Manual of Oil Tanker Operations

CONTENTS
Chapter One: Historical Background 1

Chapter Two: Basic Hazards 5
Chapter Three: Modern Tanker Design 17
Chapter Four: Sources of Ignition 29
Chapter Five: Inert Gas Production and Operations 49
Chapter Six: Gas Evolution and Venting 63
Chapter Seven: Pipelines and Pumps 73
Chapter Eight: The Voyage Cycle 87
Chapter Nine: Types of Berths and Offshore Terminals 111
Chapter Ten: Tank Cleaning and COW 123
Chapter Eleven: Pollution Prevention 133
Chapter Twelve: Dangerous Space Entry 143
Chapter Thirteen: Cargo Calculations 163
Chapter Fourteen: Vetting Inspections 173
Chapter Fifteen: Response to Oil Spillage 183
Index 191
iii
CHAPTER 1
Historical Background
Oil was first discovered in America in 1859 and immediately European market demands
created the necessity for transportation. Initially, the oil was carried in barrels aboard cargo
ships leading to the adoption of a measurement still used today. The first bulk oil carrying
ships were completely new ideas and essentially experimental until a break through evolved
to an acceptably new class of ship. The problems encountered moving away from barrels
to bulk conveyance were twofold. Oil on passage, unlike other liquid cargoes transported
across the oceans, was affected by the world's differing temperatures and either contracted
or expanded. This meant it was unwise to load tanks to maximum capacity, but only to 98%
thus creating a 2% capacity gap. Whilst this solved the problem of cargo expansion, the ullage
produced permitted the liquid to move or 'slop" in any sort of seaway affecting stability of
the ship. The second difficulty was the chemical nature of the cargo because, unlike water or
wine cargoes, crude oil exudes hydrocarbon gas which is both toxic and inflammable. There
were many accidents leading to the outbreak of fires and explosions and sometimes total loss
of the tanker before a remedy could be found.
Early tankers developed in the 1880s consisted of a single oil-tight longitudinal central
bulkhead fitted with transversals which led to a number of 'sets' of individual tanks port
and starboard. A space was allowed above the cargo tanks, called an 'expansion trunk' that
permitted room for expansion of the oil and went some way towards reducing the free surface
area of the oil and helping contain the sloping effect. It was not long before Shell Tanker
Company, in an innovative move, fitted strong summer tanks into the space either side of the
expansion trunk which extended across the length of two sets of tanks longitudinally:
(Image: 1/1- Diagram showing the distribution of cargo tanks of an early oil tanker
showing the expansion trunk and summer tanks arrangement port and starboard).
The summer tanks were often used to carry main cargo, but sometimes for oil of a lighter
grade in sufficient quantities to bring the ship down to her summer draught mark.
2 MANUAL OF OIL TANKER OPERATIONS
Undoubtedly, he greatest contributor to tanker construction was marine architect
Sir Joseph Isherwood, a Lloyd's surveyor at Hull who left the company in 1907 to work full
time independently designing ships. His tanker constructions departed from the standard built
vessels to date by improving the length/depth relationship of the tanker hull and basically
introducing additional transversal web-frames within each tank with enhanced corner brackets.
His innovations and patented design led to stronger oil carrying ships that have proved the
model upon which modern tankers internationally today owe their construction. It was in the
1920s that Isherwood improved his corner bracket design. It was at this time that a second
longitudinal bulkhead was introduced, producing the conventional layout of a centre tank and
(Image: 1/2-The introduction of the transversal web frame swash bulkhead

increased considerably the strength of the oil tanker).
(Image: 1/3-The 1908-built 4196 grt s.t. Paul Paix by R. Craggs and Sons for Lennard's Shipping Company, both
of Middlesborough, was the first tanker fitted to Isherwood's revolutionary design and gave sterling service until
she was scrapped in 1935).
(Image: 1/4-Early oil tankers often had the engine-room midships necessitating the running of the propeller
shaft through the after cargo tanks. This design was soon altered placing the engine-room aft).
MANUAL OF OIL TANKER OPERATIONS
(Image: 1/5-A tanker designed in the 1920s showing the introduction of a second longitudinal
bulkhead indicating the removal of the summer tanks and extra cargo capacity obtained.
The hull was considerably strengthened with greater control exercised over the sloping effect).
The 1920s hull construction lasted virtually without further modification until the advent
of the double-hulled tanker in 1993. Two tankers were built in that year, the Eleo Maersk in
Europe and the Arosa in Japan both for foreign owners and both continuing in service, the
former under the name of La Pruclencia for Greek owners and the latter under her own name.
(Image: 1/6-The Arosa was the first double-hulled very large crude carrier constructed in Far Eastern yards.
She was built by Hitachi Zosen in 1993 and is 291,301s- dwt, 328.16m length overall, moulded beam 68m and
depth 30.40m. She continues in commercial service-Arosa Maritime Inc).
The design of these two ships has proved its value, apart from a few 'teething troubles',
for it has remained unchanged and continues to be built today. Basically, a second bottom and
sides are built around an inner hull.
GENERAL ARRANGEMENT/TANK SECTION
—'APT No 2
C.O.T
UPPER DECK
TANKS
(Image: 1/7-The general arrangement plan of the Arosa showing the disposition of cargo tanks that
remains the chosen option for most very large crude carriers).
CHAPTER 2
BASIC HAZARDS
Introduction-Chemistry of oil: the hydrocarbon chain-Crude Oil: the refining
process-Flammability-Volatility and vapour pressure: the fire triangle-Lower
Flammability Level (LFL)- Upper Flammability Level (UFL)-Flash point: fire point
temperature-auto ignition temperature (AIT)-Toxicity: recognising a safe level of
exposure-the effects of toxicity - material hazard data sheets (MHDS).
Introduction.
Oil is a potentially dangerous substance, but some of the properties making it so are
desirable in a controlled environment such as the combustion chamber of an engine. In
order to understand the hazards it is essential to appreciate the factors involved. This chapter
investigates the nature of hydrocarbons; the refining process and the flammability and toxicity
dangers of different products.
A). Chemistry of Oil.
'Oil' and 'petroleum' are generic terms covering many different substances from
crude oils to refined products, each of which has its specific uses and degrees of hazard.
They have the common feature of being hydrocarbons, which means they consist
of a complex mixture of carbon atoms to which are attached hydrogen atoms.
The particular arrangement of hydrocarbon 'chains', dictates the characteristics of any
particular 'oil'.
Hydrocarbons are the end products of animal and vegetable matter that has been
compressed under the earth's surface over millions of years. There are other components
present such as sulphur, mercaptans (organic chemical substances containing sulphur)
water, trace elements of metals (vanadium, nickel, iron), nitrogen, salts, asphalts and carbon
residues. Most of these components are problematical in an industrial context, but carbon and
hydrogen atoms are required to produce energy.
i). The Hydrocarbon Chain.

The simplest hydrocarbon consists of a single carbon atom to which is attached four
hydrogen atoms to form the hydrocarbon molecule. This is called 'methane' and it exists
as a gas at normal atmospheric pressures and temperatures. It is not frozen, but is cooled
until it condenses at approximately - 162°C when it then becomes the cargo of the liquid
natural gas carrier. If another hydrocarbon molecule attaches itself then two carbon atoms
are produced not, as might be imagined eight hydrogen atoms, because two are 'lost' in the
joining process.
The process of joining can be repeated to form 'chains' which may either be in a line
(straight chains), have branches off them (branched chains) or have a circular form (cyclical
chains). The number, length and shape of the hydrocarbon chain will dictate the characteristics
of any particular oil.
5
(Image 2/1-Diagram showing various hydrocarbon chains).
B). Crude Oil.

There are thousands of crude oils in existence, each having unique characteristics.
They are usually given a geographical descriptor and an indicator of the hydrocarbon
mixture. Such examples are Arabian Heavy or Iranian Light, where the former have more
of the longer chains, and the latter additional shorter length chains. As it stands crude oil
is not much practical use, because it cannot be used in a car engine, aeroplanes or power
stations. The crude oil has first to be stabilised. This involves removing as much as possible
hydrogen sulphide, which is both poisonous and highly corrosive. The process is carried out
as closely as possible where the crude comes out of the ground and it is then refined to create
the products used in our modern industrialised world.
When oil was first discovered in America, it was distilled which evaporated most of the
lighter hydrocarbons. Some of the remainder was used to produce kerosene for lighting and
heating. Today, these lighter particles are more valuable fractions but at that time they were
too volatile to be used safely. The refining process today uses all the fractions of the crude
oil to produce various products ranging from gases, gasolines, kerosenes, diesel, fuel oil,
lubricating oils and bitumen, additional to many chemicals used in everyday modern life.
i). The Refining Process.
The complex mixture of hydrocarbons comprising the substance of crude oil makes it
necessary to separate the different chains to create the useable product. This is a simple
process called 'fractional distillation' where the different fractions are separated according to
their boiling point. Shorter hydrocarbon chains will vaporise at lower temperatures than the
longer chains. The following table shows the relationship between boiling point and number
of carbon atoms in a 'chain'.
Substance Carbon Atoms Atmospheric Usage

boiling point
Gases (LPG/LNG) 1-4 < 40°C Bottled gas (i.e. Butane/propane)
Naptha 5-12 60-100°C Feedstock for chemicals & gasoline
Gasoline 5-10 40-205°C For cars, smaller aircraft
Kerosene 10-16 175-325°C Commercial aircraft, heating oil
Diesel/gas oil 14-20 250-350°C Cars, trucks & trains
Lubricating oil 20-50 300-370°C Various machinery
Fuel oil 20-70 370-600°C Ships, power stations
Residuals (bitumen) 70 + 600°C + Roads, roofing
As the heated crude passes through the distillation tower, which is hotter at the
bottom than the top, the flow is interrupted by a series of bubble trays allowing the liquid
component remaining at any level in the tower to settle and then drop to the previous level.
Lighter hydrocarbons move up to the next tray and the process is repeated The liquid
is drawn off at several levels in the column. This refining process is only the first step
because further stages are required before the finished product is ready for distribution.
For example:
• Cracking is a process to split heavier hydrocarbons into smaller ones (the more useable
molecules) through a process that applies heat and pressure.
• Alkylation is used in the production of gasoline by re-using some of the lighter, gases
created during the cracking to combine molecules (essentially reverse cracking).
Reforming is used to produce high-octane gasoline from naptha.
• Finally the product may be treated to add performance enhancers and detergents to
help keep engines clean.
There are also seasonal variations for, in winter, more of the lighter hydrocarbons will be
added to help keep some products in a liquid state. This is especially important for diesels
that have a tendency to thicken in cold temperatures due to the relatively long hydrocarbon
chains involved, and this brand is called 'winter' diesel. Generally speaking hydrocarbons
with 1 -5 carbon atoms will exist as a gas at normal atmospheric pressure and temperature;
those with 6 - 1 9 a liquid, and those hydrocarbons with 20 or more will be solids. Diesel
having 14-20 carbon atoms is near the top end of the liquid phase. When the atmospheric
temperature drops, the liquid thickens in much the same way as a cooking sauce thickens
when cooled. The preceding explanation offers merely the basics of refining because the
subject is complex and beyond the scope of this book.
(Image: 2/2-The oil and chemical refinery at Fawley, southern England where crude oil received various stages
necessary to turn it into a product-Esso Petroleum).
C). Flammability.
When oil is ignited it does not burn. It is the emitted vapour which ignites that, in turn,
heats up the surface of the oil in contact with the fire which increases the heat surface
releasing additional vapour. The fire is -fed' and gets bigger. The process of vapour release
is critical, because if no vapour is released it cannot be ignited, hence fire will not occur.
There are other factors involved, namely the relationship between the vapour that
burns; the degree of heat energy required to ignite the vapour, and the amount of
oxygen present.
D). Volatility and Vapour Pressure.

Volatility is the ability of a substance to give off vapour, or to evaporate.
Some substances are described as volatile because they release proportionally more vapour
at a certain temperature than others at the same temperature. This can be demonstrated by
imagining a cup of gasoline and a cup of water in a warm room where the gasoline will
evaporate more rapidly. This is termed a 'volatile substance'. If the evaporation takes place
in a closed container, each of the individual vapour molecules will exert a partial pressure
on the container. As the vapour pressure is for a particular temperature, it is just as valid
to determine volatility by means of the temperature at which evaporation first takes place
and could be ignited. The sum of these partial pressures will be the vapour pressure of that
substance, at that particular temperature, but it is the flashpoint (discussed further in this
chapter) that determines whether or not the substance is volatile or non-volatile.
Whilst the term 'vapour pressure' is used loosely, there are a number of ways in which it
can be measured. The highest possible vapour pressure is the True Vapour Pressure (TVP),
but with complex mixtures there is no ready way of determining it.
oxygen
(Image: 2/3-The Fire Triangle indicating the essential ingredients before a fire can occur).
Although it is only the vapour and not the oil which burns, this is not the complete
story. There has to be sufficient heat energy to ignite the vapour and sufficient oxygen to
sustain the burning. If vapour, oil and heat are present in the correct proportions at the
same time, then the hazard of flammability exists. Tanker design and operations are intended
to avoid this hazardous occurrence by understanding how flammable atmospheres are
created, and then operating the correct preventative procedures. Even if all three factors are
present, the fuel/air mixture must be correctly proportioned with sufficient heat energy to
create ignition.
If an empty cargo tank full of air is considered into which a volatile cargo is introduced
then initially if an ignition source was applied, nothing would happen. This is because there
is not enough fuel in relation to the volume of air in the tank. If more vapour is introduced
then eventually ignition could be achieved, but the fire created would not be very efficient.
The point at which ignition first occurs is the Lower Flammable Limit (LFL), also known as
the Lower Explosive Limit (LEL) and occurs at about 1% by volume of hydrocarbon gas in
air for most oil cargoes.
The fire will be at its most efficient when approximately 4% to 5% by volume hydrocarbons
and at about 10% to 11% by volume (for typical petroleum cargoes), for then the fire will be
extinguished. This is because there will be too much hydrocarbon gas by volume in the air.
This point is known as the Upper Flammable Limit (UFL) or Upper Explosive Limit (UEL).
(02%)
* SOLAS requires less than 8% 02 to be considered inerted
(Image: 2/4-Lower and Upper flammability levels. The diagram is for most petroleum cargoes. Other substances,
such as certain chemicals, may have different flammable ranges. For example methanol has a range of 6%-36%).
The region between the Lower and Upper Flammable Limits is known as the
Flammable Range. In air, the flammable range of most petroleum products carried
as oil tanker cargoes, is between about 1% and 10% by volume hydrocarbon gas.
If the oxygen content is reduced, then the flammable range decreases until at about
11% oxygen by volume there will be insufficient air to sustain combustion. Any space with
less than this oxygen content is described as having an inert atmosphere. If the atmosphere
in the space is above the UFL, the atmosphere is described as being too rich and if below the
LFL then it is termed too lean.
It needs to be appreciated that the diagram in Image: 2 / 4 is derived from laboratory
tests under optimum conditions where mixing of the gas/air mixture is evenly achieved.
In practice the atmosphere within a cargo tank may have regions within the flammable zone
and also some outside of it. It is the aim of safe tanker operations to maintain at all times the
atmosphere outside of the flammable range.
(Image: 2/5-Main-deck and service cross-over transfer pipes aboard a 37.500 dwt tanker-Ray Solly).
E). Flashpoint.
Vapour generation is directly affected by temperature for. as temperature increases so
does the amount of vapour produced. Other factors are involved which are discussed in
chapter six, but it is logical that if temperature is intrinsic to vapour generation then there
must be a temperature at which vapour is first released.
Flashpoint can be defined as: The lowest temperature at which a liquid gives off enough
vapour briefly to ignite when exposed to an external source of ignition.
Different cargoes have different flashpoints, for example diesel oil is about 71 С whereas
gasoline is around-46C. At normal storage and carriage temperatures around the world
diesel, unlike gasoline, will not emit vapour in sufficient concentrations to ignite. The flashpoint
test is carried out at atmospheric pressure based upon vapour release from a volume of liquid.
If the liquid transforms into an aerosol spray (i.e. a fine mist) then the flashpoint is irrelevant,
as the combination of the small specific surface area of each droplet, and the mixing with
air that occurs, can enable the aerosol to be ignited at ambient temperatures. This situation
could occur for example if a pin-hole leak occurs in a transfer pipe. If the containment system
within which the vapour is present is pressurized, the flashpoint will be less.
i). Fire Point Temperature.
If the liquid is heated up to about 10 С above the flashpoint then sufficient vapour will be
released that if ignited by an external ignition source, will remain alight. This is known as
the Fire Point temperature.
ii). Auto Ignition Temperature.
As the temperature of the liquid increases, the molecules gain heat energy. If enough heat
is produced then the vapour can ignite spontaneously. It might be thought that the lighter
hydrocarbons (shorter chains) will have a lower auto ignition temperature than longer chain
hydrocarbons. The reverse is actually the case because heavier hydrocarbons tend to auto-
ignite earlier. As a comparison the following table gives some typical values:
Hydrocarbon AIT (°C) Flashpoint (°C)

Crude oil 260 - 1 5 (typical)
Gasoline 280 -46
Diesel 210 70
Cooking oil 300 230
There is no direct correlation between flashpoint and AIT The former is dictated by
temperature and vapour pressure whereas the latter is determined by the molecular chain
length. It is a somewhat circular argument, as the more of the shorter chains there are in
a substance then the greater will be the vapour pressure. Note also from the table above
how close the AIT and flashpoint is for cooking oil. It does not take too much extra applied
heat to go from the temperature at which just enough vapour is given off to be ignited, to
the spontaneous ignition temperature, hence the large number of so called 'chip-pan' fires
that occur. From the point of view of tanker operations, if the cargo does reach its
auto ignition temperature then a massive local fire could well result.
F). Toxicity.
A toxic substance is poisonous and may harm a human being, but there are degrees of
toxicity. A significant amount of one substance may cause no harm, whereas a minute quantity
of another may be fatal. In any industry the employer has a duty to care for employees and
provide a safe working environment. The shipping industry is no different and flag state laws
formalize these obligations within a legal framework.
Concerning petroleum, the word 'toxicity' is used generically to describe oil cargoes in
their different forms ranging from crude oil to all refined products. Any specific cargo may
contain components that are more toxic than the particular substance as a whole. For example,
crude oils may contain varying amounts of hydrogen sulphide (FLS), and gasolines may
contain benzene, both of which are extremely toxic. In an inerted ship there will additionally
be the products of the combustion process, such as carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide.
i). Recognizing a Safe Level of Exposure.
This is not straight forward mainly due to newly discovered chemical constructions.
Historically, government safety agencies have used findings in industry to set 'safe' levels for
different subsiances. Their origin is the American Conference of Governmental Industrial
Hygenists (ACGIH) who in 1948 published a list to the industry of safe levels in Threshold
Limit Values (TLVs) which were accepted by many countries. TLVs are guidelines and not
strict values above or below which a safe or unsafe atmosphere exists. They offer acceptable
levels such that a worker exposed to the TLV for a particular substance over a working day,
should not suffer harm.
In the UK in the 1980s, a different system was established based on the American
Conference's TLVs, known as Occupational Exposure Limits (OELs). In addition to the
Time Weighted Average TLV (eight hour exposure criteria) there are Short Term Exposure
Limits (STELs) which allow for a one-off fifteen minute exposure at a higher level than the
TLV. There are also Ceiling TLVs (TLV-Cs) which indicate the concentration that should not
be exceeded at all during the exposure time.
All TLVs are quoted in parts per million (ppm) where the lower the number, the greater the
toxicity. For petroleum as a generic substance the OEL (TWA-TLVs) is 300ppm: for Benzene
lppm, and for hydrogen sulphide (H,S) 5ppm. The concentration of any of these, or other
components found in an atmosphere, may be widely different in a vapour stream for different
products. For example, H 2 S is commonly found in crude oils but for clean petroleum products
is removed during the refining process. Benzene is found in a range of oils, especially crude
and gasolines. It may also be carried as a pure product, but if the concentration is more than
10% in a product it must be carried as a chemical cargo.
ii). The Effects of Toxicity.
The effects of toxic substances are variable. Some will act in the short term, even almost
immediately depending on concentration. Examples are hydrogen sulphide, nitrogen, carbon
monoxide and carbon dioxide, where exposure may lead to unconsciousness or death. These
are known as acute poisons. Others will not have an immediate effect, but health consequences
may result from exposure at low levels over a prolonged period of time. Benzene is a prime
example because it has a history of being carcinogenic. It is a chronic poison where exposure
at high levels can have acute effects.
Hydrogen sulphide is a particularly dangerous substance. At low levels of concentration it
has a distinctive smell of rotten eggs, but it incapacitates the sense of smell as the concentration
increases. This can lead to a false sense of security by thinking the problem has gone away,
when it is actually increasing. Great care must be taken when handling petroleum containing
H 2 S. The monitoring of atmosphere is important and the wearing of personal H,S detectors
is necessary, bearing in mind that a level of 700ppm can be immediately fatal.
There are three routes of entry for a poison to get into the body. They may be ingested
(swallowed), penetrate through the skin (intra-dermal) or are inhaled. All three are possible
but inhalation is the cause of most accidents. The use of correct Personal Protective Equipment
(PPE) at critical times when exposure is increased is vitally important. Atmosphere monitoring
equipment must be used and the instruments calibrated for accuracy before use. The detectors
and PPE are examined in greater detail in chapter twelve.
All cargoes must be treated with respect and Material Hazard Data Sheets (MHDSs)
consulted whenever a cargo is loaded. These give physical characteristics of the cargo, OEL
and health and safety information.
(Image: 2/6 A-F-Specimen material safety data sheet).
MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEET

1. CHEMICAL PRODUCT & COMPANY IDENTIFICATION
El Paso Corporation
and its subsidiaries Information: (713) 420-2600
1001 Louisiana Street CHEMTREC: (800) 424-9300
Houston, Texas 77002
Product Name: Crude Oil Last Revision: 06/26/07

MSDS Number: A0017.msd Date Prepared: 01/09/86
Synonyms: Petroleum Oil, Crude

Product Description: A highly complex mixture of hydrocarbons,
containing variable amounts of impurities,
such as oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, and
metals, such as iron, copper, nickel, and
vanadium.
2. COMPOSITION & INFORMATION ON INGREDIENTS

Components(s)
Occupational Exposure
Product/ Limits
Components CAS No. Wt%(4) OSHA ( 1 ) ACGIH ( 1 ) NIOSH ( 2 ) Units
Crude Oil 8002-05-9 100 N/A N/A N/A N/A
Benzene 71-43-2 0-2 1 0.5 0.1 ppm
2 . 5' ™ Ê'l EL
Toluene 108-88-3 0-20 100"' 20 100 ppm
15 0''™''"' 1 50 : : t e l
Xylenes 1330-20-7 0-20 1001"'1 100 100 ppm
150'"™'"' 150'-™' 150:'™-
Ethylbenzene 100-41-4 0-4 100' 4 100 100 ppm
125;'™''':' 12 5'"™- 12 5 :: ™'
Trimethylbenzene 25551-13- 0-2 25'"' 25 25 ppm
7
Hydrogen Sulfide 7783-06-4 0-1 20 '™l,!" 10 10™™"'"' ppm
15'"™
Polynuclear N/A 1-10 0.2'"'1'1 mg/m"
0.2'"'
0 .1'"'
Aromatic
Hydrocarbons
(i,
8-hour TWA unless otherwise specified.
u
'10-hour TWA unless otherwise specified.
'"'Vacated 1989 PEL. The manufacturer has included this data for
informational purposes since these values were vacated in 1992.
'"Normal composition ranges are shown. Exceptions may occur depending
upon the source of the butane.
' 'Coal tar pitch volatiles as benzene soluble aerosol.
'""'Cyclohexane extractable fraction.
N/A = Not Applicable.
3. HAZARD IDENTIFICATION
Note: This product has not been tested by El Paso Corporation

to determine its specific health hazards. Therefore, the
information provided in this section includes health
hazard information on the product components.
Carcinogenicity: NTP IARC Monographs OSHA Regulated

Crude Oil No No No
Benzene Yes Yes Yes
Potential Health Effects From Overexposure
Acute Effects
Eyes: Sight to moderate eye irritation.
Skin: Moderately irritating; causes redness, drying of

skin.
Inhalation: Will cause narcosis and/or chemical pneumonitis.

