diagram 10.12 plane-parallel flow
plane-parallel flow;8 Sm/Fo < 0.3; Re' = wodmlv > 105 25
~ =~=nt185 (1-1.18dn/Da) [2 log (12/dm+ 1) (dn/DaF1 .
5
pW6/2 [(Re')a.25 (1 + 0.2512/ d,J x 10- Re'
Cx
D, +(2log(l2/d,J+ 1) (dn/Do)1.4}ALlDo=nt~j + ~fr>
1.2 t-

1.0
IA ~ 2 where nj is the number of tubes in the longitudinal row;
= wod,rlv; for ~, see the graph and the table; for A. see Diagrarns
.".., \ Re'
0.8 /l'l [,....'
~ 2.1 through 2.4. The fonnula is valid within 0.08 < d,rlD o ~ 0.35;
1.3 ~ lidm ~ 4.5; 2.5 x 10 < Re < 4 x lOS.
4
,VJ /""
0.6
dm/Da~0.15 log Re >5.35+ 17.5dm/DO-2.6
Q.1t I I.IV ~ 3,
~'\.
At and
12/dm

(1.2
ft §
and at dm/Da> 0.15 and log Re> 5.35 + 5dn/Do - 0.75
I#':
'fI" t2/dm
Q III 20 JO Ifil SO 60 7P 90 1= 'a/dm 4
S= nt [2 log 12/ d,J + 1] (dm/ Dal .

8f-,[ ~
where for Cx =j(l), see the graph; for A., see Diagrams 2.1 through 2.6. o. 7 I>-. ~
1! ..........
Values of ex !
0, 5 I'-... ~
17 t-- :-. ~ I"- l -
"'- I'.....
r- f-- ~
b.,
Scheme of profile
o 2 5 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 100 0.)
~p-- ~ r--_
I'_!---
,/J-r-;.
o.z 'tiJ
~l.l ",1.0 ",0.10 0.10 0.24 0.44 0.75 0.95 1.06 1.14 1.18 1.18 1.18 f).1
./r.
7
J,y
o 0.., (UU D.7S T.UO 1. ts U(J 1.7$ 2.(J(J US 2.$,(J Z. 7'; J.tJ,'fIJ.:zr :ISO ,pe •tg--I

~'1.1 "'1.5 ",0.10 0.10 6.17 0.28 0.45 0.60 0.71 0.80 0.85 0.88 0.88 Values of ~1
Re' x 10-5
No. of the curve dm/Da lz/dm
0.25 1.0 4
1.0 ~1.0 ",0.10 0.10 0.17 0.27 0.37 0.43 0.46 0.47 0.47 0.47 0.47 0.08 1.5 0.026 0.026 0.035 0.039 0.039
2 0.08 3.0 0.070 0.070 0.072 0.073 0.074
3 0.08 4.5 0.079 0.079 0.079 0.079 0.079
4 0.12 2.0 0.087 0.087 0.087 0.087 0.087
0.096 0.096
NO.4't:.~~
5 0.12 3.0 0.096 0.096 0.096
1.0 0.5 ",0.10 0.10 0.17 0.26 0.30 0.30 0.30 0.30 0.30 0.30 0.30 0.122 0.122 0.122 0.122
6 0.12 4.0 0.132
t t 7 0.15 1.5 0.097 0.097 0.097 0.097 0.097
t 8 0.15 3.0 0.157 0.140 0.140 0.140 0.140
0.157 0.157
~"'M 9 0.15 4.5 0.180 0.157 0.157
10 9.18 1.3 0.109 0.109 0.109 0.104 0.104
11 0.18 2.0 0.210 0.183 0.174 0.174 0.174
12 0.18 2.7 0.220 0.190 0.183 0.183 0.183
1.0 0.5 0.08 0.08 0.l1 0.12 0.12 0.12 0.12 0.12 0.12 0.12 0.12 0.235 0.210 0.210 0.205 0.205
13 0.18 3.3
14 0.22 2.0 0.270 0.235 0.225 0.225 0.225
15 0.22 3.0 0.350 0.300 0.260 0.250 0.250
16 0.22 4.0 0.420 0.340 0.300 0.295 0.295
No.6 C) 1.0 0.5 ",0.20 0.40 0.53 0.70 0.88 1.0 1.10 1.17 1.20 1.20 1.20 17
18
0.34
0.34
2.0
2.7
0.600
0.750
0.480
0.570
0.530
0.490
0.400
0.450
0.383
0.445
19 0.34 3.3 0.900 0.650 0.550 0.500 0.470
 700 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition
Flow Past Obstructions in a Tube 701

Tube reinforced by various spacers and braces across the section Truss in a tube; plane-parallel flow; S,nfFo< 0.3 36 Diagram 10.15
Diagram 10.14
and along the channel;3 S,nlFo < 0.3; Re' =wodm/v > 105

,!~ C.diSm/FO (1 -

x (d"lD,j,l,
2y/Do)l/3

[1 _~ "S~/FoJ x D" +, D
L L
h
'

~lm,,:~~",~··,,·
Cxo Values of cxa.
!--ol- I I 1 Ib)
where i is the ordinal number of the reinforcement, n t8
~ .... Truss a, deg
is the number of rows of reinforcement, cxli is deter-
H """ r-" r i :--
,2 r" and
.r /Vr. :~.

.......:.. ,: ~.,.
'/,

',.
. mined as cxl for the given profile as a function of 1=
l2/dm from Diagram 10.12; for A, see Diagrarns 2.1
through 2.6; 'ti is determined as a function of the pro-
1.2 "' "
I
I I
I~ ~
curves 0 10 15 20 25 30 35
1.32 1.37 1.37 1.25 1.13 1.00 1.15 1.25 1.39 1.42 1.40
40 45 50 60

1.0
file shape: (a) for an I-beam, channel, angle, plates Il~ 0.5 0.6 iO 12 1.~ Re X 10- 5 2 1.52 1.52 1.49 1.43 1.35 1.30 1.32 1.42 1.53 1.58 1.58
with frontal incidence_ of the flow, rectangle, etc., 4 1.57 1.57 1.54 1.47 1.39 1.35 1.37 1.46 1.57 1.60 1.55

1I~1 ____
from the curve 'ti = f(l); (b) for sections of stream-

:ktEHH 11/1
lined shape, 'ti x 0.5. Values of cxO

Truss Re'x 10-5

and
Q 10 2fl JO ~O ';0 cO l() 3Q l=lz/dm
curves 0.5 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.5
1.6
o 2 4 6 10 15 20 30 40 50 60 80 100 1.65 1.63 1.61 1.58 1.55 1.50
'ti 1.00 1.35 1.70 2.10 2.40 2.60 2.60 2.50 2.30 2.10 1.90 1.75 1.55 1.40
a 10 20 .JO 40 a" 2 1.65 1.63 1.60 1.55 1.50 1.40 1.35
4 1.55 1.50 1.41 1.32 1.17 1.12
C;cO
..... }. (d)
Truss in a tube; plane-parallel flow; S,nfFo < 0.3 36 Diagram 10.15

-r--r--- -r--.....
1..1
r- r-:::: ~~
'/' r-
l,-Z
J Square truss: exa =j(a), see graph c (Re'=wOdm/v = 1.18 x
"-

~m ~,L'
t; 10\ for c.:o, see the curves c:a = Re') of graph d obtained at CI.
~
1.+
p.., ~ = 0; for cxQ, see graph c at CI. = O.
'1
~{t ___ . +(X~, • '. . ' '.' 1.2
........... !.--1
---n~~~~ ,
2 ~+(X , Triangular truss: cxa = f(CI.), see graph a (Re' = wod,,/v) = 1.18 1./J
5
x 10 , for c::O, see the curves CxQ = j(Re') of graph b obtained at /J..2 Of aö 0.0 tlJ t2 1.4- Re' X 10-5
=
CI. = 0; for cxü' see graph a at CI. O.

~m""''''''
Values of cxo;
. . a, deg
. L, Truss and curves
0 10 15 20 30 35 40 45
1.35 1.42 1.55 1.78 1.79 1.78 1.67 1.54 1.50
b is the width of the profile. 1.50 1.60 1.78 1.93 1.95 1.95 1.93 1.83 1.81
is the coefficient of filling of the truss.
(j)' 1.49 1.56 1.73 1.89 1.93 1.93 1.91 1.80 1.77

U
4 1.59 1.68 1.88 2.03 2.05 2.03 1.99 1.90 1.88
C;o
~
Values of

No·1
Re' x 10-5
No,1 NO,21 No,3
Truss and curves
0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6
1.55 1.50 1.44 1.38 .30 1.22
2 1.80 1.74 1.70 1.65 1.6 1.54
Welded lattice truss Welded lattice truss Lattice truss with cross Lattice' truss with
3 1.72 1.68 1.64 1.59 1.55 1.51 1.46
without cross stays with cross stays stays and balle cross stays and 4 1.84 1.77 1.73 1.70 1.68 1.66
corner plates
 Flow Past Obstructions in a Tube 703
702 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

26. Ustinov, A. M. and Kaliev, S. T., Determination of the coefficients of aerodynamic resistance of
REFERENCES workings with stulls of new type, Tr. Karagandinsk. Nauch.-Issled. Ugol. Inst., vyp. 16, pp. 140-
145, 1964.
1. Abramov, G. A., General formula of resistance with relative motion of medium partic1es, Izv.
27. Fabrikant, N. Ya., Aerodynamics, Nauka Press, Moscow, 1964, 530 p.
Akad. Nauk SSSR, Metallurg. Toplivo, no. 6, 168-178, 1961.
28. Migai, V. K. and Nosova, 1. S., On the decrease in resistance of poody streamlined bodies, Te-
2. Abramov, F. A., Dolinskiy, V. A., Idelchik, 1. E., Kersten, 1. 0., and Tsodikov, V. Ya., Aerody-
ploenergetika, no. 8, 60-63, 1980. . . .. .
namic Resistance 01 Headings and Underground Tunnels, Nedra Press, Moscow, 1964, 188 p.
29. Khudyakov, G. E., Effect of elongation of the aerodynamic charactenshcs of pnsmatlc bodles of
3. Skochinskiy, A. A., Ksenofontova, A. 1., Kharev, A. A., and Idelchik, 1. E., Aerodynamic Resis-
square cross section, Tr. Inst. Mekh. MGU, vol. 4, no. 14, 28-32, 1970.
tance 0/ Shafts and the Means o/Its Reduction, Moscow, 1953, 363 p.
30. Chernov, A P., Dust-laden flow past a fixed cylinder, Tr. Inst. Energ. Akad. Nauk Kaz. SSR, no.
4. Budarin, V. A., Investigation of the Forced Coupling of a Liquid Flow with a Poorly Streamlined
3, 63-69, 1961. .
Body in a Circular Tube, Thesis (Cand. of Tech. Sci.), Moscow, 1982, 166 p.
31. Shapoval, G. T., Study of the resistance coefficients of load-carrying cylinders moving 1ll tubes,
5. Bystrov, P. 1. and Mikhailov, V. S., Hydrodynamics 0/ Collecting Heat Exchanging Apparatus,
Izv. VUZ, Gorn. Zh., no. 3, 129-135, 1964.
Moscow, 1982, 223 p.
32. Kvass, B., Howard, F., Weinstein, L., and Bushnell, D., Reduction of the resistance of poody
6. Gorlin, S. M. and Khudyakov, G. E., Effect of the initial flow turbulence on the aerodynamic
streamlined bodies with the aid of longitudinal recesses, Rocket Techno!. Aeronaut., vol. 19, no. 6,
resistance of poorly streamlined sharp-edged bodies, Izv. Akad. Nauk SSSR, Mekh. Zhidk. Gaza,
124-126, 1981.
no. 2, 120-128, 1969.
33. Shterenlikht, D. V., Drag resistance of cylinders with longitudinal fins, Tr. Vses. Nauch.-Issled.
7. Gorlin, S. M., Experimental Aeromechanics, Vysshaya Shkola Press, Moscow, 1970, 423 p.
Inst. Gidrotekh., vyp. 4, 230-235, 1962.
8. Dunchevsky, G. M., Study of the flow past a cylinder in a circular tube, in Hydraulics and
34. Yuriev, B. N. and Lesnikova, M. P., Aerodynamic Investigations (Tr. TsAGl) , vyp. 33, 1928,
Hudraulic Engineering, No. 4, pp. 110-117, Tekhnika Press, Kiev, 1966.
9. Idelchik, 1. E., Shock los ses in a flow with nonuniform velocity distribtuion, Tr. BNT MAP, vyp. ~~ .
35. Fedyayevskiy, K. K. and Blyumina, L. Kh., Hydroaerodynamics 0/ Separated Flow Past Bodles,
662, 1-24, 1948.
Moscow, 1977, 120 p.
10. Idelchik, I. E., Hydraulic Resistance (Physical and Mechanical Fundamentals), Gosenergoizdat
36. Brenner, H. and Cox, R. G., The resistance to a partic1e of arbitrary shape in translational motion
Press, Moscow-Leningrad, 1954, 316 p.
at small Reynolds numbers, J. Fluid Mech., vol. 17, no. 4, 561-595, 1963.
11. Grabovskiy, A. M. and Budarin, V. A, Conceming the calculation of the drag and local resistance
37. Khenven, A R. and Lyakhov, D. M., On the coefficients of hydraulic resistance of a sphere and
coefficients of poorly streamlined bodies, Izv. VUZ, Energetika, no. 12, 60-64, 1980.
a layer of spherical elements, Teplofiz. Vys. Temp., vol. 20, no. 6, 1119-1123, 1982.
12. Devnin, S. 1., Aerohydrodynamic Calculation 01 Poorly Streamlined Ship Constructions, Sudos-
38. Ergebnisse der aerodynamischen Versuchsanstalt zu Göttingen, Lieferung III, 1927, 280 S.
troenie Press, Leningrad, 1967, 223 p.
39. Chang, P. K., Separation Flows, voL 1, Moscow, 1972, 300 p.
13. Klyachko, L. S., Equation of motion of dust particles in dust collectors, Otop!. Ventil., no. 4, 27-
40. Fage, A and Warsap, J., The effects of turbulence and surface roughness on the drag of circular
32, 1934.
cylinders, ARCRM, no. 93, 1283, 1963.
14. Korepanov, K. V., Ventilation resistance of trucks and trains moving in underground working, De-
41. Goin, K. L. and Lawrence, W. B., Subsonie drag of spheres at Reynolds number from 200 to
velopment 0/ the Deposits 0/ Mineral Resources, vyp. 4, pp. 18-27, Tekhnika Press, Kiev, 1965.
10 000 AlAA J., vol. 6, no. 5, 961-962, 1968.
15. Krapivin, A. M. e!al:, Hydraulic resistance of a one:row longitusIin~ _tubeJ2ungle_ in a plan~ par- '"~<42:-~tl~I1,El::icl1i; Experimehts of flow around a pair of parallel circulaf cylinders, in Proc;· 9th Jpn.
allerg;;fl;~, ielioe;~rgetika, no. 6~ 30-:34, 1972.· ..
Ndt. Cong. Appl. Mech., Tokyo, pp. 231-234, 1960. .
16. Kuznetsov, B. Ya., Aerodynamic investigations of cylinders, Tr. TsAGI, vyp. 98, 50, 1931.
43. Young, D. F., Drag and lift on spheres within cylindrical tubes, J. Hydraul. Dzv., Proc. Am. Soc.
17. Kuznetsov, B. Ya., Drag resistance of ropes, wires, tenders and aircraft strips, Tr. TsAGI, vyp. 97,
Civil Eng., vol. 86, no. 5, part 1,47-57, 1960.
45, 1931.
44. Kafkova, D. and Smutek, R., L'influence du mouvement oscillatoire d'un fluide sur le mouvement
18. Lamb, G., Hydrodynamics, Gostekhizdat Press, Moscow, 1947, 690 p.
d'une partic1e spherique, Acta Tech., voL 14, no. 5, 610-629, CSAV, 1969.
19. Loitsyansky, L. G., Mechanics 0/ Liquids and Gases, Nauka Press, Moscow, 1973, 904 p.
45. Koch, L., Solids in pipes, Int. Sci. Technoi., no. 26, 68-72, 1964.
20. Malevieh, Yu. A. and Lyogky, V. M., Aerodynamic tesistance of single finned tubes in a trans-
46. Livesey, 1. L. and Turner, I. T., The influence of velocity profile characteristics on the drag of
verse air flow, Izv. VUZ, Energetika, no. 7, 116-120, 1966.
short circular struts spanning two-dimensional channels, J. R. Aeronaut. Soc., vol. 71, no. 680,
21. Maseyev, M. M., Bat, A. A., and Khokhlova, L. N., Aerodynamic resistance of a group of cylin-
569-573, 1967.
ders, Tr. Inst. Mekh. MGU, no. 4, 23-32, 1970.
47. Robertson, J. and Rutherford. G. S., Turbulence effect on drag of angular blunt bodies, J. Hy-
22. Pevz, G. D. and Derzhinkevich, I. B., Study of the drag resistance of a new type of buntons of
drau!. Div., Proc. Am. Soc. Civil Eng., vol. 95, no. 2, 781-785, 1969.
shaft wells, Development 010re Mineral Resources, vyp. 2(27), pp. 60-68, 1969.
48. Rumpf, H., Über das Ansetzen fein verteilter Stoffe an den wänden von Stromungs Kanalen,
23. Retter, E. 1., Aerodynamies of shapeless industrial buildings, in Microclimate 0/ BLtildings. Prob-
Chem. Ing. Tech., vol. 25, no. 6, 317-327, 1953.
lems 0/ Thennophysics, pp. 6-25, Gosstroiizdat Press, Moscow, 1963.
49. Smythe, W. R., Flow around a sphere in a circular tube, Phys. Fluids, voL 4, no. 6, 756-759,
24. Sarpkaya, T. and Garrison, Ts., Vortex formation and resistance in a transient flow, Prikl. Mekh.,
1961.
vol. 30, no. 1, 75-85, Mir Press, 1963.
50. Strordeur, A. N., Drag coefficients for fuel-element spacers, Nucleonics, voL 19, no. 6, 74-76,
25. Lyatkher, V. M. and Prudovskiy, AM., Hydrmtlic Modeling, Energoatomizdat Press, Moscow,
1961.
1984, 392 p.
51. Tanaka, Z. and Jinoya, K., New approximate equation of drag coefficient for spherical partic1es, J.
Chem. Eng. Jpn., vol. 3, no. 2, 261-262, 1970.
704 Handbook ojHydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

52. Torobin, L. B. and Gauvin, W. H., The drag coefficients of single spheres moving in steady and CHAPTER
accelerated motion in a turbulent fluid, AIChE J., voL 7, no. 4, 615-619, 1961.
53. Wentz, eh. A. and Thodos, G., Total and form drag friction factors for the turbulent flow of air ELEVEN
through packed and distended beds of spheres, AlChE J., vol. 9, no. 3, 358-361, 1963.
54. Morel, T. and Bohn, M., Flow over two circular disks in tandem, J. Fluids Eng., Trans. ASME,
voL 102, no. 1, 104-111, 1980. RESISTANCE TO FLOW AT THE EXIT
55. Richter, A. and Naudascher, E., Fluctuating forces on a rigid circular cylinder in confined flow, J.
Fluid Mech., voL 78, no. 3, 561-576, 1976.
FROM TUBES AND CHANNELS
56. Karlikov, V. P., Khomyakov, AN., and Sholomovich, G. L, Experimental investigation of trans- RESISTANCE COEFFICIENTS
verse oscillations of circular cylinders considerably jamming the flow in aplane channel, Izv. Ras.
Akad. Nauk, Mekh. Zhidk. Gaza, no. 5, pp. 133-138, 2005. OF EXIT SECTIONS
57. Karlikov, V. P., Reznichenko, N. T., and Sholomovich, G. L On the dynarnic effects of flow in
the tubes of oscillating bodies greatly jamming the flow, Izv. Ras. Akad. Nauk, Mekh. Zhidk. Gaza,
no. 4, 122-128,2001.

11.1 EXPLANATIONS AND PRACTICAL RECOMMENDATIONS

1. When fluid flow leaves the system, the kinetic energy of the discharged jet is always lost to
this system. Therefore, in the general case, the exit los ses consist of the intern al losses in the
exit section APint and the velocity (dynamic) pressure APvel of the jet issuing from the system:

The resistance coefficient of the discharge, reduced to the velocity in the smallest cross
section, is

I'=~_ APint + APve! _I'. +1'

':>- --- -':>mt ':>ve!·
pW 6/2 pW 6/2 pW 6/2

In the general case, the velocity field at the exit is not uniform; therefore, the velocity
pressure is determined by the prescribed distribution of velocities:

and

705
 706 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition Flow at the Exit from Tubes and Channels 707

2
where nl = Fex/Fo is the degree of divergence of the exit section; N = Cl/Fex)f (w/w ex )3dF is
1;==~=1+2(~WJ
pw5l2 2 Wo
Fex
the kinetic energy coefficient of the flow (the Coriolis coefficient) at a certain Iocation in the
exit section. 4. When the exit seetion is made flush with the wall along which the flow passes with
2. In the case of free discharge of the flow from a straight section of the tube (channeI) of velocity W oo (irrespective of the flow in the charinei), there occurs the same phenomenon as
constant cross section into a Iarge volume, the total los ses are reduced onIy to the losses of in the case of jet entry through an orifice in a thin wall (see Chapter 4, paragraphs 42-49).
the velocity pressure at the exit, and since in this case Fo = Fex (nl = 1), the total resistance In case of a flow in straight channels, the jet leaves them without contraction, owing to
coefficient is which the velocity pressure losses do not exceed the value obtained on the basis of the mean
velocity over the channel cross section. At certain velocity ratios WcdWO > 0, the total pressure
los ses can even become smaller than the velocity pressure mentioned above (I; < 1), due (see
paragraphs 42-49 of Chapter 4) to the phenomenon of higher rarefaction in the eddy zone on
the downstream side of the jet issuing from the channel. 27
The coefficient N depends on the nature of the velocity distribution at the exit. In the case 5. Tbe resistance of diffusers for a free discharge into a large volume (diffusers installed
of uniform distribution of veIocities, it is equal to unity and, in the remaining cases, it is at the exit from the system) is composed of the los ses in the diffuser proper and the velocity
always larger than unity. pressure losses at its exit. For more detailed information about the effect of the basic parame-
3. If the velocities at the exit are distributed according to the exponential law (see para- ters on the resistance of diffusers and their flow structure, the reader is referred to Chapter 5.
graphs 6-9, Section 4.1, Chapter 4) The values of the resistance coefficients obtained experimentalll 1 for diffusers installed at
the exit from the system are given in Diagrams 11.3 through 11.6 as functions of a, nb inlet
1/m conditions, and the Reynolds number Re = wODo/v.
W: ax
= ( 1- io]
' 6. Tbe values of the pressure reduction coefficients P = Pl/p; = pJp; (where Pa is the
atmospheric pressure and P; is the total pressure at section 0-0) are given in Diagram 11.4 as

where wand W rnax are the velocity at the given point and the maximum velocity over the
==
functions of the relative velo city Ac wo/acr (and the Reynolds number) at different nl and
lo/Do and large subsonic velocities7 for diffusers instalIed at the exit from the system.
cross section, respectively, m/s; Ro is the radius of the cross section, m; y is the distance
Tbe coupling between the resistance coefficient of diffusers and the pressure reduction co-
from the tube (channel) axis, m; and m ~ 1 is the exponent, then the resistance coefficient
efficient can be derived from equations similar to those given under paragraph 55 of Chapter
of the discharge from a tube of circular or square cross seetion is ca1culated from the
author' s equation 15,17 5, but with PO replaced by p.
7. When the flow issuing from a tube impinges on a baffle, the magnitude of the losses
depends-on the relative spacing between the baffle and the end of the tube.- In somecases,
s == ~ = (2mt 1)3 (~+ Il~ the baffle increases the losses; in others it decreases them. Tbus, a baffle placed downstream
pw5;2 4m2(2m + 3) (m+ 3) , from a cylindrical section or a rectilinear diffuser with a divergence angle up to a = 30° will
always increase the losses. A baffle placed downstream from a curved diffuser or a rectilinear
and the resistance coefficient of the discharge from a plane tube is ca1culated from diffuser with a divergence angle above 30° can decrease the totallosses appreciably, provided
a proper choice of the distance between the baffle and the diffuser has been made.
s==~= (m+l)3 8. A baffle placed downstream from a diffuser creates an additional pressure that causes the
2
PW5/2 m (m + 3) flow to spread over the cross section. Tbis leads to a decrease in the flow separation region
and thus to more efficient flow spreading. This is accompanied by decreases in both the losses
When velocities at the exit from a plane tube are distributed according to a sinusoidaI inside the diffuser and the velocity pressure losses at the exit. Tbe baffle also makes the flow
nmction (see paragraph 10 of Section 4.1, Chapter 4), turn radially (through 90°) before it leaves the system. If the oudet edge of the diffuser is not
smoothly rounded, this turning of the flow is accompanied by a considerable contraction of the jet
W
-Wo = 1 + -~w.sm (4k1rcy/b o)
(Figure l1.1a) and, consequendy, by an increase in its kinetic energy. Tberefore, when a baffle
Wo is placed downstream from a diffuser with a small divergence angle so that the average flow
velocity at the place of flow turning is Iarge, the advantage provided by spreading and more
(where ~W is the deviation of the velocity at the given point from the section-averaged veloc- compiete expansion of the jet in the diffuser can be smaller than the additional los ses due to
ity, m/s; k1 is an integer; 1t = 3.14 ... ), the resistance coefficient of the discharge is jet contraction at the exit. In the case of large divergence angles of the diffuser, the los ses due
to turning of the flow become relatively small and the baffle exhibits a more beneficial effect.

