Table of Contents

CHAPTER 1. General Characteristics of Water for boilers

1.0 General Information

1.1. Physical Properties of Water
1.2. Chemical Composition of Water
1.3. Boiling Temperature
1.4. Water - An Ideal Medium for Carrying Heat Energy

CHAPTER 2. Impurities in Water for Boiler

2.0 General Information

2.1 Dissolved Minerals in Water
2.2 Dissolved Gasses in Water
2.3 Other Impurities in Water
2.4 Sources of Makeup (Fresh) Water
2.4.1 Source Selection Factors to Consider
2.4.2 Reasons for Treating Makeup Water
2.4.3 Criteria for Treating Makeup Water
2.4.4 Determining of Makeup Requirements
2.4.3 Boiler Feedwater
2.4.3.1 Removing Impurities from Boiler Feedwater
2.4.3.2 Purity Requirements of Feedwater
2.4.3.3 Determining Feedwater Requirements

CHAPTER 3. Potential Problems for Boiler

3.0 General Information

3.1 Deposition/Scaling
3.1.1 Deposit Formation
3.1.2 Problems Caused by Scaling
3.1.3 Common Scales Found in Boilers
3.2 Corrosion
3.2. Corrosion in Steam Condensate System
3.3 Water Carryover in Steam

TITAN BOILER WATER TREATMENT HANDBOOK 1

CHAPTER 4. External Treatment of Boiler Water

4.0 General Information

4.1 Aeration
4.2 Coagulation and flocculation
4.3 Filtration
4.4 Lime-Soda Softening
4.5 Ion Exchange Processes-General
4.5.1 Sodium Ion Exchange
4.5.2 Hydrogen Ion Exchange
4.5.3 Anion Exchange
4.5.4 De-alkalization
4.5.5 Decarbonation
4.6 Evaporation
4.7 Ultrafiltration
4.8 Electrodialysis
4.9 Electrode Ionization (EDI)
4.10 Reverse osmosis
4.11 Deaeration of water
4.11.1 Deaerator
4.11.2 Membrane Deaeration

CHAPTER 5. Internal Treatment of Boiler Water

5.0 General Information

Internal water treatment program
Chemicals used in internal treatment
Internal treatment for hardness
Internal treatment for sulfates
Internal treatment for silica
Internal treatment for sludge conditioning
Internal treatment advantages
Internal treatment - chemical dosage
Tests for treatment control
Tests for checking contaminants
Determining Chemical Treatment Required
Determining Phosphate Required to Replace Blowdown Loss
Determining Phosphate Required for Hardness Reaction
Determining Sodium Hydroxide (Caustic Soda) Required
Determining Synthetic Polymer Dosage
Determining Sulphite Dosage
Condensate Corrosion and Control
Determining Amine Dosage
Summary of Required Calculations

TITAN BOILER WATER TREATMENT HANDBOOK 2

CHAPTER 6. STEAM BOILER SYSTEMS

6.0 General Information

6.1 Steam Generation
6.2 Boiler Design Types
6.2.1 Boiler System Defined
6.2.2 Fire Tube Boiler
6.2.3 Water Tube Boiler
6.2.4 Waste Heat Boiler
6.2.5 Hot Water Boiler
6.2.5.1 Description of Hot Water Boilers
6.2.5.2 Description of Hot Water Systems
6.3 Principles of combustion & the combustion Process.
6.4 Steam system fundamentals
6.4.1 Components of a Steam Boiler

CHAPTER 7. Boiler Operating Calculations

7.0 General Information

Blowdown
Determining Blowdown Required
Boiler Blowdown Calculations

TITAN BOILER WATER TREATMENT HANDBOOK 3

CHAPTER 8. SAMPLING AND TESTING OF INDUSTRIAL WATER SYSTEMS

8.0 General Information

8.1 Purpose of Testing
8.2 Requirement for Sampling and Testing
8.2.1 Methods of Sampling
8.2.2 Frequency of Samples
8.2.3 Testing Requirements
8.4 Water Sample Testing Procedures
8.5 Interpretation of Tests
8.5.1. Alkalinity Relationships
8.5.2. Hydrogen Ion Concentration (pH)
8.5.3 Conductivity and Total Dissolved Solids

CHAPTER 9. CHEMICAL MIXING, FEEDING, AND CONTROL DEVICES

9.0 General Information

9.1 Chemical Mixing
9.2 Chemical Feeding
9.3 Chemical Control
9.4 Chemical Mixing Procedures
9.4.1 Dissolving Dry Chemicals
9.4.2 Diluting Liquid Chemicals
9.4.3 Changing Concentration in a Tank
9.5 Feeding Devices
9.5.1 Metering Pumps
9.5.2 Bypass Feeders
9.5.3 Slowly Dissolving Chemical Packages
9.5.4 Eductor Chemical Addition Systems
9.5.5 Other Systems
9.6 Control Devices
9.6.1 Conductivity Control
9.6.2 Controlling pH
9.6.3 Flow Proportioning Control
9.6.4 Timer Control

TITAN BOILER WATER TREATMENT HANDBOOK 4

CHAPTER 10. CHEMICAL CLEANING

10.0 General Information

10.1 General Guidance
10.1.1 Reason for Cleaning
10.1.2 Types of Deposits
10.2 Cleaning Procedures
10.3 Cleaning Methods
10.3.1 Hydrochloric (Muriatic) Acid
10.3.2 Sulfamic Acid
10.3.3 Checking Strength of Acid Solution
10.4 Preparation for Cleaning
10.5 Methods for Removing Scale

CHAPTER 11. Care of Out-of-Service Boilers

11.0 General Information

11.1 Procedures for Layup
11.1.1 Dry Layup
11.1.2 Wet Layup.

TITAN BOILER WATER TREATMENT HANDBOOK 5

CHAPTER 1. General Characteristics of Water for boilers

1.0. General Information

Water is the only common substance that exists in three forms (ice, water, steam) at
normal earth temperatures. It absorbs more heat for a given temperature rise than any
other common inorganic substance. Water expands 1600 times as it evaporates to form
steam at atmospheric pressure. The steam can carry large quantities of heat. These unique
properties of water make it an ideal raw material for heating and power generating
processes.

Why Use Water for Heating?