High concentrations of hydrogen sulfide can cause
headache, dizziness, unconsciousness and/or death.
Ingestion: Extremely irritating to throat and stomach. Causes

excitation, loss of consciousness, convulsion,
cyanosis, congestion and capillary hemorrhaging of
the lung and internal organs.
Chronic Effects
Skin irritation. The long-term, repeated application of crude to
the skin of laboratory mice (without washing between applications)
resulted in a statistically significant increase in the incidence
of skin tumors. Crude oil contains benzene, which can cause
degeneration in blood forming organs leading to anemia which may
further degrade to leukemia.
Additional Medical and Toxicological Information

May aggravate pre-existing dermatitis. May cause blood-forming
disorders, or lead to kidney or liver dysfunction. Contact with
full strength or dilute formulations of this product or exposure
above and below exposure limits may aggravate pre-existing
dermatitis or respiratory disorders in certain individuals. This
product contains benzene, which can cause degeneration in blood
forming organs leading to anemia which may further degrade to
leukemia.
4. FIRST AID MEASURES
Eye Contact: Flush thoroughly with large amounts of water for at

least 15 minutes, including under the eyelids. Get
medical attention.
Skin Contact: Remove contaminated clothing. Wash affected areas

with soap and water. If irritation persists, get
medical attention.
Inhalation: Remove to fresh air. If breathing has stopped,

apply artificial respiration. Get medical
attention.
Ingestion: Do not induce vomiting. If spontaneous vomiting

occurs hold the victim's head lower than their hips
to prevent aspiration.
MANUAL OF OIL TANKER OPERATIONS 15
5. FIRE FIGHTING MEASURES
Flash Point: <100°F
Flammable Limits in Air, % by Volume:
Lower: 1%
Upper: 15%
Autoignition Temperature: Liquid: 450°F Vapor: 800-1000°F
Extinguishing Media: Dry chemical, foam, carbon dioxide.
NFPA Hazard Ratings (crude petroleum):
Health: 1 Flammability: 3 Reactivity: 0
General Hazard:
Flowing crude oil can be ignited by self-generated static
electricity; containers should be bonded and grounded. Runoff to
sewer may create fire or explosion hazard well downstream from the
source.
Fire Fighting Instructions:
Use a smothering technique for extinguishing fire of this flammable
liquid. Do not use a forced water stream directly on crude oil
fires as well this will scatter the fire. Firefighters should wear
self-contained breathing apparatus and full protective clothing.
6. ACCIDENTAL RELEASE
Remove source of heat or ignition including internal combustion
engines and power tools. Clean up spill but do not flush to sewer
or surface water. Ventilate area and avoid breathing vapors or
mists.
7. HANDLING & STORAGE
Store in tightly closed containers in a dry cool place, away from
sources of heat or ignition. Ground and bond all transfer and
storage equipment to prevent static sparks and equip with self-
closing valves, pressure vacuum bungs and flame arrestors. Empty
containers may contain residue (liquid/or vapor) and can be
dangerous. Do not pressurize, cut, weld, braze, solder, drill,
grind or expose such containers to heat, flame, sparks, or other
sources of ignition; the may explode and cause injury or death.
8. EXPOSURE CONTROL, PERSONAL PROTECTION
Eye Protection: Remove contact lenses and wear chemical safety

glasses or goggles where contact with liquid
or mist may occur.
Skin Protection: Wear insulating gloves and protective clothing
when contact with skin may occur. Wash with
soap and water before eating, drinking or
smoking. Launder contaminated clothing before
reuse.
Inhalation: CRUDE OIL MAY CONTAIN HYDROGEN SULFIDE. NIOSH
approved respiratory protection should be used
when handling crude of high or unknown
hydrogen sulfide content and to reduce
airborne concentrations to allowable
occupational exposure levels.
Ventilation: Provide adequate general and local
ventilation: (1) to maintain airborne chemical
concentrations below applicable exposure
limits, (2) to prevent accumulation of
flammable vapors and formation of explosive
atmospheres, and (3) to prevent formation of
oxygen deficient atmospheres, especially in
confined spaces. [Note: this product may
release gases or vapors that can displace
oxygen in enclosed areas.]
9. PHYSICAL & CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
Boiling Point 760 mmHg: 20-40''!F Melting Point: N/A
Vapor Pressure mmHg @70"F:0-12 psia Vapor Density(Air=l)•1 5-3 0
% Solubility in HÔ @100'JF: 0.01-0.05 pH: N/A
Specific Gravity 60/60F: 0.80-0.98 Evaporation Rate•0 1-1 0
% Volatile by Volume : 20-100 (Ethyl Ether = 1)
J
Viscosity Centipoise @100' F: 0.8-4500 Odor: Petroleum-like
Appearance: Pale to black liquid
10 . STKBTLTTi Ь "ВЬМ^ХЧГГ!
Stability: Stable under normal conditions of use
Hazardous Polymerization: Will not occur
Hazardous Decomposition Products- CO ГО чп , , ,

, Ь0 2 , and hydrocarbons
11. TOXICOLOGICAL INFORMATION
N
12. ECOLOGICAL INFORMATION ° d a t a available.
N
13. DISPOSAL INFORMATION W a s t e ° d a t a available.
federal ^ a t ^ disposal company. Follow
teaeral, state and local regulations.
14. TRANSPORT INFORMATION
Identification Number: UN 1267
Hazard Class: 3 (Flammable Liquid)
Petroleum crude oil
Packing Group I - Щ (depending on boiling point and flash point)
15. REGULATORY INFORMATION
EPA SARA TITLE III
S^tion 302 EPCRA Extremely Hazardous Substances (EHS)
Product Component C A S No. Wt% R0 lb TPO lb
Hydrogen Sulfide 7783-06-4 0-1 ^00
Section 304 CERCLA Hazardous Substances
Product Component CAS No. wt% R0 lb
Z S n e
f? ^1-43-2 0-2 10
3°!Uene Ю8-88-3 0-20 1000
^ь ?ь 1330-20-7 0-20 100
Ethylbenzene 100-41-4 0-4 Ю00
Hydrogen Sulfide 7783-06-4 0-1 Ю0
Section 311/312 Hazard Categorization
Acute: Chronic: Fire- РГРЧЧПГ-О- D
v „ pressure: Reactive:
X X x
Section 313 EPCRA Toxic Substances
Product Component CAS No. wt *
Benzene 71-43-2 0-2
Toluene 108-88-3 0 -20
X y
lene 1330-20-7 0-20
Ethylbenzene 100-41-4 0-4
Hydrogen Sulfide 7783-06-4 0-l
K e y : R
Q = Reportable Quantity
TPQ = Threshold Planning Quantity of EHS
CHAPTER 3
MODERN TANKER DESIGN
Introduction—Design for safety: safety barriers-permitted breaches to the
aft safety barrier legitimate penetrations of the safety barrier-
Different classes of tanker: VLCCs/ULCCs-other types of tanker-
features of double-hulled tankers-
Combination carriers: internal structure-double-hulled spaces.
Introduction
In this chapter the safe design of tankers will be examined, together with specific safety
zones supported by, permitted and non-permitted breaches to regulations, with differences
and construction factors between types of tanker and combination carriers.
A). Design for Safety
As it was seen in chapter one, today's oil tanker evolved and developed prior to the
last century from early experimental tankers. Revised SOLAS Regulations in 1974 initiated
the move from midships accommodation on tankers to all aft accommodation construction,
although this was soon adapted by other classes of ship. Some larger tankers which appeared
in the 1950s and '60s started the trend of all aft accommodation blocks, but this was more
for operational purposes than regulatory, because it helps during discharge if the oil drains
to the pump suctions aft of the tank.
The Safety of Life at Sea Convention (SOLAS) 1974 based its design for safety, called the
'citadel design' by designating areas on a tanker into safe and hazardous zones. The presence
of each of the three sides of the fire triangle that was discussed in chapter two was assessed
for each zone. For example, the accommodation block and engine room were designated as
'gas safe zones' in which the potentially flammable cargo vapour is excluded. Sources of
ignition were excluded from the hazardous zones, restricting work which would provide such
sources as hot work and regulating the type of electrical equipment. (See Image: 3/ 1).
(Image: 3/1-The 'Design for Safety' as introduced by SOLAS 1974, which

retains a question mark concerning the status of the fo'c'sle head).
The old design of tanker located the accommodation block in the middle of what is now
designated the hazardous zone. It is no wonder there were a series of explosions on tankers of
that design: it is a miracle there were not more. Another contribution to these explosions was the
inadequate venting arrangements of the time, which is discussed in greater detail in chapter five.
17
(Image: 3/2-Photograph of the accommodation block of a tanker where the gas safe safety barrier
becomes the hazardous area-Ray Solly).
i). Safety barriers.

These divide the safe and hazardous zones, which logically should be impenetrable
boundaries. It would be difficult to operate the tanker if they were completely intact because
the barriers have to be breached enabling function of several operational features.
a). Permitted Breaches to the Aft Safety Barrier
Permitted penetrations include:
i). The Inert Gas System
This system connects directly a source of intense heat from boiler exhaust gases
with an area evolving substantial flammable cargo vapour penetrating the barrier
designed to keep apart heat and vapour. The reason for this apparent anomaly is
because of a mandatory SOLAS requirement for Inert Gas Systems (IGS) to be
fitted on tankers over 20,000 dwt. The system is made safe by a comprehensive
series of devices including non-return valves, a deck seal and automated control
system to prevent flammable vapours reaching the wrong side of the safety barrier.
The Inert Gas System will be discussed in more detail in chapter five.
ii). Cargo pump shafts
The pumps inside a cargo pump room may not, depending on their source of
power, be able to run on their own, but are more likely to be powered from motors
inside the engine room, which is the other side of the barrier. The seals around the
pump shafts provide a very significant purpose and the ship's staff must be confident
that they perform their designed task.
iii). Bunker Fuel Lines
These run between safe and hazardous zones and of course contain fuel, the
vapour of which is burned in the main engines. A source of flammable vapour
from the bunker fuel oil lies on the wrong side of the safety barrier in the bunker
tanks, but the vapour is well contained within the fuel pipeline system and it is
not designed to liberate vapours from the fuel oil into the surrounding space.
Similar safety precautions operate with the bunker line system. The fuel manifolds
are also located on the deck of a tanker, inside the hazardous zone where a release
of vapour (for example, during loading) is permitted.
iv).Fire Main
Since the fire main has to provide a stream of water to every region of the tanker,
it will connect areas inside the gas safe and hazardous zones, in much the same
way as the bunker line system. Though the fire main is not designed to contain
flammable vapour, should this find its way into the pipe work, the possibility
exists that it could at some point join to become part of the remaining sides of the
fire triangle.
v). Cargo Temperature Control Lines
Most tankers will have some form of arrangement to control temperature of
the cargo. Often this will be heating coils. Alternative equipment, such as heat
exchangers may be used to heat cargo, but it is the coil system that penetrates
the safety barrier. In a similar way to the Inert Gas System pipe work, the coils
stretch between aft of the safety barrier and the cargo tanks. If a coil became
fractured (and this is not unusual) a possibility exists of hazardous cargo being
pumped around the coil system to a position the wrong side of the safety barrier.
There are means to overcome this possibility. First, it is important to keep the
pressure inside the coils always greater than could be applied by the cargo
onto the coils. Second, a two loop piping arrangement could be chosen, so that
heat is effectively exchanged in a chamber in front of the barrier. This implies
that leakage of hazardous cargo back to the wrong side of the barrier becomes
less likely.
vi). Monitoring Conduits
As tankers become increasingly automated the amount of electrical cabling
around the ship increases dramatically. Each cargo tank has a remote ullage sensor
as well as those for temperature and pressure. These sensors need to be powered
and transmitted, so the conduits housing the electrical cabling also run between the
hazardous and non-hazardous zones.
vii). Cargo Samples
This is a less likely breach of the safety barrier now than it used to be, since both the
requirement and provision for storing samples, is given more prominence than in the
past. It was common for the office draws and cabinets of chief officers to be brimming
with cargo sample bottles. Samples of clean products even accompanied officers into
smoke rooms whilst loading cargo, enabling the mate to ponder studiously the visual
quality of a sample with their colleagues activating lighters and matches in close
proximity. Purpose built racks in deck houses are now provided for sample bottles,
bearing in mind the potential safety hazard and their commercial significance.
viii). Contaminated Clothing
This may cause hazards for two reasons. First, if an overflow of cargo takes
place from a tank lid or vent and an individual is standing close by, their overalls
may absorb a great deal of hydrocarbon. As the individual makes their way back
into the accommodation to clean up, they are bringing back a source of vapour into
a gas-free environment. Second, over time small traces of hydrocarbon vapour will
accumulate on the overalls of staff. If these overalls are not cleaned regularly and
thoroughly then they will compromise safety whenever they are brought aft of the
safety barrier.
b). Legitimate Penetrations of the Safety Barrier
The above explanation offers a selection of legitimate penetrations of the safety
barrier leaving consideration regarding the management of the gas safe and hazardous
zones. The safe management is based essentially is on the presence of the sides of the
fire triangle. This is more straightforward in the gas safe zone, than the others. In the
gas safe zone, air and uncontrolled sources of ignition are permitted but flammable
vapours are not.
(Image: 3/3-The 'Hazardous area' aboard a VLCC looking forward from the accommodation
block showing cargo manifolds and permitted service pipes...-Kevin Maxted).
„%
i •
(Image: 3/4-...and looking aft.-Ray Solly).
The accommodation block and engine room are described as being 'gas safe'.
The requirements covering the exclusion of flammable gases are found in SOLAS*
[Regulation 4 5.2]. This stipulates that there should be no openings in the forward facing
boundary, other than those permitted examined above in sections i to viii. The integrity
of this boundary does not guarantee exclusion of flammable vapours from the safe zone.
Despite the appeal amongst watch keeping deck officers' means of entry and egress from the
accommodation block is essential whilst working cargo. When access is opened, a chance
exists of flammable vapour entering the safe zone. This is excluded by establishing an air
pressure gradient between the air inside the safe zone and the surrounding air.
The initial reaction is to "put the air conditioning on 100% re-circulation", in order
to prevent any surrounding air entering the zone. The problem is that certain spaces in
the safe zone, namely galley and sanitary areas, will have extraction fans in operation.
[See ISGOTT chapter 24.2]. If the air conditioning was left on 100% re-circulation and
an access was opened, then this arrangement would establish a negative air pressure in the
safe zone, which is precisely the opposite of that desired. The International Safety Guide for
Oil Tankers and Terminals (ISGOTT) points out that air intakes should not be fully closed
under these circumstances.
* All references to SOLAS regulations in this book are to SOLAS 1974, in force at time of publication.
Modern tankers may have an airlock arrangement incorporated into their design so that
only one door may be used for access on each side of the accommodation, usually at deck
level and that access has two doors, one behind the other. As long as one door is closed before
the other is opened this creates what is effectively an airlock system.
The exclusion of one side of the fire triangle is fairly straightforward in the gas safe zone
but less so in the hazardous tank and deck areas. Flammable vapour in the gas safe zone
needs to be excluded at all times both by design and practice.
All three sides of the fire triangle are not desirable anywhere in the same place at the
same time, but in cargo tanks there will be occasions when the presence of air in the tanks
is necessary and desirable, permitting tanks to be inspected, and perhaps for hot or cold
work to take place. In these instances, flammable vapour needs to be excluded but sufficient
air and a source of ignition has to be present. ISGOTT has very precise guidance regarding
the proximity of flammable vapours in the cargo system when hot work is taking place.
This covered in ISGOTT (5'h Edition) Chapter 9.4. The principle of reducing (or preferably
eliminating) all sources of flammable vapour but still retaining the other sides of the triangle,
needs thorough understanding. The preparatory step appears clear and concise, but the process
of gas freeing the cargo system, or even part of it, is not one that can be achieved in five minutes.
Tank cleaning and line flushing will take several hours, if not days, so the need to undertake
work requiring these procedures has to be taken carefully into account. If the part of
the system that needs work can possibly be dismantled from the structure and worked
upon in a safer environment (such as the engine room workshop) then this alternative is
wholly preferable.
(Images: З/5-The 314,000 wt tanker Stena Vision docking at Sun Oil's Philadelphia Terminal-Stena Bulk)
B). Different Classes of Tankers

The term 'Oil Tanker' covers a broad range of ship and it is necessary to understand
the different types of oil tanker. In the vast majority of cases crude oil is carried across the
oceans in either Very Large Crude Carriers or Ultra Large Crude Carriers, the distinction
between the two being simply their deadweight capacity.
i). VLCCs and ULCCs
VLCC Very Large Crude Carriers are between 150,000 and 320,000 t dwt.
ULCC Ultra Large Crude Carriers are over 320,000 t dwt.
Ships in this class seldom carry any type of oil other than crude, though an occasional
parcel of fuel oil may be transported. Likewise, crude oil is seldom carried on the smaller
tankers, which will generally carry refined products. The term 'refined' is used loosely since
much fuel oil (or residue as it is called sometimes) is anything but refined and is what remains
after almost everything else has been taken from the crude oil. This type of cargo retains
some hydrocarbon, which can be burnt for furnace or ship fuel, or in some cases be carried
to specialist refineries which have the capability of extracting further refined products from
the residue.
ii). Other types of tanker

Handy Size or up to 60,000 t dwt
Handymax
Panamax So named because these ships are the largest that can transit the Panama
Canal. They are approximately 65,000 t dwt, or more specifically their
maximum dimensions are 275m in length and 32m in width, with draft
restrictions of the Canal taken into consideration.
Aframax Average Freight Rate Assessment (AFRA), the average tanker size
between 75,000 t dwt and 115,000 t dwt.
Suezmax Currently ships up to 150,000 t dwt which can transit the Suez Canal,
although further expansion of this waterway is under review.
Cape-size A group of ships of a deadweight generally between 80,000 t dwt and
175,000 t dwt which have to transit the Capes (Horn and Good Hope)
since they cannot transit either the Suez or Panama canal, more due to
their dimensions than their tonnage.
(Image: З/6-The Cape-Size tanker Gulf Scandic in Grand Harbour, Valetta-Rory Simmonds).
(Image: З/7-Starboard side view and tank arrangement of the Aframax size tanker Mastera-Neste Oil).
(Image: З/8-The 83,000 dwt Sibonina is a typical Suezmax class tanker-Ray Solly).
The phrases clean products and dirty products, often quoted in trading arenas are fairly
self-descriptive, such that clean products have been highly refined and possess a cleaner,
clearer colour. The opposite is true of dirty oils, which have very little refining and are
generally good only to be burned as fuel.
Tankers of around 80,000 tonnes dwt or more rarely carry parcels of products since they
are more appropriate for the carriage of crude oil. The larger the ship the more economic it is
to transport bulk cargo. Importers rarely require more than 80,000 tonnes of any individual
product in one go, particularly clean product, so these are transported in much smaller
quantities. Most products are carried on a typical voyage cycle where one or more grades
of cargo are loaded at one port and fully discharged at another. Sometimes cargoes may
be loaded at more than one port for discharge at a number of ports. Very occasionally this
routine may apply to crude oil tankers.
As well as the more salient economies of scale, further external factors have influenced
the size of today's crude oil tankers. Currently, there seems to be an emphasis on crude
carriers being between 120,000 t dwt and 140,000 t dwt, but it is not unusual to see tankers
outside these tonnages. Present trends dictate passing oil through the Suez Canal and to the
markets in the same tanker in which the oil was loaded.
The parcel trade carries multi-grade cargoes that rarely fit into a conventional voyage
cycle. They may have some cargo on board all the time between repair periods. They load
and discharge at each port visited and need to tank clean between every cargo. This type of
cycle is more common on chemical tankers than oil product tankers.
Lessons may be learned by considering features of the construction of a chemical parcel
tanker when debating maximising advantages of a product tanker. The double hull design
(described later) enables a pump well to be recessed into the inner hull from inside the cargo
tank that facilitates a more efficient draining of the tank at completion of cargo discharge.
Rather than having just three or four cargo pumps and a cargo pump room, parcel tankers may
have no cargo pump room but a single pump in every cargo tank, meaning that a significantly
high level of cargo segregation is possible.
iii). Features of Double Hulled Tankers
The aftermath of the Exxon Vcildez incident Prince William Sound, Alaska, in March
1989, made mandatory that tankers be constructed with enhanced intrinsic protection.
The USA's Oil Pollution Act of 1990 (OPA'90) and additional amendments to MARPOL
Annex I are examples of subsequent legislation. Apart from a series of unlikely experimental
designs that emerged subsequently, the most practical and most widely adopted design was
that of the double hull.
Expectations amongst the legislative authorities were high that the carriage of oil in bulk
would be increasingly safer and less likely to pollute the environment.
Whilst their aspirations were not entirely without foundation, it soon became clear that a
number of unforeseen impediments were inherent in the double hull method.
(Image: З/9-The forward end-on view and tank section

dimensions of a VLCC-Arosa Maritime Inc).
(Image: 3/10 Tank construction of a VLCC showing the swash bulkheads and double hull-Arosa Maritime Inc).
Section X-X
(Image: 3/11- Nomenclature for a midships section of a double-hulled VLCC-Tanker Structure Co-Operative Forum).
Initially, in a number of newly constructed double hulled tankers fractures appeared in
the inner hull at the 'T' joints leading to fractured bulkheads between the cargo and ballast
system, causing a leakage of hydrocarbon vapour (at best) or liquid (at worst) into the
double hull area. This was meant to be clean and gas free at all times, and used as a suitable
segregated ballast space. Reasons for these fractures include ship builders using thinner
scantlings to support the structure and using high tensile steel. Since the strain placed upon
these scantlings was greater than they could bear, they simply disintegrated and the lack of
support led to fractures of the surrounding plating. With the benefit of hindsight, since this
type of problem was less common on single hulled tankers, architects and builders could
have learned from builders of OBOs (Oil/Bulk/Ore), whose structure is similar to a double
hulled tanker.
Once the problems of leakage had been encountered and evaluated, stronger scantlings
were employed in the construction of double hulled tankers. This certainly reduced the
number of incidents but when they did occur, the problem of how to deal with the leakage
became intensified. In the event of a leakage, the space loses its gas free status and cannot
retain ballast without first being cleaned. Tank washing machines will have limited effect
in such a confined space, surrounded by the framing in the cargo space of a single hulled
tanker. The location of the framing outside the cargo space of a double hulled tanker certainly
makes tank cleaning and ventilation easier and more effective. Inside the double hull space
the framing will make such activity much more laboured. Entry will require the same type
of precautions, including hydrocarbon and toxic gas testing, as entry into a cargo tank.
Hand cleaning of a spillage into a double hull space may be the only option, which could
prove both difficult and labour intensive.
C). Combination Carriers
The most common combination carriers found trading today are Oil / Bulk/Ore carriers,
OBOs. These have been designed to carry bulk liquid or dry cargo with the intention of
rarely being bereft of cargo. It was an attempt to be commercially competitive, based on
the idea that the carrier (other than during repair periods) always has on board payload.
OBOs have never been considered the most popular for the staff on board who actually
work them and a look at ISGOTT Chapter 14 will indicate the complexities involved in
working these ships. The cargo change-over check-lists particularly determine why these
ships are unpopular.
What is clear about combination carriers is that they have been built to last and their
sturdy construction took into account some of the factors neglected during a later era of ship
development, namely the double hulled tanker. There are several common factors between
combination carriers and double hulled tankers, which can be identified and had such factors
been taken into consideration by the builders of early modern tankers, then some of the
problems mentioned may have been avoided. [Refer to Cox, Q. 2004 RINAJ.
i). Internal Structure
To contain the considerable longitudinal and localised stresses put upon the internal
structure of an OBO by the different types of cargo it is provided with robust scantlings.
When the holds are carrying liquid cargo in bulk, sloshing may happen that creates waves
on the surface of the cargo. This will not occur in tankers so readily since the dimensions of
the tank will be smaller than that in an OBO hold, and because the breadth of the tanker is
sub-divided by cargo tank bulkheads. It is important that the scantlings chosen by a ship
builder, in negotiation with the company paying for the build, are selected carefully to balance
cost and durability. Incidents which befell the tankers Erika and Prestige demonstrated how,
when one structural member of a ship is damaged, the strain taken by that member is spread
around adjacent supporting structure. If the adjacent members are unable to take the extra
strain it was not designed to take, then the structure of the ship collapses.
(Image: З/12-The 20,000 dwt Erika, a rusting tanker broke in two and sunk in the Bay of Biscay on 12lh December
1999 causing considerable environmental damage. Her crew of 26 were rescued by helicopter-Michael Cassa).
ii). Double Hull Spaces