708 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition
(b)
Figure 11.1. Flow pattern at the diffuser exit onto a baffle: (a) without rounding of the exit edges of
the diffuser; (b) with rounded exit edges of the diffuser.
9. Smooth rounding of the exit edge of the diffuser or of the straight section (1) reduces
the jet contraction (Figure 11.1 b) and (2) leads to the formation of an annular diffuser in
which an additional expansion of the jet occurs, which, in turn, transforms kinetic energy into
press ure energy. Therefore, the installation of a baffle downstream from a diffuser with
rounded edges is advantageous at both large and small expansion ratios of the diffuser (nI =
1 inc1usive, i.e., the straight section).
10. For both straight diffusers with large divergence angles and diffusers or straight sec-
tions with rounded edges, there is an optimum distance (hlDh)opt between the baffle and the
exit orifice at which the resistance coefficient of the section with jet discharge onto the baffle
is aminimum. When the baffle is placed at a large distance from the exit orifice (on the
order of h/Dh > 0.6), the baffle does not exhibit any influence and the losses are equal to
those without a baffle.When-thebaffle is placed very close to the exil orifice, at abcrut hlDh
< 0.15, the flow velocity between the baffle and the exit edge increases and the losses in-
crease sharply. The optimum distance of (hlDh)opt> which falls between 0.15 and 0.25, corre-
sponds to more favorable conditions, when a substantial decrease in the flow velocity is
accompanied by smaller vortex formation due to separation of the flow during its turning and
expansion.
11. Adoption 13 of the following parameters for a diffuser with rounded edges and a baffle:
lJiDh = 2.5; a = 14-16°; RoIDh= 0.6-0.7; D/Dh = 3.0; hlDh = 0.24-0.26, results in a total
resistance coefficient for such a diffuser
_ i1p
~ =-2-=0.25-0.35 .
pwQl2
12. A smaller value of ~ is obtained when the diffuser surface is highly polished or when
there is a very smooth transition from the inlet collector to the diffuser (see the scheme of
Diagram 11.8).
The resistance coefficient of such carefully manufactured diffusers with flow discharging
onto the baffle is
Flow at the Exitfrom Tubes and Channels 709
_ i1p
~ = - 2- = 1 -lld ,
pwQl2
where lld represents the diffuser performance determined on the basis of experimental data;4I
see Diagram 11.8.
13. When an exit diffuser is placed downstream from a centrifugal fan, the recommenda-
tions given under paragraphs 81-84 of Chapter 5 should be taken into account. Installation of
the diffuser behind an induced-draft fan with flow discharge into a large volume is especially
necessary, since then the exit los ses can be reduced by a factor of 3 to 4, as shown by the
data of Lokshin and Gazirbekova?4
It is advisable that the relative length of a pyramidal diffuser, placed downstream from a
centrifugal fan (induced-draft fan), not be larger than lJibo = 2.5-3.0 at angles of divergence
a = 8-12°, and that the relative length of a plane diffuser not be larger than lJibo = 4-5 at
a = 15-25°. The resistance coefficients of diffusers instalied downstream from centrifugal
fans are determined from the data of Diagrams 11.11 to 11.15.
14. In some cases, the flow from a centrifugal fan is discharged through a diffuser or a
branch into a duct6 (see Diagram 11.14). This diagram also contains the resistance coeffi-
cients of the constituent elements (diffuser, branch, duct) downstream from a fan with back-
ward curved blades. . .. . . 6
15. The resistance coefficlents of comcal dIffusers mstalled downstream from aXIal fans
(also see Reference 3 in Chapter 3) are given in Diagram 11.15.
16. The total resistance coefficient ~tot of an annular diffuser with rectilinear boundaries
(see paragraphs 87 and 88 of Chapter 5) installed downstream from an axial fan with a di-
verging back fairing during free discharge of flow into a large volume is determined from
experimental data obtained by Dovzhik and Morozov. 12 It is given in Diagram 11.9 in the
form of the dependence of ~tot on the angle al at different a2 for diffusers with do = 0.688
and ld = 0.5 and 1.0.
When the velocity field at the entrance into the diffuser is nonuniform or when the diffuser
is insta.lTed downstream from an operating aXial machine, the reslstance coe±ficierit is
where kd is a correction factor deterrnined from Diagram 5.1 or, altematively, from Diagram 5.19.
The total resistance coefficients of radial-annular and axial-inlet radial-annular (combined)
discharge diffusers installed in the outlet pipes of turbomachines (see paragraphs 91-96 of
Chapter 5) with induced draft and flow discharge into a large volume are given in Diagram
11.10.
17. The analysis of experimental data carried out by Brusilovskil has shown that the
resistance coefficient ~tot of an axial-inlet diffuser can also be determined, with an accuracy
suitable for engineering calculations, as ~f~t> the values of wh ich are given in Diagram 11.9
(graphs d and e) for plane diffusers as functions of nl = Fl/F2 and of the reduced length
- 2 log [(1 + DI)/COS al + (do + dI)/cos a2] (11.1)
lred = 2
I-da
 710 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition
in this case !red = 2lpl> where [pI = IpI/hO is the relative length of the plane diffuser boundary,
the value of which over the entire domain of the graphs considered usually differs from the
relative axial length of the diffuser by no larger than 1%; ho is the width of the inlet section
of the diffuser; the remaining symbols are given in Diagram 11.9.
18. Another type of discharge exists in the outlet sections of exhaust shafts having the
same shapes and parameters as supply shafts. Their selection should be based on recommen-
dations given in Chapter 3, paragraph 27.
19. Inlet nozzles (with respect to the room into which air is fed, but not with respect to
:n
the system that supplies the air to the room) also belong to the category of discharge units.
e main requirements of such inlet nozz1es are to ensure a rapid attenuation of the jet issu-
mg from the nozzle or, conversely, to give a concentrated jet. The nature of the losses in such
nozzles is the same as in the cases considered above of flow discharge from the system. Tney
are generally reduced to 10ss of kinetic energy at the given degree of contraction or expansion
of the jet.
20. This handbook presents resistance coefficients not only for the most effective types of
nozzles, but also for nozzles of simpler shapes, which include nozzles such as ordinary el-
bows or side branches.
21. In certain cases, the supplied air is distributed through air ducts with perforated sur-
faces (see Diagram 11.19). This ensures rapid attenuation of jet velocities, which is very de-
sirable in many cases. At the same time, if the ratio of the total area of the orifices to the
area of the duct cross section is large (jo =
ForlFo > 0.5), uniform distribution of the flow
along the duct will not occur.
Tapered air ducts ensure a more uniform distribution of the flow along the perforated sur-
face than straight ducts, provided the ratio of the final to the initial area stays within Fl/Fo =
0.15-1.0.
_ 22. The total resistance coefficient of an inlet nozzle with a perforated surface when 0.5 <
fo < 3.0 and 0 < Fl/Fo < 1.0, can be calculated from Grimitlin's9 formula
(11.2)
When Fl/Fo > 0, this formula exceeds the values by about 20%.
More accurate results are obtained from another formula of Grimitlin:
A. 70
S== - p
pwO/2
(]0.25
- ~ 1.6210-2.2 Fl
Fa
['A J..-]
Dh
-0.05
+1 .
Graph a of Diagram 11.19 has been plotted on the basis of the more simplified Equation
(11.1).
23. Ordinary elbows and side branches (bends) with flow discharge into a Iarge volume
are frequently used as inlet nozzles. The resistance of such elbows and side branches depends
substantiallyon the length of the discharge section. At first, when the length of this section
is increased, the losses become somewhat higher, but they drop sharply and, starting with
some value of lalbo, become constant. This behavior of the resistance curve is due to the
shape and magnitude of the eddy zone formed at the inner wall of the elbow after the turn.
Flow at the Exit from Tubes and Channels 711
24. The eddy zone in the elbow starts to form near the corner of the turn, gradually ex-
pands, and at some distance from the turn attains its maximum width. Afterwards the eddy
zone starts to contract again until the flow spreads entirely over the cross section. Thus, when
the dis charge section of the elbow is made of such a length that it ends at the cross section
where the eddy zone is widest, that is, where the free area is most contracted, the flow will
exit into the large volume at its maximum velocity and with the maximum loss of energy.
This corresponds to the maximum of S of the graphs of Diagrams 11.16 through 11.18.
25. If there is no discharge section after the turn in the elbow, the eddy zone will be ab-
sent and the flow will exit into the large volume at lower velocity, and consequently the re-
sistance coefficient 1; will be lower. Nevertheless, it will not decrease substantially. This is
due to the fact that inertia compresses the flow to the upper wall, with the result that the
velocity at the exit becomes considerably higher than the cross-section-averaged velocity.
26. When the discharge section is made sufficiently long, this provides a compIete spread-
ing of the flow over the cross section and the resistance coefficient S has the minimum value.
This, however, increases with ll/bo due to higher friction losses in the straight section.
For elbows with free discharge of the flow and with the discharge cross section made
twice as large as the inlet cross section, the resistance coefficient is lower by 40-50%.
27. Guide vanes can be used to decrease the resistance of elbows placed at the exit into a
large volume. This provides even larger reduction of the resistance than the use of elbows
with long downstream discharge sections, since the absolute resistance of the discharge el-
bows alone is much larger than that of elbows with downstream discharge sections.
28. The resistance coefficient of a straight exit section with a perforated plate (grid) or an
orifice at the exit (discharge from an orifice into an infinite space F2 = 00; see scheme of
Diagram 11.22) at Re = WOdh/V > 105 is generally calculated from the author' s equation (4.10)
s== A.f =[1+S'(1_])O.75+1:(1_])0.375+'A~]_1 , (11.3)
pw6/2 dh f2
where-r'iSthe inlet resistance coeffiClent iliafisdetetn:llned-as sfrom DÜlgfäms3~4 i-md 3-:7;--~-
1: is a coefficient allowing for the effect of the plate or orifice thickness, the shape of the
inlet edge of the orifice, and the conditi~ns of flow through it; 'A is the friction coefficient
in the orifices of the grid or orifice; and f = ForlFgr is the clear flow area coefficient of the
grid or orifice.
The general case is reduced to a number of particular cases:
111 Sharp-edged orifices (l/dh = 0) for which S' = 0.5; 1: = 1.41, and 'Al/dh = 0, and Equa-
tion (11.3) reduces to the following author' s formula:
1; == A.f = [1 + 0.5(1- ])0.75 + 1.41(1-])o.37~1-2 . (11.4)
pwQ/2
• Thick-walled orifices for wh ich S' = 0.5 and 1: = f(lIdh) is determined from Diagram
11.23 (graph a).
" Beveled or rounded (in the flow direction) edges of orifices for which it is assumed that
Alldh =0 and 1: z 2-{f, while
 Flow at the Exit from Tubes and Channels 713
712 Handbook 01 Hydrmtlic Resistance, 4th Edition

33 1 -
S== ~ = [1 + S'(l - f)0.75 + 2ff;(1 - f)0.375]j-2 . (11.5) S= -R
el+ EOReSquad .
=

pWÖ/2

At Re< 10
For beveled edges S' is determined as S for a conical nozzle (collector) having the end-face
wall a function of the angle of convergence a and relative length lIdh from graph b of Dia-
gram 11.23.
For rounded edges S' is determined as S for a circular nozzle (collector) having the end-
face wall as a function of rldh from graph b of the same diagram.
where S<p = 11 (Re, FrJFl) (j = Fa/Fo correspondsto FrJF1) and toRe = h(Re) are determined
29. For the transient and laminar regions of the flow, the resistance coefficient can be de-
from Diagram 4.19; Squad is the resistance coefficient of the given type of a grid and is de-
termined from the following approximate formulas (in accordance with paragraphs 37 and 38
of Chapter 4): termined from Equations (11.4) and (11.5).
30. The resistance of the side discharge from the terminal section of the tube or duct (see
the scheme of Diagram 11.25) is higher than that of straight discharge through an orifice or
a grid (see Diagram 11.29), since this is associated with an ad~itional 900 turn of the flow
with a change in the jet momentum. The larger the value of 1 = Fo/Fo, the larger is this
- /:,.P S<r-
S= pWty
? /2 = -2 + EOReSquad
1
, difference.
A relative increase in the resistance with 1 is also influenced by the fact that with the in-
crease of this area ratio, the relative velocity of the flow in the tube increases, thus increasing
at 10<Re<30
the skewness and contraction of the jet during discharge from the orifice (Figure 11.2).
A side discharge through two opp~ite orifices increases the resistance of the discharge,
and this increase is higher with larger f
31. The resistance coefficient of gratings with fixed louvers, when placed at the exit from
a straight channel (see Diagram 11.26), can be calculated approximately from the following
formulas:

a)
~>(J.-1
b' - b'
1 1 pt

S=- pWO/2 - 1 + 0.85 [-~l

/:,.P -[ 1-1 Fo + Sfr]~(FOJ2
J2 Fgr ,

b) :
1
«:1 1 pt

S== /:,.f =[1 + 0.85 [1-

pwQl2 ° Sfr]~;1 (;OJ2 + ~S ,
flJ+ gr

where /:"1; "" 0.5[11(1 -!J -

I/bi] and Sfr = )...,l/bi; kl = 1.0 for a standard gratin~ (in1et edges
cut vertically); k1 = 0.6 for an improved grating (inlet edges cut horizontally); 1 = Fo/Fo is
the dear area coefficient of the grating; and A is the friction coefficient of the louver chan-
nels, which is determined as a function of Re = warbi/v from Diagrams 2.1 through 2.6.
Figu~~ 11~. Flow pat:!.ems of sm<2.ke discharging from a side orifice at the terminal seetion of the 32. The kinetic energy of a submerged free jet issuing into an infinite volume is lost to the
tube: 1) f = 0.29, 2) f = 0.62, 3) f = 1.15. given system. Tables 11.1 and 11.2 contain the formulas for calculating the corresponding
parameters of the free jet for both its starting section and main seetion (data of Abramovich).l
 Flow at the Exit from Tubes and Channels 715
714 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

Tbe starting section is defined as that part of the jet in which, starting from the exit orifiee
of the channel, the velocity at the axis remains constant and equal to the initial velocity. Tbe
main section is defined as the remaining part of the jet in whieh the velocity at the axis de-
creases gradually and attenuates. Tbe region separating the two parts is called the transition
region (Figure 11.3).
33. Tbe dimensionless velocity profile of the axisymmetric and two-dimensional [ree jets
U'l
>::
can be described by the following equations of Sehliehting: 1 8
11
for the starting length
...:
~
ci
I~ 11
11
~ I~
..,.
I;]
o

Y-Y2
§
ci
llin.c=~' +
"..,

'"I;] I'"
S
for the main section Ö
o
8
o ci
ci +
+ ~
~ o
o
ö ci
'" +
~ci
ci 10,
llc = y/Rs . + M
I~ S
11 ci
+ ci

~
For the jet starting length Rs = btotl. is the total thickness of the boundary layer (Figure 11 +
~ ~
11 11 11
11.3); y is the distance from the given point to the boundary layer contaet with the eonstant ~
velocity eore; Yl is the boundary of the eonstant velocity eore; Y2 is the eommon (outer)
boundary of the jet. For the main section R s is the jet eross-section radius.
~
111
"-
~
111
~
111
111
E
~111
IQ I~ I~ 1<::1<

Co
Tl
o
11

Figure 11.3. Flow pattern of a ffee jet.

 ....:J
Table 11.1. Parameters of an axisymmetric free submerged jet (continued) I-'
Q\

Jet seetion
Parameters Initial Main (S> 12)

Relative residue of kinetic energy in the given cross section e == 2E/mow5 = 1 - 0.0365 - 0.0008s 2 e=0.155/S
+ 0.000065 3 + 0.000002s 4

Relative residue of the energy of constant-mass jet in the given ec == 2Ec/mow5 = (1- 0.125S)2 + 0.54s(1 + O.l44s)KI e c =92flt/S, where for Hl = h(l1e),
cross seetion - 0.27sK2, where for Kl = !i (l1in.c) and K2 =.!2(l1in.c) , see Table 11.3 or Equation (l1.7a);
see Table 11.3 or Equation (11.6); llin.c = 0.515 - 0.0065 11c =.f(s) is given in Figuire 11.4

Coefficient of resistance (of energy loss) t;,==~- -

pW5/2 -1-e t;,=l-e
2
Coefficient of momentum Ms- F =~ f(~J
s Wav dF--
1
-
- qWav Ms = __ I_
qwmwav
=2.02
Fs

Coefficient of kinetic energy Ns

=~
-F s
I(wav J 3
~ dF=_e-
qWa;
-
NS= __ ~_2 =4.88
qWlIlwav
~
~
Plane iet
f3::
o
Tangent oftheangleofone-sided expansion oftheouter edge tan (Xl = 0.158 (Xl"" 9° tan (Xl = 0.22 (Xl"" 12°30' o?;;-
<Q,
Tangent of the angle of one-sided contraction of the constant-velocity core tan (X2 = 0.112 (X2 "" 6°30'
~
Relative half-width bs = bs/bo == 1 + 0.158S bs =0.22s ~
1'S
Relative cross-sectional area Fs == Fs/Fo = 1 + 0.158S Fs =0.22s r;'
:::0
Relative boundary-Iayer thickness bb.l. == bb.l/bo = 0.27s bb.l.=0.22s ~
<::;.
~
Relative width of the initial section bin.m == bin.m/bo = 1 + 0.19s bin.m = 0.2211cs, where llc =jCi), ~
("')
see Figure 11.4 ,n;,
i}
Relative length of the initial section Sin == s/bo= 9 ;:s--

Relative thickness of the jet at the end of the initial section bin == bin/bo = 2.43 ~
(3'
~

~
o
~
Relative velocity at the axis Wm == Wm/WO== 1 Wm"" 3.8/-{[ ;;
~
n;,
1 +0.00365
Wav== Q/wmFo Wav = 0.45 = const
~
Relative arithmetic-mean (with respect to area) velocity
1 +0.158s

fWdm
~
o
~
Relative mean-square (with respect to flow rate) velocity -, _Fm 1 W;v = 0.7= const
Wav = --=---- ~
Wmlns 1 + 0.0365 I:l"
n;,

Relative discharge of fluid through the given cross seetion q= Q/Qo= 1 +0.365 q= 0.37S-Vs '"
~
~
~
Relative residue of kinetic energy in the jet at the given cross section e== 2E/mow5= 1-0.019s e"" 3.l/-{[ Q
~
~
ee = 12H2/{f, where H2 == h(l1e), ~
Relative residue of the energy of constant-mass jet in the given ee == 2Ec2 = 1 - 0.27s (0.416 - Kl), where Kl = .fCllc), n;,
mowo see Table 11.3 or Equation (11. 7b); 1:;'"
cross seetion
see Table 11.3 or Equation (l1.7a) for lle, see Figure 11.4

Coefficient of resistance (of energy loss) t;,=l-e t;,=I-e

fc

11.".

fLZ

o
2lI '111 611 IIJ wo /zo HO i'

Figul'e 11.4. The function 11c =j(S):1 1), axisymmetrical jet; 2), plane jet.

Note. According to the new theory of G. N. Abramovich, a kind of discontinuity in the boundaries occurs in the transition section (al> aJin).
ActuaIly, the slope of the jet boundaries in the transition section varies from aliIi to al. ....:J
.....
....:J
 Flow at the Exit jrom Tubes and Channels 719
718 Handbook oj Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

Table 11.2. Values of l1c =j(S) (Figure 11.4) 11.2 DIA GRAMS OF THE RESISTANCE COEFFICIENTS
Free discharge from a straight tube at different Diagram 11.1
velocity distributions 15,17
12.4 15 17.5 20 30 40 60 80 100 120 160
1. Axisymmetric jet . . r !J.p
Velocity distribution and scheme Reslstance coefficlent .., == - 2 -
pwo/2
0.6 0.4 0.34 0.32 0.25 0.22 0.18 0.16 0.14 0.12 0.10

I
2. Plane jet
0.6 0.35 0.32 0.30 0.23 0.20 0.16 0.14 0.12 0.10 0.09 1;= 1.0

Table 11.3. Values of K =J(l1in.c) and H =j(l1c) [Equations (11.6) and (11.7)]
Uniform
TJin.c, TJc
Parameters 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.5 0.6
Tube of circular Of square cross section:
Kl 0.347 0.347 0.346 0.346 0.346 0.345 0.340 0.338 0.300 w
1; (2m + 1)3(m+ 1)3

--.
K2 0.275 0.275 0.275 0.275 0.275 0.275 0.270 0.265 0.250 4
4m (2m + 3)(m + 3)
W,.f;
Hl 0.012 0.020 0.024 0.036 0.050 0.058 0.070 0.078 0.085 see curve I of graph a.
H2 0.078 0.130 0.158 0.187 0.210 0.218 0.23 0.245 0.250

,
I
1 3 (a)

K1 = f (,::;,J drj =0.347 - (1.4 56~~5, - 1.715~;;'., + O.706~~ - o.l~I':>,,) (a) 2.2
11
1.
11m.c ~~ f-2--:
,I ~
1.8 7
I 3 ,/ -'
K2 = f (,::;, J ~drj =0.274 - (1.232~r"5, - 1.5~f" + O.632~~, - O.OShlhl.cl (b) (11.6) /'" .,/
~
11~ .
~
;...;.... --'-

~~
~
Exponential 1.0
11c 11m o 0.2 0.* 0.6 0.8 11m
HI =f (l -111.5)611dl1 =l1e - 2.411~·5 + 3.7511~ - 3.6411~·5 w: = l-taJ '
ax (
o
m??IO.

(11. 7) (m+I)3
Plane tube: 1; = - 2 - - ' see curve 2 of graph a.
m (m+3)

11c
f
H2 = 2 (l-111.5)6 11dl1 = 11~ - 3.42811~·5 - 6.ÜTl~ - 6.15411~.5
Values of ~
o
m
Tube 1.00 1.35 2.00 3.00 4.00 7.00
1. Circular 2.70 2.00 1.50 1.25 1.15 1.06 1.00
l1in.e =0.515 - 0.006.5 (11.8) 2. Plane 2.00 1.63 1.35 1.19 1.12 1.04 1.00

Für l1e, see Table 11.2.