• Abundant
• Available
• Inexpensive
• Safe
• High Specific Heat

Water is employed by industry chiefly in five distinct ways:

a. To generate steam for power or heating
b. To cool process equipment or materials
c. To clean or otherwise to process materials
d. To transport materials
e. To become part of a product

TITAN BOILER WATER TREATMENT HANDBOOK 6

1.1. Physical Properties of Water

Pure water is a tasteless, odorless, colorless liquid. Because water can be converted to
steam at a convenient temperature, it is an ideal medium for generating power or
conducting heat.

1.2. Chemical Composition of Water

Pure water, H2O, is a simple combination of hydrogen and oxygen. There are,
however, several hybrids forms of water in all supplies. Water often contains about
300 ppm of deuterium oxide, D2O, or heavy water. It has no use as drinking water or
in making plants grow, but in pure form has found use in nuclear reactors. For all
practical purposes only ordinary water, H2O, is considered for use in boilers.

1.3. Boiling Temperature

The boiling point of water is dependent on pressure. At sea level atmospheric

pressure, water boils at about 212oF(100°C). With increasing pressure, the boiling
point also increases.
At a pressure of 200 psig, for example, water boils at a temperature of about 388oF
(198°C). At the critical pressure of 3200 psig (where water is converted to steam
without change in volume), the boiling point is 704oF(373°C). As the pressure
decreases, the boiling point of water decreases. Under vacuum water will boil at
temperatures as low as 35oF(2°C).

TITAN BOILER WATER TREATMENT HANDBOOK 7

 1.4. Water - An Ideal Medium for Carrying Heat Energy

The Traditional formula was: one BTU (British Thermal Unit) to raise temperature of
one pound of water 1oF. This can be converted to 4.2 kJ to raise 1 kg of water 1°C.
It takes an additional 970 BTU to change one pound of water, at boiling point, to
steam or It takes an additional 2256 kJ/kg. to change 1 kg. of water (at the boiling
point) to steam. This amount of heat (the heat of vaporization) is then "stored" in the
steam. When steam condenses, this heat energy is given off. Thus, much of the heat
from burning fuel can be absorbed by boiler water, transported with the steam, and
released at the points of use.

Water absorbs more heat for a given temperature rise than any other common
inorganic substance. It expands 1600 times as it evaporates to form steam at
atmospheric pressure. The steam can carry large quantities of heat. These unique
properties of water make it an ideal raw material for heating and power generating
processes.

Consider, for example, the amount of heat which can be "carried" by 1 kg of water. If
the water temperature is originally 38°C (100°F) it takes 260 kJ/kg. to heat it to 100°C
and 2256 kJ/kg. to convert it to steam. A total of 2516 kJ/kg. has been added and will
be released as the water is condensed and cooled back to 38°C. Since this transfer is
never 100 percent efficient, some of the heat energy will be dissipated in the process.
But much of the heat from burning fuel can be absorbed by boiler water, transported
with the steam, and released at the desired points.

Note:
Water Impact Index

The Water Impact Index accounts for ABC Customer is the impact on water resources
generated by a human activity. It involves evaluating how other water users (both
humans and ecosystems) could potentially be deprived of this resource, expressed in
m3 )

Water Impact Index =

Volume (Water quantity and volume of water used (Extracted & release) +
Stress (Water Stress Index and local hydrological context, fresh water scarcity) +
Quality (Water quality(Extracted & release)

Drivers for Water Source and Usage

• Corporate image
• Corporate social responsibility
• Business risks related to :
-Freshwater shortage for own operations
-Freshwater shortage in supply chain
• Financial risks related to tensions on water’s prices

TITAN BOILER WATER TREATMENT HANDBOOK 8

CHAPTER 2. Impurities in Water for Boiler

2.0 General Information

Water composition varies throughout the country depending upon the type and strata
of the earth formations. In the limestone areas the waters contain large quantities of
calcium carbonate. In parts of the country where there is more of the granite type of
rock formation, much less mineral matter is dissolved, and the water will not contain
much hardness. Throughout some area, there are deposits of alkali which the water
will pick up. These are the general geographic variations, but local conditions in any
area may greatly influence the composition of the water.

Water being a universal solvent; it dissolves the rocks and soil it contacts. It dissolves
gases from the air and gases given off from organics is the soil. It picks up suspended
matter from the earth. It is also subject to contaminated with industrial wastes and
process materials. In general, the type of impurities water contains depends on what it
contacts; the amount of impurities deepens on the contact times.

Completely pure water is nonexistent. All-natural waters contain various types and
amounts of impurities. Impurities in water become an important consideration when
water is to be used for steam generation, careful consideration must be given to the
quality of the water.

In all these fields of use, water tends to cause trouble, usually in either one or both
a. By forming deposits which interfere with the transfer of heat or impair the
quality of products.
b. By damaging the metals, wood and other materials of construction used to
contain or transport or use the water.

TITAN BOILER WATER TREATMENT HANDBOOK 9

2.1 Dissolved Minerals in Water

Solids are found in two forms: suspended or dissolved. Dissolved solids include any
impurities that are dissolved in the water supply and comprise mainly minerals from
the earth's crust. The minerals which water picks up from rocks consist chiefly of
calcium carbonate (limestone); magnesium carbonate (dolomite); calcium Sulphate
(gypsum), magnesium Sulphate (Epsom salts); silica (sand); sodium chloride
(common salt); sodium Sulphate (Glauber salts); and small quantities of iron,
manganese, fluorides, aluminum, and other substances. Wastes from mines and
certain industrial processes make some surface waters very acidic, while minerals in
the earth make some ground waters very alkaline. Sometimes Nitrates and Phosphate
are found in water and in many cases, this is associate with sewage contamination.

Most dissolved mineral impurities found in water are present in the form of ions,
which are electrically charged particles that are either positively or negatively
charged. Ions with a positive (+) electrical charge are called cations; ions with a
negative (-) electrical charge are called anions. The sum of all minerals or ions in the
water in the Total Dissolved Solids.

When dissolved in water, ions break apart in a process called disassociation. For
example, calcium carbonate (CaCO3) will break apart in water to form the cation
calcium (Ca2+) and the anion carbonate (C032-). Under certain circumstances, ions can
recombine to form compounds: (Ca2+) + (C032-) CaC03.

TITAN BOILER WATER TREATMENT HANDBOOK 10

 Water Hardness is the measure of calcium and magnesium content as calcium
carbonate equivalents. Calcium and magnesium compounds are relatively insoluble in
water and tend to precipitate out. As the water temperature rises, calcium and
magnesium compounds become insoluble. Calcium carbonate is the primary source of
scale in boiler water systems.