Only since the same double hull requirements that affected the construction of oil
tankers, have OBOs and O / O s had to incorporate double sides, as well as double bottoms in
their construction. Even so, the OBO crew member will have been well acquainted with the
atmosphere inside double bottom tanks, largely used for ballasting purposes. Once again, as
the owners and crew of the Erika and Prestige discovered (despite these ships being single
hulled), the nature of the cargo may influence the inherent strength of the steelwork (tanks
and supporting structure) surrounding the cargo tanks.
In any void space within the cargo area it is worth considering the mainly warm and
moist atmosphere and it will be even warmer in adjacent tanks carrying fuel oil, which need
heating to keep the substance less viscous. Once ballast water is pumped in and out on a
regular basis, then chlorides add to the corrosive mixture. There are also problems of mud and
other micro and not such micro organisms that temporarily inhabit the spaces, contributing
towards additional corrosion. Not surprisingly, these features compounded stress problems
for errantly constructed double hulled tankers.
CHAPTER 4
SOURCES OF IGNITION.
Introduction-Direct Heat: ignition energy-direct heat-Mechanical Sparking-
Chemical Energy-Electrical Equipment: hazardous and safety zones -
typical marking for examination - Static Electricity: discharge mechanism-
charge separation - charge accumulation - electrostatic electricity - corona discharge -
brush discharge-spark discharge - propagating brush discharge -
general precautions to be taken-Current Electricity.
Introduction
A list of chapter sub-headings examining likely ignition sources on an operational tanker
and the precautions involved:
A). Direct Heat
B). Mechanical Sparking
C). Chemical Energy
D). Electrical Equipment
E). Static Electricity
F). Current Electricity
A). Direct Heat
Before any of these is explained in detail, sources of ignition should be put onto context.
When the three sides of the fire triangle are being described, each of the three elements have
to be present in specified concentrations for a flame to be maintained. Whilst the required
criteria for concentrations of hydrocarbon vapour and oxygen have already been discussed
(in chapter two) the required criteria for the third side, the source of ignition (or heat) will
now be identified.
i). Ignition Energy
Numerous sources of ignition will be examined in this chapter in due course but first
it is useful to understand what is required from the source of ignition to start and maintain
a flame. What is described next should be interpreted as hypothetical. Whilst the authors
have seen the experiment conducted on many previous occasions, we describe it here very
much under the "don't try this at home" caveat, just in case scientific history occurs and an
ignition results.
ii). Direct Heat.
If a lit cigarette is placed in the gas stream of a butane lighter and the result observed,
it is tempting to think that a substantial flame would result, considering the temperature
of the lit end of a cigarette, in the region of 450°C, and the fact that the gas stream is
flammable (verified by striking a flint). It is found however that no reaction occurs.
The gas will continue to stream unencumbered by flame and the cigarette end will continue to
smoulder as unspectacularly as it does when lodged between the fingers of the smoker's hand.
The reason why this combination does not produce an equivalent of a vertical flame-thrower
when the components meet lies in the construction of the cigarette.
29
It may be considered that a temperature of around 450°C would be hot enough to ignite
any flammable mixture, but the reason in this experiment why it will not is not exclusively
to do with the number of degrees centigrade the source of ignition provides, but more
importantly, to the property called ignition energy. Irrespective of the temperature of the
cigarette, because it cannot supply the required energy to the flammable mixture, means that
no flame can be produced.
In much the same way that the other two sides of the fire triangle (vapour and oxygen)
have to be present in suitable concentrations, so does the third, the source of ignition (heat).
If insufficient ignition energy is provided then there will be no fire. The construction of the
cigarette and the manner in which the loosely packed tobacco fibres are cushioned enables
air to penetrate the fibres so that once lit, it will continue to burn, even if it is not drawn.
The smouldering of the cigarette is a passive and not an energetic action. A conclusion to
this hypothesis, albeit an oft verified hypothesis, is that it would (in theory!) be perfectly safe
to wander around an area of flammable hydrocarbon vapour with a lit cigarette suspended
between the fingers, around a petrol filling station, or perhaps the deck of tanker. This is not
advised for even if a fire is not started then the result would be for drastic legal action.
It is the smoking materials, matches or lighters rather then a lit cigarette that provides
danger. These materials possess sufficient ignition energy to provide the third side of the
fire triangle, so they are generally controlled by a company's safety policy. For example,
prohibiting all kinds of smoking materials on board, other than safety matches, is one example
of control. It is impractical to ban outright smoking, because individuals faced with the
prospect of a complete ban may be tempted to engage in surreptitious smoking, which could
enhance the danger by allowing uncontrolled sources of ignition. The control minimises the
risk by permitting only matches to be used in a gas safe zone. Terminal policy also makes
mandatory at least two barriers between any permitted smoking space and the outside.
A mess room conforms to this requirement as would a master's cabin, but the wheelhouse
would be excluded.
(Image: 4/1)
(Image: 4/3)
(Images: 4/1 and 4/2 and 4/3-The mess-rooms, officers' dining saloon and lounge aboard all tankers conform to
safety regulations that, apart from the dining room when in port, could permit smoking in complete safety because
two barriers exclude these areas from those potentially dangerous outside on deck...-Ray Solly and Kevin Maxted).
(Image: 4/4)
(Image: 4/5)
(images- 4/4 and 4 / 5 . w h i l s t the wheel-house area and all vessels in dry-do*. on the other hand are subject to
(Images. 4/4 ana ^ possibility of fire and/or explosion-V. Volden).
Hot work equipment is another common form of direct heat on any ship. Welding with
oxy-acetylene gear is an operation is usually confined to the engine room workshop, but
fabric or fittings within the hazardous zone on a tanker may not always be dismantled and
removed to a safer place for hot working. Under such circumstances, specified guidance is
given in the ISGOTT publication [5 ,h Edition Chapter 9.4] which is examined more deeply in
chapter twelve.
The ignition energy required for igniting a flammable mixture of oxygen and acetylene
is very small and, once ignited, the flame produces a significant level of energy sufficient to
ignite almost any form of flammable material in its vicinity. It is for this reason that ships,
reportedly, suffer more fires during repair and dry dock periods when hot work is undertaken
than at any other time. Generally, theses fires are very small and can be extinguished by
portable extinguisher, but it is worth considering why these fires occur.
As explained in chapter two, with reference to the flammable region diagram, as the
oxygen concentration increases, so does the breadth of the flammable envelope. Effectively, the
flammable range of the vapour increases as the oxygen increases. The oxygen concentration
in the vicinity of the use of oxy-acetylene welding gear will inevitably increase since oxygen
is a component of the mixture. Without going into the detail of hot work preparation here,
it is sufficient to say that if hot work is necessary in a hazardous zone of the ship, the
same principle is adopted as when assessing any other operation. It needs to be considered
which sides of the fire triangle will be present and which sides can be reduced or removed.
In hot working, oxygen will be present as will a source of ignition, so it is necessary to ensure
the fuel (or flammable vapour) is removed or reduced. Removing flammable vapour from a
hazardous area in practice is not easy to do. To gas free, for example, part or all of a cargo
system is a considerable task which, in the face of such a prospect necessitates delay in such
a location until the next repair period or dry dock. If postponing the repair is not an option,
because the working of the ship is dependent upon the repair, then careful consideration
would be required before embarking on the task.
(Image: 4/6-The funnel exhaust from tugs in attendance or made fast does not present the same degree of risk as
when the tug is made fast alongside-V. Volden).
B). Mechanical Sparking
Boilers or other engine room combustion equipment, such as sparks and burning embers
from unburned solid particulate matter in engine exhausts, would offer another example of
direct heat. Such deposits should not be permitted near the deck of the tanker especially
when, for example, blowing tubes. This type of material often comes on board from the
exhausts of berthing tugs and it is important that cargo inspectors and samplers requesting
ullage ports to be open should not do so until the tugs have left. Tugs holding the tanker in
position will be merely a few metres away from ullage ports with the likelihood that positive
tank pressure will push flammable vapour onto the deck area simultaneously exposed to the
sparks from the tug engine exhausts
The possible causes of mechanical sparking are numerous and may be as innocuous as
a metal hand tool inadvertently dropped onto a metal surface. Less inadvertent actions may
also lead to the production of a mechanical spark. The use of hand tools and power tools
for the purposes of chipping or scraping could also potentially cause a mechanical spark.
Though their use is not prohibited, ISGOTT recommends such work should be undertaken
only on fittings and deck areas not connected to the cargo system. Otherwise the same level
of gas freeing described earlier in this chapter will be necessary.
The use of so called non-sparking (non-ferrous) tools should be used with care.
For example, hand tools such as chipping hammers may pick up particles of material on their
leading edge and thus lose their non-sparking status. Similarly, grit blasting work cannot
be taken for granted to be 'non-sparking' despite claims that the grit utilised may be of
non-sparking material. Unless the equipment provider is being highly extravagant, grit could
be swept up and re-cycled after the first blast. There will be no guarantee that all the material
swept up is non-sparking, so the second blast also could cause a spark.
The approach to any work which may result in a spark being produced should be the
same. If a flammable atmosphere may exist in the vicinity of the work then at least one side
of the fire triangle has to be reduced to a safe level or removed entirely. The type of work
permit or hot work permit to be employed is likely to be decided by the individual company
policy in line with the guidelines of ISGOTT.
The material of sacrificial anodes is also significant. Zinc is the most common choice
because it does not cause sparking upon impact with a rusty surface, although previous
use of magnesium or aluminium anodes will spark. Accident records attribute an explosion
on the Stanvac Japan in 1957 to a displaced magnesium anode, in a tank that was being
water-washed at the time. Subsequently, the horizontal height at which magnesium or
aluminium anodes are positioned has been regulated. Additional care needs to be exercised
because the appearance of zinc anodes is not clearly distinct from aluminium.
On a larger scale, mechanical sparking may be caused by collision or grounding that
ignites flammable vapour escaping from fractured bulkheads. Two examples occurred in
December 1992 when the Aegean Sea (laden with crude oil) grounded off Curenna, and
the British Trent (carrying unleaded gasoline) collided with a cargo liner off Antwerp in
June 1993.
C). Chemical Energy
Smears made by aluminium equipment, such as gangways if scraped on steel surfaces,
could cause a spark if struck by a falling object. The advice given by the relevant sources is
to shield sharp edges of such equipment with wooden or plastic protection.
(Image: 4/7-'Hot work' permits need to be produced on any occasion when any work that might produce a spark
is to be carried out that necessitates one side of the fire triangle-BP Shipping).
WORK PERMIT SYSTEM ! no.

Re\. no.
(>riLMiUilcd:
HOT WORK PERMIT 1 «'Ы rev. date:
i'rep. b\:
Лррг. b\
No.: Pa lie
4.20.0. HOT WORK PERMIT
GENERAL To be prepared by Master/Responsible Officer

G.I This permit is valid From: I kite: His.: To: Dale: Mrs.: Valid maximum 12 hours
G.2 I ocation of Work:
G.3 Description of work:
(..4 Risk Assessment carried out: Q v c s • No • NA Number:
G.5 loolbox Talk carried out: (Z]Yes • No • NA Number:
c;.6 Has Superintendent approved the I lot-work request, in writing (I -Mail )* Q Y e s СИ No I I NA
("If Hot Work outside designated space f ngine-koom Workshop. \ \ o r k Permit to be sent to Superintendent)
[I -M.ii! c o n t a i n i n g approval Irotti Supci inicndenl u> be aUaeheU .iiul fileil u n h ihc IVrmii).
SECTION 1 To be prepared by Master/Responsible Officer
1.1 lias work area been checked with a combustible gas indicator for IK vapours: OYes • No • NA
1.2 l ime for checking the work area for IK vapours: *l)
1.3 I he equipment pipeline has been prepared as follows:
Vented to atmosphere: • Y e s О No • NA Drained: [I]Ycs • NO • NA
Washed: Q V e s • No • NA Purged: QVes • No • NA
Other:
1.4 I he equipment pipeline has been isolated as follows:
l ines blank-flanged: [ j Y e s • No • NA l ines disconnected: QYcs • No • NA
Valves Closed: DVes • No • NA Other:
1.5 Is the pipe equipment free from:
Oil: DVes • No • NA (,as: • Yes • No • NA
Steam: Q V e s • No СИ NA Pressure: • Yes • No • NA
1.6 Is surrounding area free from hazards .' • Yes • No • na
1.7 Is additional lire protection available'.' • Yes • No • NA
1.8 Has electrical equipment, been isolated .' • Yes • No • NA
1.9 Is an additional Work Permit required: d V e s О No • NA I уpe
1.10 Isolation and tagging requirements needed.' • Yes • No • NA
1.11 Written Plan for undertaking the work completed, discussed and agreed'.' *) • Yes • No • na
1.12 Pre Work Safely Meeting held with all involved parties present.' • Yes • No • NA
Information and instructions to person carrying out work:
2.1 1 he following personal protection must be worn:
2.2 I quipment Pipeline containing following substances, when in service:
2.3 f.quipment expected to contain the following hazardous substances when opened:
2.4 Special Conditions Precautions required:
In the circumstances noted it is considered safe to proceed with the work:

Signed: Person in charge of Work leant
I lead of Department
Master
SECTION 3 To be signed by Master/Responsible Officer
If item („6 above lias been answered with Yes, the С onipany has been informed after completion of Hot-Work?
'I) Ref. tabic below (Ch. 4.2(1.2. page 3) with gas measurements.
*) THE HOT WORK WRITTEN PLAN TO INCLUDE THE fOILOWING (fill in information below (in 4.20.1.)):
Guidelines stated in I SCOTT (Cli. 4.4) to he strictly followed and used when setting up the work plan.
The work has been completed and all persons, materials and equipment have been withdrawn:
Authorised person in charge: Date: lime:
I he certificate shall be issued in I (one) original and I lone} copy. I he person engaged on the above work must hold the copy
until the job is completed, lie she shall sign on the original certilicatc upon completion of the work, and the original certificate
shall be tiled at Chief Officer's ollice.
4.20.1. Hot Work, Written Plan
HOT WORK PLAN & PROCEDURE:

Name and position of person responsible for
the plan:
Name and position of person authorising the
work:
Name of person(s)/contractor carrying out (he
work:
Responsible Officer, who is not directly in the
hot work:
Specification of the Hot W ork (define wh\ the hoi work is needed):
Following Safety Precautions made (ref. fig.9.2 IS(JOTT):

Extract from safety meeting:
Work Plan/Procedure:
4.20.2. (•as Measurements:
Time Result (level) Remarks s

'gn
(Image: 4/8-Similarly, hazardous task permits are necessary for inspections of hazardous a r e a s - B P Shipping).
WORK PERMIT SYSTEM Dec MO.

Rc\. no.
(>п<чпаич1:
ASBESTOS / HAZARDOUS I ,ы rv\. dale:
MATERIAL W O R K PERMI T i'fcp. b\:
Appr h\:
No.: I'a^c
4.17.0. ASBESTOS/HAZARDOl S MATERIAL WORK PERMIT
This permit relates to any work invohing Asbestos / Ha/.ardous materials. Valid maximum 12 hours.
GENERAL: To be prepared by Master/Responsible Officer
G.l This permit is valid From: Dale: Mrs.: To: Date: I Irs:
G.2 Location of Work:
f.J Has "'Fnclosed Space F.ntrv IVrmi!" been issued" [ ] Y o s • No | j NA Number:
С .4 Description of work:
G.5 Personnel carrying out work:
C.6 Risk Assessment carried out: • Ves • No • NA Number:
(1.7 Toolbox Talk carried oiil: • Yes • No Q N A Number:
SECTION 1 To be prepared by Officer in Charge of work to be performed.
1.1 № ork area checked with "I xplosinieler" ( ombustihie (ia^ Indicator lor I К -\ apours"
Date & Time DYi-s • No • NA
1.2 Protective clothing equipment in addition to standard k( )AS requirements, as follows:
a) Safely belt DVes • No • NA
b) Sat'et> smuggles QVes • No • NA
c) I ace mask QYes • No • NA
tl > Gloves О Yes • No • NA
e) Work safe!v-vests QVes • No • NA
f) F ilter mask Q Y e s • No • NA
<;) Breathing apparatus & full respirators protection Q Y e s • No | | NA
h) Other: QYes • No • NA
1.3 file equipment pipeline has been isolated as follows:
I ines blind-Hanged: Q V e s • No • NA I ines disconnected: • Yes • No • NA
Valves closed & secured: • Y'cs | |No • NA < (liter:
1.4 Is the piping equipment free from:
Oil: • Yes • No • NA (las: • Yes • No • NA
Steam: DYes • No • NA Pressure: • Yes • No • NA
1.5 Has electrical equipment been isolated" • Yes ONo DNA
Information and instructions to person carrying out work:

2.1 Fquipment Pipeline containing following material, when in service use:
l.quipnient expected to contain the following hazardous material when opened up:
2.3 Special C onditions Precautions:
In the circumstances noted above, it is considered safe to proceed with the work:
Signed: Person in charge of Work Team
Head of Department
Master
The work has been coin pitted and all persons, materials and equipment have been withdrawn:
Authorised person in charge: Date: lime'

For work «•/asbestos, special rules applies, inel. more extensive precautionary measures. Ref. IMO MSC Circular 1045!
The certificate shall be issued in I (one) original and I (one) copy. I he person engaged on the above work must hold the copy
until the job is completed. He she shall sign on the original certificate ti|x>n completion of the w ork, and the original certificate
shall be filed at Chief Officer's office.
(Image: 4/8-Hazardous task permits are also necessary for inspections of enclosed spaces-BP Shipping).
WORK PERMI T SYSTEM 1 toe no

l<c\. no.
t tnginated:
I NCLOSE!) SPACE - 1 ast re\. date:
ENTRY PERMIT Prep, by:
Лррг by
No.:
Page-
4.22.0. ENCLOSED SPACE - ENTRY PERMIT
* Chemical/Product Tankers are allowed to conduct Entry Permits for a group of tanks, but the tanks must be specified
in the Tank Entry Permit. However, all pre-entry atmosphere tests (values) must be recorded for each tank specified.
GENERAL To be prepared by Master/Responsible Officer

C.I This permit is valid From: Date: Ilrs.: To: Dale: Mrs.: Valid maximum 8 hours
G.2 location of Enclosed Space: I (one)entry permit for one space.
G.3 Reason tor entry:
G.4 Risk Assessment carried out: [ -W- • No • NA Number:
G.5 Toolbox I alk carried out: О Yes [] No [UNA Number:
SECTION 1 Pre-Entry Preparations. To be prepared by Master/Responsible Officer
I.I Has the tank been thoroughly ventilated cleaned and has "Inert Gas Isolation-
Valve" been confirmed closed and where testing equipment is available, has
the tank been tested and found safe for entrv? • Yes • No • NA
Requirements: Time measured: Readings:

Oxygen 21% bv vol.
Hydrocarbon l ess than I"»
Toxic Gases Specifv gas Л I'l l.
1.2 Have arrangements been made tor frequent check of atmosphere in space during
work and after breaks" • Yes • No • NA
1.3 Have arrangements been made lo continue ventilation during work on the tank and
at intervals during breaks'.1 •Yes • No • NA
1.4 Personal (ias Detectors in use. been tested and found operational .' • Yes • No • NA
1.5 Are Breathing Apparatus and Resuscitation Equipment available for immediate use
at tank entrance'.' • Yes • No • NA
1.6 Are rescue harness w lifeline ready for immediate use at the entrance to the tank'.' • Yes • No • NA
1.7 Has a responsible person been designated to st.by the entrance lo the space tank'.' • Yes • No • NA
1.8 Has communication been arranged and tested between the person at the entrance
and those in the tank'.' • Yes • No • NA
1.9 Are access and illumination adequate and are portable lights and equipment in use
of approved ty pe'.' • Yes • No • NA
1.10 I las the <)Ulcer on \\ ulch been ji.lv iscd оI спил and is he i ecoi ding u ho m the lank space ' • Yes • No • NA
1.1 1 I las ( ompany Procedure inr Tntry ! ag" been earned null re! MSI chapter Is 10)'' • Yes • No • NA
SECTION 2 Pre-Entry Checks - (To be checked by person in charge of tank/space entry)
2.1 Sections General and I of this Permit, fully completed? • Yes • No • NA