 720 Handbook 01 Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition
Flow at the Exit jrom Tubes and Channels 721

Discharge from a tube made flush with the wall in the presence
Free discharge from a straight tube at different Diagram 11.2
velocity distributions 15,17 Diagrarn 11.1 of a passing stream (woo > 0);27 Re woolJlJV 2': 10
4
=
2

S=l+(~} see graph b.

~
- ~,~ .::lw/wo

.::lw/wo
0.1
1.02
0.6
0.2
1.06
0.7
0.3
1.13
0.8
0.4
1.24
0.9
0.5
1.38
1.0

S 1.54 1.74 1.96 2.20 2.50

Sinusoidal distribution Values of 1,; for orifices of circu1ar and rectangular cross sections (rounded up to 10%)
in a plane tube:
w~/wo
~= 1 + .::lw sin 2k l 1t1'..
Wo Wo
k 1 is an integer.
bo ' (bJ b/a ö, deg (no. of curve) 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
2.2 0.5; 1; 2 30-45 (1) 1.00 1.00 1.10 1.33 1.55
I (graph a) 60 (2) 1.00 0.90 1.05 1.35 1.60

1.1
/ 0.1--0.2 90 (3) 1.00 0.80 0.95 1.35 1.65
(graph b) 120-135 (4) 1.00 0.80 0.95 1.25 1.65
/
5-10 150 (5) 1.00 0.82 0.83 1.00 1.25
1.# / (graph c) 30-90 (6) 1.00 0.95 1.15 1.45 1.80
I /' 120 (7) 1.00 0.92 1.07 1.40 1.90
1.0 1-,...,., 150 (8) 1.00 0.75 0.95 1.35 1.75
o 0.2 0.'1 0.5 0.8 J Wjwg 45 (9) 1.00 0.92 0.93 1.10 1.30
60 (10) 1.00 0.87 0.87 1.03 1.25
90 (11) 1.00 0.82 0.80 0.97 1.20
120 (12) 1.00 0.80 0.76 0.90 0.98

s= 3.67 l/a-o./-O.2
T
(b)

1.7
VI;
hill=O,S.1.2011j ~ - - -- -- VI
-!I 1.5
jj
1.S
JX '1
Asymmetrical distribution in a plane tube:
T.J
rJ I.J I/h
~ = 0.585 + 164 sin (0.2 + 3.9 t J. 1 2
l/
l.4; 'I V ~
J. f/
1.1
1,1
\ ~ f/). ,/ {j 7, (; r7 8

0.9 ~ ....V r y 8.9 ~

~~
,~ .... / K \ [7
J ~ S ....... ~
0.7

---
0.7
~,F,
q o.s 1.0 7.5W"';wo o 0.5 1.0
Tube of circular or square cross section: S = 2.0.
Plane tube: S = 1.55.

-y
Parabolic:

:o=l-(taJ D,S 1.0 1.5W../w,

 Flow at the Exitfrom Tubes and Channels 723
722 Handbook oj Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

19 22
Free discharge from a circular straight wall diffuser - Diagram 11.3
Free discharge from a circular straight wall diffuser 19- 22 Diagram 11.3
Uniform velocity field at the entrance into the diffuser (wrnax/wo "" 1.0):
- !::'p II 1111 (al ftot
~ =- 2 - = SIal =j(CI., nj, Re), see graph a.
,-- 1-111=2 iJ:tH-;-;-
pw0I2 I,tJ
2-II,=!t

--- 4-n,=10
Nonuniform velocity field at the entrance into the diffuser wrnax/wo ~ 1.0, !-- 1I VTRe=1 X 105
3-11,=6
see Diagram 5.1:
flcM
J-II,=!/i
S=klOl~lal '
.- I
a) For diffusers downstream of a straight seetion having lofDo ~ 10, 11 4!tJ
k lOl = f(CI., nj, Re), see graph b.

b) For diffusers with CI. = 6--14° placed downstream of a shaped (curved) 0.72
portion, klOI is deterrnined as kd = f(wlwo) from Diagram 5.1. ttot
woD r::'
Re=--o 0.04
v c) For diffusers with CI. > 20° downstream of the shaped portion, the I rl
order of magnitude of k lO ! is assumed to be tentatively equal to No I1 1138 (J,JS
from Tables 12.1 to 12.7. 11
!j
Values of ~tot at wrnaJwO "" 1.0; lo/D O "" 0 fJ.'H! fJ.1JO
lIi
CI., deg
VI 0.~0 472
Re x 10-5 I-i'"' /f I Y.i
4 6 10 12 14 16 20 30 45 60 2::90 11
11 0.32 4G4
nJ =2 !I 1I
2 i"
fJ,24 !l5ß
0.409 0.369 0.342 0.357 0.326 0.342 0.365 0.400 0.506 0.902 1.049 1.037 1.02 J
2 0.355 0.342 0.324 0.320 0.310 0.320 0.333 0.355 0.440 0.740 0.969 0.994 1.0 J rJ I/ll I aIs 4M
Ir V,.. f-" VA 11
3 0.360 0.342 0.320 0.321 0.302 0.313 0.323 0.329 0.360 0.527 0.898 0.995 1.0
4
~6
0.346
0.360
0.325
0.320
0.310
0.295
0.315
0.291
0.302
0.293
0.303
0.306
0.315
0.329
0.344
0.360
0.418
0.458
0.578
0.635
0.782
0.858
0.982
0.969
1.0
1.0
ftot
"
J~ -"r--
Vi
Vi
~I
~ß-2 x 105
(J.03 41;()
fJ,88 (J.J2
nJ =4 VI I
11
0.213 0.209 0.217 0.235 0.2130.240 0.280 0.320 00400 0.697 0.986 1.004 1.0 aso 2, 11 11
(JJ.q.
2 0.190 0.186 0.186 0.200 0.1820.204 0.240 0.280 0.355 0.542 0.938 0.995 1.0 3,1'-1- V 11
0.184 0.173 0.169 0.182 0.1730.190 0.226 0.247 0.298 0.440 0.760 0.995 1.0 0.72 4 41(
4 0.178
0.184
0.167
0.160
0.160 0.167 0.1670.199 0.233 0.275
O.±S7---ru~-·.c·d57G,-180· 0.239 ~Q,295
0.360 0.555
OAl>!' --0.63'7·
0.782
~ 0.858
0.982
0:969-'-
1.0
1;0
464 j" h"",
s-
:1Aj
tw 111
v
We""SX1eS
O,Q3

nJ =6 fJ,8S 0.58 IIJI 11

1 0.171 0.169 0.180 0.200 0.186 0.217 0.257 0.293 0.373 0.666 0.986 1.006 1.0 2 '/I
2 0.155 0.153 0.155 0.164 0.160 0.186 0.222 0.253 0.320
(J.80 tJ.1tß J,'f>.... 1J
0.493 0.938 0.980 1.0
4. . r- 1--
0.150 0.146 0.146 0.160 0.153 0.173 0.200 0.233 0.280 0.400 0.760 0.989 1.0 a72 aw· 5" h
4 0.133 0.129 0.129 0.146 0.138 0.160 0.209 0.249 0.346 0.520 0.782 0.982 1.0
1/ '1 Re=4 x 105
~6 0.150 0.127 0.122 0.127 0.129 0.159 0.218 0.273 0.384 0.618 0.858 0.969 1.0 a(4 (J.J2 i"--. I
1I
(J,5( -1124 1
1 0.155 0.159 0.169 0.175 0.164 0.182 0.237 0.275 0.359 0.680 0.986 1.006 1.0 2-__ I Il
2 0.133 0.131 0.138 0.146 0.127 0.150 0.190 0.226 0.295 0.498 0.938 0.715 1.0 fJ.M 11.18 J ID
3 0.129 0.126 0.127 0.133 0.115 0.138 0.180 0.209 0.266 0.400 0.760 0.989 1.0 q
4 0.117 0.115 0.117 0.120 0.114 0.133 0.186 0.239 0.320 0.520 0.782 0.982 1.0 aW nUß ~ r-
Re=a x 105
~6 0.133 0.109 0.102 0.104 0.110 0.142 0.200 0.266 0.384 0.613 0.858 0.969 1.0 1"~
a32 r-. ~

0.144 0.142 0.164 0.164 0.155 0.159 0.200 0.253 0.355 0.657 0.986 1.006 1.0 a2t,. 2 III
2 0.122 0.119 0.123 0.133 0.115 0.135 0.173 0.200 0.270 0.493 0.938 0.997 1.0 l.~ VI.
0.117 0.110 0.115 0.120 0.104 0.133 0.160 0.190 0.253 0.400 0.760 0.989 1.0
015 4. . . t--.,
4 0.106 0.102 0.099 0.106 0.102 0.120 0.175 0.219 0.298 0.499 0.782 0.982 1.0 0.113 5
~6 0.113 0.095 0.089 0.090 0.099 0.122 0.175 0.235 0.360 0.600 0.858 0.969 1.0 2 3 4 6 3 10 1$ 20 JO WJ GO tOD c<,~
724 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition Flow at the Exit from Tubes and Channels 725

Free discharge from a circular straight wall diffuser 19- 22 Free discharge from conical diffusers at high subsonic
Diagram 11.3 7 Diagram 11.4
velocities (pressure reduction factors)
Values of k tot at wmaxfwo > 1.0 (lr/D o ~ 10)

Rexl0~ _____________________________a_,_d~eg~___________________________
4 6 10 12 14 16 20 30 45 60 90
m=2 _ f..p k+ 1 1 1
0.5 1.30 1.40 1.50 1.70 1.60 1.35 1.30 1.22 1.10 1.05 1.00 1.0 Stel = -'-2- = -k- :;21n p= ;
Powo/2 ""c
1.0 1.33 1.50 1.65 1.82 1.85 1.75 1.60 1.40 1.12 1.06 1.05 1.0
2.0 1.33 1.55 1.70 1.87 2.00 2.00 1.87 1.60 1.12 1.10 1.10 1.0
:2:3.0 1.33 1.57 1.75 1.88 2.00 2.03 2.03 1.95 1.55 1.30 1.10 1.0
n] =4--6
0.5 1.52 1.55 1.70 2.00 1.96 1.90 1.80 1.65 1.20 1.05 1.00 1.0
1.0 1.52 1.68 2.00 2.30 2.23 2.12 2.00 1.85 1.23 1.05 1.00 1.0
2.0 1.52 1.85 2.28 2.60 2.52 2.42 2.30 2.15 1.60 1.10 1.05 1.0
:2:3.0 1.52 1.90 2.35 2.65 2.63 2.60 2.50 2.35 1.90 1.40 1.10 1.0

0.5 1.70 1.73 1.80 2.15 2.10 1.95 1.88 1.68 1.20 1.05 1.00 1.0
1.0 1.70 1.73 2.15 2.60 2.40 2.17 2.02 1.85 1.20 1.05 1.03 1.0
:2:3.0 1.80 1.93 2.40 3.05 2.75 2.53 2.30 2.10 1.60 1.12 1.08 1.0

Values ofp at IX =4 0
(graph a)
t
l-R,- 0.5 X 10 5 {b)
I \ H~-1.0X 10'
I
J
11 ,
\
\
I-Re- 2.0 X 105
4-Rtsa 3 X 105
-H-
~1iJt.l0
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6

Re x 10-5
0.7 0.8 0.9 0.94 0.945

1.7 3.2 4.6 6.0 7.3 8.6 9.8 10.8 11.7 12.1 12.2
1/ \ ,~ .;~
..!2..=0
...... 1'>..\
", " "-
j J Do
11 1 Z'
....... i.--" 2 0.999 0994 0.982 0.971 0.958 0.943 0.926
...,.. .1... ,;' IJ
- -,
, ........
\.
~~ \ 4
6
0.999
0.999
0.996
0.997
0.992
0.993
0.986
0.988
0.979
0.983
0.971
0.977
0.963
0.970
0.955
0.963
0.945
0.956
0.940
0.945
0.920
0.930

/1/
II
l' 11 ...... "
"',...."'" "'-' ... \.
~

\
\
~
..... 1-- ~::::: ..... ....,J
10-16 0.999 0.997 0.993 0.990 0.985 0.980 0.975 0.969 0.964 0.955 0.940

....
~'11J r"- ~ ~ \. n,"'~"G 2 0.999 0.991 0.980 0.966 0.952 0.936 0.920
1,8
.,
~G

M
~
-
~~ V- I' l"A"
~\2" J,<~
....... r\ \ \
",
~
",
4
6
10-16
0.999
0.999
0.999
0.996
0.998
0.999
0.990
0.993
0.995
0.984
0.987
0.990
0.977
0.980
0.984
0.970
0.974
0.978
0.961
0.970
0.956
0.953
0.963
0.969
U
1.0 1--
-{
...-l ~ ~f
~ ....
"\. \
~
,'\, ~
.......... ........ ...... ~

~~
:;;--
1.4 bo-' ..... ~ )- ~ nr-Z 2 0.998 0.990 0.980 0.966 0.952 0.937 0.922

"-
4 0.999 0.997 0.991 0.983 0.975 0.966 0.956 0.946
1.2
t,fJ
i" 2
".... ~J
~~
.......... ~
-'X I 6 0.999 0.998 0.994 0.987 0.980 0.974 0.965 0.956
10-16 0.999 0.999 0.995 0.990 0.984 0.977 0.969 0.960
4 5 6 ., 4 S1IJ 1+
 Flow at the Exit from Tubes and Channels 727
726 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

Free discharge from conieal diffusers at high subsonic

Free discharge from conieal diffusers at high subsonic 7 Diagram 11.4
veloeities (pressure reduction faetors) 7 Diagrarn 11.4 veloeities (pressure reduction factors)

Values ofp at a =6° (graph b)

0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 0.94 0.945

Re x 10-5 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 0.94 0.95

1.7 3.2 4.6 6.0 7.3 8.6 9.8 10.8 11.7 12.1 12.2 Re x 10-5

1.7 3.2 4.6 6.0 7.3 8.6 9.8 10.8 11.7 12.1 12.2

2 0.998 0.990 0.978 0.962 0.945 0.927 ~=o

Da
4 0.999 0.994 0.987 0.978 0.968 0.957 0.944 0.930
2 0.999 0.994 0.985 0.974 0.958 0.947 0.932
6 0.999 0.995 0.989 0.983 0.975 0.965 0.954 0.942
4 0.999 0.997 0.992 0.985 0.978 0.970 0.963 0.954 0.946 0.940 0.930
10-16 0.999 0.996 0.990 0.984 0.977 0.968 0.957 0.946
6 0.999 0.999 0.995 0.989 0.983 0.977 0.970 0.963 0.955 0.950 0.930
10 0.999 0.999 0.996 0.990 0.985 0.979 0.974 0.968 0.961 0.950 0.930
16 0.999 0.999 0.997 0.992 0.987 0.982 0.76 0.970 0.963 0.950 0.930

~=2
~o Da
100::---
0(
lu/Do 0 I-(a)
"" ....
-- --
"'"- 2 0.988 0.990 0.980 0.968 0.953 0.937 0.920
iß ...... ~7'

'" ..... 1/
./
/
......... --.
........
4 0.999 0.995 0.989 0.982 0.973 0.963 0.953 0.940

'G ...... /
...... ..... 6 0.999 0.997 0.991 0.985 0.978 0.970 0.960 0.950 0.938
n,-'/O-lö'" .I ...... .........
6. . /......". 10-16 0.999 0.997 0.993 0.988 0.983 0.976 0.968 0.962 0.. 953 0.941
0.9~ .....
'I 2!!..
~ ~=5
n, =2
"'-
Da
1.0
4/4 '2

-
-.;.;;;: ~ 2 0.998 0.990 0.980 0.967 0.951 0.931
.........:
QfJ8
-
....
""
-nt' Itl-Iö
.;."'..; . . ,~L

.......
.......
~
........:""
7
/
"""-
"'iiO;;:
.......
,..;:
....

....
~ ~ ..-.,
4 0.999 0.995 0:988' 0.980 0.970 -0:959 0.947 - O:933·-~-:::::-·-~=-·~·"~----~."-.

11: !o( s .... ........ 6 0.999 0.996 0.990 0.983 0.977 0.968 0.958 0.947
....... ........
x ......... 10-16 0.999 0.996 0.992 0.986 0.979 0.971 0.962 0.952
4
tO

-
- n, 10-10
......
........ ~
,... ..,....,.

"'"
/
r/-2 "'-,

-- -- --
""' ........
/ .... ....... "
lu/JJo'; 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6

Re x 10-5
0.7 0.8 0.9 0.94 0.95

h. ....
/ ...... 1.7 3.2 4.6 6.0 7.3 8.6 9.8 10.8 11.7 12.1 12.2
/ ......
4- / ......
n, :7 ......
.....
ZO

0..911 I - - -
---
...... ..........
......
.~
~
7"-. ~
I-.... ......:
......
"'-
lu/JJo /0
2 0.997 0.988 0.977 0.961 0.941 0.918
n, 10-1$ .,/
...... ............. 4 0.998 0.993 0.985 0.976 0.965 0.952 0.938 0.924
0. '""" ./
......:
0.999 0.995 0.988 0.980 omo 0.958 0.945 0.932
..... ......
A
4 i"o.........
nt Z ...... -" 10-16 0.999 0.996 0.990 0.982 0.973 0.962 0.950 0.937
I'>..
0.1 a2 0." a8
b ; 2
! !

J 7
 Flow at the Exit from Tubes and Channels 729
728 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

Free dis charge from cornea! diffusers at high subsonic Diagram 11.4
Free discharge from cornea! diffusers at high subsonic
velocities (pressure reduetion faetors)7
velocities (pressure reduetion faetors) 7 ~ Diagram 11.4

Values ofp at a =SO (graph c)

Ac
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 0.94 0.95

,...". ~:.=5(J I - - - lo/DI)::-(J I-(b) Re x 10-5

........ V~
Q91J ...............
I'If"lo tU ....... ~ m 1.7 3.2 4.6 6.0 7.3 8.6 9.8 10.8 11.7 12.1 12.2

--
~

ß.~ ...... """'-/ V ........

~

............
........ ................ ....
~
..........:::: ....
.!.2..=0
Do
...... ........ ..........
9
n1~Z"""
........
....... "'
"l 2 0.999 0.995 0.986 0.972 0.957 0.942 0.927 0.910

1.0
.......
~
,- to/42
......
~
4 0.999 0.997 0.993 0.986 0.978 0.970 0.60 0.950 0.937 0.931 0.920

......... ..., '\0

6 0.999 0.998 0.994 0.988 0.982 0.974 0.967 0.959 0.951 0.947 0.930

"X..
x.
/ ..... -.....
/""0..
r--.
i"'o.. ........
10-16 0.999 0.998 0.995 0.986 0.985 0.979 0.972 0.965 0.959 0.953 0.940
f--- h,=10-1fJ ......... .........
........ ........
""'" ~ .!.2..=2
0
/
/'
....... ~ ..... ~ .... Do
aso ~ .......: ........ ........
* n,=Z .....
"'-.......
.... .........
....... ........
........
........
.....
........
2
4
0.998
0.999
0.990
0.993
0.979
0.987
0.966
0.979
0.950
0.970
0.932
0.960 0.948 0.932
1.0
....... ~
.......... -
"""'---~
........
"'-
"-
.... tolll,,=-.f 6 0.999 0.994 0.990
0.996
0.983
0.985
0.975
0.979
0.965
0.971
0.954
0.962
0.943
0.952
0.930
0.938

--
f€o. / ~ 10-16 0.999 0.995
~ ...,... ......
t--- n, =10-IG ...
~ "'.,. "-
-/
1/ ........ """'---........
.........
.........
................
.... .........:: ......
.!.2..=5
Do
4/ x
........ 0.925
/ " I...... ........ 2 0.998 0.990 0.977 0.961 0.943
in,=Z '"
........ 4 0.993 0.986 0.975 0.963 0.951 0.938 0.924
"- ........ 0.999
tO
~ i l,,/LJtf=10
""- ''''-:-'
6 0.999 0.995 0.988 0.980 0.971 0.960 0.948 0.934
~ ""'-
I--- n,-10 15 J.
~

, ,
~......:
:-............... ""- 10-16 0.999 0.995 0.989 0.983 0.976 0.966 0.954 0.941

/ ........~ ..... Ac
0. ~ ........ ................
Q.9ß / ................"'" 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 0.94 0.95
"' r-...........
........ 0.1 0.2
4// ......
n,=2 "-
"- ''''', Re x 10-5
a9'1
o 01 a2 a3 1).9
, a5 a6 a7
"'
........ ................
aB 09 Ag nl 1.7 3.2 4.6 6.0 7.3 8.6 9.8 10.8 11.7 12.1 12.2
t

*
, 1 I f ,

o1 2 J 5' 7 8 9 .!.2..> 10
Do -

2 0.998 0.990 0.975 0.940 0.920

4 0.998 0.932 0.983 0.970 0.957 0.942 0.925

6 0.999 0.994 0.987 0.975 0.963 0.950 0.933

10-16 0.999 0.994 0.998 0.978 0.967 0.956 0.942

730 Handbook oj Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition Flow at the Exit jrom Tubes and Channels 731

Free discharge from conical diffusers at high subsonie Free discharge from conical diffusers at high subsonie
7 Diagram 11.4
velocities (pressure reduction factors) 7 Diagram 11.4 velocities (pressure reduction factors)

Values ofp at a =10° (graph d)

A.c
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 0.95

Re x 10-5
r-.:,:""""'- C( IrI - - - lo/llq 0- fo- (c).:
........:: ~
~--
1.7 3.2 4.6 6.0 7.3 8.6 9.8 10.8 11.7 12.2

- --
n]

(f .......... ~ ............ i'o.. __

~
" ~
.......... .......
.!!l..=0
Do
/"
"
:>.:;;:

'0 .......... /" ....... ~ ........... ,.....

n,=10-16 ., , ./ ......:: ~ 2 0.998 0.994 0.984 0.972 0.959 0.945 0.930 0.913

0. , ./
./ ........
I'...
.........
~
\
4 0.999 0.996 0.991 0.985 0.977 0.968 0.959 0.950 0.940 0.933
~
;/ ....... I
...... 0.999 0.996 0.993 0.987 0.981 0.973 0.966 0.958 0.951 0.940

" n,=' './ ......

'-
" \ 10-16 0.999 0.997 0.994 0.989 0.984 0.977 0.970 0.963 0.956 0.951
1.0 ~

" ~

-
................ ~

""'" ...I"'..:--...........: r--

'- , 1.0/00 =2 - .!!l..=2
Do

a.9fl
n,=I(J-f~
~7

ö
~

" r.... /'

...,.",.
....... --
.............. ~
....................
2

4
0.997

0.998
0.991

0.994
0.978
0.987
0.963

0.976
0.948
0.964
0.933
0.950
0.914

0.933 0.910

........ ............... ........ 6 0.998 0.994 0.987 0.978 0.968 0.958 0.943 0.923

, ........ ....,
~ /, ...... .......
!'.. 10.. 10-16 0.998 0.995 0.988 0.981 0.973 0.964 0.952 0.934
11,=2
tO ~
"'-
'- '-
........
....... ....
~ ....... .!!l..=5
"' ...............
--
~
'-".- Do
~~ 1.,,/Dg =5-
- "
- 11,=1. '}-ta ?' .........................
...........-...... 2 0.997 0.989 0.976 0.960 0.940 0.918
........ ...... .........
...... / .......... ........ ..... 4 0.998 0.993 0.982 0.968 0.953 0.936
G .......
.~7 ...........,..--'-
, ., ,
'- ........ 0.994- ··0.985 0:973 . ®o~:-·(,);.94S- 0~93'4-
4
, ....,
i/'-

10 ~
/1,=2 . . . , ......
10-16 0.999 0.994 0.986 0.976 0.965 0.952 0.939

" ........--.......... ...