There are two forms of hardness:

Temporary hardness is due bicarbonates of calcium and magnesium which break
down to carbonates when the water is boiled. In the boiler the following chemical
reaction takes place :
Calcium Bicarbonate + heat → Calcium Carbonate + carbon dioxide + water.

Calcium and magnesium bicarbonate are soluble in water but the carbonates are
insoluble and therefore precipitate as a fine white powder. This precipitate will bake
unto the heating surface of a boiler and form a scale.

Permanent hardness is due to calcium and magnesium sulphates, chlorides and

nitrates, and these salts cannot be removed by boiling. However, under boiler
conditions (resulting in successive concentrations of these hardness salts) the
solubility of these salts is soon exceeded, and they deposit on the hottest part of the
heating surface. During evaporation, these chemicals adhere to boiler tube walls
forming scale. Its formation increases with the rate of evaporation so these deposits
will be heaviest where the gas temperatures are highest. The salts of magnesium that
form permanent hardness sometimes tend to cause corrosion instead of hard scale
formation, e.g. magnesium chloride in an untreated boiler hydrolyses to form
corrosive hydrochloric acid.

Consider the time and heat it takes for it to form a scale in hot-water piping or a water
heater. Calcium sulfate (CaSO4) is highly insoluble but Calcium carbonate (CaCO3) is
not likely to precipitate as easily as you might think.

One of items that will be quantified in the analysis is the hardness. This is really the
amount of mineral contamination that is found in your water. This degree of
contamination can be measured by either a chemical analysis or by measuring the
water's ability to conduct (or resist) an electrical current.

TITAN BOILER WATER TREATMENT HANDBOOK 11

 Alkalinity is a measure of bicarbonate (HCO3-), carbonate (CO32-), and hydroxyl
(OH-) ions in water, (or the capacity of water to neutralize strong acid). It is possible
for these ions to exist simultaneously; however, only the bicarbonate and carbonate
ions are found in natural water supplies.

In natural waters, the capacity is attributable to bases, such as bicarbonates,

carbonates, and hydroxides, as well as silicates, borates, ammonia, phosphates, and
organic bases. These bases, especially bicarbonates and carbonates, break down to
form carbon dioxide in steam, which is a major factor in the corrosion of condensate
lines. Alkalinity also contributes to foaming and carryover in boilers.

Water treatment engineers refer to three types of alkalinity:

a. Natural Alkalinity
Almost all untreated raw water sources contain some level of natural
alkalinity. The nature of the alkalinity is dependent on what species are
present and the pH of the raw water. This is either “Bicarbonate” or
“Carbonate” alkalinity
b. Caustic Alkalinity (OH)
The alkalinity that is added to the boiler. This “Caustic” alkalinity, also called
OH (hydroxide) or “hydrate” alkalinity, is supplemented by water treatment
engineers. An alkalinity builder will be added to ensure adequate hydroxide
alkalinity to control corrosion and scale.
c. Total Alkalinity (M)
Any raw water, feed water or boiler water may have either one or a combination
of both types 1 and 2. The total alkalinity is equal to the caustic alkalinity plus
the carbonate alkalinity (or the sum of carbonate, bicarbonate, and hydroxide),
also known as M alkalinity. Carbonate and bicarbonate alkalinities can combine
with calcium and magnesium hardness to form scale in boiler water systems.

Controlling Total Alkalinity (M) is important in lower pressure boilers where it varies
directly with pH, corrosion inhibition and control of carry-over.

TITAN BOILER WATER TREATMENT HANDBOOK 12

 Addressing Alkalinity & Feedwater Pretreatment
All boilers, regardless of their design, require some degree of feedwater pretreatment.
This pretreatment process addresses the three specific areas: water hardness, Total
dissolved solids and alkalinity levels.

Controlling Feedwater alkalinity:

• Ensures adequate control of bicarbonates and minimising ability to cause acid
corrosion in steam condensate lines
• Aids in protecting feed lines and feed tanks from corrosion

Controlling Boiler water alkalinity:

• Ensures proper formation of magnetite film for maximum corrosion protection of
boiler tubes
• Hydroxide alkalinity is required to condition calcium phosphate sludge in
precipitating programs to ensure soft deposit removal via bottom blowdown, making
for cleaner boiler on survey inspection
• Adequate hydroxide alkalinity is required to keep silica in solution to prevent
silica scale formation on boiler tubes, particularly for coil boilers
• Controlling Total Alkalinity minimises risk from foaming and carry-over of boiler
water into the steam system. Carry-over can cause water hammer where slugs
of boiler water can damage machinery, and dissolved or suspended solids in the
boiler water will deposit in the steam and condensate system
• In higher-pressure water tube boilers, there are severe restrictions limiting
hydroxide alkalinity to prevent caustic embrittlement or cracking. This is a
problem in riveted boilers and the rolled tube ends in modern boilers are
also, vulnerable areas of attack.

Acceptable Levels of Alkalinity

The acceptable level of alkalinity in a boiler depends largely upon the pressure that
the boiler will be operating at. In a low-pressure boiler, this level should not exceed
700 ppm. If the alkalinity level exceeds 700 ppm it may result in a breakdown of the
bicarbonate producing carbonate and liberate free carbon dioxide with the steam. This
presence of carbon dioxide will corrode steam and return lines.

TITAN BOILER WATER TREATMENT HANDBOOK 13

 Iron can be soluble or insoluble. High iron is not found in raw water, but high
concentrations can come from rusted piping and exfoliation of boiler tubes. Iron is
found in condensate return in a particle form as it does not dissolve in water. The
detrimental aspect of iron is called steam turbine solid particle erosion, which causes
significant erosion of steam turbine steam path components. Insoluble iron can clog
valves and strainers and can cause excessive sludge to build up in low lying areas of a
water system. It also leads to boiler deposits that can cause tube failure. Soluble iron
can interfere in many processes, such as printing or the dying of cloth. In domestic
water systems, porcelain fixtures can be stained by as little as 0.25 ppm of iron.

Silica forms scale in a similar way to the permanent hardness salts. When the scale
formed is a mixture of silica, calcium and magnesium salts, it is extremely hard dense
scale with a high resistance to heat transfer and therefore presents a difficult problem
at inspection time.

Silica can form scale at pressures below 600 psig. Above 600 psig, silica starts to
volatize, passing over with steam to potentially form deposits on the steam turbine
diaphragms and blades. These deposits change the steam path components’ profiles
resulting in energy losses. The degree of loss depends upon the amount of the
deposits, their thickness and their degree of roughness.