-> •> I am aware that the tank space immediately to he vacated in the event of failure of
the ventilation, or if atmosphere tests change from agreed safe criteria'.' • Yes • No • NA
2.3 I have agreed on communication procedures and on emergency and evacuation
procedures? • Yes • No • NA
2.4 I have agreed upon a reporting interval of minutes? • Yes • No • NA
In the circumstances noted it is considered safe to proceed w ith the work:
Signed: Person in charge of w ork team
I lead of Department
Master
The work has been completed and all persons, materials and equipment have been withdrawn:
Master or Responsible Officer: Date: l ime: ....
Authorised 'leant Leader Responsible Person: Date: I ime: ....
i.ntry Permit Completed (Master): Dale: lime: ....
I he certificate shall be issued in I (one) original and I lone) copy. I he person engaged on the above work must hold the copy
until the job is completed. He she shall sign on the original certificate upon completion of the work, and the original certificate
shall be filed at Chief Officer's office.
The potential for spontaneous combustion of organic material is considerable, especially
when piles of discarded oil soaked rags might be allowed to pile up. Whilst layers of air
may separate articles within a pile of garbage, air will not circulate to take away any heat
that may have built up within the mound of rags, enabling heat to rise until the auto-ignition
temperature of the oil is attained. The Esso Glasgow suffered a huge fire in 1967 after a
mound of oily rags and garbage built up on a steam pipe in the pump-room. The organic
material does not have to be damp from hydrocarbon substance, because the mechanism
involved is exactly the same when water damp linen is stowed away in a heated environment.
Several fires on passenger ships have resulted from this cause. Fire training schools and
stations also used to suffer if canvas hoses were stowed not having been drained effectively.
Similarly, in the agricultural industry damp bales of hay in direct sunlight on a farm have
apparently self-combusted for the same reason. Where such organic material, as rags, cotton
waste, natural fibre rope is exposed to hydrocarbon substance, for example in a paint locker,
or storage area of boiler treatment chemicals the materials should be separated and dried
before stowage.
(Image: 4/9-The 10,720 dwt tanker Esso Glasgow which experienced a huge fire in 1967 due to spontaneous
combustion of oil-soaked rags in the pump-room-R. Weekes).
In some maritime tanker legal cases the contribution of the hydrocarbon substances
involved have played a significant part in the outcome. The fact that the hydrocarbons attained
their auto-ignition temperature led to the fires. There are additional circumstances where this
mechanism has caused fires, by no means exclusively to oil tankers, such as ship's engine
rooms where oil (typically lube or fuel oil) escapes under pressure from such as a leaking
pipe onto an excessively hot surface. As well as self-combusting the reaction causes copious
levels of smoke, so if the ships' staffs are not harmed by the fire, they will be vulnerable to
smoke inhalation. Similarly, oil soaked lagging, where pipes leak but the lagging appears
intact, has also resulted in auto-ignition of the oil.
Pyrophoric Iron Oxides are a well known problem when dealing with sour crude oil in
an oxygen deficient atmosphere. The apparent self-ignition of these deposits fit appropriately
under the heading of chemical energy but fit even more appropriately and will be dealt with
in chapter five.
D). Electrical Equipment

The matter of electrical equipment and its potential to provide a source of ignition
is a broad one. There seems to be a general feeling that if a portable piece of electrical
equipment bears a "plate with marks on it" then it is approved for use in a hazardous
area, although the truth is more complex. It is necessary to know more detail about the
equipment and atmosphere in which it is intended to be used but, generally with electrical
equipment used in hazardous atmospheres, 'only intrinsically safe equipment may be used'.
The statement is not altogether wrong, but experience proves intrinsic protection is only
one of a number of methods.
EXAMPLES OF ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT
Fixed Portable
Radar equipment Torches
Radio Transmitters Hand held radios
Satellite Communications Mobile telephones
Automatic Identification Systems Pagers
Long Range Identification and Tracking
Each item of fixed equipment is located outside the tanker's hazardous area, and the most
energetic components of these items have robust construction. Radar scanners should be
turned off when the tanker is alongside. Radio transmitters should be used as little as possible
but when used, activated at a low power setting. Satellite communications are directional so
the signal should be bounced off a satellite in the sky rather than have the beam directed to
the cargo area. Automatic Identification Systems can function on a lower power setting as
can the anticipated.
Fixed electrical equipment located inside a hazardous area has to be protected by the
same options as portable electrical equipment. It would be difficult to operate a tanker without
equipment such as gas protected torches. Hand held radios are also essential whilst personal
mobile telephones and pagers should not be used on deck.
Hazardous and Safe Zones.
The markings on equipment are decisive factors determining if an item is permitted to
be used in a hazardous atmosphere. There is considerable variation in markings, but the
European system has been nationally adopted since prior to July 2003 before which date each
European state had its own systems. Once equipment has been assigned ATEX (Atmosphere
Explosible) approval then it is permitted for use in any European country.
A typical marking demonstrated for clarification:
"CE Ex EExd IIB T3 Cert No. ATEX"
CE This is the distinctive mark found on many articles the materials of
manufacture being approved by, in this case, a European standard. It is not
exclusive to electrical equipment but applies to almost any material, furniture
or household fabric including children's toys.
Ex This symbol should be in a symbol such as a hexagon or triangle and represents
the European Community symbol for electrical approval. This mark does not
mean the item of equipment is safe for use in any hazardous atmosphere.
Before making any judgement it is necessary to know the atmosphere in
which the equipment is to be used. (The gas group marking is relevant here
and is described in 1 IB below).
EExd This mark relates to the method of protection employed in the construction
of the piece of equipment. There are six internationally agreed and common
methods of protection but there are others, not internationally agreed.
So if the format of numbers or letters on items you find yourself using does
not match one of these six, it is not necessarily the case that the item is not
approved.
The six methods of protection are;
i Intrinsically safe-the most common method of protection. The word intrinsic
means inherent, or built in and more specifically it relates to low power that
is insufficient to provide ignition energy to ignite most flammable mixtures.
Some markings appear as 'ia' or 'ib' meaning that the equipment will retain
its approval after two (a), or one (b) malfunctions.
d Flameproof-this means that a flame-path has been incorporated into the
construction of the equipment. So that if an explosion of a flammable mixture
takes place within the fitting (there will be gap for a flammable mixture to
creep inside, the same gap which provides the flame-path) the flame will
be extinguished in the flame-path and an ignition of flammable mixtures
surrounding the fitting, will not take place. The gap, or flame-path, will be
related to the quenching distance (quenching diameter) of the flammable
vapour in the environment. This will be explained in more detail when the
gas group classification marking is covered.
e Increased safety-utilising a combination of sturdy construction and low
power to guarantee no sparks escape the fitting. These fittings have no
sparking contacts and an increased clearance distance between live parts and
earthed parts of the circuitry.
P Pressurised-where the construction of the fitting is pressurised in order to
prevent flammable mixtures from entering.
q Powder filled —fairly self explanatory, in order to prevent flammable mixtures
entering the fitting.
о Oil immersed-again self-explanatory incorporating an alternative method of
flammable vapour exclusion.
IIB This is one of the most significant but least understood markings. It is the
mark which indicates the nature of the atmosphere of use for the equipment.
Unless these details are available it will not be known if an item of electrical
equipment will be safe to use. Items may also be safe for some atmospheres,
but not others. For example, a light fitting may be suitable to be fitted in the
deck area, where it may encounter cargo vapour but not suitable for fitting in a
battery locker. The reason for this is that different vapours will be encountered.
On an oil tanker, crude or petroleum product cargoes generally produce less
'reactive' vapours than say, a chemical or liquefied gas cargo. The gas likely
to find in a battery locker is hydrogen but vapours from petroleum cargoes
are different to hydrogen, therefore the equipment used in the respective areas
requires different levels of protection.
The marking IIB, in this case, refers to the Gas Group Classification.
Most electrical equipment manufacturers will quote a series of common gases
or vapours related to the 'surface' industries such as shipping, as opposed to
sub-surface industries, like mining. Though manufacturers' information is
helpful, it is difficult to get hold of the original graph around which the gas
groups were sub-divided.
Briefly, the graph's axes are labelled as ignition energy against quenching
distance (or quenching diameter). The first page of this chapter explained
ignition energy, but each vapour or gas when mixed with air to form a
flammable mixture possesses a different ignition energy.
The definition of the term 'quenching distance' is: the minimum gap through
which a flame in a vapour/air mixture can propagate.
Once again, this gap differs depending on the vapour or gas when mixed with
air to form a flammable mixture involved. It is this axis of the graph which is
sub-divided into gas groupings. As indicated, the information usually given
is a list of common gases or vapours selected from the groups. It is this
axis of the graph which is sub-divided into three groups IIA, IIB and IIC.
The gases in group С are most reactive and include such gases as Hydrogen
and Acetylene. To elaborate the previous example, a light fitting marked
with gas group IIB, unsafe in a battery locker where hydrogen is likely to be
encountered, would require an 11С fitting.
T3 The temperature classification refers to the maximum surface temperature
the item will attain in the event of a malfunction. By now it must be clear why
these approved and certified items of electrical equipment are so expensive,
considering all the tests through which they are put. There are six temperature
groupings as follows;
T1 +450°C
T2 +300°C
T3 +200°C
T4 +135°C
T5 +100°C
T6 + 85°C
Certificate No. Each item of approved electrical equipment whether fixed or portable must
be accompanied on board by an appropriate certificate, verifying its approval
for use in a flammable atmosphere.
ATEX This is the European approval authority for electrical equipment.
ATEX actually stands for -atmosphere explosible' and was initiated by a
series of European Union directives, the objective of which were to permit
free movement of goods over member country borders.
E. Static Electricity
When discussing the likely presence of each side of the fire triangle in the various safe
and hazardous zones of the tanker in chapter two, possible sources of ignition in the cargo
area were speculated. One of the most likely, but least predictable sources, in the cargo tanks
will be that of static electricity. Whilst this danger has been long acknowledged, up-dated
knowledge is necessary of the mechanisms involved because, over the years, explanations of
static electricity continue to develop. There are three basic stages which, whilst they have not
changed fundamentally, and developed in detail. This leads to confusion. The most recent
change has been in the description of the 'discharge mechanism', which is the final stage of
the process.
i). Discharge Mechanism
These are commonly understood processes of the basic three-stages:
a). Charge Separation
b). Charge Accumulation
c). Electro-static Discharge
a). Charge Separation
This might be seen to be the charging mechanism, but is it necessary to
understand the nature of the 'charges' that separate. Casting minds back
to school or college physics lessons on static electricity, a series of plus and
minus signs floating around for no apparent reason might be recalled.
These are charged atoms called ions. Considering the structure of an atom,
with negatively charged electrons orbiting around positive protons, housed in
a central nucleus, offers an indication of the next stage in the procedure. When
two dissimilar materials move in contact with but relative to one another, charge
separation occurs. The electrons become stripped from the atoms of one surface
onto the adjacent dissimilar surface. Atoms which have gained electrons become
negatively charged, whilst those which have lost electrons become positively
charged. This produces the ions that are the previously mentioned charges.
Charge separation aboard a tanker occurs when fluids flow through pipe-lines.
Oil and water are the two dissi milar and immiscible liquids found on a tanker and
any operation involving movement of liquid through pipe-work or the mixing of oil
and water can lead to charge separation and the possible build-up of static electricity.
The turbulence caused by movement of liquids through pipes and across tank
bottoms, in addition to vapour evolution, will also result in a build-up of static.
Anywhere where there are activated molecules, such as in vapour resulting from
turbulence, or even in the motivated liquid itself, is a possible source of static
generation. Static electricity therefore may result from the following actions:
• Movement of liquid through pipe-work
• Turbulence at the start of loading a tank
• Tank washing machines
• Settling of a solid or immiscible liquid through another liquid
• Ejection of particles from a nozzle, such as carbon dioxide smothering
equipment
• Running a synthetic fibre rope through a synthetic fibre glove, when using a
dip rod, for example.
Where charge separation occurs, either in a liquid or solid implement, then
the atmosphere around it is also charged by an electrostatic field. Uncharged
conductors introduced into this field will have a charged induced onto them by
the field.
b). Charge Accumulation
Two factors affect charge accumulation. The on going relative movement between
dissimilar materials, and the nature of the materials involved. Different materials
bear different conductivities. When movement stops, charge separation stops and
charges gradually re-combine. Without movement to maintain or increase charge
accumulation, there will be a natural re-combination of charges, so that atoms will
regain their lost electrons to become neutral. Similarly, atoms gaining electrons will
lose them to regain their neutral status.
A loading operation on larger tankers may take twenty or thirty hours, which
means that charge separation and accumulation, caused by the flow of liquid through
pipe-work, is continuing for a significant period. This will result in significant charge
accumulation. The accumulation will be enhanced if materials involved have high
conductivity.
(Image: 4/10-Loading operations on the Aframax tanker Elisabeth Knutsen may take twenty or thirty hours,
which means that charge separation and accumulation, caused by flow of liquid through the pipe-work, is
continuing for a significant period-V. Volden).
Two specific precautions may reduce this accumulation requiring an understanding

of the relationship between the cargo and tanker pipe-work. As it is the liquid cargo
or ballast which moves, and not the ship's structure, the liquid will be charged.
In theory, the ship structure will remain neutral since it is, or should be earthed, but
this is not something that should be taken for granted. The ship floats in salt water,
even on a river berth where the water will possess a degree of salinity that acts as
an electrolyte, or path of conductivity between the ship and earth. What is doubtful
is the contact between and conductivity of each component of the ship's structure.
Each part of the pipe-line system; each column and supporting structure, each tank
lid and vapour lock should be grounded to the ship structure to ensure that it has a
clear path to earth. Bonding straps, used to facilitate this, need to be intact so that
the metallic nature of the ship structure and bonding straps will ensure that any
accumulated charge will leak back to earth.
The charge accumulating in the liquid needs monitoring. If it becomes too great,
the potential difference between the ship and the liquid could attain a level sufficient
for an electrostatic discharge to occur, if a non-conductor is introduced into the
environment. (Such mechanisms that might facilitate this are considered during the
explanation of static discharges). The liquid has to be prevented from attaining a
dangerous magnitude of charge so need to know if the cargo is a static accumulator,
which will have properties of attracting a charge. A liquid bearing particulate matter
and impurities will readily dissipate accumulated charge between such particles,
whereas a highly refined liquid will not. Therefore, the most pure and highly refined
liquids provide the most danger, since they will hold their accumulated charge.
Cargoes which are not considered to be accumulators are those less refined, such as
fuel oils and crude oils. Despite their non-accumulative properties they are referred
to as semi-conductive cargoes. Water is a conductive liquid.
When cargo samples are analysed one of the common tests applied is conductivity.
If it is found to be a low conductor, then enhanced safety measures need to be
applied to its handling. ISGOTT states the level of conductivity designated to a
non-conductor, is 50 pS/m (pico Siemens/metre), but in practice the loading terminal,
or their material data sheet should make clear whether a cargo is a static accumulator
or not.
If a cargo is, in its original state, designated a static accumulator, then an additive
may be introduced into the cargo in order to increase its conductivity. Its safety will
thereby be increased without its purity being compromised. The additive is referred to
as anti-static additive, most commonly or fuel conductivity improver. It will usually
be added by the terminal itself before the cargo reaches the tanker. Very occasionally
it may be given to the ship's staff to add by pouring the additive into the cargo tanks
holding the appropriate cargo.
Another precaution to be taken with static accumulator cargoes in non-inerted
tanks is to allow a period for the accumulated charge to settle before introducing any
metallic equipment (such as dipping, ullaging or sampling equipment) into the tank.
The recommended time for this settling period is thirty minutes.
c). Electro-static Discharge
This is the stage of the mechanism whose explanation has been slightly amended
in the latest edition of ISGOTT. The publication now cites four types of electro-static
discharge;
i). Corona Discharge
This is not considered to be dangerous because being diffuse in nature, the
reaction releases its energy relatively slowly from a point to a surrounding space.
The meteorological phenomenon is an example of a corona discharge.
ii). Brush Discharge
This may well be hazardous, resulting from a highly energetic discharge between
two surfaces of significant electrical potential difference, one a conductor and
the other a non-conductor. For example, when the surface of sampling apparatus
approaches the surface of a highly charged cargo, arcing could occur of such an
energetic level, that surrounding flammable vapours could be ignited. Similarly, a
fixed tank washing machine, or other protruding member of the ship's structure,
meeting a rapidly rising surface of a cargo being loaded at a high rate would
theoretically satisfy the requirements for a brush discharge. Excessive loading
rates are discouraged for this reason. Loading terminals will have their own
concerns about maximum flow of cargo, so they will issue their own advice on
this matter. Equally, the ship's own procedures and arrangements manual will
advise on maximum flow rates.
iii). Spark Discharge
Spark discharge differs slightly from a brush discharge in that two conductors are
involved, between which highly energetic arcing occurs. For example, a metallic
sample can floating around the surface of a charged cargo being loaded, acquiring
charge as it floats across the centre of the surface, may discharge when it approaches
the structure of the tank at its side. Another example could be where a metallic dip
or ullage tape, in contact with a highly charged cargo arcs with the edge of an ullage
port, where the tape is positioned away from the edges of the port. A less predictable
occurrence may result from conductive tools or maintenance materials remaining in
a tank after dry-dock or repair, if insulated by non-conductive material.
iv). Propagating Brush Discharge
Which receives a complex description in ISGOTT but is most likely to occur when
a paint coating, such as epoxy, of greater than 2mm on a tank or piping, is pierced.
The circumstances relate to a sheet of resistant material (the paint coating in this
case) each surface of which is highly charged but of opposite polarity.
ii). General Precautions to be taken:
A number of these have been mentioned in the text of this chapter hitherto which are
listed below:
• The thirty minute settling time applied to a non-inerted tank after a tank has been
topped off, before introducing any earthed metallic equipment.
• Earthing, grounding or bonding equipment with metallic components before introduction
into the tank of any condition. This is to ensure conductivity to earth. Examples of such
equipment are portable tank washing machines, portable gauging devices and interface
detectors. Closed gauging devices such as Whessoe gauges or Saab radar tank gauges
present no static concerns since the devices form part of the tank structure, as discussed
in chapter thirteen. Portable gauging devices used in conjunction with vapour locks
should be bonded to the vapour lock before being lowered into the tank.
• Natural fibre rope should be used with dipping, ullaging and sampling equipment and
for supporting portable tank washing machine equipment in tanks. Natural fibre absorbs
moisture and dirt facilitating a small degree of conductivity, whereas synthetic fibre is
too clean and acts as an insulator rather than a conductor. Synthetic fibre therefore will
not provide any conductivity. Use plastic sample bottle holders.
• Synthetic fibre rope should not be used whilst wearing synthetic gloves during dipping
operations, since the action can generate a static charge. Natural fibre rope should be
used with the dip rod.
• When dipping or sounding whilst tank washing, to ensure that no build up of oily water
mixtures occurs on a tank bottom, always use the sounding pipe. The reason for this is
that if there is any build up of water in the bottom of the tank, the surface of the washings
plumbed by the dip rod will be encircled by the inner diameter of the sounding pipe,
rather than the entire breadth and length of the cargo tank. Any static charge that has
built up on the surface of the washings will be minimal since the structure of the tank
(the sounding pipe) is in close proximity of the dip rod.
• The use of anti-static additive in static accumulator cargoes, will provide sufficient
conductivity.
• An inerted atmosphere will be the safest and most reliable precaution of all, since
no fire can exist in such an atmosphere. The atmosphere cannot be taken for granted
as being inert simply because it may contain inert gas. It will only be inert if there
is no more than 8% oxygen by volume in any part of the tank. If a gas free tank is
inerted, there will be a period of time between the inerting starting and the 8% oxygen
maximum being attained. There is even a static electricity implication here, if the inert
gas contains particulate matter than become charged as it flows through pipe-work.
F). Current Electricity
The final source of ignition is current electricity contrasting to static. The only element
relevant to deck officers aboard tankers is electric currents running from ship-to-shore.
This quotation from ISGOTT 5 l h Edition Chapter 17.5.1. p265 makes a significantly
relevant point:
"It should be noted that the subject of ship-to-shore electric currents is quite separate
from static electricity".
The combination of the bronze of the propeller and the steel of the hull, floating in
sea water creates an electric current flow from one to the other. If this current was left
unaddressed, then the steel hull of the ship would simply corrode away. The corrosive effect
of the current is mitigated by one of two methods of cathodic protection;
• Sacrificial anodes, now generally zinc in substance
• An impressed current system
Jetties and terminals will often seek to protect the fabric of their structure in the same
way themselves but the problem occurs when the two structures are in close proximity.
Stray currents, stemming from these protective systems may produce potential differences
between the ship and shore. When the structures are electrically connected such as when a
shore hose or cargo arm approaches the ship's manifold, then electrical arcing could occur.
This has occurred in the past and ignited flammable vapours in the area, which is almost
inevitable when cargo manifolds are connected or disconnected.
Past methods to overcome this hazard were to connect a bonding wire between the
ship and terminal, before manifold connection, until after disconnection. This method
is now considered dangerous, since the magnitude of potential differences between the
ship and shore cannot necessarily be dealt with by the bonding cable. The recommended
method of reducing this hazard is to position an insulating flange within cargo hose
strings or cargo hard arms, thereby blocking the flow of current through the hose strings
or loading arms. An approved alternative to this in a length of hose strings is to leave one
hose un-bonded, to duplicate the function of the insulator. Either side of this insulating
arrangement, both ashore and on the ship, line systems must remain grounded. Many
oil facilities around the world require the mandatory connection of a bonding cable.
Reference, however, to the IMO publication 'Recommendations on the Safe Transport of
Dangerous Cargoes and Related Activities in Port Areas 1995' describes the preference
for the insulating flange.
CHAPTER 5
Inert Gas Production and Operations
Introduction-Inert Gas (IG): flue gas and inert gas composition-the flue gas system-
SOLAS regulations: inert gas operations-During the Voyage Cycle-
Emergency Operations: on ships carrying crude oil-on ships carrying products-
Pyrophoric Iron Sulphide-SOLAS reporting requirements.
Introduction
This chapter develops further the three conditions necessary before fire on board a tanker
can occur: fuel, air (oxygen) and a source of ignition. It examines the nature of inert gas, the
systems operative on board tankers, and the application of relevant SOLAS regulations and
ship board operations.
Good design and safe operating practices control but do not completely eliminate sources
of ignition and because fuel may be present in the form of cargo vapour, and the cargo
tanks may contain air, the possibility of fire is always present. If the air in the tank can be
replaced with gas of a low oxygen content that cannot support combustion then this risk can
be avoided. Gases that do not support combustion are known as inert.
Inert Gas (IG) systems for tankers have been in existence since the 1920s and were first
developed as a means of controlling corrosion in cargo tanks, although the safety benefits
were also understood. The technology at the time was not able to provide an efficient system
and its use was not widespread.
It was during the 1950s, '60s and '70s that a series of explosions occurred on very
large tankers because cargo vapour was not handled adequately, as will be discussed in
chapter six. Explosions occurred during tank cleaning or gas freeing operations that
re-focused attention to the severity of this problem. A defining period was December 1969
when three VLCCs exploded within seventeen days. The ships were the Mactra, Marpessa and
King Hakkon IV. All three were tank cleaning at the time. Oil companies carried out
investigations researching causes of the explosions and it was soon established that in many
cases static electricity (examined in the last chapter) created a source of ignition within the
flammable atmosphere present following discharge of cargo. Water 'slugs' passing through
electrically charged mists in the tank, themselves become charged and discharged a spark
between the slug and the tank structure.
Having established the cause, a solution was sought and the issue of inert gas was
re-examined. It was determined that if the air in a cargo tank could be replaced with an inert
gas then no explosion could take place, irrespective of whether a source of ignition occurs.
This is because the air side of the fire triangle has been reduced to a safe level.
It is now a requirement under SOLAS (II-2 Reg 4.5.5) for all oil tankers over 20,000
deadweight tonnes to be fitted with and use inert gas. The SOLAS definition of an inerted
atmosphere is one that contains less than 8% oxygen by volume in the tank, with positive
pressure maintained. The IG plant must be capable of delivering inert gas to the deck with an
oxygen content of 5% by volume. A flammable petroleum atmosphere can ignite down to an
oxygen content of approximately 11%. The 8% level gives a safety margin.
49
(Image: 5/1-The 200,000 dwt VLCC King Hakkon IV showing damage

caused by an early failure to understand the effects of static electricity
during tank cleaning operations which led eventually to the legal
requirement of the fitting and use of inert gas systems aboard all tankers
over 20,000 dwt-www.dieselduck.net).
A). Inert Gas (I.G).