"-

~
"- '" ............. ,'jt
.....
/4=IO q
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
A.c
0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 0.95
t--- .... ...... .........
11,=10-18/ "-;x...' '" '-
, '" ~
10-5
,,""
""i.: Re x
"\../ ......
ß /"'>.
,,
f"'oo.. .......
n] 1.7 3.2 4.6 6.0 7.3 8.6 9.8 10.8 11.7 12.2
4- ;" ./ I'.. ........
.............
11,=2 "- "'
...... ......
,.... , .!!l..>
Do-
10
az
I I
113 /JA 115 110
J ! 1 , !
2 0.996 0.988 0.973 0.956 0.935
o 1 2 J I;. 5 8 789 4 0.998 0.992 0.982 0.968 0.953 0.937 0.918

6 0.998 0.993 0.984 0.971 0.959 0.942 0.922

10 0.998 0.993 0.984 0.974 0.961 0.945 0.928

16 0.999 0.994 0.985 0.976 0.964 0.949 0.934

 Flow at the Exit from Tubes and Channels 733
732 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

Free discharge from conical diffusers at high subsonie Diagram 11.4

Free discharge from conical diffusers at high subsonie 7
velocities (pressure reduction factors)
velocities (pressure reduction factors) 7 Diagram 11.4
Values ofp at cx. =14° (graph e)

02 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9

0.1
Rex 10-5

1.7 3.2 4.6 6.0 7.3 8.6 9.8 10.8 11.7

.!2..=0
Da
0.998 0.993 0.983 0.968 0.953 0.932 0.915 0.895
2
0.988 0.978 0.967 0.953 0.940 0.926 0.910
4 0.998 0.995
0.999 0.995 0.988 0.980 0.969 0.968 0.943 0.930 0.915
6
0.999 0.996 0,990 0.981 0.971 0.960 0.948 0.936 0.923
10
t--+-~,--+-~--+--_n,=l-r"""~-I----+--~ 16 0.999 0.996 0.991 0.983 0.975 0.965 0.954 0.942 0.930
'-

2 0.998 0.987 0.974 0.954 0.932 0.909

4 0.998 0.990 0.979 0.965 0,947 0.925

6 0.998 0,990 0.980 0.968 0.952 0.930

10 0.999 0.991 0.981 0.970 0.955 0.935

16 0.999 0.993 0.983 0.973 0.960 9.40

0.98 ,~ " ""

~ n,=10-lo~~~~~~~~~.~~-r----~~'~--~~----~--~ 2 0.996 0.986 0.970 0.950 0.930 0.906
a9G~--4---~--6;-~'~~~'~~~~~,~~~--~'~,~~--~---J 4 0.997 0.988 0.976 0.960 0,943 0.922

'1-'-<--+''-'-."-I---,,-l.,A:, "',' ,'- , 6 0.997 0.989

10 0.997 0.989 0.978 0.965 0.950 0.933
1.0
- , ..... 16 0.998 0.991 0.980 0.968 0.953 0.937

a~t==_t---i-~'-~,~~~~~~~s~~~--~~~~--~---+~~::::J 0.3 0.4 0.5 0,6 0.7 0.8 0.9

0.1 0.2
,~~""
a9fi 1----f----In,=Iß /'<:.- ~~ . . .
J----+--~1--10-"-$7f-:~ '~, 1.7 3.2 4.6 6.0 7.3 8.6 9.8 10.8 11.7

a9~~O__~~~~__~n~,_~2~_~_'~~"~'~~~~~~'~==:I==::C:::-j
I I al, ~z 0.3. a? ,as ao 07 OB. ag ~Q I
0.948 0.927
o 1 2 3 4 S 6 7 3 9 10 11 Re X 10- 5 2 0.996
0.997
0.985
0.987
0.968
0.972 0.955 0.936 0,910
4
6 0.997 0.987 0.973 0.958 0.940 0.917

10 0.998 0.988 0.975 0.960 0.944 0.927

16 0.998 0.989 0.977 0.962 0.947 0.931

734 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition Flow at the Exit from Tubes and Channels 735

Free discharge from corncal diffusers at high subsornc Free discharge from a rectilinear (straight wall) diffuser
Diagram 11.5
velocities (pressure reduction factors) 7 Diagram 11.4 of rectangular (square) cross seetion 19-22

1. Uniforrn velocity field at the entranee into the diffuser (wmax/wo"" 1.0):
_ I1p
~=-2-=~101=f(Ci.,nl,Re), see graph a.
pwo/2

- --
2. Nonuniforrn velocity field at the entranee inta the diffuser wmax/wo ~ 1.1,
p=1<- t-- lq/Dq=1J }-(.e)
see Diagrarn 5.1:
a) Far diffuser downstrearn of straight seetian lo/D a > 10
....... ~

'3 ,, i:"'oo..
~-...
...... ~
~ = ~101 = f(Ci., nl, Re), see graph b.
~
/""~ ...... -.... nl = FI/Fa ' b) For diffusers with Ci. = 6-14°, downstrearn the shaped (eurved) part
')0(
/'o..~""" ......
'8 1-,=16 "V ~ l'.. -........
v ~ ....... r.... Re= woDa ~ =ktol~IO! '
10 .' ............. ~ ...... v '
as.~ $ "v
'1/ ,
.................
.... , ..... "- D,,=4Fa/IT a
where far ~tol' see graph a; km! is determined as kd fram Diagrarn 5.l.
e) Far diffusers with Ci. > 20° dawnstrearn af the shaped sectian,
./
n,=2 ,,
.......
'-....... .......
'I'.. ..........
"
...... .......
~ = ktol~lOt' where "iO! is assumed ta be equal ta Na fram Tables 12.1

[0 .... ~ ,
....... ......"-
ta 12.7.

, .......

-- "
-........ 1"0... I'..
~ I"'i.:"""

~
.... '-, .....: .....
11,=16c?:S. ....
, -
1/
/0/4=2- Values of Stot at wrnaxlwo X 1.1 (lolD h :::: 0)
,
","

iQ ~
......... ,~,

4 ............
,",",'
(X, deg
-

"- "'''I.
!l, =2 ""
"- .... " ,i'\."...
Re x 10-5 4 6 10 14 20 30 45 ~60

I.IJ
- ~
....... :.:"
......
:.-
.........
....
.... <110.~
"-....

"
to/lJ,=.f- 0.5
1
0040
0.38
0040
0.39
0043
0042
0047
0046
nl =2
0.58
0.58
0.70
0.70
0.86
0.86
1.01
1.01
1.10
1.10
r---- !l, 18 .-"
~"-
~.......... 2 0.36 0.37 0.39 0.44 0.68 0.70 0.86 1.01 1.10
tu 0" ""I;. ....... ~

a!Jß . , ~'-
'.:!I.: .... ...~ ~ •.. . ~4.. 0.34 .. 0}6
0.38 0043 0.58 0.70 0.86
__
..:;...;,...."...;:.;;.~ n_.-..::~~
1.01 1.10
"f' ..l\ .......~
nl=4
!l,-2 ~"'"
i'\.
.........
~ ......
1.0
", , .,.,.
0.5 0.25 0.27 0.32 0.30 0048 0.61 0.76 0.94 1.06
-~............... !l,=I$ ~
lo!JJo=/()
aso
........ ii:l>.
~ ............ ./ tf1 ", ""
0.22 0.24 0.28 0.34 0048
0048
0.61 0.76 0.94 1.06

""
....... ..-
.......
~
6 ", "
.... 2 0.20 0.22 0.25 0.31 0.61 0.76 0.94 1.06

'" "..,.
,~~
~4 0.18 0.20 0.23 0.30 0048 0.61 0.76 0.94 0.06
,"'l,
Jip
./
~
"- m=6
.)..
~ 11,=2
~~ "- 0.5 0.23 0.24 0.28 0.34 0047 0.62 0.74 0.94 1.05
0.9"
(11; " os
0.19 0.21 0.25 0.31 0047 0.62 0.74 0.94 1.05
()
f-=
fJ.l fJ.Z
I (
a:; ,
Oll 07
l , ! I I t !
2 0.16 0.185 0.22 0.29 0047 0.62 0.74 0.94 1.05
() 1 2 J .{. S 7 8 9 !() 1/ Re X 10- 5'
2':4 0.145 0.16 0.20 0.28 0047 0.62 0.74 0.94 1.05
nl == 10
0.5 0.20 0.23 0.26 0.34 0047 0.60 0.73 0.89 1.04
0.17 0.19 0.24 0.30 0046 0.60 0.73 0.89 1.04
2 0.14 0.17 0.21 0.26 0045 0.60 0.73 0.89 1.04
2':4 0.13 0.15 0.18 0.25 0.44 0.60 0.73 0.89 1.04
 737
Flow at the Exit from Tubes and Channels
736 Handbook oj Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

Free discharge from a rectilinear (straight wall) diffuser Diagram 11.5

19 22
Free discharge from a rectilinear (straight wall) diffuser Diagram 11.5 ofrectangular (square) cross section -
19 22
ofrectangular (sguare) cross section -
Values of Stot at wmm!WO ;;::: 1.1 (lolDo :::: 0)

ftot f-Ne=O.5 X 105 i.-r-. (a) ftot a., deg

2-Re ... 1 X 105
UG J-Ke=2 X 10S 11 1 Re X 10-5 4 6 10 14 20 30 45 60 ;::90

4-Ke;a4 X 10' nf - !
nj=2

0.95 0.920 1.05 1.10 1.08

!.PB L- 0.5 0.550 0.600 0.645 0.680 0.740 0.820
I ~Ioo.
0.655 0.730 0.810 0.900 1.04 1.09 1.08
0.610
I.P() I I 9.08
0.510 0.560
0.610 0.700 0.790 0.890 1.04 1.09 1.08
2 0.470 0.510 0.565
0.640 0.760 0.880 1.02 1.07 1.08
;::4 0.416 0.460 0.500 0.555
ftot .JJ.92 9.80
nj=4
~
...
UM ~o.B4 I ~
0.72 0.5 0.280 0.460 0.530 0.595 0.685 0.780 0.895 1.02 1.07 1.09

ot r- f-.
I 17 0.330 0.390 0485 0.550 0.660 0.775 0.895 1.02 1.07 1.09

,../J96 0.76 J 11 D.51f 2 0.265 0.340 0.420 0.500 0.620 0.740 0.870 1.00 1.06 1.08
'T 1.06 1.08
J 0.440 0.560 0.700 0.840 0.990
Oß r I- ;::4 0.220 0.295 0.360
fJ.88 MO IJ. nr =6

to.'2 I 0.660 0.770 0.910 1.02 1.07 1.08

080 0,60 IA if I 11 D.
0.5 0.335 0.420 0.495 0.570
0.760 0.980 1.02 1.07 1.08
... i 2 ~ ~ PI [7 V 0.300 0.385 0.456 0.535 0.630
9! 0.880 1.00 1.06 1.08
SS\
-
0.730
a72 ... fl52
~ IJ IJ.
2 0.240 0.335 0.420 0.480 0.600
I 0.98 1.06 1.08
~
"'- -"~~ V ;::4 0.180 0.265 0.340 0.435 0.560 0.725 0.855
I-
,-tJ.H I-ß~~ ~ I-- CI I j (J. .12 nj =10
~I- I-
/11 I 11
rI
n,=(l
0.5 0.300 0.370 0.450 0.430 0.640 0.740 0.850 0.970 1.19 1.12

tJ.56 !-a36 fh I c-::~O:250~(j32ö---0.400 0.48(J-~O.620

'cO_ --- 7{--2:r~
~ 7 iI i-I/ 0.560 0.690 0.820 0.950 1.10 1.11
'8- 2 0.200 0.260 0.340 0.440
\ \ \ 1Vii I
-- --
... /1IIB r.D·28 0.670 0.800 0.930 1.09 1.11
;::4 0.160 0.215 0.280 0.400 0.545
7)- ... Il- /('y~ A !f
t::: )'"
052 ...
I-
tNO !- (J2f)

qj2 f-
f-
r- I-~
f 234 I) 1 )
IA
~I
" ~ n,-I

I- f...
fl29'r- \ " \i.;'!1 l
P-
1\ V '/; fr
QJ6 r-
Il./i
" - I--
--- ~r;. ''h/," n, ·f(J

(J2(J
~

~
f 2 J 9
r,.,p(Y "
""'"
LS P\IAI
afl F::::=:::: ...... v
$ 4 6 7 910 f4 20 :J{) 'iS 60 90 1200(0
 Flow at the Exit jrom Tubes and Channels 739
738 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

Free dis charge from a strai~t wall plane (rectangular) diffuser; Diagram 11.6
Free discharge from a rectilinear (straight wall) diffuser 1
with ratio ao/bo = 0.5-2.0 -22
19 22
of rectangular (sguare) cross section - 1. Uniform velocity field at the entranee into the diffuser (wma'/wO"'" 1.0):
~ == ~p/(pw6/2) =~tot = !Ca, nj, Re), see graph a.
2. Nonuniform velocity field at the entrance into the diffuser
wma/wO~ 1.1, see Diagram 5.1:
a) For diffusers with straight seetion Ir/Da> 10, ~ = ~tot =!Ca, nj, Re),
see graph b.
b) For diffusers with a = 6-200 , behind a shaped (eurved) part:
~ = ktot~tot' where for ~tW see graph a; k tot is determined as k d
from Diagram 5.1.
e) For diffusers with a > 200 downstream of the shaped seetion,
Fj woDo ~ = ktot~tol' where krot is assumed to be equal to No from Tables 12.1
nj =Ta Re=-- ,
v to 12.7.

D h =4F rl IT o

ttot
f.(Jt,
r-ßt'
2-h= 1 X 105
= 0.5 X 10 5
I~~;
r- ]-He= 2 X 10 S
.(.-He=4 X 105
5
11 tnr r=l •.
I .(

ago - j-Ht';;;. 6 X 10
I II",Z.
I i I J 5
ttot aOIl ,
, J

tOll a~o
I I ' ,

0,9G a.n
I
tJ.&! (l0!-
~
(hUB 0.56

1,1}~ 1172 aM
i !jJ ~ .5
f Z J4,i

§:~ ~
'G aß"-
'4 tl.f5
a~o

aSt
"'......fo..:r---r-.. i=
j I U
I

';rlf.
I1.IM
0.1.0 O,lO 4 LV ) 'I f/~1J t1~
I Ihr
J I 1,/ n,=ö r--.,' 2}
'" t.,}
,,,
0.51, ~ 1J.J2
~~ ~~
0."6
1''1'>
Z
3V /
/
V) J ';'
I
I
'/
/1~