For example, if the nozzle area of the first stage flow path was reduced by 10%, the
output of the steam turbine would be approximately 3% less. A similar loss could
occur if the gas turbine received steam for power augmentation purposes.

Sodium can combine with hydroxide ions creating sodium hydroxide (caustic).
Highly stressed areas of boiler piping and steam turbines can be attacked by sodium
hydroxide and cause stress-corrosion cracks to occur. This was a problem in older
boiler with riveted drums because of stresses and crevices in the areas of rivets and
seams. While less prevalent today, rolled tube ends are still vulnerable areas of attack
as well as welded connections.

Chloride of calcium, magnesium, and sodium, and other metals are normally found in
natural water supplies. All these chlorides are very soluble in water and therefore, can
carry over with steam to the steam turbine. Chlorides are frequently found in turbine
deposits and will cause corrosion of austenitic (300 series) stainless steel and pitting
of 12 Cr steel. Corrosion resistant materials protect themselves by forming a
protective oxide layer on their surface. These oxides are better known by their generic
name “ceramic.” All ceramics will pit if exposed to chlorides. If the metal piece is
under tensile stress either because of operation or residual stress left during
manufacturing, the pits formed by chlorides attacking the passivated layer will deepen
even more.

TITAN BOILER WATER TREATMENT HANDBOOK 14

2.2 Dissolved Gasses in Water

Water impurities can be in either gaseous or solid form. Dissolved gases include oxygen,
carbon dioxide, and nitrogen the same elements that comprise our atmosphere. When
dissolved in natural water, carbon dioxide and oxygen greatly increase corrosion. Given
boiler system temperatures, even small amounts of oxygen can cause severe damage in
the form of pitting. Removal of oxygen, carbon dioxide, and other non-condensable
gases from boiler feedwater is vital to boiler equipment longevity as well as safety.
Water dissolves varying amounts of dissolved air which is composed of 21% oxygen,
78% nitrogen, 1% other gases (including 0.03 - 0.06% carbon dioxide).

Oxygen is soluble in water at room temperature and atmospheric pressure to the

extent of about 9 ppm. As the temperature increases, the solubility of oxygen
decreases, but water under pressure can hold higher amounts of dissolved oxygen.
Oxygen is present in all waters, so that red iron oxide forms on a mild steel surface
immersed in water. This rusting or, as we call it, corrosion triunes until the metal is
corroded away. If the amount of oxygen in the water is restricted, the oxide film does
not form so readily; but instead, the surface of the steel tarnishes. This tarnish is
usually the development of a thin film of iron oxide on the metal surface which is not
so fully oxidized as the red iron oxide, and is denser, thus tending to resist further
corrosive attack. In water of increasing alkalinity, the oxide film becomes more stable
and gives more protection to the steel, but until a definite alkalinity is reached, it still
tends to break down in selective areas, where pits will develop.

Water does not usually pick up more than 10 ppm of carbon dioxide from the air.
Carbon dioxide may be dissolved in water to a much greater extent, though, through
the decay of vegetation and organics in the soil. The carbon dioxide does so simply by
dissolving in the water and forming a weak carbonic acid which attacks the metal in
feed systems, boiler or condensate system.

Although nitrogen is dissolved in natural water it is inert gas and has little effect on
the character of water used in boilers..

Hydrogen Sulfide and methane may be dissolved in some waters, but this is rare.
These gases, however, can be important when they occur as contaminants, which can
be troublesome when they are present in the feed water. In areas of poor water
circulation, such as lakes or still ponds, where the dissolved oxygen concentration is
low, hydrogen sulphide may be present in the fresh water and may require removal
before use.

TITAN BOILER WATER TREATMENT HANDBOOK 15

2.3 Other Impurities in Water

Solids are found in two forms: suspended or dissolved. Suspended solids include any
impurities in the water that are not dissolved, including soil, sand, silt, turbidity, color,
precipitated minerals, oil, industrial wastes and other particles of soluble organic matter
substances of vegetable (i.e., leaves) or animal origin. They also are finely divided
solids particles floating in the water. This is material left over after the scale forming
and corrosion salts have been changing into sludge by chemical treatment. The
common suspended solids in natural water are clay, sand, silicates, and organic
matter.

Turbidity is due to exceptionally fine organic materials and microorganisms, as well as

suspended clay and silt. Color is due to the decaying vegetable matter. Oils, fats, greases,
sewage and other wastes may contaminate water supplies.

The suspended solids cause foaming by becoming absorbed unto the walls of
individual bubbles so that small bubbles, instead of coalescing to form large ones and
bursting early, repel one another and build up a large volume of small bubbles. If
these bubbles burst near the steam outlet, the spray is taken over with the steam. If the
bubbles do not burst high in the steam space, the foam can be drawn over with the
steam. If left undisturbed, suspended solids will settle to the bottom of a vessel or
container.

TITAN BOILER WATER TREATMENT HANDBOOK 16

 In the following table you can find a list of the common boiler feed water contaminants, their
effect and their possible treatment.

COMMON BOILER FEED-WATER CONTAMINANTS

IMPURITY RESULTING IN GOT RID OF BY COMMENTS

Soluble Gasses
Water smells like rotten eggs:
Hydrogen Sulphide (H2S) Tastes bad and is corrosive to
most metals.
Corrosive, forms carbonic acid
Deaeration, neutralization with
Carbon Dioxide (CO2) in condensate. Also accelerates
alkalis.
corrosion by oxygen.
Deaeration & chemical
Corrosion and pitting of boiler
Oxygen (O2) tubes.
treatment with (Sodium
Sulphite or Hydrazine)
Suspended Solids
Sludge and scale carryover.
Sediment &Turbidity Harmful to process.
Carryover, foaming, deposits
Organic Matter can clog piping, and cause
corrosion.
Aeration, Filtration, and
Chlorination.
Filming, neutralizing amines
used to prevent condensate line
corrosion.
Clarification and filtration.
Clarification; filtration, and
chemical treatment
Found mainly in groundwater,
and polluted streams.
Pitting of boiler tubes,
condensate line and turbine
blades, failure of steam lines,
and fittings etc.
Tolerance of approx. 5ppm
max. for most applications,
10ppm for potable water.
Found mostly in surface
waters, caused by rotting
vegetation, and farm run offs.
Organics break down to form
organic acids. Results in low of
boiler feed-water pH, which
then attacks boiler tubes.
Includes diatoms, molds,
bacterial slimes,
iron/manganese bacteria.
Suspended particles collect on
the surface of the water in the
boiler and render difficult the
liberation of steam bubbles
rising to that surface.. Foaming
can also be attributed to waters
containing carbonates in
solution in which a light
flocculent precipitate will be
formed on the surface of the
water. It is usually traced to an
excess of sodium carbonate
used in treatment for some
other difficulty where animal
or vegetable oil finds its way
into the boiler.