Inert means dead or non-reactive, and there are available a number of inert gases:
• Argon
• Helium
• Carbon dioxide
• Nitrogen
Of these, argon and helium are very expensive and therefore are not commercially
viable, whilst nitrogen is quite expensive but may be justified when protecting high value
cargoes such as chemicals due to its purity compared to flue gas. C 0 2 is usable but
for large tank volumes the storage requirement for sufficient C 0 2 is impracticable. For
economical and safe tanker operations a plentiful supply of inert gas is required due
to the large tank volumes involved, but it must be sufficiently cheap that cost is not a
controlling factor.
The simplest and cheapest ways of providing an inert gas is to burn oil in air, and use the
products of combustion. The SOLAS regulations do not specify the source of the inert gas,
and it could be nitrogen from cylinders; a nitrogen generator, or a dedicated IG generator
from exhaust emissions from boilers. The latter is commonly used on crude oil and product
tankers. The emissions from a boiler uptake are known as flue gases and have to be processed
before introducing to the cargo tanks as the gas contains some unwanted components.
Once processed flue gas is termed inert gas.
Flue Gas and Inert Gas Composition
Component Flue Gas Inert Gas

0
2 2-4% 2-4%
C02 12-14% 12-14%
Sulphur Dioxide (SO,) & 0.2%) 0.02%
Sulphur Trioxide (S0 3 )
Nitrogen (N,) 80% 80%
3
Solid particles 300mg/m 8mg/m 3
H20 5% 0.1%
Heat 300C Within 5 С of the sea temp.
The components in bold in the above table need to be processed:
• The Sulphur components react with water. At any temperature S 0 2 plus HÔ = Sulphurous
acid (H 2 S0 3 ). At high temperatures SO, plus H 2 0 = Sulphuric acid (H 2 S0 4 ). Both of
these are highly corrosive.
• Solid particles of carbon may be red hot and ignite a flammable atmosphere, whilst
dry solids sent down pipelines may cause abrasive damage to pipelines and valves.
Additionally, if solids mix with water then slurry is created which can block the system.
• Water passing over fan blades can create damage. Additionally water with heat
accelerates corrosion.
• Flue gas has a temperature of about 300 С before entering the inert gas plant. If this
were introduced into the cargo tanks more cargo vapour would be released increasing
tank pressures. The auto ignition temperature of crude oil is about 230 С and a sudden
in-rush of very hot inert gas to the tank could ignite the atmosphere before the tank
becomes inerted.
The remaining components are inert or below a level that will support combustion.
B). The Flue Gas System.
Description of Components:
The main processing unit for turning flue gas into inert gas is the scrubbing tower
(scrubber). There are a variety of designs in use and the following description defines a
common method.
Flue gas is introduced to the base of the tower and bubbles through a water trap that
must have a continuous water supply. This is necessary to keep particles in suspension and
not allow them to settle in the bottom of the scrubber and build up over a period of time.
Once the cooling process is commenced larger solid particles and sulphur components are
washed overboard and rapidly diluted in the sea, without harmful effects. The lower part of
the tower is lined with rubber or a good quality paint coating to prevent the acids corroding
the mild steel of its construction.
FRESH AIR
SCRUBBER ISOLATING
(Image: 5/2-Diagram of IG System)
As the gas moves upwards through the tower, it passes through a series of sprays
which result in further cooling and washing. Further up the scrubbing tower are a series
of baffle and impingement plates which cause a variation in speed and direction of the gas.
These eject any remaining sub-micron particles which collect on the plates and are washed
off by an upper set of water sprays and hence into the water trap for draining over board.
Finally, the clean, cool gas is passed through demister pads that remove the majority of
water droplets picked up during the washing process. There are other variations involving
centrifuges, but the end result is a dry inert gas ready for distribution to the cargo tanks.
Basically, the 'wet' gas has to be dried which can be done either by using demister pads or a
centrifugal device, or a combination of the two. The latter could be described as a cyclonic
dryer that acts in the same way as a spin dryer where the gas is 'spun' and the water droplets
removed under centrifugal force. It is a device of the 'ventun type that (unlike a spin dryer)
has no moving parts.
The natural flow of flue gas from the boiler uptake is assisted through the scrubber by
suction from the blowers. These are turbine fans that distribute the inert gas towards the
cargo tanks. SOLAS requires that there are two blowers fitted and the combined capacity
must be at least 125% of the maximum pumping capacity of the ships cargo pumps.
This is to avoid under pressurization of the cargo tanks in the event that cargo is discharged
at a rate greater than the inert gas can be supplied to replace the discharged cargo.
In practice, many owners supply 2 x 1 2 5 % capacity blowers so that in the event one of
the IG blowers failing there is no reduction in cargo pumping capacity. Other owners fit
1 x 125% plus 1 x62.5% blowers or 2x62.5% capacity, but this could result in reduced
pumping rates in the event of a blower failure.
From the blower, the gas is directed to the gas regulating valve (GRV). This must be
located on the bulkhead forming the boundary between the non-hazardous and hazardous
zones which is the safety barrier down the front of the accommodation block. The GRV
controls the flow of gas to the rest of the system and cargo tanks. Pressure transmitters located
between the deck isolation valve and the cargo tanks allow the GRV to control flow and on
most systems this is achieved by a recirculation line and valve. Excess IG pressure is passed
back through the scrubber, with the GRV and recirculation line valves being interlocked.
Alternatively, venting to atmosphere via a vent between the GRV and blowers may be used.
A fresh air intake is provided for use in gas freeing cargo tanks and is located between the
scrubber outlet and the blowers.
As the IG pipe work is deliberately piercing the safety barrier there must be a number
of safety systems within the system, otherwise the hazardous and non-hazardous areas are
connected allowing a pathway for possibly flammable gas to enter the safe area. The first of
these is the deck seal, which is a form of non-return valve, but is non-mechanical and so is
more reliable. There are a number of variations (wet type, semi-dry, dry, double block and
bleed valve) but they all aim to prevent any back flow of flammable gas from the cargo tanks
to the safe area. All types are allowed by SOLAS, but the wet type is the most common as it
has proved the most reliable in service.
A situation could occur if the pressure in the cargo tanks exceeds the IG pressure through
the lines. For example, if the IG plant is stopped, the valves are left open and localized heating
occurs in the cargo tanks. Differential pressure between upstream and downstream is created
and gas will flow from the higher to the lower pressure area. In normal flow conditions
IG bubbles through the water trap, through the demister pads and into the deck IG main to
the tanks.
(Image: 5/3-Photograph of a Deck Water Seal-Ray Solly).
If there is a back flow of gas from the cargo tanks, the pressure created acts on the sealing
water surface, the water level falls and creates a plug of water (the water seal) in the IG inlet
pipe. There is then insufficient pressure to penetrate the water seal, and so back flow of gas
is prevented from entering the non-hazardous area.
There must be a supply of water to the wet type deck water seal but this is a static volume.
Heating coils are fitted as the deck water seal is located on deck and therefore exposed to
possibly sub-zero temperatures. Forward of the deck water seal is a mechanical non-return
valve. Any mechanical type valve within an IG system cannot be relied upon totally as
scouring of valve seats can occur from any solid particles that are carried over from the
scrubbing process.
From
boiler
uptake
(Image: 5/4-Schematic diagram of Flue Gas IGS-John Onslow).
(Images: 5/5 and 5/6-The scrubbing tower in the engine-room-E. Angell... and cutaway-Internet source).
(Image: 5/7-Blower of an IGS-E. Angell).
(Image: 5/8)-The inert gas generator is frequently used to top-up the system-E. Angell).
(Image: 5/9The cutaway diagram shows the enormous forces created-Aalborg Proactive).
A deck isolation valve is located forward of the mechanical non-return valve whose
purpose is to isolate the cargo tanks from the IG supply system when the plant is not running.
Such occasions would occur when the tanker is loaded and on passage. A vent is fitted between
the mechanical non-return valve and the isolation valve to relieve any residual pressure in the
system when the isolation valve is closed.
From the isolation valve the IG main runs the full length of the tank deck area, with
branch lines directing the inert gas into the cargo tanks. Isolation valves will be fitted to each
branch line, but it is imperative that there is a reliable control system on board that recognizes
the status of the branch line valves. If a valve to the tank is closed, then it is not connected to
the IG main, which on the majority of ships has a vent riser provided as a secondary means
of venting excess pressure.
The only protection is then the high velocity vent valves on each tank and SOLAS requires
a secondary means of full flow venting (or individual tank pressure monitoring)
There is a further safety device fitted on the IG main. This is a pressure vacuum breaker,
which is a system protection device against over or under pressurization. It does not protect
individual tanks; that is the function of full flow vents, mast risers and pressure vacuum
(PV) valves.
(Image: 5/10-Photograph of PV Breaker-Ray Solly)
The breaker consists of an open-ended pipe connected to the IG main. An inverted

chamber, open to the atmosphere at its upper end, surrounds the IG main connection pipe,
whilst the breaker is filled with a mixture of water and glycol (anti-freeze) to prevent freezing
in cold conditions.
(Image: 5/12-The main control panel-Ray Solly)

58
JO MANUAL OF OIL TANKER OPERATIONS
(Image: 5/13-IGS Deck layout showing positions of the various constituent elements-Maritime Protection).
At normal atmospheric pressure, the level of the liquid is the same in each chamber
and, as IG flows along the IG main, pressure is exerted on the liquid in the inner chamber.
The level will rise and fall according to the pressure exerted. If the design pressure for the
system is exceeded, then the level will drop below the end of the inner chamber and release
the excess pressure to atmosphere and reject the liquid onto the deck.
If a vacuum is created in the system, the liquid is drawn up the inner chamber and falls
in the outer chamber. If the level in the outer chamber falls to below the lip of the inner
chamber, air is drawn in from atmosphere, thereby relieving the vacuum in the system.
The design pressures for the PV breaker are higher than that of the vessel's normal venting
arrangements, but less than the design pressure of the cargo tanks. The PV breaker only
protects the system against over and under pressurization and it does not protect individual
tanks. SOLAS Regulation 4 requires individual tanks to be protected. The breaker cannot
therefore be considered as an acceptable means of secondary full flow venting.
The IG main may terminate in a mast riser, or a number of up to three IG mains may be
used to group tanks together if cargo vapour carry over is an issue. The IG main may also
be used as the vapour recovery line if vapour emission is controlled by sending back ashore
during loading. There are a number of alarm and control systems within the IG system.
The following alarms will initiate an automatic shut down of the IG plant:
• Low scrubber water-This will close the gas regulating valve followed by automatic
shut down of the blowers.
• High IG temperature-As measured on the output side of the blower. Shuts down the
blowers and closes the GRV.
• High effluent level-This indicates a blockage in the scrubber, usually in the drain.
The tower will fill with water and effluent and possibly get back into the boiler.
The scrubber pump stops, whilst the level falls to below the low scrubber level setting.
The blowers stop and GRV closes.
High oxygen content is an alarm condition, but does not result in an automatic shut down
otherwise the plant could probably never be started! Oxygen content is a combustion problem
not a plant problem.
C). SOLAS Regulations.
i). Regulation 4 of Chapter II-2 & the FSSC deal with inert gas systems.
The Regulations state which ships require inert gas and can be summarized as follows:
• All tankers* over 20,000 deadweight tonnes must have inert gas.
• Tankers, other than crude oil carriers, between 20,000 & 40,000 deadweight and not
fitted with high capacity tank cleaning machines are exempted1.
• Tankers fitted with a crude oil washing system.
Chemical tankers and gas carriers are exempt from the regulations, but IG may be required
for these ships under operational codes and/or commercial requirements. This is currently
under review at IMO due to a number of chemical tanker explosions in the past few years.
It is possible that the application of IG rules will be tightened up although there are still
technical issues that need to be addressed
The Fire Safety Systems Code (FSSC) gives details of what comprises an inert gas system
and the requirements for the individual components in the system (blowers, scrubbers, alarms,
deck seal etc.). As the system has been described earlier in this chapter, the regulation will
not be repeated here.
Regulation 4 references the IMO publication 'Inert Gas Systems'. This publication
outlines the regulations, gives guidance and describes the operation of different components.
The book also details what must be done in the event of an inert gas system failure, and these
procedures will be examined later.
The International Code for FSSC Regulation 2.1.3.2 states:
"maintaining the atmosphere in any part of any cargo tank with an oxygen content
not exceeding 8% by volume and at positive pressure at all times in port and at sea
except when it is necessary for such a tank to be gas freed".
If a positive pressure is not maintained air will be drawn into the tanks through the
venting arrangements, and the oxygen content increased.
ii). Inert Gas Operations
It is a general principle that ships that are required to be inerted should remain so at all
times. The only exceptions are when it is required to gas free the tanks for inspection or
repair purposes on the ballast passage or dry-docking etc.
D). During the Voyage Cycle
The following describes the use of the inert gas system during a normal voyage cycle:-
• Primary inerting-Consider a new ship, or one coming out of dry dock. The existing
tank atmosphere, in this case air with an oxygen content of 21%, must be exchanged for
an atmosphere containing 8% oxygen or less. The inert gas plant is run and the original
atmosphere vented off.
* This part of the regulations applies to tankers carrying crude oil or petroleum products having a closed cup flashpoint not exceeding 60°C.
t High capacity tank cleaning machines are defined as those having an individual throughput of greater than 60m3/hour. The problem with
high capacity machines is the danger of static electricity generation due to the'water slug'effect.
• Loading cargo or ballasting cargo tanks-Prior to loading, the tanks are inerted.
Once loading or ballasting is commenced inert gas must be vented via the mast riser to
prevent over pressurization. The inert gas plant will not be run, but a positive pressure
in the tanks must be maintained by controlled venting.
• Top up pressure-Following the completion of loading or ballasting it may be necessary
to top up the inert gas in the tanks whilst on passage. Climatic changes and/or
diurnal variations in temperature will affect tank pressures due to varying cargo
levels or leakage through PV valves or tank lids may occur if not maintained properly.
Some ships are equipped with an IG generator for this purpose. This avoids firing up
the main boilers for the provision of a relatively small amount of IG.
• Discharging cargo or ballast-This is the main period when the inert gas plant is run.
The cargo or ballast being discharged will have to be replaced by inert gas, positive
pressure being maintained.
• Changing tank atmospheres-This is necessary to vary a hydrocarbon or oxygen
content, by a process known as purging. If the oxygen content rises above 8% then
the plant is run and more inert gas is put into the tanks, the existing atmosphere
being vented through a purge pipe to the outside atmosphere. Some companies
require this to be done prior to arrival at the load port in order to reduce hydrocarbon
emissions and mercaptans (Sulphur components) from the mast riser during loading.
There is no statutory requirement to do this.
• Gas free from inert-this is required for tank entry purposes. The tanks inert
atmosphere must be purged to below 2% hydrocarbons by volume with inert gas and
then ventilated to 21% oxygen and less than 1% of the lower flammable limit (ISGOTT).
It is necessary to purge initially with inert gas before introducing air so as to avoid the
tank atmosphere passing through the flammable range.
E). Emergency Operations
The regulations concerning inert gas on tankers are contained in SOLAS. It is therefore
considered a safety system and so a failure of the system is taken seriously. The IMO
publication Inert Gas Systems contains one of the few conditions when IMO tells the ship
staff what they must do:
In the event of total failure of the inert gas system to deliver the required
quality and quantity of inert gas and maintain a positive pressure in the cargo
tanks and slop tanks, action must be taken immediately to prevent any air being
drawn into the tank. All cargo operations should be stopped, the deck isolating
valve should be closed, and the vent between it and the gas pressure regulating
valve should be opened and immediate action should be taken to repair the inert
gas system.
The Inert Gas System guidelines referred to state the following:
i). On ships carrying crude oil:
• Stop all operations.
• Close IG deck isolation valve and open vent to relieve pressure.
• Effect repair of the fault or obtain an alternative source of IG.
ii). On ships carrying products:
• Stop all operations.
• Decide if repair is practicable.
• If repair is not practicable operations can be resumed if:
a). The IG system is isolated from the deck.
b). Open vent riser.
c). Do not allow free fall of water into slop tanks which is a static hazard.
d). No sounding, ullaging or sampling unless essential for the safety of the ship.
If necessary wait thirty minutes from IG failure and restrict for five hours.
All metallic components to be earthed.
If vessel is tank cleaning then operations can continue if:
• Only one tank at a time is washed.
• The tank being washed is isolated from any common vent or IG main (stops vapour
carry over).
• Ventilation of the tanks is maximized and continuous.
• Tank bottoms are flushed with seawater and stripped back. This removes as much
remaining product before washing as possible and hence reduces any subsequent cargo
vapour generation.
• The tank atmosphere is measured at multiple tank levels and the hydrocarbon content
found to be less than 10% of the lower flammable limit before washing commences.
• The atmosphere is monitored during washing and if the reading reaches 35% of the
LFL washing must stop and the tank further ventilated until a level of less than 10%
LFL is achieved.
• Only one high capacity washing machine may be used (throughput less than
60m V hour).
• The bonding on portable washing machines is checked for electrical continuity.
• Tanks are kept well drained to prevent electrically charged mists due to sloshing.
• No tank cleaning chemicals are used but only clean, cold sea water.
• Unnecessary tank cleaning openings are kept closed.
F). Pyrophoric Iron Sulphide
The reason a tanker carrying products can continue operations under certain conditions
whilst a crude carrier cannot, is due to the effect of pyrophoric iron sulphide. This is a
chemical reaction that can occur under certain conditions:
• An oxygen deficient atmosphere must be present
• Iron oxides (rust) must be present
• There must be hydrogen sulphide present
When all three are present a reaction occurs that converts the iron oxide to iron sulphide.
This is not a problem in itself, but when there is a subsequent re-exposure to air the iron
sulphide rapidly converts back to iron oxide. Energy in the form of an exothermic (heat giving)
reaction is produced which may be sufficiently high to ignite a flammable atmosphere.
If the inert gas plant fails and operations are continued air may be sucked into the cargo
tanks via the tank venting arrangements. This could kick-start the chemical re-conversion
process. Crude oil contains hydrogen sulphide whereas the majority of products do not as
it has been refined out. Tankers carrying products are therefore permitted to continue if the
criteria met in the Inert Gas System Guidelines are met. It is not possible to specify 'safe'
levels of hydrogen sulphide as it depends on the exact combination of the three components
at any given time.
G). SOLAS Reporting Requirements