tlt&
t'r.;
1ftU iJ
111""$

0.38
a~~__~~/+V~/~HHI/H-~+4~~4+~~~U-~ N' : f,·/ '
4 / "j
/124
~~ ~~
QIS
"~
~~~
t1()1
J t, .f" a /0 14 :.' JO 4S 00 9(} 12(}a"
 Flow at the Exit jrom Tubes and Channels 741
740 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

Free discharge from a strai~ht wall plane (rectangular) diffuser; Diagram 11.6
1
Free dis charge from a straight wall plane (rectangular) diffuser; Diagram 11.6 with ratio aolbo - 0.5-2.0 -22
with ratio ao/bo =0.5_2.0 1<T-22

Values of Stot at wrnaxfwo '" 1.0 (loiD o '" 0)

rtot I-He =0.5 X 105 ~bb(b)
2-He= 1 X 105
a, deg ]-Re =2 X 10' ~"P H,=2
1.()" "-He =4 X lOS
ReX 10-5 4 6 10 14 20 30 45 60 290
5-Re:;t>6 x 10 5 l'
n] =2
rtot
'I
a90
0.5 0.46 0.43 0.42 0.42 0.42 0.47 0.56 0.76 0.90 1.06
11 ~~
0.75 0.90 1.06 f.(}"
~
0.44 0.41 0.40 0.39 0.39 0.42 0.50
0.42 0.39 0.38 0.37 0.36 0.38 0.50 0.75 0.90 1.06 fJ j
2 MB
4 0.40 0.37 0.36 0.36 0.36 0.37 0.50 0.75 0.90 1.06 l f[
2:6 0.38 0.36 0.34 0.34 0.34 0.38 0.57 0.76 0.90 1.06 MG /1 )
=4 0.80
0.5 0.34 0.30 0.28 0.26
n]

0.26 0.34 0.40 0.79 0.96 1.07 ftot

a&f
} 11
0.30 0.27 0.24 0.23 0.25 0.34 0.50 0.79 0.96 1.07
1.04 0.72
I' I JI
2 0.28 0.24 0.22 0.21 0.25
0.25
0.37
0.37
0.57
0.57
0.82
0.82
1.00
1.00
1.09
1.09
)1/ ' J 'I
4
2:6
0.26
0.24
0.22
0.21
0.21
0.20
0.20
0.20 0.25 0.37 0.57 0.82 1.00 1.09
04IJ (J V/I !j)
0.84
0..9$
0.72 ~ "/' I/I /1
0.5 0.33
0.28
0.28
0.24
0.25
0.21
0.24
0.21
0.33
0.31
0.44
0.45
0.61
0.64
0.83
0.87
0.96
0.98
1.02
1.02
056
'J? TI ,J f/
2 0.26 0.22 0.19 0.19 0.28 0.47 0.64 0.87 1.00 1.06
().G4
12 .J ~S I // /J /,

4 0.24 0.19 0.18 0.18 0.28 0.47 0.64 0.87 1.00 1.06 rF-... J.. . . V/ I ,jr/ 7 l
~
2:6 0.22 0.18 0.16 0.17 0.28 0.47 0.64 0.87 1.00 1.06 11M - ~ )
~
/1 ) ~I

Values of ~tot at wrnaxfwo ~ 1.1 (lolD o > 0)

1155
I1WJ ....
.... 7
--r
-- J,..-
"" if
11'

I. " I rr '/
IV
o.M 11, ,
aß4
-
aJ2
- . c.
h I . " " ' • •· ..7- " , . '
,

Re X 10-5 4 6 10 14 20 30 45 60 2:90
a4(J
1 t 1'45 11 /1
nl =2 ~II 1/ 11 1jr!1!J Ih
0.5 0.51
0.48
0.50
0.47
0.50
0.48
0.51
0.50
0.56
0.56
0.63
0.62
0.80
0.80
0.96
0.96
1.04
1.04
1.09
1.09
(J.56'

I1J2
1124
~'t. J
":--''....L ~II ,rh iJ{f n,=If
2 0.42 0.42 0.44 0.46 0.53 0.63 0.74 0.93 1.02 1.08 r rI-- l/ /A
2:4 0.38 0.38 0.40 0.42 0.50 0.62 0.74 0.93 1.02 1.08
1121;
F' ... J.. II
-- v/ J/
IfJ
0.5 0.35 0.32 0.34 0.38 0.48 0.63 0.76 0.91 1.03 1.07
r... ..... I ,..."
1 0.31 0.30 0.30 0.36 0.45 0.59 0.72 0.88 1.02 1.07
1110
.... .j f 3.{o 5 l
~ :I 1/
0.67 0.83 0.96 1.06
2 0.26 0.26 0.26 0.31
0.27
0.40
0.39
0.53
0.53 0.67 0.83 0.96 1.06
...... rJ' "Vjl/; fll=6
2:4 0.21 0.21 0.22
nl =6 rt ~ j.. ~ .... //
0.5 0.34 0.34 0.32 0.34 0.41 0.56 0.70 0.84 0.96 1.08 "" . . r...( .. ,....
111/
~-:L / /~
0.32 0.28 0.27 0.30 0.41 0.56 0.70 0.84 0.96 L08 .......
2 0.26 0.24 0.24 0.26 0.36 0.52 0.67 0.81 0.94 1.06
/
4
2:6
0.21
0.21
0.20
0.19
0.20
0.18
0.24
0.23
0.36
0.34
0.52
0.50
0.67
0.67
0.81
0.81
0.94
0.94
1.06
1.05
(J.le
J It
'"
5 8
-4

8 /0 1t, 20 JD 45 &0 !J() 120 (){ 0

 Flow at the Exit from Tubes and Channels 743
742 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

Discharge from a diffuser (with a smooth rounded inlet)

Discharge from a tube (charmeI) onto a baffle 13 ,25,34 Diagram 11. 7 Diagram 11.8
onto a baffle;41 Re == woDoJv 2:: 2 X 105
~ 4Fo j
nj--
F
D"=rr' Fo
0
_ !1p
~~ 1. Straight wall diffuser at IctfD" = 1.0: S=-Z-=I-lld,

Id IJ
S=~=f(~J
p 6/2
W Do '
see graph a.
where lld =
pwQl2

f(~o' a, *J, see the graph.

Values of 1;

h/Do
a, deg(l1j) 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 1.0
0(1.0) 1.37 1.20 1.11 1.00
15 (1.59) 1.50 1.06 0.72 0.61 0.59 0.58 0.58
Dscr/Do
30 (2.37) 1.23 0.79 0.66 0.64 0.66 0.66 0.67 0.67
't.Q &.0

VII mE E
45 (3.34) 1.50 0.85 0.73 0.75 0.79 0.81 0.82 0.82 0.82 R/Do 2.0 J..Q
60 (4.65) 0.98 0.76 0.80 0.90 0.96 1.00 1.01 1.02 1.02
90 (9.07) 1.50 0.72 0.74 0.83 0.89 0.94 0.96 0.98 1.00 1.00 0
aG ""'2
(]

lZ
TIT
I
i\ Al n,-~ 1-1-1- laI, o.~
\ a~QI~ t~ I fi2

vg mmm;
tU
\ 'l.. .... p-
l°'"jMS
iQ';9.07
o Ci=
0I=(]0 a=O =fIf
,~r.J.J~
~I .,.; ""
.... .J/J";l.J7
0.6
a« 'fY~i aJj-
1)$ . ".~'
(J 0.1 az tJ.J /1,' fl5 (J.O 0.7 U tl.9 hlß4 alt
a==Oo (1.=(J' 0(=0 a=O
2. Straight seetion with rounded edges: fi2 -
0
f(~o J-
;1:1 m; ;; m;
S= see graph b.

Values of 1;
flG7
r h/Do 0,11 t:I= _ =0"- Ci~

Do 0.5 0.7 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.50 0.60 1.0 0.2

VI! I! 11 g
0.2 2.30 0.90 0.52 0.51 0.62 0.75 0.82 0.85 0.85 0.85 0.85 0
0.3 1.60 0.76 0.47 0.48 0.55 0.66 0.73 0.78 0.81 0.82 0.82
0.5 2.50 1.30 0.63 0.44 0.41 0.49 0.58 0.65 0.71 0.76 0.87 0.78
aß . 0:1"'" a~'~
, 0:/4

~]l~~
alt 0l~12· a-T2 12
3. Diffuser with optimum characteristic 11 \1' I l(i,l flM (1.='2'
y
parameters (lctfD o '" 2.5; a = 14°; I 1r1P'-q~
f -t - i -
"/4·~ 0.1 T 0.2
RoiDo '" 0.7; Dsc!Do '" 3.0). IM . -
0

~;
~ I ~;..-r

Vm! I [d 11
=
S j(hlDo), see graph c. ~~
-;,;;- I
az

" (cl
ZU
0.8
0."-' -:-:...
a~'Z·
Q-'O·
. 'a'~'
01:'0· 0=0·

h/Do 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 '.7 0.7-. ___ i

S 0.78 0.46 0.36 0.32 0.32 \
h/Do 0.35 0.40 0.50 0.60 1.0 \ Q tl.~ 0.8 UII/lJo o I./~ 0.3 lZ lI/lJo Q aJ,. aB l.Zh/Oo o a~ M !lll/Oo
V
S 0.33 0.33 0.34 0.34 0.36 I1.t (1.:1 u.s 11.7 0.1 h 10.
 Flow at the Exit from Tubes and Channels 745
744 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

!:ree discharge from annu1ar diffusers;5,12

!:ree discharge from annu1ar diffusers;5,12 Diagram 11.9
Diagram 11.9 do= 0.688
do = 0.688
Values of ~tot at Td =0.5 (with guide surface) ~tot ld-a5 Ic)
r- !J.p
':> = --r- = kd~tot
pWQI2
'
(Xl,deg D.52
az=ft'.
14'
~
ytz
where ~.!9t is deterrnined as a function of (Xl and (X2 from graphs
a-c (at do = 0.688) or as a function of nl and [tim (at ~ = 0.015
<X2, deg -4 -2 0 2 4 6
IlIt3
Iaz=1If. t2 ~
12 0.43 0.42 0.42 0.44 0047 0.50 0.57 1/ ...Ir"- J
and 0.03) from graphs d and e, where [tim is calculated from ~V /
14 0.44 0.43 0.42 0.43 0045 0047 0.52
0.# ~ i"""-o
Equation (11.1); for k d see Diagram 5.1 cr 5.18 (when placed ....... k;::: :;..-" _I---"
16 0.45 0.43 0042 0.42 0043 0.44 0047 i'ooo.
downstream of an operating compressor).
f14IJ
-4- -2 o 2

- ld - do
ld=- do= -
Do Do
4ld 4[d -
nl =
Fl
F = 1 + - - - (tan- <Xl - tan2 ~) + -_-
?
(tan <Xl - dO tan <X2)
o I-dO I-d~
~fj
·21.
Values of ~tot at ld =0.5 (without guide surface)
4·
<Xl, deg
<X2, deg -4 -2 0 2 4 6 10 12
II,J
8 0.45 0.46 0048 0.51 0.57 0.65 0.77
10 0.45 0.45 0045 0047 0.49 0.54 0.61 0.72
12 0.47 0.46 0045 0.44 0.44 0.47 0.50 0.58 0.68
1l.2
14 0.54 0.51 0.50 0048 0.47 0046 0.47 0.50 0.56
16 0.61 0.58 0.56 0.54 0.51 0.48 0047 0.46 0048
IV 1 2 .I .. 5 i 1 8
'"
lt~~
e

a<- 4'

8 0', a 4"

Values of ~tot at ld =1.0 (without guide surface) CS

<Xl, deg
<X2, deg -4 -2 0 2 4 6 10 12 "t, Z 1 ., 5 I 1 Ir,
8 0.34 0.33 0.33 0.34 0.38 0.47
10 0.38 0.35 0.33 0.32 0.32 0.35 0.42 0.55
12 0.44 0.38 0.35 0.32 0.30 0.30 0.32 0.38 0.52
14 0.50 0.44 0040 0.36 0.33 0.31 0.30 0.32 0.36
16 055 0.50 0045 0041 0.38 0.35 0.32 0.30 0.31
 Flow at the Exit from Tubes and Channels 747
746 Handbook oj Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

11 Diagram 11.1 0
Free discharge fram axial_annular_radial_diffusers ,12
Free discharge from axial-annular-radial-diffusers ll ,12 Diagram 11.1 0
Annular-radial diffuser with an elliptical are and do = 0.7:
Annular-radial diffuser with eireular are at rrJh o = 1.5 and rj/h j = 2, do = 0,688:
_ I1p -
S =j{h/ho), see graph e.
S= -Z2 = j{nj, D j ) , see graphs a and b,
pWo/
Values of 1;

hj - 1 h1/ho
n1=2-D j -_-
ho 1 +do 1.6 1.8 2.0
151 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.4
- Dj - do Q 1.5 0.85 0.78 0.73 0.70 0.69 0.67 0.66 0.66 0.66
D 1 = Do do=D o Wo (1t/4)(D?-D~) wo=wo/u 1.8 0.72 0.66 0.63 0.61 0.61 0.62 0.63 0.64 0.65
2.1 0.61 0.65 0.52 0.52 0.54 0.57 0.59 0.61 0.62
Q is the flow rate, m3/s; u is the velocity at outer radius, mls,

Values of 1;

n1 Icl
1,1 1,8 2.2 2.6 3.0 3.4 3.8 0.8
~ 0,=1.5\
1.8,
wo'" 0.5 (see graph a) "-
Diffuser downstream of an operating eompressor
0.'1
~
r-.... 0 , =2.1,' '\
1.5 O~ Q% Q% Q% "\ t-- \.

1.7 0.65 0.69 0.71 0.72 0.73 ""1"-0... -I"":' ~ I-

1.9
2.2
0.58 0.64
0.49
0.67
0.55
0.71
0.61
0.72
0.66
0.6
rs , i - i-"
I."..-- I.-l
J.-

Diffuser with an idle eompressor (see graph b) 0.5

0.8 1.0 1.2 1.11 1.& 1.8 "'/11#
1.4 0.82 0.72 0.69 0.70 0.71
1.6 0.76 0.64 0.61 0.61 0.63 0.64
1.8 0.70 0.57 0.54 0.53 0.55 0.57 0.58
2.0 0.51 0.46 0.45 0.48 0.48 0.50
Axial-annular-radial diffuser at 151 =2.06; do= 0.688; (X2 = 8°; Wo = 0.5:
S=j{nj, 15 j ), see graph d

o. 7 /~ ....
_...... IlJ,=(5

,.....
[7
:..- Y-
lal I
Values of 1;
~ ~
V j..--' f4=ZZ n1
0.0
I........ I (Xl, deg 1.4 1,8 2.2 2.6 3.0 3.4 3.6 4.0
0.5 ...V t 0.49 0.49 0.49
-2 0.61 0.54 0.52 0.50 0.49
1.8 2.2 2.6 3.0 :M 1.8 n, 0.44 0.45 0.47
2 0.56 0.45 0.43 0.42 0.43
4 0.52 0.39 0.34 0.33 0.35 0.38 0.40 0.46

I (b)

0.8 Y\
'\ _I I
0.1 I'\.
r\, ~
'i'...
.o=J.l1
- 1.6
"'-,,-
~ r-. ~ !-... !a,=-Z
(d)

--
-'--
....... I-- ~ 1.8 '\.i'. _:..-
0.0
" L.- ....,.r-; ~
...... ~ Ig,.. ",..
ß, 2,0 i'. .... ~ 10-,=4
0.5 . . . r-.,.. ~
~~ I
2.2 2.G 3.0 !~ !ß fl,
1J.4
1,1/ 1.8 2.2 2.& 1.0 1. fI. nf
 748 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition Flow at the Exit from Tubes and Channels 749

Free discharge from rectangular diffusers downstream Discharge (free) nonsymrnetrical diffuser downstream of a
Diagram 11.12
of a centrifugal induced-draft fan 24 Diagram 11.11 centrifugal intake fan;6 (Xl = var., (X2 = 0°

Plane asymrnetrical diffuser

~ == ~ = j(nl)' see graph a

p ö/
w 2

a, deg Formulas
10 ~ = 0.827njl - 0.059 ~ = ~. r{ is the efficiency of the fan.
- pW612 '
~ = nj(6.72nj -7.5r
j
15
20 ~ = nl (5.6nj - 5.79)-1
25 ~ = nj(3.95nl - 3.31)-1
~ = nj(2.28nj - 1.07r
j
35
The vanes of the fan rotor are bent backward.
nl = Fj/Fo
Values of ~
Values of ~
a, n!
~I--..

~ ;::- ~ 1--1- (a~~ deg 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 nl
05
'~ ~ t--
~
~ :::-
- h-.
I
I
(X-JSo

J/J !
25,
10
15
20
0.51
0.54
0.55
0.34
0.36
0.38
0.25
0.27
0.31
0.21
0.24
0.27
0.18
0.22
0.25
0.17
0.20
0.24
liD" 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8

Nominal regime 111 = O.9t]~ax, Q =Qn

2.0 2.2 2.4

OJ r-....;: I- 1 0.06 0.10 0.20 0.40

""- l)/i 25 0.59 0.43 0.37 0.35 0.33 0.33
-!-. . rf J 30 0.63 0.50 0.46 1.5 0.06 0.15 0.23 0.30 0.40
0.44 0.43 0.42
i ja= ~o! 2.5 0.13 0.13 0.14 0.20 0.33
35 0.65 0.56 0.43 0.52 0.51 0.50
2.2 1e 1.4 lf /1,
Regime with ,,1;:: O.9t]~ax, Q> Qn
1.0 0.08 0.13 0.30
1.5 0.15 0.18 0.24 0.33 0.45
_---==--_______
2.5 0.10 __~::.!..::.
-.::.:.;~ 0.13 _ _ _~:::.._
0.19 _ _ _~:::::._
0.25 _ ____'=0::.:.3::.::2~_ _ 0.40
Pyramidal diffuser:
The vanes of the fan rotor are bent forward.
~ =j(nj), see graph b.

a, deg
Vahiesof ~
Formulas
10 ~ = nj(4.05nj - 3.32r1 nl
~ = nj(2.34nj -1.23r
j
15
20 ~ = nl(1.71nj - 0.52r
j liD" 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6

25 ~ = 0.641 - 0.22nj
j Regime with 11 1 ;?: O.9t]~ax, Q< Qn
35 ~ = nj(1.44n j - 0.36r 1 1.0 0.22 0.28 0.34 0.43
1.5 0.08 0.18 0.22 0.23
5.3 0.09 0.10 0.12 0.15 0.18 0.21 0.27
=
Nominal regime,,1 0.9,,~ax, Q = Qn

Values of ~ 1.0 0.08 0.16 0.28 0.48

1.5 0.09 0.15 0.23 0.35
2.5 0.11 0.12 0.15 0.22 0.32 0.50

--
nl
.... h «_.]Qo 25 5.3 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.17 0.19 0.20
IbJ a,
... f-..,.: t-=
9.7
~
-= 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0

---
deg Regime with ,,1;:: O.9t]max, Q> Qn
'r--... ....... 10 0.54 0.42 0.37 0.34 0.32 0.31 0.9 0.11 0.27 0.41 0.60
0.5
... 2U 15 0.67 0.58 0.53 0.51 0.50 0.51 1.5 0.10 0.16 0.23 0.36 0.53
........ 15 20 0.75 0.67 0.65
....... 0.64 0.64 0.65 2.5 0.09 0.15 0.25 0.36 0.48 0.58 0.64
9.3 I /tX=/U o 25 0.80 0.74 0.72 0.70 0.70 0.72 5.3 0.16 0.15 0.15 0.17 0.20 0.25 0.30
1.* 1.8 l.2 2.5 3.0 3.'1 3.8", 30 0.5 0.78 0.76 0.75 0.75 0.76
 750 Flow at the Exit jrom Tubes and Channels 751
Handbook oj Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

Discharge (free) pyramidal diffuser downstream

Diagram 11.13
of a centrifugaI intake fan 6

+f'1J W,

~
~ \Cl
ci
\Cl
ci
11
i-+-ir--:;;.......

00 00
ci ci

n1 =F1/Fo
The vanes of the fan rotor are bent backward.

Values of S

nl
llDh 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6

Regime with 11 1 ;::: 0.911~ax, Q< Qn

1.0 1.08 1.10 1.12 1.18 1.22 1.33 1.45 1.6
Nominal regime 11 1 = 0.911t,ax, Q = Qn
1.5 0.25 0.22 0.20 0.22 0.30 0.48
1.5 0.12 0.12 0.15 0.20 0.28 0.38 0.5
Regime with 111 ;::: O. 9T]~ax, Q > Qn
1.0 0.15 0.20 0.30 0.42
1.5 0.12 0.12 0.12 0.13 0.13 0.15 0.20

The vanes of the fan rotor are bent forward.

Values of S

nl

liD" 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3.0 3.2 3.6 4.0

Regime with 11 1 ;::: 0.911~ax, Q < Qn

1.0 0.20 0.50 0.66 0.75
1.5 0.28 0.40 0.55 0.65 0.78 0.88
2.5 0.37 0.40 0.42 0.48 0.55 0.62 0.8 1.0
Nominal regime 11 1 =O.9T]~ax, Q =Qn
1.0 1.19 0.26 0.32 0.38
1.5 0.22 0.35 0.40 0.44
2.5 0.20 0.28 0.35 0.40 0.46 0.52 0.56 0.56 it

~
Regime with 111 ;::: O.9T]~ax, Q > Qn l
N .• ~ I~I.
1.0 0.15 0.30 0.40 0.48 CQ

1.5 0.18 0.28 0.35 0.42 0.50 0.54

. .
2.5 0.20 0.28 0.36 0.40 0.45 0.50 0.56 0.62 i't ~ .
752 Handbook 01 Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition Flow at the Exit from Tubes and Channels 753

Discharge diffusers downstream ofaxial fans 6

Diagram 11.15
(also Reference 3 in Chapter 3)
_ I:J.p
S=-2-'
pwQl2
Mir)
oci
"'i"
ci
N
ci f
N Q, r{ are the eapacity and efficieney of the fan.
ci

Conieal diffusers

Mir) "'i"
Values of ~
N N
ci ci ci ci f
ci
n]

liDo 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5

N r-- M "'i"
Regime with ,,! > 0.91lbax, Q > Qn
N
ci 0 0 0 f
ci 1.0 1.0 0.94 0.96 1.03
1.75 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0

M M "'i" N N
oci 0 ci ci

NN Ir) N N
cio ci 0 0
Nominal regime ,,! = 0.9,,~ax' Q = Qn

1.0 0.30 0.30 0.40 0.55

\0\0 Ir) N N 1.75 0.35 0.40 0.43 0.46 0.50 0.55
00 0 0 ci
Regime with ,,!?:: 0.9"bax, Q < Qn

~It
1.0 0.25 0.26 0.38
0 1.5 0.22 0.24 0.28 0.35 0.43 0.54 0.63
\0
M 0 00

~~
111 \0

§~
Step diffusers
6"
d:
0\ ~N nr
0\ ------
liDo 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0

~[ij
-~
..-
__

..-
t

Regime with ,,! ?: 0.91l~ax' Q < Qn

1.0 0.65 0.51 0.64 0.95

1.5 0.72 0.66 0.72 0.79
Nominal regime,,! = 0.9,,~ax, Q = Qn
1.0 0.23 0.27 0.32 0.40 0.54
1.5 0.3 0.23 0.30 0.38
Regime with Qmax
1.0 0.18 0.16 0.32 0.55
1.5 0.13 0.16 0.25 0.38 0.53
 Flow at the Exil jrom Tubes and Channels 755
754 Handbook oj Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

Discharge from a straight walled elbow (0 = 90°) Discharge from a straight walled elbow (0
28
=90°) Diagram 11.16
Diagram 11.16 with a sharp corner in the turn
with a sharp corner in the turn 28

Values of ~Ioc (graph b)

_ D.p II [ boJ2
S = - 2 - = Sloc + A -b -b ' where for A., see Diagrarns 2.1 through 2.6.
pwQl2 I I II
b] bo
tloc V\ bo 1.0 1.5 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 15.0
(a) 0 0.5
I 8.8 9.5 7.2 6.6 6.3 6.0 5.9 5.8 5.8
0.5

' ..... t;llg.,t 1.0 2.7 3.2 3.3

2.2
3.1
2.2
2.9
2.1
2.3
1.8
2.1
1.6
2.0
1.4
2.0
1.4
1.4 1.8 2.1
I I 2.0 1.3 1.5 1.6 1.5 1.5 1.4 1.3 1.2 1.1
I
I
tlJ
:-':-r- I I
2 .(~

. ~4-ZQ

o z
Elbow of square cross section (arjb o = 1.0)

Sloc = f(~J, see graph a,

Elbow of rectangular cross section (ar/b o = 4)

Values of ~loc (graph a) SIOC = f(~J, see graph c.

II
bl
bo
bo
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 15.0
0.5 9.0 10 7.6 6.7 6.5 6.2 6.2 6.1 5.9
1.0 2.9 3.0 2.9 2.8 2.6 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 rr _0. (C)

"
1.4 2.0 2.2 2.1 1.6 1.5 1.5 I
2.2 1.9 1/8
2.0 1.3 1.5 1.6 1.6

rloc
1.6

lI\
1.4 1.3 1.2 1.1

(b)
1
~
-0;;..,
-- b;.~"4

\ 1 ~ r......
8

I 'I-... 'IJ,/IJ,-IM - ~ "- (li

LI,
,yb,,""Z<
.(0 _.... !
fJ 2 10

Z - '- -
.;.;..;.-
tlJ
t ..
II'I/tJ, ..l.IJ Values of ~loc (graph c)
11 t I f() 1Z ,I, 1,/1,
Plane elbow (arjb o == 0.25) lJ
b] bo
Sloc =f(~l see graph b.
bo
0.5
0
9.9
0.5
8.5
1.0
7.6
1.5
7.1
2.0
6.8
4.0
6.2
6.0
5.9
8.0
5.7
15.0
5.6
3.2 3.3 3.5 3.4 3.0 2.1 2.1 2.1 2.0
1.0
2.0 2.2 ?"'
_ •.J 2.2 2.0 1.7 1.6 1.6 1.5
1.4
1.3 1.4 1.4 1.3 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.1 1.1
2.0
 756 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition Flow at the Exit from Tubes and Channels 757

Discharge from a smooth elbow at 8 = 900 38 Diagram 11.17 Discharge from abend and a composite elbow at 8 = 90° 3,37 Diagram 11.18

Elbow with r/b o = 0.2:

S= P:2 =f(ta}
see graph a.
No. where Sloc = f(rJb o, lI/ba). For A, see Diagrarns 2.1 through 2.6.
0.5 1.0 2.0
4.92 2.80 1.3

!B)
21'1.
1
\
Values of ~loc

18 ~ lt
\ bo
\ r
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 3.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 12.0
\. Elbow with r/b o = var. bo
zo
" ........
........
~
S=f(*} see graph b .
0.0
0.2
0.5
2.95
2.15
1.80
3.13
2.15
1.54
3.23
2.08
1.43
3.00
1.84
1.36
2.72
1.70
1.32
2.40
1.60
1.26
2.24
1.56
1.22
2.10
1.52
1.19
2.05
1.49
1.19
2.00
1.48
1.19
1.2 1.0 1.46 1.19 1.11 1.09 1.09 1.09 1.09 1.09 1.09 1.09
2.0 1.19 1.10 1.06 1.04 1.04 1.04 1.04 1.04 1.04 1.04

~K (b)

,
!.~

l'-. 4Ibl1=tl~
bl/bo 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
\/ [M1I=Zti 0.5 5.20 4.92 4.64 4.44
~z~

"'"
tU 2.0 1.40 1.30 1.23 1.17
~: ...... ' -+- ......... tloc r - r
i"-.... r/bo No. ! !

Q,f a.s
!ooo <! o bl/bo
0.5
0.5
4.31
0.6
4.24
0.8
4.20
1.0
4.18 ],0
/.\
2.0 1.11 1.05 0.95 0.87 _. ._~
ZD
\
*
--- - -1--
Elbow with 0 = 90° (b/b o = 2.0) with five thin guide vanes:
K .r/IJI1~1J
--
:
S =f( J' see graph c.
Composite elbow ZZ
"'\ . . . . r--
I
II i\
~
0.4 0.8 f.8
(c)
r/bo Da
/15
1"'-
..........
Characteristics 0.2 0.5 1.0 1.52 1.41
"\
'I'--.
- r-
02

- e, deg I.~
~ 70 72-74 72-74 ........ as
I-- ~ ""'- r-. tlJ r/b/J""ZO
<PI, deg 154 99 90
1.0 ~
aß t; 0.59 0.49 0.44 o 2 G
 758 Handbook 01 Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition Flow at the Exit from Tubes and Channels 759

Air distributors with perforated outlet3,9,23 Air distributors with perforated outlet3,9,23 Diagram 11.19
Diagram 11.19

Thin-walled distributor with perforated lateral outlet:

Characteristics of the device and scheme
- öp
pwQl2 fo
o
V JO.15 =J Jo,V
~=-2---=Z+ (1
h
lo .
- 1.8
h
t- J

Two-jet, six-diffuser of the VDSh type

1.9
Values of ~ of the VNIIST design'

4Fo
Dh=ilo lo Jo
Dh 0.5 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
- Far
0.5 <fo = F < 3.0 10 8.61 6.41 4.22 3.21 2.21 1.86 1.69 1.61
o
20 8.77 5.57 4.38 3.37 2.37 2.02 1.85 1.77
F1 30 8.87 6.67 4.48
O<~< 1.0 3.47 2.47 2.12 1.95 1.87
40 8.94 6.74 4.55 3.54 2.54 2.19 2.02 1.94
Non-standard perforated distributor 2.4
(rectangu1ar or circular)
- Far
(al J= F =0.04--0.10
I o
8.Q

to

5.0
,,~
Standardized, perforated distributor
of circular cross seetion:

1) VK-1 (6 rows of orifices)*

2) VK-2 (12 rows of orifices) *
(~

F O=4'
1.7-2.0
is based on the area

1tD6
where D o is the diameter of
the attached pipe).
40
~1
;t
, -~ 11 ~I~ ~ ~I ~I ~~
A
~ ~

I ~~
~ t,/.P,i-if JIJ
.
~
>
-~r=k
.1NI'l
:.:±=I- .-I--+- '-1+~
.. - .. +-t- - - t-

tO P;!-J ~
tu Io/JJq -!()
1 JL
ff
fJ~ lJ.8 %Z tG f6
Top view

--
~'l
2t
~
26

Vaned distributor: JQ
J2
(b) Orifice

'~
~=f(a) . 5~ ~ ------t--~
~
\
~ ~ ~ ~ ~
I-
.....1'= ~r- r-FF
P'"
.- -.- .;,- [
. ta~t5'l?1
. - -

1 Values of ~
-~~t-

~~~-d.J
.... __ir __
I--
I
~

J I
Values
a, deg
~ f~_ . ..t
.... + .I' -~:mber$ of air ducts
;
Typical arrangement
of outlet orifices

~ f 2
V 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 Scheme of disposition
/ of orifices along length
~ 1. Profiled airfoils 6.4 2.7 1.7 1.4 1.6 -
1 ~ i-"' VI 2. Sirnrlified curvature - 1.5 1.2 1.2 1.4 1.8 2.4 3.5
*These are Russian designations of particular configurations.
JIJ 50 lO
 Flow at the Exitfrom Tubes and Channels 761
760 Handbook of Hydrmtlic Resistance, 4th Edition

Air distributors with perforated outlet3,9,23 Diagram 11.19

Air distributors with perforated outlet3,9,23 Diagram 11.19

t=~
Characteristics of the device and scheme s=~ Characteristics of the device and scheme - pwal2
pwal2

At the wall, of the VP type * 6.8

Slotted, with parallel guide vanes at

f-=~>08
Fa - .
!: ~~~~~~~~~~~~ ~ 1.5

t::!1'1: I ! , I I ;,' I , ! ! I ~)

l,+M

fl~1
Rectangular, in the form of a grating 1.8
with parallel guide vanes

Static (volute-type) centrifugal

distributor (a) inlet; !:111
~tt
(b) inlet exhaust.

Optimum characteristics:
Ro == 0.5do exp (<p/21t)
(logarithmic coil);
lq
:r
h/ao == 1.05

~=0.8-O.9 Spray; branch pipe * 0.75

6.5

~
~ = 0.85-0.90
da
D dis
Ta= 1.3-1.5 -----r-r-
(a)

With revolving out of the pp type * 1.1

With three diffusers 1.1

*Russian design designations.

*Russian design designations.
 762 Handbook 01 Hydra~tlic Resistance, 4th Edition Flow at the Exitfrom Tubes and Channels 763

Air distributors with perforated outlet3,9,23 Air distributors with perforated outlet3,9,23 Diagrarn 11.19
Diagrarn 11.19

Characteristics of the device and scherne r.,=~ Characteristics of the device and scheme r., = 8.{
pw o/2 pw o/2

Combined inlet-exhaust dome In the form of a hemisphere with slots 2.0

of the VK type 2.0 Fo/Fa = 1.4

In the form of a ceiling dome: 1.0

With fan grating of the RB type,
bo/D o =0.2 4.0 of the VNIIST design: *
bo/Do =0.3 2.3 (ß = 45°, ß = 60°, ß = 90°)
1.9
bo/Do =0.4

With a universal tray dome

of the VU type:

a) with a raised disk 3.0

b) with a Iowered disk 1.9 With a regulating grating
Type A, B
_ ef-- B,
grating D
t 2.2 3.3

In the form of a hemisphere

with orifices:

For/FO = 0.56 In the form of a cylinder 0.9

11.0
with perforated surface
For/Fo=3.9 1.0
Fo/Fa = 4.7

*Russian design designations.