TITAN BOILER WATER TREATMENT HANDBOOK 17

Dissolved Colloidal Solids
Oil & Grease Foaming, deposits in boiler
Scale deposits in boiler,
Hardness, Calcium (CA), inhibits heat transfer, and
thermal efficiency. In severe
and Magnesium (Mg)
cases can lead to boiler tube
burn thru, and failure.
Foaming, carbonates form
carbonic acid in steam, causes
Sodium, alkalinity,
condensate return line, and
NaOH,NaHCO3, Na2CO3
steam trap corrosion, can cause
embrittlement.
Sulphates (SO4) Hard scale if calcium is present Deionization
Priming, i.e. uneven delivery
of steam from the boiler
(belching), carryover of water
in steam lowering steam
Chlorides, (CI) efficiency, can deposit as salts
on superheaters and turbine
blades. Foaming if present in
large amounts.
Iron (Fe) and Manganese Deposits in boiler, in large
amounts can inhibit heat
(Mn)
transfer.
hard scale in boilers and
Silica (Si) cooling systems: turbine blade process, hot-lime-zeolite
deposits.
TITAN BOILER WATER TREATMENT HANDBOOK
Coagulation & filtration
Softening, plus internal
treatment in boiler.
Deaeration of make-up water
and condensate return. Ion
exchange; deionization, acid
treatment of make-up water.
Deionization
Aeration, filtration, ion
exchange.
Deionization; lime soda
treatment.
Enters boiler with condensate
Forms are bicarbonates,
sulphates, chlorides, and
nitrates, in that order. Some
calcium salts are reversibly
soluble. Magnesium reacts
with carbonates to form
compounds of low solubility.
Sodium salts are found in most
waters. They are very soluble,
and cannot be removed by
chemical precipitation.
Tolerance limits are about 100-
300ppm as CaCO3
Priming, or the passage of
steam from a boiler in
"belches", is caused by the
concentration sodium
carbonate, sodium sulphate, or
sodium chloride in solution.
Sodium sulphate is found in
many waters in the USA, and
in waters where calcium or
magnesium is precipitated with
soda ash.
Most common form is ferrous
bicarbonate.
Silica combines with many
elements to produce silicates.
Silicates form very tenacious
deposits in boiler tubing. Very
difficult to remove, often only
by flourodic acids. Most
critical consideration is volatile
carryover to turbine
components.
18
 List of Problems Caused By Impurities In Water

Raw water from reservoirs, lakes, rivers, and wells can have varying characteristics as
provided below:

Silica (SiO2) 0.4 to 39 ppm

Iron (Fe) 0.0 to 2.1 ppm
Calcium (Ca) 1.7 to 79 ppm
Magnesium (Mg) 0.4 to 33 ppm
Sodium (Na) 1.4 to 147 ppm
Potassium (K) 0.4 to 4 ppm
Carbonate (CO3) 1 to 4 ppm
Bicarbonate (HCO3) 10 to 328 ppm
Sulfate (SO4) 0.8 to 560 ppm
Chloride (Cl) 2.6 to 195 ppm
Fluoride (F) 0.0 to 2.5 ppm
Nitrate (NO3) 0.0 to 4.0 ppm
Dissolved solids 23 to 1380 ppm
Total hardness as CaCO3 6 to 316 ppm
Non carbonate hardness 0 to 197 ppm
Specific conductance 29.5 to 1040 micromhos at 25° C
Color 0 to 15
pH 5.8 to 8.4

TITAN BOILER WATER TREATMENT HANDBOOK 19

2.4 Sources of Makeup (Fresh) Water

Fresh water supplies may be either surface water (rivers, streams, reservoirs, etc.) or
ground water (shallow or deep well waters) that are not treated to the extent that the
potable water source is treated. The usual source of makeup water is the installation's
potable water supply. This represents a treated water that usually is of a very uniform
quality on a day-to-day basis. The composition of fresh water also varies with the
location and type and strata of the earth formations. In limestone areas, for example,
water contains large quantities of dissolved calcium.

a. Surface water.
Surface water supplies may vary with the season and the weather, with higher
turbidity and suspended solids possible during wet weather. Surface water quality
is affected by rainfall, soil erosion and industrial wastes.
• Lower in dissolved solids
• Higher in suspended solids

b. Groundwater.
Groundwater generally contains high dissolved minerals but are more consistent in
composition, temperature and contain less suspended matter and turbidity than
surface supplies which are affected directly by rainfall, soil erosion, and trade
wastes.

For example, an average surface supply will contain about 95 ppm total hardness
as opposed to an average of about 200 ppm total hardness for ground supplies. but
ground water is usually harder than surface water.
• Higher in dissolved solids and Lower in suspended solids
• Higher in iron and manganese
• Low in oxygen, may contain hydrogen sulfide gas

Make-up water is referred to as the fresh water that is added to the feedwater tank.
The makeup water is valuable because it is being overused and under conserved in
many parts of the country, making the cost of water rise in almost all parts of the
world.

Boiler feed makeup water is the new water added to a boiler circuit. It has been
softened to some desired quality but is not yet deaerated. It is normally produced
from fresh water by various purification processes to give it sufficiently low salt
content for use in boilers. It may range from partially softened to fully
demineralized water, depending on the pressure rating of the boiler.

What is the Difference between Sea Water and Fresh Water?

The main difference is in the amount of dissolved minerals. Sea water contains about 30 kg.
of minerals per 1000 liters (mostly salt). The mineral content of fresh water supplies is much
lower and generally ranges from 5 g to 1 kg per 10001iters.

TITAN BOILER WATER TREATMENT HANDBOOK 20

 2.4.1 Source Selection Factors to Consider
The source of water used in industrial water systems should be both reliable and
uniform in quality. There should also be a backup source available to the
operator.

2.4.2 Reasons for Treating Makeup Water

Makeup water is treated to remove or reduce the concentration of any
undesirable impurity. This may include impurities that will cause corrosion in the
industrial water system, create a deposit or scale in the system, or otherwise
interfere with the operation of the system.