Regulation 11(c) of Chapter 1, Maintenance of Conditions after Survey requires that
whenever an accident or defect is discovered that affects the safety of the ship, the master or
owner shall report at the earliest opportunity to the Administration. If the ship is in port then
the port state authorities must also be informed.
It can be argued, with confidence, that the fitting of Inert Gas systems is the single most
important advance in tanker safety that has occurred in the last forty years. A well maintained,
correctly functioning Inert Gas System operated by personnel who understand its purpose
and function will continue to maintain this level of safety.
CHAPTER 6
Gas Evolution and Venting
Introduction-Gas Evolution: loading cargo-discharging cargo-
Venting Systems: vapour control-vapour emission control-pressure/vacuum relief-
Innovations-Gauging Systems: float level gauges-radar gauges-pressure tapes.
Introduction
In this chapter, the evaporation of gas from a cargo will be considered during loading and
discharging operations. Vapour Control Systems on board and at the terminal, together with
initiatives in tank gauging are also examined,
A). Gas Evolution
Application of vapour control arrangements by industry practitioners and legislators to the
problems have resulted in safer and more reliable methods of controlling vapour emitted from
tanker cargoes during loading. Many loading port casualties from the '50s and '60s occurred
because of ineffective cargo vapour control. Whilst early tanker designs took into account
that light density cargoes produce vapour due to evaporation, the vapour control arrangements
provided then were inefficient. This occurred because the amount of vapour produced was
underestimated by ship designers so it could not be safely contained and dispersed.
The causes of gas evolution, or evaporation, from the surface of lighter density or higher
vapour pressure cargoes become important together with the way cargo is handled.
i). Loading Cargo
When the cargo tank loading valve is opened and cargo flows through vertical drop lines
and loading valves it gathers kinetic energy. The initial loading rate will therefore be slow
and wherever practicable, will be purely by gravity. Regardless of the rate of pumping as the
oil pours across the bottom of the tank it releases vapour due to the turbulence caused by the
movement. The surface area of the cargo experiences a massive increase in a short period of
time which increases also evaporation. In chapter four it was shown that static electricity is
another consequence of turbulence. Another practical reason for commencing loading at a
slow rate is to ensure the cargo is going into the correct tanks.
Once the process of gas evolution has started, a layer of cargo vapour will be established
on the surface of the oil. With most hydrocarbon cargoes, the vapour will be denser than air,
and it will hover vertically adjacent to the cargo. Within this layer of vapour, the concentration
will be higher close to the surface of the cargo and lighter or thinner the more it is vertically
removed from the cargo surface.
The vapour is made up of molecules which have been given energy by turbulence and
increased surface area. The more energy the individual molecules have received, the less
they will be influenced by gravity and the more elevation they will gain, away from the
cargo surface tension. Not all molecules will have received the same level of energy, indeed
some will have lost energy having already escaped the liquid, and hover just above the
cargo surface. Therefore the concentration of the vapour layer above the cargo decreases
with elevation.
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The layering of vapour above the cargo will be in one of three identified categories,
dependent on its concentration. Immediately above the cargo, the concentration will be
rich, in fact too rich for combustion to take place in the presence of a source of ignition
and sufficient oxygen. Vertically adjacent to this layer, as the concentration of hydrocarbon
molecules decreases, there will be a concentration of hydrocarbon vapour within the
flammable range of the substance. If there is sufficient oxygen present, the combination of
oxygen and hydrocarbon will form a flammable mixture. Within this layer, the presence of
a source of ignition possessing sufficient ignition energy (see chapter two) would cause a
fire. Above this layer, the concentration of hydrocarbon vapour will be too lean to form a
flammable mixture, even if sufficient oxygen and a source of ignition possessing sufficient
ignition energy were also present.
The drawing of an analogy might help explanation. If a car with a full petrol tank had the
cap removed and a flame was introduced above the top of the tank, it would be likely to be
extinguished because the atmosphere within that layer would be too concentrated (too rich)
to support combustion.
If the flame was introduced into the petrol tank when it was almost empty the flammable
mixture within the tank would be ignited resulting in a fire and considering the confined
space within the petrol tank, an explosion of the tank.
The effects were similar to those seen in chapter four whilst discussing the cigarette and
butane gas stream. The tanker's cargo space could be compared to a big petrol tank, where
the layering adopts the same pattern. If the tanker is fitted with a functional and operational
inert gas system, the atmosphere in the 'bigger petrol tank' can be controlled. If there is no
IG system operational it would be necessary to ensure that there are no inadvertent sources
of ignition in the cargo tanks in which a flammable mixture may exist.
Once the layer of vapour is established above the cargo, its characteristics are formed and
they do not change a great deal all the time the tank is being loaded. Once the inlet of the
tank has been submerged, there will be no turbulence anywhere near the surface of the cargo,
so less evaporation will occur. The surface area of the cargo will remain almost identical as
the level of cargo rises in the tank, so that mechanism of evaporation will be removed from
the process. The concentration and the elevation of the layer of hydrocarbon vapour above
the cargo surface will not increase dramatically during loading. It will increase, but only
gradually until the cargo level approaches the top of the tank, when additional factors start to
have an influence on the amount of evaporation.
The vapour space ratio to the available space left in the tank will be significantly reduced
compared to the volume of the space during the early stages of loading. The capability of the
venting arrangements starts having a more influential effect as well. The evolved gas needs a
way out of the tank in the same way that the fresh air or inert gas contents of the tank prior to
loading also need a way out. This is the function of venting systems. The diameter of the vent
line from the tank is likely to be narrower than the cargo inlet. This affects the exit velocity
of the atmosphere composed of a mixture of air (or inert gas) and cargo vapour according
to the loading rate of the cargo. It is the capacity of the vent, or perhaps more graphically,
the capability of the venting arrangements which dictates the tank's maximum loading rate.
This is usually expressed as a volume per hour. The venting capability must be 125% of the
maximum loading rate of the tanks and it is toward the final stages of loading that this detail
becomes most important.
As the cargo level approaches the top of the tank there will be an almost horizontal
movement of tank atmosphere, across the surface of the cargo, toward the vent outlet.
This will cause some turbulence on the cargo surface that slightly increases both evaporation
and depth of the vapour layer. In addition, the pressure of the tank within the vapour space
will also have increased, since the rising cargo is pushing the atmosphere above it out of the
vent outlet. With this increase in pressure will be an increase in concentration of hydrocarbon
vapour in the vapour space. Evaporation will not necessarily increase from the surface of the
cargo; in fact there is an argument to suggest that this increase in pressure on the cargo surface
will actually decrease the amount of evaporation. The concentration of cargo vapour will
increase, since it will not escape the vapour space so readily at this latter stage of loading.
Before the tank can be considered 'safe' in terms of flammability it is necessary to
consider the mixture which comes out of the tanks' vent outlet during a loading operation.
This is where the greatest hazards lie because clearly inert gas has no effect on the atmosphere
outside of the tank.
Initially, no cargo vapour will escape from the vent since the only hydrocarbon will
be at the bottom of the tank. Air or inert gas will be pushed out of the tank as the cargo
level rises but when the first traces of hydrocarbon vapour are vented, they will be of
very low and too lean a concentration for explosion. As the level of cargo continues to
rise in the tank, albeit increasing the depth of the vapour layer above it only marginally,
the concentration of hydrocarbon vapour escaping through the tank vent will gradually
and methodically increase. At some stage of the loading, again depending on the vapour
pressure of the cargo being taken, a flammable concentration of hydrocarbon vapour will be
vented. Here, outside of the tank atmosphere, any inert gas in the vicinity, which also may
have been vented with the cargo vapour, will have no inerting properties and the oxygen
in the fresh air will start to mix with the hydrocarbon vapour leading to a potentially
flammable mixture.
This situation is not particularly hazardous because it is very likely any hydrocarbon
concentration will disperse in any movement of air in the atmosphere. Also, there are unlikely
to be sources of ignition immediately adjacent to the vent outlet (with the possible exception
of lightning), recalling that the position of cargo vent outlets are strictly controlled by the
SOLAS regulations.
The most hazardous situation occurs when the over rich concentration of hydrocarbon
vapour escapes from the vent outlet. Once again, the presence of any inert gas will be of no
consequence, but what is most hazardous is that an over rich concentration of hydrocarbon
vapour will dilute in the fresh air, from an over rich mixture into a flammable mixture.
This will occur as the vapour moves away from the vent, into areas where sources of ignition
are less predictable and no longer specifically adjacent to the vent outlet. It has been at this stage
in the past where vented hydrocarbons from cargo tanks being loaded, have formed flammable
mixtures around sources of ignition. This was the cause of the numerous explosive incidents
which occurred in 1950s and '60s in loading ports, cited at the beginning of this chapter.
On reflection, these explosions were the result of a combination of factors, one being the lack
of adequate control of cargo vapour. SOLAS regulations have subsequently been developed
demanding more stringent control of vapour and as a result the number of explosions during
loading has decreased.
ii). Discharging Cargo
When considering the layer of vapour above the cargo during a cargo discharge, the
situation is practically reversed. Depending on the vapour pressure, it is likely that most if not
all of the tank atmosphere will have a hydrocarbon concentration throughout the tank upon
completion of cargo discharge and before washing. It is also very likely that there will be a
flammable mixture in a non-inerted tank under these conditions.
B. Venting Systems
i). Vapour Control
Vapour control arrangements have mitigated explosions during loading and discharging
crude oil cargoes. The principles of a vapour control arrangement are governed by strict
SOLAS regulations in one of three ways: at height, at velocity or by returning it to the
loading facility.
By emitting vapour from height, the expectation is that the hydrocarbons will disperse
into the surrounding air, even if there is no breeze or wind, by the time the vapours gravitate
back to the deck. Commonly, the arrangement used to comply with this requirement is a mast
riser, from a common venting main, with its free-flow opening a minimum (according to
SOLAS 5.3.4.1.3) of six metres above the deck; four metres above the fore and aft walkway,
and ten metres from any air intake into space containing a source of ignition.
Emitting vapour under pressure and through a high velocity valve should enable the
vapour to disperse into the atmosphere, as it shoots vertically upward, away from the deck.
The manner of the emission will assist its dilution into the atmosphere. SOLAS II-2,5.3.4.1.1.2
and 5.3.4.1.4 require the velocity to be at least thirty metres per second, through an outlet at
least two metres above the deck, and ten metres from any air intake into a space containing
a source of ignition.
(Image: 6/1 -The manifolds fitted aboard a Handymax tanker showing the light colouring, in the foreground, of the
vapour return pipe enabling vapour to be returned to the terminal-Ray Solly).
The third option is to return the vapour to the loading terminal. This option is available
only if the tanker has the necessary fittings and the terminal has the appropriate facility.
The tanker has to be fitted with a vapour return manifold. This identified by one metre of
its outboard end coloured yellow with red edging, and the word 'vapour' stencilled along
the yellow section. What the terminal does with the returned vapour varies. It may return
directly to the tank from which the cargo has come, or it may be burnt if it comes from a
volatile cargo. It is something of an anomaly at the time of writing in the oil tanker industry
that so many oil tankers have been fitted with vapour recovery manifolds, yet they seldom if
ever visit a terminal which uses them. Part of the reason for this is that commercial pressures
brought upon ship owners and operators, insist on the highest possible standards of fittings.
Though it may never be used, the vapour return manifold is one such fitting.
The tankers have an incentive to fit the vapour return, in that they are more likely to attract
lucrative charter parties, yet there seems to be no such incentive for terminals. Currently, the
only part of the world where these vapour recovery facilities are used routinely for volatile
oil products appears to be the west coast of the USA. Some crude oil terminals such as Sture
in Norway and Hound Point in UK also use them, but there are few others. It is encouraging
that an increasing number of terminals are gradually seeing the environmental and long term
commercial benefit of these arrangements.
The commercial benefit is that if cargo losses due to evaporation can be reduced, then
more cargo can be traded. For example, over $20m was invested in one such unit at a crude
oil export terminal in Sture, Norway, which came on line in March 1996.
The reduction in losses due to evaporation meant that the savings enjoyed paid for the
investment within ten years. The technicians, who designed the unit, now claim that such an
investment these days will pay for itself in as little as one year, depending on the frequency
of usage.
ii). Vapour Emission Control
The control of atmospheric emissions that have been incorporated into Annex VI
of MARPOL strictly specifies vapour recovery arrangements. For the reasons stated
above the legislation does not compulsorily require them but simply stipulates details
the specification of them if one is fitted. Additional to the painting and inscription on
the manifold to prevent inadvertent misconnection is a stud at 12 o'clock on the flange.
A matching recess will be incorporated into the vapour hose flange into which the stud
can fit. More detailed information regarding these vapour manifolds van be found in the
latest edition of OCIMF's publication Recommendations for Oil Tanker Manifolds and
Associated Equipment.
There are a number of additional concerns. A vapour connection is just that, and is not
provided to convey liquid regardless of how this may end up in a vapour system. This means
that cargo tanks should not be permitted to exceed their normal full level, which is no more
a requirement than would exist with out a vapour return. Liquid cargo condensate should
be effectively drained since any traces remaining in the line will both impair the flow of
vapour and possibly lead to electro-static generation on the surface of the gathered liquid
Mindful of the connection between ship and terminal, it is also required that a detonation
arrestor is fitted at the jetty head to prevent the passage of flame in either direction.
Furthermore, tanks should never be opened to the atmosphere for sampling or gauging.
Closed or restricted sampling and gauging devices will be required for use when a vapour
return arrangement is in operation.
The introduction of vapour return arrangements into oil tanker operations is relatively new.
Its introduction coincided with a wide spread concern regarding over and under pressurisation
incidents on tankers, addressed to a degree with the fitting of full flow pressure/vacuum or
P/V valves. Considering how onerous it was for tanker staff to ensure all tank venting valves
were always in the correct setting, it was something of a surprise that what is basically an
extended loop of the vapour main, is routinely attached to the tanker's own vapour main.
The potential of additional hazards had thus been introduced meaning monitoring and control
of the loop on the shore side as well as the tanker. Any interruptions of flow of vapour in any
part of the system will affect the whole loop. This development in vapour emission control
did coincide with another separate development which addressed the very issue of possible
over or under pressurisation.
Since July 2010, as a result of ammendments to Annex VI of MARPOL, tankers
carrying crude oil must have and implement a Volatile Organic Compound Emision Control
Management Plan.
iii). Pressure/Vacuum Relief
One of the most scrutinised features of tanker design after the series of loading explosions
of the 1950s and '60s, related to vapour control. The improvement in vapour control
also coincided with the mandatory requirement to incorporate further safety measures.
Amongst these, was the SOLAS requirement to design tankers with all aft accommodation,
and to separate gas safe zones from hazardous zones with safety barriers, issues that have been
discussed in chapter three. Another requirement, albeit for larger tankers at the time, was for
the installation of an inert gas plant whose workings were covered in chapter five. An additional
favourable feature of this facility was that it could utilise the same network of deck piping as the
vapour control system. When inert gas is not being delivered to the deck and the block valves
are closed, the same pipe work may direct cargo vapour from each tank, to a header (or mast
riser) via a common main. For a tanker carrying a homogenous cargo this is a very practical
manner of controlling vapour emissions and directing them away from the deck area.
A problem came when a tanker carrying more than one grade of cargo wants to vent the
vapour from each grade independently, preventing the vapours from mixing. This is not so
easy to deal with and at least a degree of separation may be achieved by using more elaborate
line and valve arrangements so that two centre mains are fitted, one for the wing tanks and
one for the centre tanks.
The very flexibility also introduced complexity into vapour control arrangements
because branch lines between the centre mains and the tanks incorporated in-built isolation
valves. These were practical additions so that if an individual tank needed gas freeing for
entry, then it could be isolated from the common main to prevent inert gas or hydrocarbon
vapour from adjacent tanks seeping into the prepared tank. As practical as this benefit
was considering the number of different and indeed segregated parcels carried on product
tankers, it introduced the distinct possibility that these branch isolation valves could be
mistakenly left shut instead of being opened. Considering the number of these valves
in a pipeline network the possibility turned into probability and the incidence of over
and under pressurised cases became inordinately high. This was not surprising under the
circumstances. Tanker staff became so concerned at the ease with which such mistakes
could be made that ships would indent for a collection of padlocks and chains for each
isolation valve, so they could be locked in the correct position and not moved without
fetching the padlock key. Although, in the rush of cargo and ballasting operations keys
became lost and the trade in hacksaws enjoyed a marked improvement, the practice of
locking the valve continues today. It was clear the situation could not continue without
further pressurisation incidents. Cases such as the Mobil Petrel (1989) and Welsh Venture
(1993) amongst many others illustrated the problem. In both of these cases, ballast was
loaded into cargo tanks in a non-routine operation, where branch line isolation valves
had been left closed, so the air/inert gas mixtures remaining in the cargo tanks prior to
ballasting, had no route to the atmosphere.
(Image: 6/2-A branch line isolation valve locked in the correct position
helps prevent accidents occurring-Ray Solly).
To address the inordinately high number of similar cases, the advisory authorities
recommended a change in the SOLAS regulations. 1996 amendments, implemented in 1998,
required a secondary means of full flow pressure and vacuum relief for each cargo tank.
This did not refer to, for example, the breather valves commonly fitted on each tank lid,
which merely coped with the minor fluctuations in pressure and vacuum brought about by
the change of volume of cargo in response to diurnal variations in ambient temperature.
These valves catered for minor pressure fluctuations and not for several thousand cubic
metres per hour of cargo or ballast entering the tank, which is why the term full flow was
incorporated into the amendments to the SOLAS regulations, II-2 6.3.2.
With such a design, even if an isolation valve has been left closed by mistake, there is
still a route for the original tank atmosphere to escape when cargo or ballast is loaded. On a
smaller scale where individual tanks have been fitted with Р/V valves and they had become
blocked, the same secondary means of relief will prevent damage. The tanker Osco Star
incidents of December 1993 and January 1994 could have both been prevented had such an
arrangement then been operational.
The SOLAS amendment does permit, as an alternative to a secondary means of relief, a
set of pressure sensors and alarms in each cargo tank. Some smaller parcel tankers appear
to have taken this option. In practice, the employment of a vapour return arrangement could
result in a marginally lower loading rate than if one were not in operation. This may partly
be because a booster fan may be in operation on the terminal on the return side of the
arrangement. If this fan cannot keep up with the vapour produced by the cargo loading rate,
even at maximum speed, then the loading rate will be reduced.
It is worth considering the basis of some innovative designs and practices appearing in
the tanker trade in recent years. As mentioned earlier, as well as the pollution preventative
benefits and the safety benefits of restricting atmospheric emissions, there could be long
term commercial benefits. Unlike liquefied gas tanker cargo vapour, which can often be
re-liquefied with appropriate plant, oil tanker cargoes are generally worked at ambient,
or close to ambient, temperatures and pressures. This means that cargo which evaporates
cannot be re-captured because oil tankers do not in general possess any equipment which can
re-liquefy cargo vapour. The term 'losses due to evaporation' appears ubiquitously on cargo
calculation sheets and freight earning calculations. Sometimes the term is used rather freely
to mask other discrepancies which it is not the remit of this publication to detail.
C). Innovations
If these cargo losses could be mitigated, commercial benefits would be created.
The tanker industry is not noted for adapting to change promptly, though a number of
innovations based purely on the initiative of the operators, have ultimately been accepted
as either best practiced or even embedded in legislation. For example, the practices of
'Retention On Board' and 'Load on Top' of slops were initiated by responsible tanker
operators sensitive to the environment in the 1960s.
(Image: 6/3-The BP 71,931 dwt LNG tanker Shahamah is typical of the design of these ships which enables cargo
vapour to be recovered and used in the propulsion of the vessel-BP Shipping).
Some of the new innovations related to vapour control have resulted not from purely
inspirational moments but from observation of ships of other disciplines. Liquefied gas
tankers are able to either re-liquefy vapourised cargoes, or in the case of natural gas
tankers, use the boil-off from their cargo to power their propulsion machinery. There is
nothing inspirational about considering these facilities on a different type of tanker. The
question really comes down to those whom are commercially brave enough to try and
replicate these features on an oil tanker. Fortunately, there have been institutions who
have invested in the research and development of vapour recovery systems on oil tankers.
It is likely to be a while before we see vapour recovery systems in widespread use on oil
tankers but there already a very small number who are able to process cargo vapour and
store it in a deck cylinders. Of the more versatile facilities, some have an option of what
happens to the re-condensed product; spike it back into the cargo, market it as a product or
supplement engine fuel consumption.
Elsewhere in the petrochemical industry, where transfer of hydrocarbons takes place,
s i m i l a r vapour recovery arrangements are also in use. There are road tanker loading terminals
utilising similar arrangements and claim to save a tanker load of liquid per week at maximum
output, on the basis of one litre of liquid recovered from every thousand litres loaded.
Even at roadside stations, displaced vapour can be recovered by a double skinned hose at
the pumps, into beds of activated charcoal, which attract the vapour.
D). Gauging Systems
It is difficult to manage cargo quantities closely without gauging facilities.
Whilst accurate figures may be measured for the purposes of custody transfer, before and
after a cargo operation, tank level monitoring will be required during transfer to ensure that
planned cargo quantities are attained, without over filling tanks. As well as facilitating the
correct finishing ullage (vertical distance between the calibration point at the top of a tank
and cargo surface) gauging device will enable transfer rates (loading or discharging) to be
calculated. This will enable the deck department to estimate cargo completion, shore leave
duration and pilot ordering times.
The following gauging and measuring equipment is cited here, but examined in greater
detail in chapter thirteen:
i). Float Level Gauges
The names Whessoe Ltd. and Varec Ltd. will be familiar to the mature tanker operator.
They are manufacturers of tank level gauging equipment using the principle of float gauges
aligned by a tape to graduated readouts, displayed in a small window within a cylindrical
device fitted onto the deck but forming part of the tank structure. The float would be
guided by two vertical wires running to the bottom of the tank. Similar devices using an
annular floating ring around a pole are not uncommon. These gauges are fairly durable
and accurate enough for transfer rate calculations but rarely accepted by cargo surveyors.
The tape mechanism certainly requires regular maintenance.
ii). Radar Gauges
This is an advance on manually operated float gauges, which bounces a pulse of radar
energy off the cargo (or ballast) surface back to a reflector. The time taken for the pulse
to be received is related with the distance it has travelled and therefore the tank content.
Whilst these gauges are purportedly highly accurate, there may be some complications.
If the tank in which the gauge is fitted is not double hulled but has a flat tank bottom, the
pulse could deflect from a structural member away from the reflector. The reflector acts also
very much like a mirror that may mist up with condensation or inert gas. This means it has
to be accessed for cleaning purposes.
iii). Pressure Tapes
The device is composed of two lengths of tape of two different metals inside a flexible
tube which are positioned close to but not touching each other. As pressure is exerted on
the tube, the two metal strips are pressed together producing an electrically generated
signal.
CHAPTER 7
PIPE-LINES AND PUMPS
Introduction-Various Tank Arrangements: Segregated Ballast Tanks (SBT)-
Pipe-line Systems: a), direct line-ring main line-single direct line cargo pipe-line
system with cross-overs-single ring main pipe-line system-tank draining -
b). deck pipe-lines -dresser couplings - manifolds -
c). pump room lines-compression ballasting-Valves: butterfly valves-gate valves -
Cargo Pumps: centrifugal pumps-vac-strip system-positive displacement pumps -
screw pumps - eductors.
Introduction.
Amongst non-tanker observers, it is a common misconception that cargo work on an oil
tanker is straightforward. It is believed that it is necessary only to connect a hose to a series
of shore tanks, from which the tanker (being one voluminous tank-like compartment) is filled
or emptied. Loading is regarded as filling an automobile with gasoline. It is comparable with
loading a general cargo ship by filling the hold until it is full. Both basic examples expressed
ignore longitudinal stresses and transverse stability.
A). Various Tank Arrangements.
The single voluminous tank of an oil tanker is sub-divided into a number of smaller
tanks, traditionally three sets of tanks, port and starboard wings either side of centre
tanks. (See the general arrangement plans of VLCC Arosa in chapter one and Aframax
tanker Mastera in chapter three). A more common, but not exclusive arrangement, since
the advent of the double hulled tanker is to have two rows of tanks separated by a single
centreline bulkhead. The number of tanks in a fore and aft plane is determined by the size
of the tanker and governed by the tanker's trading patterns.
Larger tankers of VLCC class often have a smaller number of tanks than a multi-grade
parcel tanker of 6,000 tonnes deadweight. This is because they are loading or discharging
one grade of oil which does not require segregation. It is not unusual for VLCCs to sail
with two or even three grades especially when the market is low, but the design of cargo
systems on these ships presents few chances of contamination. Such a tanker may have
around 15 tanks.
A small, versatile product parcel tanker, on the other hand, may have between 20 and
30 cargo tanks, each one capable of carrying a separate cargo parcel and maintaining
segregation from other parcels on a loaded passage. Parcel tankers may carry simultaneously
a number of cargo 'parcels' or grades. Most oil product parcel tankers will commonly
handle five or six grades at one time, maintaining segregation throughout the passage.
They will only be able to load or discharge as many parcels as they have cargo manifolds,
which is commonly four. Some parcel tankers have a separate pump in each cargo tank to
increase their segregation options, and only need to concentrate on grades which follow
others through one of the manifolds. This is the criterion for as long as incompatible
cargoes can be prevented from doing so numerous permutations of cargo parcel loading
and discharging are possible.
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i). Segregated Ballast Tanks (SBT).
Segregated ballast arrangements are the norm today, using double hull spaces, so there is
rarely a need to connect cargo and ballast systems. The only exception to this would occur
when heavy weather ballast needs to be loaded into a cargo space. This becomes 'dirty
ballast' and is treated under strict MARPOL regulations. It would need to be discharged
through Oil Discharge Monitoring Equipment (ODME) and the residue kept for off-loading
ashore or by taking the next cargo on top. If this is necessary, the only connection between
the cargo and ballast system is likely to be one spool piece, which is only positioned when
required and removed when it is not.
B). Pipe-line Systems.
There are a number of different pipe-line systems in oil tankers. Generally, the more complex
an option appears, the more grades it can carry and so it becomes more versatile in segregation.
This makes the class of tanker attractive to charterers, although homogenous cargoes consisting
of one grade per ship, in either one product or crude oil, are equally as viable.
There are several designs of pipe-line network common today and to understand their
differences three areas of the cargo system examined where configuration may differ:
i). Bottom Lines
ii). Deck Lines
iii). Cargo Pump Room
iv). Bottom Lines.
i). Bottom Lines
Of the line systems positioned on the tank bottom, the direct line and single or double
ring main systems are the most common.
a). Direct Line.
A direct line is used when there is only sufficient pipe work for each tank to be
loaded and discharged through the manifold and tank for loading, and the tank, pump
and manifold when discharging. Loading may be facilitated by vertical drop lines from
pipe work on the deck to the bottom lines, or via the pump room with no drop lines
in the deck area. The exact configuration will vary depending on the number of cargo
pumps fitted in a pump room (which is either two, three or four) and the number of
rows of tanks described earlier. The direct line is an inflexible system requiring an
alternative pump for each tank so that discharge does not have to be restricted to any
one pump and each tank can be discharged by any pump on the system. Cross-over
lines facilitating this may be on the tank bottom, in the deck area, or in the cargo
pump room. Due to its inflexible nature it offers little in terms of cargo segregation and
prevents the working of more than three different grades of crude or product.
b). Ring Main.
This system is far more flexible. A single ring main serves each tank
via a circuit so that each can be loaded or discharged via at least two routes.
This prevents incompatible cargoes following each other through a common
pipe-line. A double ring main design allows even greater flexibility and versatility
where each tank can be worked via at least four different routes. Depending on the
level of segregation required, as long as certain parcels can use common lines, a
double ring main system enables six or seven grades to be worked easily. This system
has largely been supeceded by fitting individual cargo pumps in each tank as the ring
main requires high maintenance, which can be an issue with reduced crew levels.
(Image: 7/1 - Mimic diagram of the cargo system and bottom lines aboard a
crude oil carrier of some 130,000 dwt-Ray Solly).
. A Simple Direct Line Cargo Pipe-line System, with Cross-Overs.