 Flow at the Exitfrom Tubes and Channels 765
764 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

32 Exhaust vents of rectangular cross section; lateral Diagram 11.21

Straight and circular exhaust vents 26
4 Diagram 11.20 openings with and without fixed louvers
Re = wo!Dov > 10

No. of curve Vent type Scheme Resistance coefficient S== /!,.:

pwo/2

With plane
baffle
Values of 1;

h/Do
Vent 0.10 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 !!:. = 0 5 j~ = nobh
B' Fa
3.40 2.60 2.10
2
4.00 2.30 1.90 1.60 1.40
2 With split
4 2.90 2.30 1.90 1.70 Straight vents
canopy
5 2.60 1.20 1.00 0.80 0.70
Resistance coefficient
h/Do
Vent 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.80 1.0 r,=~
- pw8/2
1.70 1.40 1.20 UO 1.00
2 3.50 2.00 1.50 1.20 1.10
3 1.30 1.15 1.10 1.00 1.00 bi/h::: 0.024
Layout of openings bi/h =0.029
4 1.50 1.30 1.20 1.10 1.00
With hood 5 0.65 0.60 0.60 0.60 0.60 Without Without I/bi::: 1.6 ilbi::: 1.4
NO.of Without b/h
openings louvers louvers f louvers a/bi =0.058 albi::: 0.07

.... 1
2-
1- -- -
One
0 0 0.36 J.S 15.5 22.0

4 With hood
2
,..J

"J..- .;
lL..- "
Two
D0 0.36 1.5 5.00 7.20

\~ \ \
and split
canopy

\
Three
D 0 0.36 1,5 3.50 5.00

tG
\ '\~
l\ \ Four
0 0 0.36 1,5 2.20 2.60 3.50

5 With diffuser
and hood
aß 1\
'-
~~

" -
0 0 0.24 l.0 5.30 7.00 10.0

0
QI,s
o flZ alt flG 123 to /lIDo
D 0.12 0.5 15.6 19.6 29.0
766 Flow at the Exit from Tubes and Channels 767
Handbook 0/ Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

Exhaust vents of rectangular cross section; lateral Discharge from a straight tube through an orifice or a perforated
orenings with and without fixed louvers 26 Diagram 11.21 plate (grid) with sharp-edged orifices (l/dh = 0-0.015);16--18 Diagram 11.22
5
Re =WOdh/V :2 10
Resistance coefficient

s=~
pw3/2 r':0 :::
- -2-:::
t,p r--=-2 1
(1 + 0.707'11 - f) =Z' see the graph.
Cl== 300 Cl==45° pwQl2 f
Layout of openings bi/h == 0.029 bi/h::: 0.024
,
NO.of
openings
Without
louvers
With
louvers f b/h
Without
louvers
ilbi::: 1.6
Bibi 0.058
l/bi == 1.4
Bibi 0.07
Perforated plate
1$0
i

W-- 1-;-- ~i
~

I- I-
9~ I- .~ Region A
.- -~+ -~-

[! i
c--I--
Orifice r- !-l- 1
One
[J] []J 0.36 1.5 14.0 18.6
IM
1--- --~ :"'-f-
-- S
"\
i'\:
- t-. -r-

[J] OJ 0.36 1.5 17.6 26.0

!()(J
'\
1\
J " .......
.......
r-.
f
\ 05 M 11.7 11.8 IJ.!J i
Two
[J] DJ 0.36 1.5 5.20 6.60 d" = Dar
4fo
1\
\
I
I
f=Fo/Fo ~ I I
[J] OJ 0.36 1.5 7.00 9.30 20
~
.......
1'0'00
Region A

I I

Three []] OJ 0.36 1.5 4.00 4.60

0.1 IlZ OS 0.4 fl.5 0.& 1J.1 IlB 111' f

[] OJ 0.36 1.5 7.00 9.00

Four
CD OJ 0.36 1.5 4.00 4.20 5.00
f 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45

[]] OJ 0.24 1.0 6.60 8.00 10.7

f
S 1107

0.50 0.55
273

0.60
119

0.65
66

0.70 0.75
41.4

0.80
28.2

0.85
20.3

0.9
15.2

0.95
11.8

1.0

[ ] [J] 0.12 0.5 16.0 20.0 29.5

S 9.30 7.49 6.12 5.05 4.20 3.52 2.95 2.47 2.06 1.63 1.0
 Flow at the Exitfrom Tubes and Channels 769
768 Handbook 0/ Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

Discharge from a straight tube through an orifice or a perforated Diagram 11.23

plate l 6-18 (grid) with differently shaped orifice edges; Re = w~IJ/v > 10
Discharge from a straight tube through an orifice or a perforated 4
Diagram 11.23
plate l 6-18 (grid) with differently shaped orifice edges; Re - w=dIJ/v > 104
Resistance coefficient
Resistance coefficient Scheme and graph r,=~
Scheme and graph pwJ!2

-
~,F,
~ == [1 + s'(l _])0.75 + 2{f x (1 - f>D.375] Tz '
S= [1 + 0.5(1-1>°·75 + 1"(1 _1>0.375 + A *]f ' where ~' == f(i}
where for A, see Diagrarns 2.1 through 2.6; 1" = !CZld,,) .

Orifice edges rounded in the flow direction

Thick-waIled orifices , r 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
I (cl 0 0.01
dh
r
t2 "- (B)
dh 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 r\ S' 0.50 0.44 0.37 0.31 0.26 0.22

i' I I\. r
0.06 0.08 0,12 0.16 0.20
'\ 1 1" 1.35 1.22 1.10 0.84 0.42
t'.. dh
(18 02 0.03
i\ I 1.0 1.2 1.6 2.0 2.4
r-.... t--. S' 0.19 0.15 0.09 0.06
'\ I dh r-- t-- I-- I--
1"- 1" 0.24 0.16 0.07 0.02 0
l"- r- f.-. J
(J lldh Dischargerrom a tube through an orit1ce or a perforater
plate (grid) with differently shaped orifice edges in transition Diagram 11.24
= 5
and laminar regions (Re Woodh/V > 104_10 , tentatively)16-18

~ =[ 1 + S'(l-1>0.75 + 2{f x (1 - f>D.375J{z ,

where ~'= f(l/ dh ) .

2) 10 < Re < 25:

r 33 1 -
'" = Re ji + cOReSquad ;

3) Re< 10:
Orifice edges beveled in the flow direction 33 1
S= Re ji'
, 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04
where EORe':= fz(Re) and Sep = f!(Re, FoIFj), see Diagrarn 4.19 (it is as-
dh sumed thatf:= Fa/FO corresponds to FoIFj) Squad is determined as at Re

" ~
f".-r--.-
(b)
1"

dh
0.46

0.06
0.42

0.08
0.38

0.12
0.35

0.16
> 104_105 from Diagrams 11.22 and 11.23.

Q,f
r---. ""'- r--
1" 0.29 0.23 0.16 0.13
o 012 lid"
 Flow at the Exitfrom Tubes and Channels 771
770 Handbook ojHydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

Discharge from a strai§ht channel through Diagram 11.26

Side discharge from the end orifice of a circular
Diagram 11.25 a fixed louver gratin!,? ,40
pipe (data of the author and of Reference 36)

'~~.! , (a)

No. .

..:'1
F ~
10
8
'Q \
,
o.o
tSi~le orificl' TWO orificss 8
rr.; Z
i'. r--. No. 1. Inlet edges are cut vertically No. 2. Inlet edges are cut horizontally.
I'-- -0;.;;;
r--.i'--
0.2 IJ.'I Q6 08 10 {t !~ t~ 1

~p
S =-,-=11=-
pw ö/2
FürJ
Fo
f-
Number of orifices 1 S= ß[
pw0l2 0 j
1
=k[1+0.85(1- !t-J+Sfr]3(;OJ2 =kIS';
gr
0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.2 1.1 1.6 1.8
One (curve 1)
Two {curve 2)
65.7
67.7
30.0
33.0
16.4
17.2
10.0
11.6
7.30
8.45
5.50
6.80
4.48
5.86
3.67
5.00
3.16
4.38
4.44
3.47 2.90 2.52 2.25
2) ~«i-J
b'
1
b'
1 üpt
: S=k1S'+ßS,

where k = 1.0 for No. 1; k = 0.6 for No. 2.

ZO0
100 \\!
I I, I
, ~ !
I I I!
I I 11 I I
Ibl
ßS "" 0.5[ 11 (1 -1> - *] S[r = A. *; for A., see Diagrarns 2.1 through 2.6.

SO
40 : ' , At ~ = (1-J ' 1= Für = Für and A. = 0.064 (at Re = wePl/v = 10
3
)
I b1 b1 Fgr FO
ZU
10
~~b~D,~~/J,-1Z46 i II üpt

For values of S' =10, see the graph.

8
6

41~~IUN!70~ I I
T,I I I I I I fiT"-
1).1 QJ 9.5 0.7 /).9 1.1 I,} !.S I
Values of ~

b 1
Do I
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 ~
0.13 253 63.3 28.1 15.9 ZOO l
0.26
0.38
248
244
62.0
61.0
27.7
27.1
15.7
15.5
10.2
10.1
7.22
7.12
5.43
5.36 4.25
tOD 1\
80
0.48 240 60.0 26.6 15.3 9.90 7.00 5.26 4.17 GO
0.62 228 57.0 25.6 14.6 9.60 6.80 5.15 4.07 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 IN}
0.7 220 55.0 24.8 14.3 9.30 6.60 5.05 4.00
1
S 247 55.0 23.8 12.3 7.00
20
"
b
1 0,6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 \
Do 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 10
4.60 3.00 2.06 1.43 1.00 3
S ß
0.13 .....
0.26 4<
0.38 3.56 3.00
2
'" I"
0.48 3.46 2.93 2.93 2.56 2.29
........ r--.....
0.62 3.36 2.85 2.48 2.22 2.01 1.86 1.73 f
0.70 3.31 2.80 2.44 2.18 1.92 1.82 1.69 1.56 1.52 01 OJ 0.7
 ~.~ [g.;J 8,~g~
'-->,1
~
:e ~ g t:i -...l
~
11 0
::l ..... -...l
::l 0
.g Clc: '"
~ :e <:
~ '"0 Q.'l'">llg'">l 3 &3 o.~
N
o (Jq
N '"
r:::..::T (I) ~ 1-/0.
gg.aQ::r'
~ 1'0 1'0
g. :=:.. P"
o..~ o'
11 CI>
Cl> I'> ,Cl> :;i I'> 0
<:
Cl> ~ ~
e; e;
::l (Jq
S §:S g;.. g g. 00 00 g g Jg.
{Jq
(I)
~ 3
'" (1)
o
'" s (JQ S "s. ~ g-
n
o '"
(I)
n
!
o
8.S; '*!'?,§
-
g. <--,,1Cl>
11 0..
11
:e
S;
-
~!g.
Er 8-
&: ~.
'< '">l
~ c:
~
CI>
n o Q Ej ~. ::l
ri
~
't:I ....... ::l
~
(J~ g (JQ'">l
a. ~II
~
0..
~::l
! &.
~

I
~
~
CI)
(I)
(1)
~
'"
n

lI \~~ j
P"
(I)
S
!
(1) CI)
n
~ ~
P"

~
t·
t:i

f~
w
~ ~
;::

~I''"''
~l~'
~
a
a
U'< ~:e U'<
~
"'"
~
U'<
11 :§~ 11
U'<
3[ 11
~.
~
11

*'
+
\.N
:4
oVl '8 SI
~. ,-,.
t!.,
u.
tJCl>

~.~
ort
111 g ~
/ ~I~ S ~ ~
~oo~~ I E-
...
'-----../ ;a
g.t:i
'<!.....
(1)

f 1- •

~ §.
Cl>
~N~
u
"IV
8
(1)

:::g
(I)
r:;'
~
~~
~
;.....
00
1 '$
1'0
(? 't:I
8
::l
't:I

e::.
~~
<J)
0..
~
ö'
(ji'
g
t:i
cfJ'
~
~
1::;'
\:i
;::
(")
.n>
....
%~ N
-.l
;;,t.

o
(;l
~
g §'

~
Free jet of circular cross section I Diagram 11.28 a
:;s
~
t;=~~- S-
p 6 -l-e- n>
W 12
g:
j
~
~
\:)"'
n>
'";::\::l
~

9\::l
;::
;::
n>
1. Initial section (S::; 9):* c::;-

q == Q/Qo = 1 + O.073s + O.002s 2 + O.OOOls3 + O.000002s 4 ,

e == 2E/mow~ = 1 - O.ü36S - O.0008s 2 + O.OOOO6S 3 + O.000002s 4 ,

ec = (1- O.25S)2 + O.54s(1- O.44S)K1 - O.27sK2 '

where for K j and K2 , see Table 11.3 or Equations (11.6);

Fs == F/Fo = (1 + 0.1448)2; wm = wm/wo= 1 .

2. Main section (S;::: 12):

q == Q/Qo= 1 + O.155S; 7i,; = 92Htls, where for H I , see Table 11.3 or Equation (11.7a);

Wm = wm/wo:::: 12.41S Fis = (O.22S)2 ,

q is the relative discharge e

the given cross section of the jet; is the relative energy residue in the given
~
cross section of the jet; Fs relative area of the given cross section of the jet. w
Free jet of circlJlar cross section I -....l
Diagram 11.28 -....l
"'"
s=s/Ro
Parameters 0 2 4 6 9 10 11 12 12.5 15 20 25 30 40 50
q 1.0 1.15 1.32 1.49 1.76 1.85 1.90 2.0 1.94 2.33 3.10 3.88 4.65 6.20 7.75
e 1.0 0.93 0.86 0.77 0.67 0.60 0.58 0.55 0.53 0.52 0.39 0.31 0.26 0.19 0.16
ec 1.0 0.87 0.76 0.66 0.53 0.50 0.46 0.43 0.41 0.34 0.25 0.18 0.13 0.07 0.05
Wm 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.99 0.83 0.62 0.50 0.41 0.31 0.25
Ps 1.0 1.66 2.48 3.48 5.27 6.25 6.5 7.0 7.50 10.9 19.4 30.3 43.6 77.5 121

f!' , WI
c....;.:,:::,1!
1{J() 'IJJ f-1,4W"
I ~ [T

9IJ 1.2 ra9~ 1\ ~V

41~
lfJ t~
-(}.7 ~~
\
\. Wm
/
, ....{/
./
~
~
1Q 5.6
fit! ~I
.n~
r\,\ "w., :/ <:::l
<:::l
?:;-<

5fJ1tIJ ; ea '\ '" i "I/; .,. ~

f-tl~ f\ ~/~ ~
t:ar ' / ":>< ............... ~
i'::

raZ 1
V ) ............. --... --.... ....... r-, ~
~
r-- r- ~ 1--1
(\:)

!O {J.JJ 0.1 I/' I ' I"'...... '" i'.... '"

;:;;.
~V ...... r-..._ B
;:,:
(")
(J 0 (J 4- 11/ 16 20 ZI, Z8 11 J5 M '4 M'SIHo .(\:)

.J.::..
S.
*See the footnote to para. 33 of Seetion 11.1 ~
5"
;:,:

~
Plane-parallel free jetl Diagram 11.29 <:::l
::t
a
s.
t;,==~-
p 6 -l-e-
(\:)

W 12 g:
i ;;J
~
~
(\:)

'"
§
~

9
§
;:,:
1. Initial section (s::; 9):* (\:)
c:;-
q == Q/Qo = 1 + 0.0365; e== 2E/(mow6) = 1- 0.019s;
ec = 1 - 0.27s(0.416 - K l ); where for K I , see Table 11.3 or Equation (11.6a)
2. Main section (s> 12)

q= 0.3751:; e== 3.l/1S; wm == wm/wo = 3.8/1S;

"Ps == F,/Fo= 0.22s; fic = 12Hzl1S, where for H 2, see Table 11.3 or Equation (11.7b); for the nomencJature,
see Diagram 11.28.

Parameters o 2 4 6 9 10 11 12 12.5 15 20 25 30 40 50
:
q 1.0 1.07 1.14 1.216 1.32 1.35 1.38 1.40 1.42 1.45 1.68 1.875 2.05 2.372 2.51

e 1.0 0.96 0.92 0.89 0.83 0.81 0.80 0.78 0.76 0.73 0.67 0.60 0.55 0.48 0.43

ec 1.0 0.95 0.89 0.84 0.77 0.75 0.73 0.71 0.71 0.65 0.55 0.47 0.40 0.33 0.26

Wm 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.99 0.98 0.96 0.95 0.92 0.85 0.76 0.69 0.60 0.54

Ps 1.0 1.32 1.63 1.95 2.42 2.50 2.60 2.70 2.90 3.30 4.40 5.50 6.60 8.80 11.0 -....l
-....l
Ul
 777
Flow at the Exitfrom Tubes and Channels
776 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

REFERENCES
Abramovich, G. N., Theory 0/ Turbulent Jets, Fizmatgiz Press, Moscow, 1960, 715 p.
l.
Averiyanov, A. G. et al., Ventilation 0/ Shops 0/ Shipbuilding Works, Sudostroenie Press, Moscow,
2.
1969, 268 p.
Baturin, V. V. and Shepelev, I. A., Aerodynamic characteristics of intake nozzles, in Modern
3.
Problems 0/ Ventilation, pp. 23-35, Stroiizdat Press, Moscow, 1941.
Bl1lsilovskiy, I. V., Determination of the optimal parameters of the diffusers ofaxial fans and of
4.
their energy characteristics from experimental data, in Prom. Aerodin., vyp. 2(34), pp. 118-133,
Mashinostroenie Press, Moscow, 1987.
Bushel, A. R., Reduction of inner losses in a shaft installation having an axial ventilator, Tr. MAP,
5.
no. 673, 50, 1948.
6.
Bychkova, L. A., Recommendations on the Calculation 0/ Hydraulic Resistances 0/ the Complex
Elements 0/ Ventilation Systems, Moscow, 1981, 32 p.
Ginzburg, Ya. A. and Idelchik, I. E., Experimental determination of the pressure reduction coeffi-
7.
cients in conical diffusers at 1arge subsonic ve10cities and under different inlet conditions, Uch.
\ J Zap. TsAGI, vol. IV, no. 3, 23-31, 1973.
Gore1ov, G. M. and Freidin, A. S., Some results of an experimental investigation of a diffuser
~ \ I 1 8.
with f10w backing at the exit, Tr. Kuibyshev. Aviats. Inst., vyp. 15, part 2, 35-42, 1963.
,~ It:). H I I 11 9.
Grimitlin, M. 1., Air delivery through perforated air pipelines, Tr. LIOT, 190, Leningrad, 1960.
Deich, M. E. and Zaryankin, A. E., Gas Dynamics 0/ Diffusers and Exhaust Pipes 0/ Turbomachi-
'\~ J\ II 10.
nes, Energiya Press, Moscow, 1970, 384 p.

"V ) ~ I Dovzhik, S. A. and Guinevskiy, A. S., Experimental investigation of pressure head pipes of sta-
I 1l.
tionary axial turbomachines, Tekh. Otchyoty, no. 130, 13, 1955.
11.c... ...
~ Ij I 12.
Dovzhik, S. A. and Morozov, V. I., Experimental investigation of circular diffusers ofaxial tur-
bomachines, in Prom. Aerodin., vyp. 20, pp. 168-201, Oborongiz Press, Moscow, 1961.

I-- f-~
J\. j ,4
13.
Idelchik, I. E., Flow aerodynamies and pressure head losses in diffusers, in Prom. Aerodin., no. 3,

fY I~T/ ~
~ ~ pp. 132-209, Oborongiz Press, Moscow, 1947.
Idelchik, I. E., Hydraulic resistance during f10w entrance into channels and passage through ori-
14.
fices, in Prom. Aerodin., no. 2, pp. 27-57, Oborongiz Press, Moscow, 1944.
Idelchik, 1. E., Hydraulic Resistances (Physical and Mechanical Fundamentals), Gosenergoizdat
/ IJi/ "" I~

~
15.
~ I---- • Press, Moscow, 1954, 316 p.
~ t:/ \. 16.
Idelchik, I. E., Determination of the resistance coefficients in discharge through orifices, Gidro-
tekh. Stroit., no. 5, 31-36, 1953.
~ il(/
~[~V
" ~ ,....,
17.
Idelchik, 1. E., Shock losses in the f10w with nonuniform velocity distribution, Tr. MAP, vyp. 662,
1-24, 1948.
Idelchik, 1. E., Account for the viscosity effect on the hydraulic resistance of diaphragms and
18.
~
grids, Teploenergetika, no. 9, 75-80, 1960.
0 Ide1chik, 1. E. and Ginzburg, Ya. L., On the investigation of the Reynolds number and inlet con-
oB 19.
a) ditions effect on the 1aws governing f10w motion in diffusers, in Problems 0/ Ventilation and Air
CIl
...... Conditioning, pp. 224-231, Vysshaya Shko1a Press, Minsk, 1969.
0
C') Idelchik, I. E. and Ginzburg, Ya. L., On the mechanism of the effect of inlet on the resistance of
C') 20.
diffusers, Inzh.-Fiz. Zh., voL 16, no. 3,413-416, 1969.
~
0.. 2l.
Ide1chik, I. E. and Ginzburg, Ya. L., Basic results of new experimental investigations of conical
.8 diffusers, in Mechanical Cleaning 0/ Industrial Gases, pp. 178-210, NIIOGAZ, Mashinostroenie
B Press, Moscow, .
0
=
(:) 22.
Ide1chik, 1. E. and Ginzburg, Ya. L., Simple mean to reduce the resistance of short diffusers with
<.8 large divergence angles, Vodosnabzh. Sanit. Tekh., no. 10, pp. 27-30, 1971.
a)
.fi
'l.l
'l.l
*C/'J
 778 Handbook oj Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