2.4.3 Criteria for Treating Makeup Water

• Steam boilers.
Water softeners (usually "zeolite" units) should be installed at boiler plants.
New steam boilers normally require makeup water with less than 1 ppm
hardness; however, the manufacturer's recommendations should be followed.
• Hot water systems.
With hot water installations it is equally important that water suitably treated
for hardness and corrosion should be used. Even when cleaning or flushing a
new or modified system, care must be taken to prevent premature corrosion
occurring by the addition of a suitable treatment. Few hot water systems are
completely sealed, and provision should be designed into the system to treat all
makeup water. Draw off hot water directly from the system should never be
done and a calorifier must always be used.

Softening is recommended for high-temperature, high pressure hot water

systems when the total hardness of the makeup water exceeds 10 ppm
(as CaCO3).

Where steam or hot water boilers are not required to operate for a period it is
important that suitable measures are taken to prevent waterside corrosion. For
longer periods, boilers should be drained completely and thoroughly dried out.
The boiler may then either be left vented with the addition of a small electric
heater inside or sealed trays of moisture-absorbing chemicals such as hydrated
lime or silica gel laid inside.

• Other systems.
Softening of makeup water is generally recommended in chilled water
systems, dual purpose (hot or chilled) systems, and in hot water boilers treated
with nitrite-borax, or molybdates if the makeup water total hardness exceeds
250 ppm (as CaCO3). Makeup water in hot water boilers treated with sodium
sulphite and caustic soda, and diesel jacket systems should be softened when
its total hardness exceeds 50 ppm (as CaCO3).

TITAN BOILER WATER TREATMENT HANDBOOK 21

 2.4.4 Determining Makeup Requirements
A boiler is a device for generating steam, which consists of two principal
parts: the furnace, which provides heat, usually by burning a fuel, and the
boiler proper, a device in which the heat changes water into steam. The steam
or hot fluid is then recirculated out of the boiler for use in various processes in
heating applications. Boiler heating systems lose water through steam and
water leaks. Additional water called "makeup water" is added to the boiler to
replace these losses. The amount of makeup water and the level of naturally
occurring impurities in the water will determine the type of water treatment
required.

Boiler heating systems that have very few leaks will require simple water
treatment programs. Loss of water from steam system due to: Steam leaks,
Loss of condensate and Blowdown. Therefore, makeup of fresh water to the
boiler is required.

Makeup rates are required to calculate proper operating data on steam boilers.
They may be estimated by recording the time it takes to fill a container of
known volume, or preferably, measured with an appropriate makeup meter to
provide more accurate values and to reduce labour requirements. Since water
is the key ingredient used in a boiler system; it is important to understand just
exactly what is in the water you will be using. We recommend that customers
have a water analysis performed so they have a true picture of what they are
dealing with.

TITAN BOILER WATER TREATMENT HANDBOOK 22

 2.4.3 Boiler Feedwater (BFW)

Feedwater is used to replace the water that is removed from the boiler by
blowdown, steam generation and processes. Under normal conditions,
condensed steam returned to the boiler through the condensate system
constitutes much of the feedwater. You would like to maximize the amount of
condensate return because it has certain BTU value and has already been
treated. The required feedwater purity will depend on the quantity used, the
boiler design and the working pressure of the boiler.

The water circuit of a water boiler can be summarized by the following pictures:

Feed-water composition therefore depends on the quality of the make-up water

and the amount of condensate returned to the boiler. The steam, which escapes
from the boiler, frequently contains liquid droplets and gases. The water
remaining in liquid form at the bottom of the boiler picks up all the foreign
matter from the water that was converted to steam. The impurities must be
blown down by the discharge of some of the water from the boiler to the
drains. The permissible percentage of blown down at a plant is strictly limited
by running costs and initial outlay. The tendency is to reduce this percentage
to a small figure.

Boiler feedwater is referred to as the water entering the boiler to generate

steam or hot water. It may either be the same as the makeup water, or may
consist of returned steam condensate, or (as in most cases) will be a mixture of
both.

In many cases, steam is condensed and returned to the boiler as part of the
feed water. Condensate Return is clean condensate return from consumers or
turbine condensers. It should not be mixed with make-up water prior thermal
deaeration. The condensate is valuable due to low electrical conductance,
purity, and high temperature.

TITAN BOILER WATER TREATMENT HANDBOOK 23

 To ensure efficient operation of the boiler the quality of both make up and
condensate return must be optimized. Condensate return often contains
impurities due to carryover or priming of the boiler, and corrosion products
from the steam and condensate return system.

Feed water is defined as follows:

Feed water (FW) = Makeup water (MW) + Return condensate (RC)
The above equation is a mass balance (pounds or kilograms).

The relative amounts of makeup and condensate may vary. A typical figure is
5% makeup with 95% condensate, but this depends on how the steam plant is
operated and how much of the steam is condensed and recovered for
recirculation.

Feedwater composition therefore depends on the quality of the make-up water

and the amount of condensate returned.

Whenever heat can be recovered from another source, feed water is one of the
best streams to receive this heat. The higher the temperature of the feed water
going to the boiler, the more efficiently the boiler operates. However, any
type of migratory deposition can impede the heat exchange process.
Consequently, the highest quality feed water provides the highest heat
exchange rate in either economizers or heaters. It is important to understand
that none of these heat exchangers can be blown down during boiler operation.

TITAN BOILER WATER TREATMENT HANDBOOK 24

 2.4.3.1 Removing Impurities from Boiler Feedwater
Boiler feedwater impurities, such as dissolved solids are well-known threats to
boiler reliability. Contamination of feedwater by these elements from makeup and
condensate systems have led to many steam generation problems. If not properly
controlled, this contamination can deposit on boiler surfaces, restricting the
transfer of heat to boiler water and leading to higher tube metal temperatures.

When possible, it is best to obtain boiler feed water from groundwater, as this
water is more consistent in composition and contains less suspended matter than
surface supplies, which are modified by rainfall and erosion.

The feedwater must be specially conditioned to avoid problems in the boiler and
downstream components. In order to be non-scaling, the Boiler feedwater must be
a softened or demineralized water. In order to be non-corrosive to the carbon-steel
or low-alloy steel components from which boilers are usually constructed, the
water must be thoroughly deaerated. The water required for boiler feed purposes
i.e. for steam generation should be of remarkably high quality and thus requires a
lot of treatment.