Drop loading lines could be incorporated into this design precluding the use of
pump room lines during loading operations. Individual valves have not been marked
nor separate stripping lines for clarity.
. A Single Ring Main Pipe-line System.
Likewise drop lines could be incorporated as an option.
Again, valves have not been marked, but would include master and intermediate
line valves to ensure that a two-valve segregation could be established when carrying
incompatible grades of cargo.
. Tank Draining.
Tank suctions are located as close as possible aft as practicable, so that as cargo
levels fall in the tanks when discharging, the weight of the accommodation block
facilitates the draining of each tank aft, toward the tank suction. Consider the
explanation of reasoning behind the location of the accommodation block examined
in chapter three. The line systems mentioned may be duplicated by a secondary line
system fitted specifically for draining, or stripping, a cargo tank. Alternatively, the
cargo pumps being used may have their own stripping in-built facility, such as a
vacuum strip feature, precluding the need for a secondary stripping line system.
Alternative stripping arrangements will be dealt with later after considering the
suction and loading facilities inside the tanks. The end of the pipe in the tank is
our first concern, since its shape is designed to offer advantage to both loading and
discharging cargo operations.
When loading, as discussed in chapter six, initially rates will be low and often
facilitated by gravity alone. This is partly to reduce evaporation of cargo and static
accumulation. The shape of the inlet in a cargo tank is generally of a flared shape,
referred to as either an 'elephant's foot' or 'bell-mouth'. The shape reduces turbulence
as the cargo enters the tank, aided by the location of the mouth within a few millimetres
from the bottom. In a very few minutes, the tank bottom will be covered in cargo and
the inlet submerged, enabling the cargo loading rate to be increased, upon completion
of all other necessary checks.
When discharging, the designed shape of the mouth of the suction offers additional
benefits. As the cargo level falls, a vortex is likely to form at the cargo surface,
with the subsequent risk of cavitation in the pump, (discussed later in this chapter).
This is the same phenomena as created when a plug is pulled from a sink full of
water. The flared shape of the bell-mouth minimises this likelihood, although sound
pump operation dictates that pump revolutions should be reduced as the cargo level
reaches the final stage of discharge, in order to prevent the formation of this vortex.
(Image: 7/2-The main cargo and stripping suctions within a tank showing the
bell mouth or "elephant's foot"-Ray Solly).
ii). Deck Pipe-lines.

Whilst one end of the cargo pipe-line system starts and ends in the cargo tanks, for
loading and discharging, the other end is at the cargo manifolds. The manifolds provide the
flanges at which the shore cargo hoses or arms are connected. The configuration of deck
pipe-lines is most likely to be dictated by the number of cargo pumps and manifolds in
the design. It is common to have as many cargo manifolds either side of the deck, as cargo
pumps, usually numbering between two, three or four. In order to restrict the amount of
pipe-work on deck, there is no reason for any deck lines forward of the manifolds, including
drop lines where these are incorporated. Even product tankers with a single or double ring
main bottom line configuration, will only have top lines leading to the drop lines, forward of
the manifold should the drop lines be located there.
Observing the deck of a tanker, many additional lines exist than those required for cargo.
These are service pipes for bunker fuel, fire main inert gas, steam, and electrical cable
piping.
(Image: 7/3-The suction mouth fitted to a segregated ballast tank showing the silt remains after all water has been
discharged over-side. There is not the same problem of turbulence to the same degree with water ballast which is
why the mouth is not 'bell-shaped' as occurs in cargo tanks-Ray Solly).
a). Dresser Couplings.

One important feature of deck pipe-lines is the means by which they may expand
and contract due to forces exerted on them by the movement of the ship in a seaway as
well as vibration. Additional stresses are imposed by ambient temperature fluctuations
and the resultant expansion and contraction of the cargo volume. These means are
provided by the fitting of a dresser coupling, but it is very important that the pipe line
is supported either side of this dresser coupling. This type of coupling is often called
a 'VJ' coupling referring to the manufacturer, Viking Johnson Ltd.
b). Manifolds.
The manifolds are not only one end of the cargo line system but are also the point
where shore cargo hoses or arms are connected for cargo to be loaded or discharged.
Due to the fact that they form part of the cargo system, they need at all times to be
correctly managed. Whilst connected to a shore facility they need to be checked
continuously that all seals are tight which is achieved by fitting a gasket between
the manifold flange and that of the shore connection to assist in sealing the joint.
A reducer, like a spool piece, could also be positioned between the manifold and shore
connection, since the two may not always be of the same diameter. The reducer effects
the joining of the two flanges by reducing the diameter of the ship connection.
All the time a manifold valve is open it should be under constant attention,
and when the valve is opened for flushing, the route of the washing should also be
controlled, since oil contaminated water is considered a pollutant within MARPOL
definitions. Unless the flush through a manifold valve is being directed to a slop
containing tank, the blank should be fitted tightly in place, with a bolt in every bolt
hole. When alongside a terminal, jetty staff will habitually inspect the manifolds,
both on-shore and off-shore.
(Image: 7/4-The main-deck of a 37,500 dwt tanker showing cargo and service pipes as well as the VJ coupling
designed to allow expansion of pipes where necessary in order to permit expansion and contraction due mainly to
movement of the deck in any kind of seaway-Ray Solly).
Like any other blank or flange cover, such as a manhole cover, there is a correct
and incorrect way of tightening and loosening. Opposite and alternate nuts should
be worked in sequence to ensure that, if there has been a build up of pressure
behind the cover, it will be released gradually instead of the cover flying off into
the face of a worker.
Manifold connections to shore facilities may be achieved by a series of nuts and
bolts through a similar flange face or, more recently, through quick-connect couplings
which take the form of a series of hydraulic clamps. Whilst the connection may
appear precarious it allows very quick release.
iii). Pump Room Lines.
The pump room configuration on a double ring main tanker is a complex network of lines
but probably the most flexible, whilst the complexity of piping will match, if not exceed, that
of the double ring main tank bottom pattern. A diagram of such a pump room would serve
little purpose here because of the complexity in deciphering. Suffice to say that each line from
the deck to each pump would have top and bottom cross-overs and also cross-overs on the
suction side of the pumps, to ensure that at least two valve segregations could be maintained
between each line. Setting up the cargo system is a task which is crucially important, requiring
utmost attention to detail. It is good practice for set lines so they can be double checked
and cross checked by additional staff prior to cargo or ballasting operations commencing.
Though there have been exceptions with parcel tankers in the past, cargo pump rooms are
generally located aft of the cargo area, adjacent to the engine room and forward of the safety
barrier. There are several advantages to be gained by this location. By positioning the cargo
pumps at a low level, the cargo will naturally provide a suction head for the pumps until
there is very little cargo remaining in the tanks being worked. There is also a natural stern
trim afforded to the tanker so, as the cargo is discharged it will flow by gravity towards the
pump suction and the pump. Additionally, the cargo pumps require a drive unit of the large
centrifugal type pumps typically found on larger tankers. The drive units, or motors, will be
located to the aft of the safety barrier, for which refer to the discussion on safety barriers in
chapter three. With the pumps just forward of the barrier, only a short shaft will be required
to connect the two. It is worth emphasising here that the seal around the cargo pump shaft
provides a vital role in preventing flammable gas penetrating the safety barrier. The function
of the pump, having taken the cargo from the tank area is to deliver it vertically to the deck
along the cargo manifolds and ashore.
(Image: 7/5-The Pump Room I - E . Angell)
(Image: 7/6-The Pump Room II-E. Angell)

The single ring main and direct line deck systems require a less complex pump room
configuration. The pump room will provide the same facilities and function but achieves
these aims with fewer lines. Generally a pump room will be built with the dexterity to load
cargo through the same set of lines as to discharge the cargo, with the appendage of pump
by-passes, so loaded cargo will not be routed through the cargo pumps.
(Image: 7/8-The pump-room aboard a large tanker-Hamworthy Pump Systems).

In heavy weather, extra ballast in addition to that contained in a segregated system may
be required to keep the tanker at a safe draft, allowing her to sit more deeply in the water
where there is less vulnerability to wind effects. On these occasions, ballast is pumped into
one or more cargo tanks, usually a centre and/or two wings. This requires a link between
the normally segregated cargo and ballast system has to be installed which is provided
by a spool piece. Sea chest valves, located in the pump room enable the system to access
the source of the ballast water and because this requires a connection between the cargo
system and sea chest valves, every precaution should be taken to prevent any cargo residue
lingering in the cargo system from gravitating through to the sea. Such precautions include
'lined up' lines and tanks, to create a vacuum on the pump side of the sea chest valves by
starting the pump; opening first the inner sea chest valve, then the outer one. Since the
ballast water will not have been introduced into clean dedicated ballast tanks, but is from
cargo tanks that have been unwashed since discharge, then the ballast will not be clean
but contaminated with draining from the cargo. It will have to be decanted via a slop
tank and the final residues discharged to a reception facility ashore. Current MARPOL
regulations require that dirty ballast water be decanted through an approved controlled
system, via a slop tank and Oil Discharge Monitoring Equipment (ODME) at a maximum
oil concentration of 15ppm.
(7/9-All tankers in heavy weather are subjected to enormous strains along the hull which may necessitate taking
additional ballast in cargo tanks subject to strict MARPOL regulations-Ray Solly).
A further restriction imposed on a tanker taking on heavy weather ballast concerns

atmospheric emissions. As ballast is put into a tank containing cargo vapour many port
authorities will not permit this to be emitted into the port atmosphere which means that it has
to be contained on board. Where the vapour goes depends on the network of vapour piping
on the tanker. If a common vapour main is fitted, it may be opened up making all cargo tanks
common and thereby allowing the vapour to spread out between all the other cargo tanks.
This method is called 'compression ballasting'.
Alternatively, if planned enough in advance, internal transfer' or 'vapour balancing' may
take place where vapours pressurised by the taking on of ballast water may be directed
toward cargo tanks being discharged simultaneously. This will be suitable as long as the cargo
vapour being pressurised by the ballast is not incompatible with the cargo being discharged.
The presence of inert gas additional to cargo vapour makes no difference to the overall
plan since it will accompany the cargo vapour. If the 'vapour balancing' method is chosen, it
will be good practice to start the operation at a low vapour main pressure.
iv). Valves,
a). Butterfly Valves.
The type of valve most commonly chosen for oil tanker cargo systems is the
butterfly valve, though gate valves may often be found in the cargo pump room.
The advantage gate valves have over butterfly valves is that they have a seal either
side of their spade, which provides a double barrier when handling incompatible
products. This is in addition to the two-valve segregation practice that should be
adopted when handling multi-grade cargoes.
The advantage that butterfly valves have over gate valves is that they are suitable
for throttling but only when about 20% to 30% open. This would be suitable when
throttling in a pump discharge valve, whilst starting the pump.
(Image: 7/10-Wafer Type Butterfly (Image: 7/11-Stainless Steel GateValves-

Valve-Ebro Valves). Shanghai Lee&Yu International Co.,Ltd.).
b). Gate valves.
These are ineffective when throttled in, because the flow rate through the valves
will not be affected until they are practically closed.
Modern tankers will have almost all cargo and pump room valves operated remotely via
ahydraulicsystem,withalocalmanualoverrideoption.Whenautomaticallypowered,the
timingof valve closing is crucial, in order to avoid a pressure surge in the associated lines.
Branch line valves for the vapour main or even crude oil washing lines, will commonly
have smaller diameter butterfly valves fitted. These smaller valves are more likely to
be manually operated.
v). Cargo Pumps.
Oil tankers use a variety of pump types and amongst those in common use for bulk
discharge and for stripping the final residues from tanks are vac-strip systems that are appended
to a main cargo pump. Other systems may use a separate stripping system, incorporating a
separate pump and line network.
a). Centrifugal Pumps.
These are the most popular type of main cargo pumps for high bulk pumping
rates and may be found on the largest crude oil tankers (5000m7hr), as well as small
parcel tankers (300m7hr). Even parcel tankers with a cargo pump in every tank,
often choose centrifugal pumps. They work on the principle of the kinetic energy
given to the cargo by the centrifugal force exerted. Cargo is introduced into the
centre of the pump and is forced by centrifugal force to the peripheral edges of the
radial motion along the face of the pump impellors. Having gained such energy, the
cargo is thrust vertically up the discharge line and along the deck to the manifold
and then ashore. The same mechanism is applicable to any size of centrifugal pump
used. The larger capacity centrifugal pumps used on the larger oil tankers are usually
powered by motors or steam turbines the other side of the pump room bulkhead in
a separate motor room. Smaller pumps of this type may be powered by separate
electric or hydraulic motors located in separate gas free zones, such as a protected
deck house or forecastle head. The advantages of these pumps is that they can handle
large bulk rates, but vapour or air bubbles cause cavitation and the subsequent over
speeding of the pump. The bubbles scour and pit the face of the impellors leaving an
appearance as though a handful of gravel had been put through the pump, a similar
phenomena caused by running a ship's propeller at full speed in shallow water.
When the pump has anything other than liquid between its impellors it makes
inordinate sounds and excessive vibration. This is also sometimes known as 'gassing
up' the pump and can have harmful effects on its life and efficiency. Methods employed
to prevent cavitation include reducing the pump revolutions or partially closing the
tank suction valve. Another factor increasing a tendency for vapour bubbles to form
in a pump will be the vapour pressure of the cargo. A high vapour pressure cargo will
create more vapour and therefore will be more likely to form vapour bubbles in the
pump and create cavitation. Similarly, cargo of a higher temperature will evaporate
more easily. This means that any holes or fracturing which result from corrosion in
any lines will introduce air into the system and increase the possibility of cavitation
in the pump. Another disadvantage is the pump cannot strip cargo residues at the
end of a discharge and further equipment will be necessary to achieve this, such as a
vac-strip system or additional stripping line.
The 'vac-strip system' is commonly used in conjunction with a centrifugal pump
utilising a vacuum pump to draw cargo into a separator tank that creates an artificial
suction head in the main cargo pump. This will be activated when the cargo tank
volume is very low and the main cargo pump has insufficient suction head in order
to function without cavitating. Whilst the provision of this pump will assist the
draining of the cargo tanks, large crude oil tankers will generally be equipped with
an additional steam reciprocating stripping pump which could be used to drain cargo
from the tanks but, more commonly, used for stripping cargo deck and pump room
lines, or for maintaining a dry tank bottom during tank washing operations.
Parcel tankers have smaller centrifugal pumps and strip tanks on a smaller scale.
When cargo nears its draining level, the discharge line valve would be closed and
the pump left turning at minimum revolutions. This prevents both a back flow of
cargo into the tank and pressure from the top of the discharge line. Cargo exits the
tank via a small diameter stripping line, either connected to the discharge line on the
discharge side of the said discharge valve, or running straight to the offshore side of
the cargo manifold.
Smaller centrifugal pumps may be either submerged or located at the bottom of
the tank or deep-well, where the pump is positioned on deck and fitted with a long
impellor shaft. There are advantages to either system. The deck mounted pump casing
allows easy access but will be exposed to the extremes of weather whilst the long
impellor shaft may be vulnerable to misalignment. Submerged pumps require a tank
entry for access but are well protected and do not suffer from impellor misalignment.
(Image: 7/12-The traditional pump-room system-Hamworthy Pump Systems).
b). Positive Displacement Pumps.

As described above, it is common for all type of oil tankers to have an additional
steam reciprocating positive displacement pump supplementing their main cargo
pumps. These steam pumps are used purely for stripping cargo draining rather than
bulk liquid transfer because, since they may be of only 50m3/hr to about 350m Vhr
pumping capacity, they are unsuitable for bulk discharge. These pumps work on a
very different mechanism to the centrifugal type for in contrast to centrifugal pumps,
they will not be adversely affected by vapour, air or gas inside the pumping chamber.
Unlike the centrifugal pump they are adversely affected by pumping against a closed
discharge valve.
c). Screw Pumps.
This is another form of displacement pump often used for heated cargoes, such
as vegetable oils, animal fats and fuel oils amongst others. Their rotary action
implied by the name is lubricated by the cargoes worked. They can handle bulk
discharge efficiently but will generally not be found on tankers of more than around
30,000 tonne dwt.
d). Eductors.
These are often incorporated into the pump rooms of oil tankers to enhance
stripping routines. They have no moving parts and simply establish a venture effect
by their design and the flow of fluid through them. They are usually located in the
lower levels of cargo or ballast pump rooms, since they do require a suction head to
function. They employ the venture effect by having cargo or ballast pumped through
the main direction of flow. Where a low pressure area forms in the regions of a
narrow, constricted flow a suction effect results which assists the stripping of cargo
or ballast from lines, pumps and tanks.
The most common factors affecting pump operation include the density of the
cargo being pumped and the vertical and horizontal distance of the pump from
the tank receiving the cargo. One of the authors of this book once pumped direct
from a 20,000 tonne dwt tanker to a shore tank twelve miles away. The electrically
powered centrifugal pumps on board could not be operated sufficiently slowly
without the maximum back pressure parameter being exceeded. The only alternative
open to the ship was to re-circulate the cargo between tanks and bleed off this flow.
The cargo took four and a half days to discharge-an operation usually taking about
twenty hours. Generally speaking, the further distant the shore tank away from the
ship, the higher the back pressure will be. Vertical distance will also affect a pumping
performance, especially during the final stages of a cargo discharge, when there is
very little suction head provided for the pump.
(Image: 7/13) (Image: 7/14)

(Images: 7/13 and 7/14-The stripping system and its component parts and the main pump-room system
components-Hamworthy Pump Systems).
CHAPTER 8
The Voyage Cycle
Introduction - Cargo Planning: an effective cargo plan-ship to shore check-list-
tanker and terminal liaison on safety procedures-state of readiness (SOR)-
General Precautions whilst a Tanker is at a Petroleum Berth: state of readiness (SOR)-
compliance with terminal and local regulations - manning requirements -
management of moorings - emergency towing-off wires -
Precautions whilst at Alternative Mooring Arrangements: buoy moorings -
Loading: charterparty terms related to voyage orders - charter party clauses-
pumping clauses-cargo plan considerations - loading different grades -
The Loaded Passage: duty and care of the cargo-prevention of air pollution-
phase separation-The Discharge Port: planning the discharge-
Characteristics of Crude Oil: a) types of crude oil-paraffinic crudes-
aromatic crudes-napthenic crudes -b) terminology-Crude Oil Washing (COW)-
St ripping of Tanks - heating systems-Remains on Board (ROB)-hydrogen sulphide/
mercaptans-The Ballast Voyage-Critical Properties of Petroleum Products-
From Dirty to Clean Cargoes.
Introduction.
In this chapter the operational requirements for each stage of a typical tanker voyage will
be examined including loading, the loaded voyage, discharging and the ballast voyage, along
with the characteristics of crude oils.
A). Cargo Planning.
The Chief Officer is directly responsible for the cargo and related operations and
delegates tasks as appropriate to junior officers and crew. An important part of successful
operations is planning and he will produce a cargo plan detailing the requirements for the
loading or discharge. For a plan to be effective it should contain sufficient information to
cover all eventualities and avoid further referral. This implies the Mate must consider all
the information that his subordinates are likely to need in order to carry out the operation
successfully and without incident.
The cargo plan should detail the operation in manageable parts which give clear and
precise instructions. A tabular format is often useful with, in a two-column table, operational
requirements on one side and "important points" on the other, with additional columns for
projected timings. This readily identifies critical points in the operation and acts also as a
check-list avoiding the need to hunt through pages of instructions.
i). An Effective Cargo Plan.
A good cargo plan will contain the following information:
• Grades to be loaded/discharged.
• Sequence of loading/discharge.
• Quantities.
• Expected density /loading temperature.
• Tanks/lines pumps for each grade.
87
• Status of critical valves in pipeline system.

• Ballasting/de-ballasting sequence.
• Inert Gas requirements.
• COW requirements including: tanks to COW, supply of oil for COW.
• Maximum rates and line pressures.
• Mooring management.
• Watch-keeping arrangements.
• Port specific details; tidal streams, water depth etc. communications.
Further details can be added following the ship/shore 'key' meeting.
OFFSHORE LOADING PLAN

OIL FIELD St-Jtfjord VOYAGE # 962/06 REMARKS:
One deckwatch lo be st.by in BLS for at least
LOADING B U O Y ~ O L S - A ~ ~ ~ C A R G O » SF 6487/2 for 15.mm after full rate and VOC is running.
CARGO Statfiord Crude Oil QUANTITY 108100 v/15'C Always keep at least 4 cargo valves open.
DA TE 03.08.06 Load. Time 19hrs Call Chief Officer if any dobt
3 4I 5| 6 7| 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
HRS 1
—
TOT TIME F O R LOADING -
-ULLAGE 3,337 M -
CT 1
- U L L A G E 3,340 M
CT 3 -ULLAGE 3,333 M -
-ULLAGE 3,269 M -
-ULLAGE 2,299/4,218 M-
- U L L A G E 3,069 I 3,089 M-
- U L L A G E 6,928 I 6,927 M-
4P»S
- U L L A G E TO BE EMPTY-*
SLOP P*S DEPARTURE
CARGO: BALLAST: DUTY OFFICERS IN BOWHOUSE:
COMMENCE LOADING IN ALL WT S TANKS Start deballasting as soon as loading has DRAFT:
STOP WT4 P/S AT 8.0M ULLAGE STOP REST OF WT'S commenced {Confirm captain). 00-06/12-18 VeslboA/olden
ON 6 0M MONITOR PRESSURE ON BLS MANIFOLD Draft forward to be Kept over 7 meters. 06-12/18-24 Santi/Gassand/Myrvang TF 12.60M
WHILE CLOSING WT S CONTINUE ON CT S Watch SF and BM. closely
KEEP STERN TRIM ALL THE TIME WATCHMEN ON DECK: TM 12.65M
MAX 95-4 F O R C E S / MOMENT5 P E R M I T T E D 00-06/12-18 Kongsro/BjellerAs
I F N E C E S S A R Y U S E C A R G O T A N K S T O MAKE
A T S E A CONDITION TA 12.70M
G O O D TRIM F O R T H E D E B A L L A S T I N G 06-12/18-24 Thomassen'Arnevik
U S E 2 A P/S F O R C O R R E C T I O N O F L I S T All ballasttanks lo be empty before departure.
C A L L C H I E F O F F I C E R W H E N REMAINING T A N K S
A R E AT A P R O X . 7 M U L L A G E See attached ballastplan
Bow manif. Greased:
Test of: Hi. Lev, al. Thruster. P7 Pumpfoom P/S. / HPR. X. SAAB cleaned:
'^tA-^' CH. OFFICER: J ^ r ^ U a * j S s v . n . j S JR .CH. OFFICER: L

MASTEI
1ST OFFICER 2ND OFFICER: , .,1 n z M v -Si
(Image: 8/t-Specimen Cargo Loading Plan for a crude oil shuttle tanker-Knutsen OAS).
ii). Tanker & Terminal Liaison on Safety Procedures.

Following berthing and before starting cargo operations, a 'Key' meeting will be held
between (usually) the chief officer of the tanker and the terminal representative. The following
will be agreed:
• Designated smoking areas.
• Local safety and pollution regulations.
• Information on the availability of fire fighting & emergency equipment on board and
in the terminal.
• Action to be taken in an emergency.
• Evacuation procedures-muster points ashore and escape routes.
• Communications.
• Cargo transfer procedures.
• Vapour venting procedures.
• Inert Gas requirements.
(Image: 8/2-Specimen Cargo Loading Report for a crude oil shuttle tanker-Knutsen OAS).
LOADING REPORT Condition: 25% Discharged

Harbour: Tranmere Date: 8/7/2006 Time: 4:48:15AM Sign:
Input Tank Weight Lt.W. Input Tank Weight Lt.W.