CHAPTER
23. Klyachko, L S., Pustoshnaya, V. Po, and Chemodanova, O. V., Static (snail-like) centrifugal air
distributor, in Problems 0/ Design and Mounting 0/ Sanitary-Engineering Systems (Tr. VNIIGS),
vyp. 28, pp. 16-25, Stroiizdat Press, Moscow, 1970.
TWELVE
24. Lokshin, I. L and Gazirbekova, A. Kh., Operation of diffusers insta11ed behind centrifugal fans, in
Prom. Aerodin., no. 6, pp. 127-152, Oborongiz Press, Moscow, 1955. RESISTANCE TO FLO'\tV THROUGH
25. Nosova, M. M., Resistance of entry and exit pipes with baffles, in Prom. Aerodin., no. 7, pp.
95-100, Oborongiz Press, Moscow, 1956. " VARIOUS TYPES OF APPARATUS
26. Nosova, M. M. and Tarasov, N. Po, Resistance of intake shafts, in Prom. Aerodin., pp. 197-215,
Oborongiz Press, Moscow, 1959.
RESISTANCE COEFFICIENTS OF APPARATUS
27. Nosova, M. M. and Barnakova, T. S., Resistance of inlet and outlet orifices in the presence of the AND OTHER EQUIPMENT
passing stream, in Prom. Aerodin., no. 15, pp. 20-38, Oborongiz Press, Moscow, 1959.
28. lndustrial Aerodynamics, no. 6, BNl MAP, 1956, 181 p.
29. Fedotkin, M. P., On pressure head losses in two-phase flow discharge from tubes, lzv. VUZ, En-
ergetika, no. 8, 69-77, 1966.
30. Khanzhonkov, V. 1., Aerodynamic characteristics of a square ventilation deflector of the Central
Aerodynamic Hydrodynamic Institute and of its modifications, in Prom. Aerodin., vyp. 1(33), pp.
88-106, Mashinostroenie Press, Moscow, 1986.
31. Khanzhonkov, V. I., Resistance to discharge through orifices in a wall in the presence of a passing
stream, in Prom. Aerodin., no. 15, pp. 5-19, Oborongiz Press, Moscow, 1959.
32. Khanzhonkov, V. I., Resistance of intake shafts, in Prom. Aerodin., no. 3, pp. 214-219, Oborongiz
Press, Moscow, 1947.
33. Khanzhonkov, V. I., Resistance of screens, in Prom. Aerodin., no. 2, pp. 101-115, Oborongiz
Press, Moscow, 1944.
34. Khanzhonkov, V. I., Improvement of the efficiency of diffusers with large divergence angles by 12.1 EXPLANATIONS AND PRACTICAL
means of plane baffles, in Prom. Aerodin., no. 3, pp. 210-214, Oborongiz Press, Moscow, 1947. RECOMMENDATIONS: GAS OR AIR SCRUBBERS
35. Khanzhonkov, V. I., Reduction of the aerodynamic resistance of orifices by circular fins and re-
cesses, in Prom. Aerodin., no. 12, pp. 181-198, Oborongiz Press, Moscow, 1959. L Gas or air scrubbers can be divided into several groupings according to the principles used
36. Khanzhonkov, V. I. and Davydenko, N. I., Resistance of side orifices of the terminal section of a for separating the fluid from suspended particles. The resistance of the following is consid-
pipeline, in Prom. Aerodin., no. 15, pp. 38-46, Oborongiz Press, Moscow, 1959. ered here: inertial louver-type dust separators, ordinary and battery-type cyclones, wet scrub-
37. Khanzhonkov, N. N. and Taliev, V. N., Reduction of resistance of square side branches by means
bers, porous and cloth filters, and eIectrostatic filters.
of guide vanes, Tekh." Otchyoty, no. 10, 16, 1947.
2. Iii Inertial"louver-type dust separators, the entefing gas tTowl'S' spiit-by-the1ouver slats
38. Yudin, E. Ya., Elbows with thlnguide vanes, in Prom. Aerodin., no. 7, pp. 55-80, Oborongiz
Press, Moscow, 1956.
into fine jets and they turn sharply about these slats (Figure 12.1). This gives rise to centrifu-
39. Bevier, C. W., Resistance of wooden louvers to fluid flow, Heating, Piping and Air Conditioning, o-al forces under the action of which the dust particles separate from the flow. The impact of
e
May, pp. 25-33, 1955. the dust particles on the slats and their reflection aids this separation.
40. Cobb, P. R., Pressure loss of air through 45-degree wooden louvers, Heating, Piping and Air Con- The degree to which the gas is cleaned depends on the flow velocity at the moment it
ditioning, December, pp. 41-45, 1953. reaches the louver slats, the dust particle size and density, the gas viscosity and density, the
41. Hofmann, A., Die Energieumsetzung in saugrohrähnlicherweiterten Düsen, Mitteilungen, no. 4, curvature radius of the trajectory of the jet passing through the louver grating, and the design
90-95, 1931.
of the dust separator.
3. The process of separation of suspended particles from the flow in cyclones is based on
the utilization of inertial forces during helical motion of the tTow in the body of the cyclone,
startino- at the tangential iniet and ending at the dust discharge orifice in the bottom of the
body (Figure 12.2). As the flow moves along the descending (outer) spiral, part of it is di-
rected at decreasing velo city toward the exhaust pipe, while the particles suspended in it are
thrown to the wall of the body and continue to move with the remaining part of the flow
toward the dust discharge orifice.
A certain portion of the flow that moves along the outer spiral passes through the dust
dis charge orifice into a receptacle, carrying the suspended particles with it. In the receptacle,
the flow gradually loses its velocity, with the resuit that the particles suspended in it settle out.
779
 Flow through Various Types of Apparatus 781
780 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