The feedwater, as it enters the boiler steam drum, is now considered boiler water.
Complete understanding of the nature of boiler water can be gained by temporarily
assuming that no water treatment, chemical addition, or blowdown is applied to
the boiler waters. The character of the boiler water continually changes as the
boiler steams. The dissolved and suspended solids, contained in the feedwater,
concentrate in the boiler water at the rate of eightfold every hour if the boiler is
producing steam at 50 percent of its normal capacity.

Three damaging conditions arise in the boiler as the boiler water continues to
steam without treatment. Scale formation on the steam generating surfaces,
Corrosion of the boiler metal, and boiler water Carry-over with the steam due to
foaming are the three results of untreated boiler water.

TITAN BOILER WATER TREATMENT HANDBOOK 25

 2.4.3.2 Purity Requirements of Feedwater
A boiler is a device for generating steam, which consists of two principal
parts: the furnace, which provides heat, usually by burning a fuel, and the
boiler proper, a device in which the heat changes water into steam. The steam
or hot fluid is then recirculated out of the boiler for use in various processes
in heating applications.

In the steam boiler industry, high purity feed water is required to ensure proper
operation of steam generation systems. High purity feed water reduces the use
of boiler chemicals due to less frequent blowdown requirements (reducing
blowdown frequency by as much as a factor of 10). Lower blowdown
frequency also results in lower fuel costs. Scale build up is reduced due to a
smaller concentration of impurities in the boiler feed water to foul heat
transfer surfaces. The lower level of impurities also reduces corrosion rates in
the boiler. When boiler is used to run a steam turbine, turbine blade erosion is
reduced due to higher purity steam generated.

Water is called the universal solvent. The purer the water, that is, the lower its
dissolved solids content, the greater the tendency to dissolve its surroundings.

Pure water, if stored in a stainless-steel tank after a short contact time, has a
small amount of iron, chromium, and nickel from the tank dissolved in it. This
dissolving of the tank does not continue indefinitely with the same water. The
water, in a sense, has satisfied its appetite in a short time and does not dissolve
any more metal. Pure water, if exposed to air, immediately absorbs air and has
oxygen from the air dissolved in it. A glass of tap water at 68°F contains 9.0

TITAN BOILER WATER TREATMENT HANDBOOK 26

 ppm of oxygen. Tap water heated to 77°F contains 8.2 ppm of oxygen, and some
oxygen is driven out of the water. The higher the temperature of the water, the
less dissolved oxygen it can hold. Conversely, the higher the pressure imposed
on the water, the greater the dissolved oxygen it can hold. Water, when boiled,
produces steam. The steam contains some liquid water. There is never a perfect
separation of pure steam from the boiling water. The steam above the boiling
water always has entrained with it some boiling water.

The foregoing three ideas: water is a universal solvent, water dissolves oxygen
when in contact with air, and boiling water is always entrained with steam
should help you understand the nature of feedwater.

Feedwater purity is a matter both of quantity of impurities and nature of

impurities: some impurities such as hardness, iron and silica are of more
concern, for example, than sodium salts. Boiler feedwater is used to produce
steam. The pressure of the steam (0.5 - 100 bar) determines the temperature
and energy capacity, but also the quality of the feed water. Therefore, the
purity requirements for any feedwater depend on how much feed water is used
as well as what the boiler design (pressure, heat transfer rate, etc.) can tolerate.
A low-pressure fire-tube boiler can usually tolerate high feed-water hardness
with proper treatment while virtually all impurities must be removed from
water used in some modern, high-pressure boilers. The general rule is the
higher the pressure and heat flux densities the more strict the quality of the
boiler feed water.

Due to the wide parameters encountered in the quality of feed water it is not
possible to be specific and to define which treatment suits a type and size of
boiler. The quality of make-up and percentage of condense returns in a system
will both have to be taken into consideration.

The term “higher quality” generally means feedwater with significantly lower
levels of TDS than typically employed in lower rated boilers. Additionally, it
implies the reduction of certain specific minerals or ions (such as silica,
sodium, or alkalinity) and non-condensable gases to meet very low
concentration specifications. When “higher quality” applies to condensate
return (CR), it refers to a reduction in iron and copper, and sometimes also
nickel and chromium, and thus, may require a polishing process.

TITAN BOILER WATER TREATMENT HANDBOOK 27

 2.4.3.3 Determining Feedwater Requirements
For each plant operation, there is an optimum method of treatment. Many
factors are involved in proper selection of feed water preparation and internal
treatment. Principally, these are the requirements of the plant for safe and
reliable operation at an economical treating cost.

• Feed Water Preparation

The basic assumption regarding the quality of feed water is that calcium and
magnesium hardness, migratory iron, migratory copper, colloidal silica and
other contaminants have been reduced to a minimum, consistent with boiler
design and operation parameters.

Once feed water quality has been optimized about soluble and particulate
contaminants. the next problem is corrosive gases. Dissolved oxygen and
dissolved carbon dioxide are among the principal causes of corrosion in the
boiler and pre-boiler systems. The deposition of these metallic oxides in the
boiler is frequently more troublesome than the actual damage caused by the
corrosion. Deposition is not only harmful, but it offers an opening for further
corrosion mechanisms as well.

Contaminant products in the feed water cycle up and concentrate in the boiler.
As a result, deposition takes place on internal surfaces, particularly in high
heat transfer areas, where it can be least tolerated. Metallic deposits act as
insulators, which can cause local overheating and failure. Deposits can also
restrict boiler water circulation. Reduced circulation can contribute to
overheating, film boiling and accelerated deposition.

Whenever heat can be recovered from another source, feed water is one of the
best streams to receive this heat. The higher the temperature of the feed water
going to the boiler, the more efficiently the boiler operates.

The preparation of feed water for boiler injection has been optimized through
the removal of undesirable salts and contaminants. In addition, the removal of
oxygen and other non-condensable gases has been completed through
chemical and mechanical deaeration. Establishing consistent feed water
quality is extremely important in designing the internal boiler water treatment
program.

TITAN BOILER WATER TREATMENT HANDBOOK 28

 • Feedwater System Sizing
One of the most important factors in keeping your boiler on-line is to keep
enough water in it. Otherwise the boiler will shut down on a low water
condition. This is especially true with firetube boilers that are fired
automatically. That is why it is so important to size a feedwater system so
that it has the capability of maintaining the proper water level in your
boiler.

A properly sized feedwater system will have a tank adequately sized to feed
your boiler and pumps selected to deliver that water at the correct rate and
pressure.

Calculate the storage tank needed

In most cases ten minutes of water should be readily available for your boiler.
One boiler horsepower = 34.5 lbs/hr of steam (or water) from and at 212°F.
We also know that one gallon of water weighs 8.37 lbs.