To dust separator
- - - - - Ash-enriched gases
_§KPath followed by gases
~_-""",~A..z.--"",~ '\ _ _ 21!!.d-E~!...PSY:.J2l.es
-
~~~ gases____ :J

To the smoke exhaust

Figure 12.1. Scheme of operation of a louver-type dust separator.

The cleaned gas stream then reenters the dust separator body through the same discharge
orifice, but along the ascending (inner) spiral. The flow moves along this spiral until it enters
the exhaust pipe and continues to move in this pipe. During this motion the flow recombines
with the part of the flow that is being separated from the descending spiral.
4. The degree to which the flow is cleaned in cyclones depends on the design and dimen-
sions of the cyclone, velocity of the dust-laden flow, physical properties of the dust and size
of its particles, physical properties of the moving medium, dust concentration, and other fac-
tors. As a rule, cyclones are most effective when dust particles are larger than 5 !lm.
5. The capacity or output of acyclone is a direct function of its hydraulic resistance. The
smaller the resistance coefficient of a cyc1one, the larger is its output capacity. Theoretically, Figure 12.2. Pattern of flow in the body of the cyclone with a driving volute at the exit.
47
the resistance coefficient of a cyc10ne can be estimated by the method of Klyachk0 or of
62
Minksy and Korchazhkin.
then for the second case (total losses)
The values of the resistance coefficients of different types of cyclones, given in this hand-
book, have been determined experimentally.
For the purpose of comparing the operating performance of different types of cyclones, the 2
pWex
~Ptot =J},psys + -2- =Ilpsys +
(dDl J4 2pW 2l
most typical characteristic is flow velocity in the body of the cyclone. However, for ca1cula-
tions it is more convenient to use the inlet velocity. Therefore, two resistance coefficients are
given for thc cyeloncs:one utilizing thc average in1ct velocity [~o·::::: 2flp/(pw5)] and the
other using the average velocity over the body cross seetion [~1 ::::: 2~pl(pwI)].
6. In the case of a cyc10ne operating in a system where the moving medium discharges
~ltot = ~lsys +
D!)4
from it into a gas pipeline through a comparatively long straight seetion (lId> 10) with a (d
diameter, d, equal to the diameter of the cyc10ne exhaust pipe, the total pressure losses in the
cyclone proper are combined with the swirl of losses of the flow and its straightening down- where Slsys == 2IlP sys /(pw!) is the resistance coefficient of a single cyc10ne operating in the
stream from the cyclone. In this case, friction losses also increase since the rotational motion system, and Sltot == 2~Ptotl(pW!) is the total resistance coefficient of a single cyc10ne with
increases the velocity gradient in the wall· region. All the losses are an inseparable part of the flow dis charge into a large volume.
"local" los ses in the cyc1one. 8. The resistance coefficient of a cyc10ne SI depends on the Reynolds number Re =
7. When the cyc10ne flow discharges into a large volume or into the atmosphere, the wIDl/v, but, unlike the conventional friction coefficient, it increases with Re within certain
whole kinetic energy of the rotating medium issuing from the cyc10ne into the large volume limits and, conversely, decreases with this number. This means that the resistance coefficient
is lost for this cyclone. This energy is greater than that lost in a straight exit seetion during also increases with flow velocity W1 in the cyc10ne at constant Dl and v or with the diameter
deswirling of the jet. It is approximately equal to the value of the kinetic energy based on the of the cyc10ne at constant w! and v. This change in SI is due to the effect of the friction
30
average velocity W ex at the cross section of the exit pipe. Therefore, when for the first case resistance in acyclone on the intensity of flow rotation. ,32 The smaller Re, the higher is the
(cyc1one in the system) surface friction coefficient A. and, consequently, the stronger the cyclone walls retard the flow
during its rotation. Since the major losses in the cyc10ne are associated with the rotational
motion of the medium, a decrease in the intensity of rotation leads to a reduction in the total
_ pWI
iJ..Psys = Slsys -2- , resistance coefficient of the cyclone.
 783
Flow through Various Types 0/ Apparatus
782 Handbook 0/ Hydra ulic Resistance, 4th Edition

9. The relative roughness of the cyclone walIs and the relative size of the local asperities
(protuberances due to welding, seams, etc.) also influence 1; in the same way as Re.
If the absolute roughness of the cyc10ne walls is constant, the resistance coefficient 1;1 in-
creases significantly with the cyc10ne diameter, since in this case the relative roughness de-
creases and, consequently, the friction coefficient and its retarding effect decrease.
For cyc10nes of the TsN* type the coefficient 1;1 increases with the diameter of the cyc10ne
almost up to Dr = 500 mm, after which it can be assumed to be essentially constant. **
10. Increased concentration of suspended particles decreases the cyclone resistance. This is
attributable to a large number of factors: lower turbulence of flow in the presence of sus-
pended partic1es; smalIer portion of energy spent for transportation of solid (or liquid) parti-
eIes and for swirling of the moving medium; and additional retardation of the rotational
motion of the medium by the settling solid (or liquid) particles. 30,32 The greater (within cer-
tain limits) the concentration of suspended particles in the flow, the greater is the decrease in
resistance of the cyclone. ***
11. The cyclone resistance decreases significantly if the flow in the exhaust pipe has less
swirl. The latter is achieved by installing either a special flow straightener (see scheme a of
Diagram 12.2) upstream of the exhaust pipe, or a circular diffuser at the exit from the pipe.
A circular diffuser is effective during both operation of acyclone with discharge into a large
volume (see scheme b of Diagram 12.2) and operation in a piping system (see scheme c of
Diagram 12.2). Simultaneous use of the flow straightener and the circular diffuser is not
efficient.
12. A slight decrease in the cyc10ne resistance is also provided by a volute casing (see
Figure 12.3. Elements of a battery-type dust separator: (a) witb screw vanes; (b) witb swirl vanes.
Figure 12.2 and scheme d of Diagram 12.2), which also allows a simultaneous change in di-
rection of the flow by 90°. A change in the flow direction is also provided by an ordinary
elbow (see schemes c and e of Diagram 12.2). When an elbow with a 90° turn and Raid = section 0-0 to section 2-2; see schemes of Diagrams 12.5 and 12.6). Moreover, the total re-
1.5 is instalIed adjacent to the cyeIone, the resistance of the latter does not increase. Only sistance also accounts for the effect of the inlet conditions into the cyc10ne ~lements.
when the elbow is installed far downstream from the cyeIone (at a distance lid> 12) must its The resistance coefficients Slgr of group-type cyc10nes are calculated Wlth t~e formulas
additional resistance be considered. 38 '.. r forb atterY-l,J 'vpe:·-cyelone~egJv"'n 1-.y_ tbc>
_~",_~_~_~_c"'::'
giveri iriDrägramT2.5, whlle- the c-öeffiClentS':llb· H
·1 1v -. , v, ~ .u~
13. The larger die' cyc10ne diameter~ th~- greater .is ltS output, but with an increase in the
formulas in Diagram 12.6. .
diameter the degree of separation decreases. Therefore, in the case of large fluid quantities it 15. In many cases it is expedient to use direct-flow cycIones, WhlCh have moderate overall
is more expedient to use a group of cyclones of smaller diameter, or a battery-type cyeIone, dimensions with relatively low resistance coefficients. . '
instead of a single cyc10ne of Iarge diameter. Battery-type cyclones differ from grouped cy- Some of these cyc10nes ensure sufficiently high cleaning or separatl?n ~ee Dtagram 12.7).
clones not only in considerabIy smaller dimensions of the cyc10ne elements, but also in de- The efficiency of cleaning depends substantiallyon the degree o~ suchon q = qlQ of a dust-
sign. Thus, to ensure rotation al motion of the flow in the cyeIone elements of a battery-type gas mixture from the cyclone receptacle (where q is the quantlty of the absorbed dust-gas
cyc1one, special guide devices are installed (swirlers with blades set at angles 25-30° toward 3
mixture, m /s). . ' 1 f
the cyeIone axis or screw vanes, Figure 12.3). · 12 7 shows the optimum velocities of the flow m the cross-sectlOna area 0
16 . Dtagram . ffi . . tt' d 'thout
14. The total hydraulic resistance of group-type and battery-type cyclones ineIudes the re- a direct-flow cyc10ne body at which nearly maximum cleaning e lClency l~ a ame Wl .
sistance not only of the cyeIone elements, but also of the supply and discharge sections (from further increase in the velocity and, hence, in the resistance. The lowest resl~ta~ce coefficlent
(S = 1.5-1.7) is provided by a cyc10ne designed by Barakht~nko and Ide1chlk.. .
*This is a specific Russian type. 17 Direct-flow cyclones, especially those with blade sWlrlers, can be eastly arranged. m
'*Some experiments sbow tbat for the cyclones of otber types, for example, of the SDK type, tbe grou~s (batteries). The resistance coefficient of a battery of direct-flow cyclones rematns
resistance coefficient inereases steadily witb Dj (SDK is a Russian pump designation). The teebnical
nearly the same as that for a single cyclone. .
data for tbe types and dimensions of TsN-15 eyclones and also of tbe eyclones of otber types not de- 18. Wet-scrubbing apparatus is often used to increase the removal of su~pended partlcl~s.
seribed in this bandbook are given in Referenee 15.
Improved capture of particles is achieved in wet scrubbers by nozzle spraymg the flow Wlth
***As long as the energy losses for the transportation of suspended particles do not exeeed the resis-
liquid or by a water film on the scrubber surface.
tanee mentioned.
 Flow through Various Types of Apparatus 785
784 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

where Dh is the hydrau1ic diameter of the Venturi tube throat, m; 10 is the length of the
3
throat, m; and the coefficient 3 x 10- is dimensional (s/m).
Equation (12.1) is app1icab1e for Venturi tubes of circu1ar and rectangular (slit) cross sec-
tion with the inner surface finish not more than Ra = 3.2 /lm and is valid at w g ::; 150 m/s
and 0.15 ::; lolDh ::; 10.
22 The resistance coefficient of the Venturi scrubber, allowing for wetting, can be calcu-
1ated .from the following emprricallormu
. e Ias ' d bY D ub'msk aya: 22,23
denve

at Wg ::; 60 m/s

1o J-0.266 r BI. (12.2)

SI =3.5 [ Dh ":JgmO,

at W > 60 rnIs
(I JO.29
Figure 12.4. Venturi serubber: (1) Venturi tube; (2) serubber.
SI =1.68
l
;h Sgml52 ,
(12.3)

Diagrams 12.8 through 12.12 present values of the resistance coefficients S or absolute where
values of the resistance /;:"p for various types of wet-scrubbing apparatus. (I J+O.026
19. A high-performance type of wet scrubber is the Venturi scrubber, consisting of two
main types: a tube-sprayer 1, made in the form of a Venturi tube, and a drop-catcher 2 (Fig-
BI = 1- 0.98
l
;h (12.4)

ure 12.4). This apparatus is characterized by a high flow velocity at its throat (60-150 m/s).
The 1iquid, introduced into the Venturi tube in the form of jets or drops, is fragmented I J-O.045 (12.5)
into very minute particles with large total surface area (large number of particles per volume B2 = 1 - 1.12 ;h
[
unit) by the high gas flow velocity at the throat. Moreover, the high velocity leads to an
increase of the flow turbulence. These factors inerease the probability that the liquid and solid Equations (12.2) to (12.5) have been obtained for the cases where wetting liquid is sup-
particles will collide in a dust-laden gas. Consequently, the process of c1eaning in this kind p1ied through a spray er or tip into the converging portion of Venturi tubes of circular or rec-
of apparatus can be considered essentially as a coagulation process. The coagulated particles tangular (slit) cross section at 0.15 ::; loIDh ::; 12.
are then träpped by Uie~-secorid prutof the Venturi scrubber, that is, by the drop-catcher: 23. D~e to-design and -practica1 cönsiderations, use 15 frequently made of1iafteryturbulellt
20. The resistance coefficient of the Venturi scrubber64,76,83,84,88 is scrubbers composed of several tens of small Venturi scrubbers. To calcu1ate the resistance
coefficient SI of a battery of Venturi tubes of circular cross section (at Dh :=:: 90-100 mm,
a con "" 60-65° " a:=:: 7° lolDh = 0.15) with liquid supplied to a converging portion of each
. ' 22,23
Venturi tube through mechanical sprayers of varlOUS types, Dubmskaya recommends the
following empirical formula:
where Sg == 2/;:"pgl(pgW~) is the resistance coefficient of the Venturi tube without wetting; SI
== 2/;:"p/(Pgw g) is the resistance coefficient of the Venturi tube allowing for the effect of wet-
ting; w g is the mean velocity of the working gas in the throat of the tube-sprayer, m/s; Pg and
PI are the densities of the working gas and of the sprayed liquid in the throat of the tube- 24. The hydraulic resistance of the drop-catcher is determined depending on the selected
sprayer, kg/m 3 ; and mo is the specific discharge of the wetting liquid, m 3/m 3 . type of this apparatus.
21. The resistance coefficient of a "dry" Venturi scrubber (without wetting) can be calcu- 25. A wet dust-catcher supplied with perforated plates (see the scheme of Diagram 12.10)
lated with an approximate formula of Dubinskayi 2,23 derived on the basis of experimental displays different hydrodynamic regimes on interaction of the gas with the liquid:
data: • Regime of a wetted perforated plate
• Bubbling regime
10 - 3 x 10-3 wg [ 0.06 + 0.028 ( 10 Jn~ ,
Sg =0.165+ 0.34 Dh (12.1) • Foam regime
lDh • Wavy regime
 Flow through Various Types 0/ Apparatus 787
786 Handbook 0/ Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

29. Secondary (fine) ventilation filters provide c1eaning of the inflow and outflow air, as
Usually, the dust-catcher operates in a foam regime. 68
weIl as of the air-conditioning and recirculation systems. Among them the most common
26. The resistance of the perforated plate with a layer of foam is determined from the design is the LAKI frame filter (from the Laboratory of Aerosols of the Karpov Physico-
formula suggested by Waldberg 66 ,76,88
chemical Institute) (Diagram 12.16).
Within the filtration rate limits W = 0.01-0.1 mls, the resistance of the LAKI filter is about
2
-05 PgW g twice the resistance of filtering material FP (the filtering material of Petryanov), which is
~p - . A 2 -=]:+~P(J,
2/ equipped with this material.
30. Within filtration rates up to W = 10-20 mls the proportionality of the resistance ~p to
where the rate W is preserved for FP materials

O.7 ( ] 0.35
A=39L -0.57
[(~J ~
/ = Fo!Fgr is the clear area coefficient of the grid (perforated plate); wg is the gas flow ve-
locity in a free cross seetion of the apparatus, mJs; Land G are mass flow rates of liquid and
gas, respectively, through a unit surface of the grid, kg/m 2 .s; and ~P(J is the hydraulic resis-
tance induced by the surface tension forces, Pa.
For slit grids
2cr
~P(J=-b .
sI
For hole grids (from the formula suggested by D. S. Artamonov)
4cr
~P(J= 2 '
1.3dor + 0.08dor
where cr is the surface tension at the gas-liquid interface, N/m; dor is the diameter of the grid
orifice, In; and bsl is· the width of the grid slit; m. *
27. Oil-type filters are used for removal of relatively large particles (above 10 11m) from
air supplied to the room. Air is cleaned as a result of inertial separation of dust particles on
the surface of a porous layer and binding of the particles on these surfaces by oil films.
The hydraulic resistance of unified cell filters of the F/* type are given in Diagram 12.13
(FeR ** is a filter of the Rekk ** design filled with corrugated viniplast screen; FePF** is a
filter treated with polyurethane foam; FeEG** is treated with the filtering material GFE**,
which is an elastic fiberglass?O,77
28. In bag-type filters gas cleaning is achieved by filtering through a cloth that captures
the dust. The main pressure losses in bag-type filters occur in cloth filters. Their resistance
can therefore be estimated on the basis of the resistance of various types of cloth.
Diagrams 12.14 through 12.17 show the characteristics and resistances of various types of
filters (FVK, VRU, FRP, FYaL, and AFA).**
More detailed information on bag-type and other filters are presented in References 15 and 17.
*Technical data on other particular types of scrubbers are given in Reference 15.
**Russian designations.
where ~po is the standard resistance, Le., the resistance in Pa at W = 1 mls.
The resistance of filtering materials (Pa) can be determined from the Fuks-Stechkina for-
mula:
~p =9.81 2 '
a Pp (-1.15 log ß- c)
where ml is the density of filters; Pp is the density of a polymer of the material fibers; ß is
the density of packing (a fraction of the layer volume occupied by fibers); a is the fiber ra-
dius; and E is a coefficient, which equals 0.75 for parallel fibers and 0.4 for a system of
isotropically distributed fibers (similar to the pp materials).
The formula is valid only in the case when the radius of the filter fibers is much larger
than the mean free path of the gas molecules.
31. The pp materials are also used in analytical aerosol filters AFA intended to control and
analyze the contarnination of air with aerosol admixtures. Such filters are characterized by
high retentivity, which allows them to capture practically all the particles in the air irrespec-
tiveofiheir size.
32. In order to capture dust, use is also made of bed filters made of loose or lump mate-
rials (sand, gravel, slag, Raschig rings, etc.), filters made of sets of metallic wire cloth screens
or specially prepared porous materials, paper filters, etc.
The hydraulic resistance of such filters can be determined from the same data used for
nozzles and screens (see Chapter 8).
33. In industrial electrostatic filters of almost all types the pressure los ses mainly consist
of (1) losses at the entry into the working eh amber (electric fields), (2) losses at the exit from
the working chamber (last electric field), and (3) losses during passage through the interelec-
trode space (in the case of an electrostatic filter the los ses between the settling plates, and in
the case of a pipe electrostatic filter the losses along the settling pipes).
The total resistance coefficient of an electrostatic filter is
S== 2~~ = Sin + Sex + seh ,
pwO
where Sin is the resitance coefficient of the inlet section of the apparatus; ~ex is the resistance
coefficient of the exit section; and Seh is the resistance coefficient of the working chamber
 Flow through Various Types 01 Apparatus 789
788 Handbook 01 Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition
Table 12.1. Elbow Ö= 45°; rIbO =0
(electric fields) of the apparatus with settling elements. All of the coefficients are based on
the velocity Wo. x

~ttt;
34. In electrostatic filters, similar to other industrial apparatus, the gas expands suddenly Ho
upon entering the working chamber* (see the schemes of Diagram 12.19). Therefore, the resis- w"F,....... ~;
Coefficients 0-1.2 3.25 ~5.0
tance coefficient of the inlet, in the absence of gas-distributing devices, can be determined from
,.,. "'''1'' Mo 1.12 1.08 1.02

r - i1Pin
':>in=---=No ( 1 -2- J+1-4- No 1.36 1.25 1.06
pW 5/2 3nj nr 3nl '
Table 12.2. Elbow Ö = 90°; r/bO =0; bo/bO = 1.0
where nl = Feh/FO is the area ratio of the apparatus (ratio of the working chamber area to the
inlet orifice area); No = (lIF) f (w/wO)3dF is the kinetic energy coefficient, characterizing the lw"r; x

~~u
Fa
Ho
6.0 10
velocity distribution at the inlet.
The values of this coefficient, as well as of the momentum coefficient Mo = (l/Fo)
-.. .... ~'
Coefficients
Mo
1.2
1.80
3.0
1.50 1.10 1.02

J(w/wO)3dF (very approximately) are given in Tables 12.1 through 12.7 for different cases of
Fa
flow entrance into the apparatus. Table 12.3. Elbow Ö=90°; rlbo =0.1; bo/bi = 1.0
35. The resistance coefficient of discharge from an apparatus (electrostatic filter) through a
converging nozzle or discharge with a sudden contraction (see schemes of Diagram 12.19)
ti',F q x
bo
~tt
can be determined on the basis of Equation (3.1) as
Coefficients 0-0.5 1.5 3.0 6.0 8.0
'/' "
~q.fo 1.02
Mo 1.40 1.25 1.12 1.06

No 2.30 1.75 1.36 1.18 1.06

where ~' is a coefficient determined as ~ of the inlet section from Diagrams 3.1, 3.2, 3.4, and
3.7; Fex is the area of the narrowest cross section of the exit length, m
2
.
Table 12.4. Elbow Ö = 90°; with expansion (FoIF = 1.3); r/bo = 0.18
.
--~---~-.........:--_.---~-----~._-_ ...:.:.--,---:-----_.~-_.-
36. The resistance coefficient of the working chamber in the form of a tubular electrostatic
~

~tt
filter is
Ho
i1peh ' Coefficients 0-0.5 1.5 3.0 6.0 10
I

~eh = SeI = - 2 - = Sin + Sex + ~fr'

,
r , ,
pwo/2
r~..
.<)
w,.;;
..... Mo 1.70 1.40 1.25 1.10 1.02

No 3.20 2.30 1.75 1.30 1.06

where Sin = 0.5(1 - Fel/Feh)(FoIFei is the resistance coefficient of the inlet to settling tubes;
~~x = (1 - Fel/Feh)2(FoIFei is the resistance coefficient of discharge from settling tubes; ~fr
= 'Alej/Dej{FoIFei is the friction coefficient of settling tubes; FeI is the total cross-sectional Table 12.5 Bend Ö=90°; r Ibo = 0.5; Rolbo = 1.5
area of the settling tubes; DeI and leI are their diameter and length.
x
37. The resistance coefficient of a plate electrostatic filter can be determined from the

~tl
author' s formula:
bo
11, r..

- w;.f,' Coefficients
Mo
No
0-0.5
1.25
1.80
1.0
1.13
1.40
2.0
1.07
1.21
3.0
1.03
1.10
4.0
1.02
1.06

*In cases when the flow enters through diffusers (horizontal electrostatic filters), it is possible to
consider that there is a sudden expansion, since the diffuser divergence angle generally exceeds 60-90°.
 Flow through Various Types of Apparatus
791
790 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

where ~el is the resistance coefficient of the intereIectrode channel which depends on the
Table 12.6. Diffuser of circular or rectangular cross seetion with expansion in two planes
shape of settling electrodes, the shape of the corona eIectrodes, and of the supports in the
frame of their fixturing; calculations show that the value of this coefficient lies within the
n] = Fo/Fo range 0.2-0.3; nel is the number of elements of the settling e1ectrodes in one e1ectric fieId; nf
is the number of eIectric fieIds; kpr == ~~f!~~ps is the ratio of the resistance coefficient of the
";2 t1 1
Coefficients 3.0
a=6°
4.0 6.0 10 3.0 4.0
a-lO°
6.0 10
intere1ectrode channel in the presence of the corona dis charge to this coefficient in the ab-
W",~Fz w;.Ft! ' Mo 1.15 1.20 1.40 1.25 1.20 1.30 1.90 1.40
sence of this discharge; this ratio depends on the gas flow velocity in the electrostatic filter:
-'1 No 1.45 1.60
a. = 15°
2.20 1.75 1.60 1.90 3.70
a. - 30°
2.20 it is the higher, the smaller the velocity (Figure 12.5).
38. Many devices besides eIectrostatic filters are provided with gas-distributing grids to en-

i Mo
No
1.50
2.50
1.85
3.50
2.30
4.80
1.80
3.40
2.00
4.00
2.50
5.30
3.10
7.20
2.55
5.70
sure uniform distribution of the flow after its entrance into the working chamber. The entire
portion, from the final section of the iniet pipe, including the perforated plate (grid), can be
considered as a single unit.
a=45° a-600 The flow into the working chamber in the majority of industrial devices can be categorized
Mo 2.50 2.90 3.90 4.50 2.70 3.30 4.50 5.90 into three types of flow impingement on the perforated plates (grid): (1) central (frontal) (Fig-
No 6.00 6.90 9.70 11.5 5.80 8.00 11.5 15.7 ure 12.6a); (2) peripheral (Figure 12.6b); and (3) lateral (Figure 12.6c) impingement.

~
a=900 a-1800 Either a single grid or a system of grids in series is used depending on the ratio
Mo 2.80 3.75 5.20 7.00 4.00 5.10 7.30 9.00 Feh/FO?7,28
No 6.90 9.00 13.5 19.0 10.0 13.0 20.0 25.0 39. The resistance coefficient of the inlet section of apparatus with frontal incidence of the
27
flow on the perforated plate (grid/ is calculated from the author's formula: ,28

Table 12.7. Plane diffuser

Coefficients
n] =Fo/Fo
1.21 1.40 1.60 1.86 2.07 2.28 2
a,deg = ~obe+NO+0.7Sgr
, FO
(Feh +
0.013
2 1 Sgr- 3~ ,
3
(12.6)
2 4 6 8 10 12 J (Hgr/Do)
Mo 1.0 1.07 1.11 1.15 1.20 1.27
where ~Obe = 0.5~Obe; SObe is the resistance coefficient of the bend through which the flow is
No 1.0 1.28 1.33 1.45 1.60 1.86
discharged against the grid, and is determined as ~ from the corresponding diagrams of Chap-
Table 12.7. Plane diffuser ter 6; ~gr is the resistance coefficient of the grid- determined as ~ from diai~s cf' Chapter
8; and Hgr is the distance from the exit orifice of the intake bend to the grid, m.
n] = Fo/Fo The last term on the right-hand side of Equation (12.6) applies only for HgriDo < 1.2.
Coefficients 3.0 4.0 6.0 10 3.0 4.0 6.0 10 40. The resistance coefficient of the inIet section of the apparatus with peripheral incidence
28
a=6° a-lO° of the flow on the grid is
Mo LlO 1.15 1.35 1.15 1.12 1.20 1.60 1.30

tt No 1.30
a= 15°
1.45 2.05 1.45 1.36 1.60 2.80
a. - 30°
1.90
~in = ~ =_ -pwb ..p'
2 - = SObe+ 0.9 [No + 0.7Sgr
o/2
(FJ2]
Fo
eh
+
0.05
(Rb/DO)
2 '
(12.7)

w"FI1 .........w;,f, Mo
No
1.40
2.20
1.50
2.50
1.70
3.10
1.40
2.20
1.80
3.40
2.50
5.40
2.20
4.60
1.80
3.40 where Hb is the distance from the exit orifice of the intake bend to the bottom of the appa-
a=45° a-600 ratus or to a baffle (if a baffle is installed behind the bend).
Mo 2.00 2.60 2.30 2.00 2.10 2.90 3.70 3.50 The last term on the right-hand side of Equation (12.7) applies only for RblDO < 1.2.
No 4.00 5.80 4.90 4.00 4.30 7.00 9.0 8.50
a. = 90° a. - 180°
Mo 2.25 3.20 4.80 6.60 3.00 4.50 7.00 8.00 *This includes not only aplane grid (perforated sheet), but also other types of uniformly distributed
No 5.10 7.80 13.5 17.0 7.00 11.5 19.0 22.0 resistances (different nozzles or layers of lumped or loose materials, etc.).
 Flow through Various Types of Apparatus 793
792 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition

2.6

2.2
\
\\ (cl

1.8

\
~
:l&Ri1
~
() 0.8 1.2 We.rn/s

Figure 12.5. Dependence of the coefficient kpr on We for the electric field length L = 6 m and electric
voltage of 45 kV. 87
W-J&$VA>Y..&§l.4M>Y~M
41. The resistance coefficient of the inlet section of the apparatus with lateral incidence (ö) (d)
of the flow on the grid 27,28 is
Figure 12.7. Different methods of flow supply to electrostatic filters: (a) and (b) from below with a 90°
2 turn; distributors are of the NllOGAZ and MEI design, respectively; (c) from above with a 90° turn; (d)
~in =S== pwQ/2
i1: =NO+0.7~gr(FFOehJ + 0.1 +(2- 20 DHgreh ] , (12.8) frontal through a double diffuser.

where Deh is the diameter or large side of the chamber cross section, m.
~e las~ termonthe ri~ht-hand !ideof Equation .(!2.8) appl~es only for H~Dch < O.I. I. ~ch,gr,i = SCh,gr,l + ~eh,gr,2 + ... + ~ch,gr,m
42. In tne case 01 a senes of perLorated plates (gnds), the reslstance coefficlent of the inlet i=C-
sec.tion is determ~ned from Equations (12.6) to (12.8), but with ~gr replaced by the sum of the
reslstance coefficIents of all the grids of the series reduced to the same velocity W ch27

where mrrr is the number of grids in the series.

43. Fl~w supply to the electrostatic filters is often accomplished according to the schemes
shown in figure 12.7 a-d. For a more uniform distribution of the flow and its passage paral-
lel to the axis of the filter in the places of its turning to the working chamber (electrodes),
guide vanes are installed (the NIIOGAZ* scheme, Figure 12.7a) or spatia1 corners (MEI*
scheme, Figure 12.7b). In the case of the frontal (central) supply of the flow to the electro-
static filter (Figure 12.7d), dividing walls are installed to have a better velocity distribution in
the diffuser (see Figure 5.19d and e). In this case, the inlet resistance coefficient Sin decreases
noticeably (20-30%) compared with the value given by Equation (12.8).34,35 Information on
(a) (b) (cl
specific types of electrostatic filters is given in References 15 and 101.
Figure 12.6. Different methods of flow supply to the apparatus: (a) central impingement of flow on a
gas-distribming grid; (b) .pe~ph~ral impingement of flow on a gas-distributing grid; (c) lateral impinge- *Russian designations. NIIOGAZ = Scientific Research Institute for Gas; MEI =Moscow Power En-
ment of flow on a gas-dlstnbutmg grid. gineering Institute.
 794 Flow through Various Types 0/ Apparatus 795
Handbook 0/ Hydrattlic Resistance, 4th Edition

Heat Exchangers 4. The friction coefficient for the tubular-finned radiators within 3000 < Re = wOindh/V <
25,000 is 60
l. The total pressure losses in honeycomb radiators, used for cooling air, are made up of the
losses at the entry into the radiator tube, the frictional losses in the tubes, and the losses at ').._ 0.77
sudden expansion of flow during discharge from the tubes into the common channeL The - 3fJfe·
resistance coefficient of a honeycomb radiator is deterrnined from Mariyamov,s61 formula:
5. The friction coefficient for the tubular-plate radiators within 4 x 103 :::; Re = WOindh/V
:::; 104 is60
S=--2-=')..
b.p
Pinwl/2
3+- -
(IO)(F
dh
1
Fo
1
--1
J2 + (F
Fo
)2 (
+ 1.7+')..- -
dh
T
IO)(Fl)2-
Fo

=A(3+ ~:)(:~J +Sd +8~" and at Re > 10

4

where SeI = (F 1IFo - 1)2; b.S t = [1.7 + A(loldh)] (FI IFolT; dh = 4FofTIo; T = (Tex - Tin)/Tin ').._ 0.21
- 6..JRe .
is the ratio of the difference between the temperatures of the outflowing and incoming
streams to the temperature of the incorning stream; A = 2b.pl(p w 5)(loldh) is the linear frietion
coefficient along the tube length (depth) of the radiator; and the subscript "0" shows that the
6. The resistance of heaters is sirnilar to the resistance of radiators (coolers). It also con-
corresponding quantities refer to the tube of the radiator. sists of the losses at the entrance, the frictional losses, and the shock los ses at dis charge from
the narrow section between the tubes and plates of the heater. The main parameter used for
2. For honeycomb radiators with circular and hexagonal tubes the friction coefficient61 is
the selection of a heater is the mass velocity at its dear cross section Pmw (where Pm is the
A = 0.375 Re *-0.1 A0.4 mean density of the heated air passing through the heater, kg/m\ Therefor~, the resistance of
heaters is given in the form of the dependence of b.p (Pa) on PmwO (kg/m ·s).
within 35 < Re * ::; 275; The technological characteristics and constructional dimensions of modern heaters are
o-iven in the work of Staroverov. 77
ö 7. In cross flow, heat exchanger tubes are arranged in both in-line and staggered config.u-
rations. With a flow through a bundle of tubes arranged in an in-line fashion, the jets diS-
within 275 ::; Re * ::; 500, _w~ere Re * = wOinb./v; b. = b./dh is the relative roughness of the
charge from the space between the tubes of the first row, expanding in the intrarow s?ace
radiator tubes. (Figure 12.8). The main core of theflow entrfiins the fluid masses .from the shadow regIOns.
On approaching the second row of tubes, the jets separate. The mam c~re of ~he flow passes
3. The total pressure losses in tubular-finned and tubular-plate radiators are made up of the
the second row of tubes while the entrained masses from a c10sed clrculatmg flow (eddy
frictional losses and the losses at contraction and expansion of the flow during its passage
from one row of tubes to another. zone) in the shadow regions. The pattern of flow in the subsequent intrarow spaces is similar
The resistance coefficient of such radiators 60 is to that described above. * Thus, the nature of the pressure losses in a tube bundle is similar to
that in a free jet. l
8. The values of the resistance coefficients of tube bundles depend on the number of rows
and the distribution of tubes, as wen as on the Reynolds number Re. Their flow velocity is
determined on the basis of the contracted section of the fluid passage located in the axial
plane of tubes normal to the flow. The resistance coefficient of the bundle of tubes also con-
siders the resistance at the inlet to and exit from the rows of tubes.
9 The resistance coefficient of a stao-o-ered smooth-wall bundle of tubes within 3 x 103 <
• ö~ • 658
Rem < 105 is calculated from the followmg equatlOns: '
where Sc = 1.5(1 - FoIF'ci; b.S t = [1.7 + A(loldh )] (FlIFolT; dh = 2boh2/(bo + h2); Fb is the
1) Sl/dch< 1.44 and O.l::;s< 1.7:
area of the narrowest cross section of the radiator (between the tubes), m 2 ; F is the cross-
o
sectional area of the channels between the plates in the zone between the rows, m2 ; Zr is the
number of rows of tubes; bo is the mean gap between the fins or plates, m; and h2 is the gap *Actually, the flow, on passing the first transverse row of tubes, becomes turbulent and thereby
between adjacent tubes of the radiator, m. slightly alters the conditions of flow past the subsequent rows.
 796
Handbook oj Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition Flow through Various Types oj Apparatus 797

+ (13.1 - 9.1S1/dout ) [0.8 + 0.2 (1.7 - s)1.5]} Re;?·27 (zp + 1);

(12.9)
w
2)SI/dout ?:1.44 and O.l::;s< 1.7:

s=3.2 + 0.66 (1.7 - S) 1.5 Re;;?·27 (Zp + 1);

(12.10)

3) Sl/dout < 1.44 and 1.7 ::;s::; 6.5:

~ =(1.88- SI/douV (S+ 1)2 Re;;il·27 (zp+ 1); w

(12.11)

4) 1.44 ::; SI/dout ::; 3.0 and 1.7 ::;s ::; 6.5:

(12.12)

5) 3 < SI/dout ::; 10 and s> 1.7: Figure 12.8. Tube bundle: Ca) in-line; Cb) staggered.

(12.13)
where ,WOm = WinTmlTjn; !m = (1jn + Tex )/2; Pm = 273PoITm; Rem = womdoutlv; S = (SI _
dou U/(S2 - douV, .where. Zr lS the number of rows of tubes over the tube depth; v is taken with
respect to the anthmet1c mean temperature Tm from Section 1.2.
Tbe resistance coefficient reduced to the velocity upstream of the tube bundle is O"iven in
terms of the coefficient ~: b
(12.15)
where SI = (SI - d ouU/(S2 - dout)·
If the pitches SI and S2 vary within the bundle, the resistance is ca1culated from their av-
erage value.
11. It is recommended 65 that calculation of bundles with nonuniform transverse pitches
(F{gure 12.9) be based on the niean resiStanc:ecoallcienfs';;~which is determined from Equa-
tion (12.16) and which takes into account the difference of both the geometries of the chan-
nels and flow velocities in the channels of different cross seetions.

10. Tbe /esistance coefficient of an in-line smooth-wall bundle of tubes within 3 x 103 <
Rem < 105 is 12,58

1.8 S
_1 _
J-o.5 Re-O.2
1
( dout m Zr (12.14)

*Equations (12.14) and (12.15) are somewhat refined as recommended in Reference 65. Figure 12.9. Tube bundle with a variable pitch.
 799
Flow through Various Types of Apparatus
798 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance, 4th Edition
3 5
The formula for determining the value of Sm reduced to the mean discharge flow velocity
At lIdh = 0.16-6.55 and Rez = 2.2 X 10 -1.8 X 10
has the form
1 JO.3
cs =5.4 dh .
(
~m = ~nar F ]
[ F nar + Fbr ."fSnar/Sbr
At Rez> 1.8 X 105
(12.16)
l JO.3
S=0.26 dh cz(zr+ 1) ,
(
where F is the axial cross section of the transverse row of tubes for flow passage; n pas is the
number of passages between the transverse rows of tubes; ~nar and Sbr are the resistance co- where Rez = woml/v.
efficients of the bundles with "narrow" [(stldouunarJ and "broad" [(sl/dout)brJ trans verse For tubes with round fins
pitches. The latter two are calculated not only as functions of the actual pitches sl/dout and
parameters sand SI, but also with respect to the number Re based on the mean flow velocity. ? 2 2 d2 ) (12.17)
1 (D - - dout)mr + (D + out mf ."j0.785 (D 2 - d;uU
12. In the case of heat transfer in a bundle of tubes, the values of S in Equations (12.9) to - 2Lß 2doutLß
(12.16) should be supplemented with the term ß~t which allows for the acce1eration (decel-
eration) pressure los ses within the bundle due to a decrease (increase) of the density of the where D is the diameter with respect to the tips of fins (fin diameter), m; L is the tube length,
working medium: 63 m; ß is the fin coefficient (ratio of the total sut!ace area to t~e surface area of the smooth
·
tube 0 f dlame ter douv,
\. and m is the number of fms per tube wlth total surface area Hfm'
The hydrau1ic diameter is

(12.18)
(see paragraph 33 of Chapter 8).
13. With oblique fluid flow over a bundle of tubes its resistance decreases,42 since the
condition of the flow past the tubes is thus improved. The degree of reduction of the resis- where hand 3 are the height and thickness of the fins, respectively, m; and Sfo is the distance
tance (the flow "direction" coefficient) \jf = ~O/S90o depends on both the angle of inclination
between medium planes of the two neighboring fins, m.
e and the other parameters of the bund1e. However, the effect of other parameters can be For tubes with square fins
neg1ected in practical calcu1ations by assuming the average value of \jf to be constant for each
inclination angle. Average values of \jf are given below:

In-line bundle Staggered bundle

e= 60°, 0.82
\jf= e = 60°, \jf= 0.80 (12.19)
e=45°, \jf=0.54 8 = 45°, \jf= 0.57
e= 30°, \jf= 0.30 8 = 30°, \jf = 0.34
where
14. In order to increase the heating (cooling) surface it is a frequent practice to use finned (12.20)
and tailed tubes. H = 1tdout (Sfo - 3) + 2 [(2h + dout)2 - 0.785d;uJ + 4 (2h + d ouu 8 ,
mj
The resistance coefficient of a bundle of staggered finned tubes (see scheme of Diagram
12.30)6 is 2
His the total surface area of a finned tube, m . . 6 .
15. The resistance coefficient of a bundle with an in-line arrangement of fmned tubes lS

where Cz = j(Zr) is the correction for the number of rows or tubes with few rows (Zr:; 5); at
Zr ~ 6, Cz = 1.0 (see Diagram 12.30).
 Flow through Various Types of Apparatus 801
800 Handbook of Hydraulic Resistanee, 4th Edition

(a) (h) (e)

where e~ = j(Zr) is the correction for the number of rows for a !?undle with few rows (zr :s;

~
5); at Zr ~ 6, C7 = 1.0 (see Diagram 12.30). At lldh = 0.9-11.0, SI = 0.5-2.0 and ReI = 4.3
3
X 10 -1. 6 X 10)

, ( I .
es = 0.52 d )
10 3
(SI)
-0.68
.
h

16. To decrease the resistance of a tube bund1e in cross flow, streamlined tubes are often ~
used. Information that can be used to determine the resistance coefficients of streamlined and (d)
other types of tubes in a bundle is given in Diagram 12.31.
17. In multipass heat exchangers the transverse flow past tubes turns sharply through 180°
on moving from one bundle into the next. The phenomenon is similar to that taking place in
a TI-shaped elbow without bundles of tubes; i.e., an eddy zone is created at the inner wall after
the second 90° turn, but is reduced slightly due to the smoothing effect of the tube bundles.
Reduction or elimination of this eddy zone increases the efficiency of the heat exchanger.
This is achieved with guide vanes installed at the point of the flow turn (simplified circular
arc). A device 102 in the form of a partition is sometimes used, either straight or bent against (j) (g)
the flow direction at the point of turning (see the scheme of Diagram 12.32).
18. At the present time, methods of numerical simulation of hydraulic resistance and heat ~1!~ ~
transfer in turbulent flow in bundles of tubes have been developed. It is shown in Reference (h) (i)
107 that finning of tubes in trans verse bundles is a very efficient way of increasing heat trans-
fer. For example, at a width of a thin fin of 0.15 of the tube diameter, in an in-line bundle
with a uniform step equal to 1.5 heat transfer from an isothermal surface of the tube at Re =
104 increases by a factor of 1.7, whereas its resistance increases 1.3 times. Qualitatively and

r:m:::w
quantitatively these results correspond to the experimental data of References 108 and 109.
Identation of dimples in a staggered order on a smooth tube with a diameter of a dimple
of 0.2 of the tube diameter with a step around the circumferential coordinate equal to 1.4 of
the dimple diameter find dimples of about one diameter along the transverse coordinate leads
2
to a monotonie increase in heat transfer with the depth of dimpies (from zero to 0.26 of their
diameter) with a leading increase in hydraulic losses.107 (k)
19. To enhance heat transfer in circular and annular tubes, different kinds of swirlers are
widely used. The review of the state-of-the-art can be found in Reference 110. The types of
the swirlers used in practice are shown in Figures 12.1 and 12.2 borrowed from Reference
110. Flow twisting produced in very extended channels to enhance heat transfer can most
easily be attained technologically with the aid of continuous swirlers (Figures 12.lOa-g and
12.11), twisted tapes (Figures 12.l0a and 12.10f), and conveyer inserts (Figures 12.lOg,
12.l1a, and 12.11b).
In turbulent modes of flow the thermal hydraulic efficiency of the use of swirling inserts
that span entirely over the width of the channe1 is much inferior to the efficiency of spiral
finning with protrusions of small height. The region of thermal resistance in a laminar flow
:v
Figure 12.10. Types of swirlers used in tubes. (a)-(g), uninterrupted in length:. a) a twisted t~pe ith a
eonstant step of twisting; b) spiral plate insert; e) wire winding; d) sere:" finmng: e) tube wlth sImpIe~
is not limited by a narrow wall zone but is rather distributed over the entire seetion of the and multiple-start knurling; f) serew insert made from a twisted tape wlth a VaryI~g .step;. g) eon~eyer,
channel. Therefore swirling devices that act on the flow over the entire seetion of the channel h-i) periodically arranged: h) ehanneis with extended surfaees in the form of p~nodle s~lral finrung 1
are more efficient in a laminar mode of flow than in a turbulent one. or knurling 2: i) swirlers in the form of conveyer inserts with a eonstant 1 an vanable 2 ~Iameter of ~e
The results of experimental investigations of heat and mass transfer in twisted flows can eentral body; j-k) loeal: j) tangential swirlers with one or two suppIying ehannels; k) axIal blade SWIr-
be found in References 110-115. lers with profiled 1, 2 and plane 3 blades.
 802 Flow through Various Types of Apparatus 803
Handbook of Hydrmtlic Resistance, 4th Edition

Ca) (b)

m Ce)
rn1D
~
(d)

3 Figure 12.12. The dependence 1; =ftRe, Rerot) for rotating tubes (line I corresponds to the Poiseuille