To calculate the storage tank needed use the following formula:

BHP X 34.5 ÷ 8.337 lbs ÷ 60 min. X 10 = minimum useable capacity in

gallons.

For example, if you have a 500 HP boiler the calculation will be as follows

500 x 34.5 ÷ 8.337 ÷ 60 X 10 = 345 gallons

Now, it stands to reason that you can't operate your tank totally flooded so you
have to allow for some extra room. A safety factor of 1.5 is generally the
accepted rule of thumb.

We then take the 345 gallons and multiply by 1.5 to get 517.5 gallons and
choose a tank size of 500 gallons (one of the standard tank sizes available).

Keep in mind that your boiler system requirements might demand a

larger reserve especially if you have a process steam load that returns
large slugs of water intermittently. In this case you may need a larger
tank.

TITAN BOILER WATER TREATMENT HANDBOOK 29

 The next step is to select the correct pump for your application. There are
three areas that must be considered. The correct flow rate in GPM, the correct
pressure needed and the NPSH (net Pump Suction Head).

To calculate the flow rate in GPM, use the following formula:

BHP X 34.5 ÷ 8.337 ÷ 60 X 1.5 = gpm

(Please note that the 1.5 is, once again, a safety factor.)

For the example we have been using the calculation will look like this:

500 BHP X 34.5 ÷ 8.337 ÷ 60 X 1.5 = 52 gpm

Another quick rule of thumb is that 1/10 of a gallon is needed for every boiler
horsepower. So, a 500 HP boiler will need a pump capable of delivering 50
gpm. An 800 HP boiler will need an 80 gpm pump.

The next step is to determine the proper discharge of the pump. ASME code
requires that you furnish feedwater to your boiler at 3% higher than what the
relief valve setting is on the boiler. In addition, you must take into
consideration any pressure drops between the pump and the boiler.
This would include any valves and piping.

For this example, we will say that our relief valve is set at 150 psig and
there is a 5 lb. pressure drop. The calculation will look like this:

150 x 1.03 + 5 lb drop = 160 psig required.

The last piece of the puzzle is the correct NPSH, net positive suction head.
This is the amount of liquid, in feet, required at the pump suction to prevent
cavitation and ensure the pump is working correctly. This will help determine
the tank stand height you will need

To choose the correct NPSH refer to the pump selection tables. These tables
are based on the pumps having the lowest possible NPSH needed. This is done
to ensure the lowest tank stand and thus reduce the overall height of the boiler
feed system. NPSHA is the feet available under the tank and NPSHR is the
feet required by the pump. Check the pump curve for the NPSHR and then add
one foot.

TITAN BOILER WATER TREATMENT HANDBOOK 30

 • Feed Water Quality Goals
The major gaseous corrosive contaminants are removed through proper
chemical and mechanical dearation. Migratory iron, migratory copper and
other contaminants such as calcium, magnesium and silica must be
conditioned within the boiler itself. Excursions of calcium, magnesium and
silica can create deposition problems within the feed water train.

The first step in minimizing potential operating problems associated with

feedwater contamination is to minimize contaminant levels in the feedwater.
This can be achieved by efficient external treatment of the makeup water, by
monitoring and (when necessary) by dumping of return condensate.

The level of feedwater quality that must be achieved for successful operation
is dependent upon individual plant operating conditions. One of the major
variables is the operating pressure of the boiler. Other variables that should be
considered include boiler heat fluxes, circulation patterns, boiler load and
consistency of control.

For example, when peak heat fluxes are expected to exceed 150,000 British
thermal units per hour per square foot (Btu/hr/ft2), the goal for feedwater
contaminant levels should be reduced to that listed for the next highest
pressure range in the ASME table. Conversely, low heat flux boilers or low
load operation may allow relaxation of feedwater quality goals.

TITAN BOILER WATER TREATMENT HANDBOOK 31

 • Feed Water Quality Monitoring
The quality of feedwater is determined by daily testing of samples from
various points in the system. It is checked for chloride, conductivity, salinity,
hardness, dissolved oxygen, and pH.

Once feedwater quality goals are established, a monitoring program,

consistent with these goals, should also be implemented. Feedwater quality
should be monitored downstream of the boiler feedwater pumps and any high-
pressure feedwater heaters. In addition, makeup water and condensate should
be monitored for contamination prior to their entry into the deaerator. In plants
with makeup and condensate storage tanks, water quality should be monitored
ahead of these tanks.

Quality standards for makeup and condensate streams should be consistent

with achieving the desired feedwater quality goal. Condensate streams
of generally excellent quality can periodically become contaminated by raw
makeup as a result of system leaks, or by iron resulting from a thermal
shock to the system during equipment start up.

Provisions should be made to purify or dump condensate when the level of

contamination becomes sufficiently high to cause a significant deterioration in
feedwater quality. Continuous conductivity monitoring is recommended to
detect contamination levels that require prompt action. Condensate iron levels
should be monitored during equipment start up and at regular intervals to be
sure that only acceptable condensate is being returned. Condensate pH should
be monitored at regular intervals to ensure pH of 8.8 to 9.2 is maintained
for mixed metallurgy systems.

Makeup water quality should also be closely monitored. Plants with

demineralized makeup water should monitor conductivity continuously.
Continuous silica monitoring is also recommended where demineralizers
supply makeup to systems operating above 900 pounds per square inch gauge
(psig) (630 kg/cm2).

Where sodium zeolite-softened makeup is used, frequent hardness monitoring

is recommended. While individual plant experience should be used as a guide
for establishing testing frequency, sampling of the main makeup stream once
every two hours is recommended (unless a continuous hardness monitor is
used).

TITAN BOILER WATER TREATMENT HANDBOOK 32

 Table: Typical Sampling and Analysis Schedule
Sample Point Analysis Method Frequency
Treated Makeup Hardness 2 hours
Conductivity Continuous
Silica
Condensate Conductivity Continuous
Iron Daily, equipment startup
pH 8 hours
Feedwater pH 8 hours
Hardness 2 hours
Iron Daily
Oxygen Continuous
Boiler Blowdown Treatment 8 hours
Alkalinity (or pH) 8 hours
Silica 8 hours
Conductivity 8 hours
Steam Sodium Continuous

A system for the detection and subsequent elimination of significant

contamination in the makeup should be designed to prevent serious quality
deterioration in makeup water storage tanks.

TITAN BOILER WATER TREATMENT HANDBOOK 33