No Tonnes t/m3 No Tonnes t/m3
1 CT1 11303.8 0.819 7 WT2BP 1821.0 0.820
2 CT2 13343.7 0.818 8 WT2BS 1821.5 0.820
3 CT3 14364.3 0.818 9 WT4P 3541.2 0.818
4 CT4 15289.9 0.818 10 WT4S 3545.5 0.819
5 WT2AP 1679.2 0.820 11 SLOPP 2.3 0.819
6 WT2AS 1678.7 0.819 12 SLOPS 32.8 0.819
Input Tank Weight Input Tank Weight Input Tank Weight
No Tonnes No Tonnes No Tonnes
13 WB F.PEAK 10.3 26 FO SETTL 83.4 39 DB OV.FLOW 3.6
14 WBDBW1P 543.0 27 DODB 12.2 40 WASTE LO P 1.7
15 WBDBW 1S 1339.9 28 DO DEEP 0.0 41 WASTE LO S 1.7
16 WBDBW2P 1363.4 29 DO DAY 58.7 42 WASTE FO P 1.3
17 WBDBW 2S 1363.4 30 LOCYLP 34.5 43 WASTE FO S 1.3
18 WBDBW 3P 1173.5 31 LO CYL S 40.7 44 SLUDGE 4.2
19 WBDBW 3S 1173.5 32 LO DIRTY S 5.0 45 SWIM.POOL 0.0
20 WBDBW4P 1305.6 33 LODBP 8.3 46 FWTKP 200.0
21 WBDBW 4S 1305.6 34 LODBS 8.3 47 FWTKS 100.0
22 WB APEAK 85.7 35 LO STO P 19.5 48 STORES FORE 100.0
23 FOTKP 450.5 36 LO DAY P 2.0 49 STORES AFT 500.0
24 FOTKS 43.8 37 LO DAY S 2.0 50 ICE FORE 0.0
25 FODAY 83.5 38 BILGE W 19.2 51 ICE AFT 100.0
Spec.Grav. SW: 1.020 T/Cub.m Temp. DK 10.0°C Temp. SW: 10.0°C
Results:
DW= 79973.4 tonnes Cargo 68424.0 tonnes
Disp= 103493.9 tonnes Ballast 9663.8 tonnes
Trim= 3.22 m Fuel Oil 661.2 tonnes
Dr.F= 9.83 m Diesel Oil 70.9 tonnes
Dr.M= 11.48 m Lube Oil+Misc 153.6 tonnes
Dr.A= 13.06 m Fresh Water 300.0 tonnes
Defl= 0.03 m Stores 700.0 tonnes
KMT= 21.20 m Heel (+port)= 0.3° (4157t.m) GZ 0° 0.00 m
KG= 9.52 m Vert. Moment 985574 tonnes.m GZ 10° 1.18 m
FS Corr.= 5.06 m FS. Moment= 524191 tonnes.m GZ 20° 2.51 m
KG Corr.= 14.59 m Tot. Moment= 1509764 tonnes.m GZ 30° 3.85 m
KG Max.= 21.05 m GZ 40° 3.91 m
GM Corr.= 6.61 m GZ 50° 3.16 m
GM Req.= 0.15 m GZ 60° 1.97 m
GZ 70° 0.52 m
Longitudinal Strength:
Shear Forces Bending Moments (-Hog / H-Sag)
Frame tonnes %Sea % Harbour tonnes.m %Sea '/o Harbour
82 -1252 23 20 6362 4 3
78 -2049 15 13 38013 17 13
73 -466 5 4 72620 25 17
68 1350 9 8 61186 20 14
64 -556 5 4 52972 17 12
55 1963 18 15 20231 6 4
50 909 7 6 -16892 6 4
46 87 1 1 -27817 12 9
Frame: 82 Max % Shear Force: -1252 tonnes 2 3 % Sea 20°/fa Harbour
Frame: 73 Max % Bending Moment: 72620 tonnes.m 2 5 % Sea 17% Harbour
IMO intact stability: :
Criterion Requirement Actual
8.0- GZ (m)
Area 0-30°>= 0.055m*rad 0.975
7.0-- Area 30-40°>= 0.030m*rad 0.696
Area 0-40°>= 0.090m*rad 1.671
6.0--
GZ at 30°>= 0.20 m 3.85
Max at >= 25.00° 35.4
Initial >= 0.15 m 6.61
10° 20° 30° 40° 50° 60° 70°

Loading conditions with oil products is to be checked against the approved damage stability manual.
(Image: 8/3-Cargo Discharge Plan-BP Shipping).
DISCHARGE PLAN
Vessel Name : SPECIMEN Port : HAMBURG
Voyage nmbr 06010 Berth
Date 13-Nov-06
1. ARRIVAL CONDITION
DRAFT For'd 10.6 A 10.6 Mean 10.4
MAXBM: 19 % AT FRAME 35
MAXSF: 16 % AT FRAME 16
2. BALLAST CONDITION
WBT IP 2P 3C 3P 4P 5P 6P FPT
QTY 235 30 40 17 40 40 40 0
WBT 1S 2S 3S 4S 5S 6S APT
QTY 149 30 17 200 80 100 9
TOTAL SEGREGATED BALLAST 1027

SLOP, IF ANY YES OIL: TOTAL: 378
3.TIDAL INFORMATION :
DATE HIGH LOW HIGH LOW
TIME HEIGHT TIME HEIGHT TIME HEIGHT TIME HEIGHT
SEE ATTACHED SHEET
4. MANIFOLD/SHORE CONNECTION/LINE PLAN

IN CASE OF MULTI-GRADE CARGO HANDLING, MANIFOLD LINES PLAN MARKED CLEARLY
WITH REQUIRED LINE UP/JUMPER HOSE CONNECTIONS AND PRESENTATION MANIFOLDS
MUST BE ATTACHED TO THIS LOADING PLAN.
WHEN HANDLING SINGLE GRADES, IT IS SUFFICIENT TO MENTION THE IDENTIFICATION OF
THE PRESENTATION MANIFOLD.
SEE PLAN
DUTY OFFICER TO PERSONALLY SUPERVISE LINES/VALVES SETTING PRIOR COMMENCEMENT

OF ANY CARGO OPERATIONS.
5. CARGO TO LOAD AND STOWAGE PLAN
SEE ATTACHED SHEET
6. WATCH ARRANGEMENTS
PLEASE REFER TO NOTICE BOARD IN CCR
CHIEF OFFICER MASTER
2/0 3/0 3/0

Intial
V/L WILL DISCHARGE 29850 MT OF GASOIL AT HAMBURG.
NO OF CONNE CTIONS .SIDE ALONGSIDE, AND EXPECTED DISCHARGE RATES
ARE NOT KNOWN. I WILL LET YOU KNOW ONCE I KNOW IT
Bulk Disch
PLS FOLLOW DISCHARGE SEQUENCE, IF POSSIBLE RUN ALL
THE PUMPS AT 210 BARS TO ACHIEVE MAX RATE. ONCE THE DISCHARGE RATE
AND PRESSURES ARE ASCERTAINED AT BERTH I WILL LET YOU KNOW.
Deballastinq
PLEASE DEBALLAST ACCORDING TO SEQUENCE TO HAVE GOOD TRIM FOR STRIPPING
Logs & Checklists
Complete Ship-shore safety checklist.
Ensure all Log are updated regularly.
EXPECTED LOADING/DISCHARGING RATE : CU.M /HR MAX PERMISSIBLE DRAFT AT BERTH/CHANNEL :
LOAD/DISCH CARGO ULLAGE QTY m3 BALLAST SOUND DRAFT STRESS GM REMARKS
SEQUENCE TANK TANK FWD AFT BM SF
1 IP NIL IP 17.33
IS NIL IS 17.5
3P NIL 3P 16.5
3S NIL 3S 16.5
5P NIL 3C 4.2
5S NIL 5P 12.9
5S 16.5 8.1 10 35 21 2.6
2 2P NIL 2P 16.1
2S NIL 2S 16.35
4P NIL 4P 16.5
4S NIL 4S 16.5
6P NIL 5P 16.5
6S NIL 6P 2.68
6S 5.41 5.9 7.6 73 52 4.8
ESTIMATED FINAL DEPARTURE CONDITION BALLAST CONDITION

DRAFT 5.9 AFT 7.6 MEAN 6.75 WBT QTY(M3) WBT QTY(M3)
MAX BM 73% @ FRAME 57 IP 1374 IS 1149
MAX SF 5200% @ FRAME 32 2P 1354 2S 1129
1. LOADICATOR MUST BE CHECKED THROUGHOUT ENTIRE OPERATION. 3P 1020 3S 1020
2. IN CASE OFMULTI GRADE CARGO HANDLING, MANIFOLD LINES PLAN MARKED CLEARLY 3C 1781
WITH REQUIRED LINE UP/JUMPER HOSE CONNECTIONS AND PRESENTATION MANIFOLD 4P 859 4S 1020
MUST BE ATTACHED TO THIS PLAN. 5P 1003 5S 1003
0 6P 1183 6S 786
SETTING PRIOR COMMENCEMENT OF ANY CARGO OPERATIONS.
FPT 0 APT 7
TOTAL SEGREGATED BALLAST: 14688
SUPPLEMENTARY INSTRUCTIONS.
1. Follow oil transfer procedure and Master's standing orders.
2. Adhere to ship shore safety checklist in and local port regulations.
3. Monitor vapor pressure when vapor return is connected, ALSO MONITOR INDIVIDUALS PR OF RUNNING TANKS REGULARLY
4. High and Overfill alarm system shall remain ON during entire operation.
5. Fixed Gas detection systems to be kept ON during the entire operation.
6. Ensure all scuppers and drip tray valves are closed before starting cargo transfer operation
7. Ensure that W/T doors are closed and only one entrance is open. Also A/C on internal circulations.
8. Ensure that all the lines and valves which are not used are properly closed and blanked.
9. Ensure that the SPILL CONTAINMENT/CLEANUP EQUIPMENT are ready in designated locations.
10. Fire hoses shall be riggged near the manifold .
11. Double check the line up for the tanks to be loaded before starting cargo, also ensure that pressure gauges are fitted on
either side of the manifolds.
12. Start DISCHARGING at slow rate and check the lineup again for any sign of leaks before increasing to maximum rate.
13. Monitor ullages, record hourly rate .
14. Check the stresses/loading condition with Loadicator and record in the hourly calculations. Save the loadicator condition at
end of each watch. Drafts obtained by loadicator shall be crosschecked by visual indication.
15. Ensure that the UTI is removed from the tank and the vapour lock closed after each use.
16. Moorings and gangway to be tended and approriate warning signW boards displayed
17. Both side manifolds shall be manned at all times irrespective of the side of transfer.
18. Duty officer shall instruct the deck duties to take rounds on deck and accomodation and report back.
19. Duty officer to keep a record of All events in the port log book.
20. Ensure all tank openings (sample port, vent flaps, vapour locks, tank dome etc.) are secured.
21. KEEP A CHECK ON IG PRESSURE, REGULAR WATCH ON PV BREAKER TO BE MAINTAINED.
SPECIMEN MANIFOLD ARRANGEMENT
VAPOUR RETURN 12" I
• 1W 12"
•
• 2W 12"
•
• •
•
3W 12"
•
• •
4W 12"
• •
5W 12"
• 6W 12"
•
SLOPS 8"
| | VAPOUR RETURN 12" | |
Vessel Name: SPECIMEN

LOADABLE / STOWAGE PLAN - VOY. No.: 06010
CARGO: : NAPTHA (SG -0.8550)
Load Port GULFHAVN
Discharge Port HAMBURG
Loadable Qty. 29850.76 MT
CARGO STOWAGE TANKWISE.
TK NO. Cargo Grade DENSITY Temp - C MT NCuM % age Tank Full
IP NAPTHA 0.8550 1.3 1,859.15 2,174.45 94.0%
IS NAPTHA 0.8550 1.3 1,863.02 2,178.97 94.0%
2P NAPTHA 0.8550 1.2 2,624.46 3,069.54 94.0%
2S NAPTHA 0.8550 1.2 2,624.02 3,069.03 94.0%
3P NAPTHA 0.8550 1.8 2,664.47 3,116.34 94.0%
3S NAPTHA 0.8550 1.8 2,664.04 3,115.84 94.0%
4P NAPTHA 0.8550 1.4 2,670.22 3,123.06 94.0%
4S NAPTHA 0.8550 1.4 2,663.36 3,115.04 94.0%
5P NAPTHA 0.8550 1.2 2,660.79 3,112.03 94.0%
5S NAPTHA 0.8550 1.2 2,667.22 3,119.55 94.0%
6P NAPTHA 0.8550 2.3 2,445.68 2,860.44 94.0%
6S NAPTHA 0.8550 1.8 2,444.15 2,858.65 94.0%
TOTAL TO LOAD 29,850.56 34,912.94
DWTCALC. ARR-FW
FO 838
DO 72.8
LubOil 39
FW+DW 150
Ballast 780
Slop 378
Constant 100
TOTAL CARGO 29,851
TTL DWT 32208.36
Lt. Weight 8915
DISPL 41123.36
DRAFT F 10.60
A 10.60
M 10.60
Condition Sea
MAXSF 18
MAXBM 24
REMARKS
iii). Ship/Shore Check-list.
The Ship/Shore Safety check-list will indicate this and other relevant information.
ISGOTT contains a pro-forma check-list, which is commonly used. It contains a number
of different questions which must be answered (tick box) by both the ship and the terminal.
Provision is made for additional remarks to be made.
Some questions are marked as:
A any procedures & agreements should be in writing in the remarks column and must
be signed by both parties.
P in the case of a negative answer, the operation should not be carried out without
permission of the port authority.
R items so marked are to be re-checked at mutually agreed intervals.
(Image: 8/4-Ship/Shore Safety Check List).
SHIP/SHORE SAFETY CHECK LIST
Ship's Name _
Berth Port_
Date of Arrival _ Time of Arrival
INSTRUCTIONS FOR COMPLETION

The safety of operations requires that all questions should be answered affirmatively by clearly ticking (v) the appropriate box. If an
affirmative answer is not possible, the reason should be given and agreement reached upon appropriate precautions to be taken
between the ship and the terminal. Where any questions is considered to be not applicable, then a note to that effect should be
inserted in the remarks column.
The presence of this symbol in the columns 'ship' and 'terminal' indicates that checks shall be carried out by the party
concerned.
The presence of the letters A, P or R in the column 'Code' indicates the following
Any procedures and agreements should be in writing in the remarks column of this Check List or other mutually acceptable
form. In either case, the signature of both parties should be required.
In the case of a negative answer, the operation should not be carried out without the permission of the
Port Authority.
Indicates items to be re-checked at intervals not exceeding that agreed in the declaration.
N. B.- Spanish Law in force from May 13 th , 1989. Spanish Law of Ports, in force 01.01.1993
PART"A" BULK LIQUID GENERAL SHIP Terminal CODE Remarks

1 Is the ship securely moored? MS MS R
? Are emergency towing wires correctly positioned? MS MS R
3 Is there safe access between ship and shore? MS MS R
4 Is the ship ready to move under its own power? MS PR
Is there an effective deck watch in attendance on board and adequate supervision on R
5 MS MS
the terminal and on the ship?
6 Is the agreed ship/shore communication system operative? MS MS AR
Has the emergency signal to be used by the ship and shore been explained and A
7 MS MS
understood?
8 Have the procedures for cargo, bunker and ballast handling been agreed? MS MS AR
Have the hazards associated with toxic substances in the cargo being handled been
9 MS MS
identified and understood?
10 Has the emergency shut down procedure been agreed? MS MS A
Are fire hoses and fire fighting equipment on board and ashore positioned and ready R
11 MS MS
for immediate use?
Are cargo and bunker hoses/arms in good condition and properly rigged and
12 MS MS
appropriate for the service intended?
Are scuppers effectively plugged and drip trays in position, both on board and R
13 MS MS
ashore?
Are unused cargo and bunker connections properly secured with blank flanges fully
14 MS MS
bolted?
IS Are sea and overboard discharge valves, when not in use, closed and visibly secured? MS MS
16 Are all cargo and bunker tank lids closed? MS MS

17 Is the agreed tank venting system being used? eS eS AR
Has the operation of the P /V valves and/or high velocity vents been verified using the
18 eS es
checklift facility, where fitted?
19 Are hand torches of an approved type? es es
20 Are portable VHF/UHF transceivers of an approved type? eS eS
21 Are the ship's main radio transmitter aerials earthed and radars switched off? eS
22 Are electric cables to portable electrical equipment disconnected from power? eS es
23 Are all external doors and ports in the accommodation closed? eS es R
24 Arewindow-type air conditioning units disconnected? es es
25 Are air conditioning intakes which may permit the entry of cargo vapours, closed? eS eS
Are the requirements for the use of galley and other cooking appliances being
26 eS eS R
observed?
27 Are smoking requirements being observed? eS es R
28 Are naked light requirements being observed? eS es R
29 Is there provision for an emergency escape? eS eS
30 Are sufficient personnel on board and ashore to deal with an emergency? eS es R
31 Are adequate insulating means in place in the ship/shore connection? es es
32 Have measures been taken to ensure sufficient pumproom ventilation? eS es R
If the ship is capable of closed loading, have the requirements for closed operations
33 eS es R
been aqreed?
34 Has a vapour return line been connected? eS es
35 If a vapour return line is connected, have operating parameters been agreed? e< es
36 Are ship emergency fire control plans located externally? eS eS
If the ship is fitted, or required to be fitted, with an Inert Gas System the following questions should be answered.
Inert Gas System SHIP Terminal CODE Remarks

37 Is the Inert gas System fully operational and in good working order? eS eS P
38 Are deck seals in good working order? eS es R
39 Are liquid levels in P/V breakers correct? es es R
Have the fixed and portable oxygen analysers been calibrated and are they working
40 es es R
properly?
41 Are fixed IG pressure and oxygen content recorders working? eS eS R
Are cargo tank atmospheres at positive pressure with an oxygen content of 8% or
42 eS es PR
less by volume?
43 Are all the individual tank IG valves (if fitted) correctly set and locked? eS eS R
Are all the persons in change of cargo operations awarw that in the case of failure of
44 es
the Inert Gas Plant, discharge operation should cease and the terminal be advised?
If the ship is fitted with a crude oil washing (COW) system, and intends to crude oil wash, the following questions should be answered.
Crude Oil Washing SHIP Terminal CODE Remarks
Is the Pre-Arrival Crude Oil Washing Check List, as contained in the approved Crude Oil
45 es es
Washinq Manual, satisfactorily completed?
Ins the Crude Oil Washing Check List for use before, during and after Crude Oil
46 Washing, as contained in the approved Crude Oil Washing Manual, available and es es R
beinq used?
If the ship is planning to tank clean alongside, the following questions should be answered.
Tank Cleaning SHIP Terminal CODE Remarks

Are tank cleaning operations planned during the ship's stay alongside the shore installations? Yes/No*
If so, have the Port Authority and terminal authority been informed? Yes/No* Yes/No*
* Delete Yes or No as appropiate.
PART"B" BULK LIQUID CHEMICALS SHIP Terminal CODE Remarks

Is information available giving the necessary data for the safe handling of the cargo
1 eS es
includinq where applicable, a manufacturer's inhibition certificate?
Is sufficient and suitable protective equipment (including self-contained breathing
2 es eS
apparatus) and protective clothing ready for immediate use?
3 Have counter measures against accidental personal contact with the cargo agreed? es es
Is the cargo handling rate compatible with the automatic shutdown system,
4 es A
if in use?
5 Are cargo system gauges and alarms correctly set and in good order? es es
Are portable vapour detection instruments readily available for the products to be
6 eS es
handled?
7 Has information on fire-fighting media and procedures been exchanged? es es
8 Are transfer hoses of suitable material resistant to the action of the cargoes? es eS
9 Is cargo handling being performed with the portable pipelines? es es P
PART'C" BULK LIQUEFIED GASES SHIP Terminal CODE Remarks
Is information available giving the necessary data for the safe handling of the cargo
1
indudinq where applicable, a manufacturer's inhibition certificate?
2 Is the water spray system ready for use?
Is sufficient and suitable protective equipment (including self-contained breathing
3
apparatus) and protective clothinq ready for immediate use?
4 Are hold and inter-barrier spaces properly inerted or filled wth dry air as required?
5 Are all remote control valves in working order?
Are the required cargo pumps and compressors in good order, and have the maximum A
6
workinq pressures been aqreed between the ship and shore?
7 Is reliquefaction or boil off control equipment in good order?
Is the gas detection equipment properly set for the cargo, calibrated and in
8
qood order?
9 Are cargo system gauges and alarms correctly set and in good order? Jt!
10 Are emergency shut down systems working properly? yS
Does the shore known the closing rate of ship's automatic valves; does the ship have Ship:
11 A
similar details of shore system? Shore:
Has information been exchanged between ship and shore on the maximum/minimum A
12
temperatures/pressures of the carqo to be handled?
Are cargo tanks protected against inadvertent over filling at all times while any cargo
13
operations are in proqress?
Is the compressor room properly ventilated, the electrical motor room properly
14
pressurised and the alarm system workinq?
Are cargo tank relief valves set correctly and actual relief valve setting clearly and
15
visibly displayed?
Tank N°1
Tank N°2
Tank N°3
Tank N°4
Tank N°5
Tank N°6
Tank N°7
Tank N°8
Tank N°9
lank 10
Declaration
W e t h e u n d e r s i g n e d h a v e c h e c k e d , w h e r e a p p r o p r i a t e jointly, t h e i t e m s o n this c h e c k list a n d h a v e satisfied

o u r s e l v e s t h a t t h e entries w e h a v e m a d e are c o r r e c t t o t h e b e s t o f o u r k n o w l e d g e .
W e h a v e a l s o m a d e a r r a n g e m e n t s t o c a r r y o u t repetitive c h e c k s a s n e c e s s a r y a n d a g r e e d t h a t t h o s e items
w i t h t h e letter "R" i n t h e c o l u m n " C o d e " s h o u l d b e r e - c h e c k e d a t intervals n o t e x c e e d i n g hours.
For Ship For Terminal
Name Name
Rank Rank
Signature Signature
Date
Time
N.B.- Spanish Law in force from May 13th. 1989- Spanish Law of Ports in force January 1 st 1.993
N.B.- It is the Master's responsibility to ensure that the above Regulations, those of the Cartagena Port Authority
and all Statutory Requirements are complied with at all times whilst the Vessel is at berth.
B). General Precautions whilst a Tanker is at a Petroleum Berth.
i). State of Readiness (SOR).
Fire-fighting equipment should be available for instant use. Prior to cargo transfer operations
fire hoses should be connected to the fire main, one forward and one aft of the manifold.
Monitors should be pointed at the manifold area, and portable fire extinguishers-preferably
dry-powder or foam - should be placed near the manifold. The International Shore Connection
should be made available and confirmation sought that transfer of water for fire-fighting
purposes is available.
It is essential that the main engine and all critical auxiliary machinery required for
maneuvering the vessel are ready for immediate use. Repairs and other work that may i m mobi 1 ise
the tanker should not be carried out at the berth without Port Authority permission.
ii). Compliance with Terminal & Local Regulations.
When a tanker is alongside a petroleum berth she must comply with the terminals safety
regulations as well as the ship's regulations and procedures. As terminal regulations vary
depending on local needs there must be clear guidance available and this is achieved through
the Ship/Shore Safety check-list mentioned previously. In addition there may be local port
authority requirements that have to be followed.
iii). Manning Requirements.
There must be sufficient officers and crew on board at all times to deal with normal
operations and emergency situations. As a rule of thumb no more than 50% of any department
should be ashore at any one time, but this may need to be adjusted to deal with local conditions
such as tidal berths, weather conditions, and security issues.
iv). Management of Moorings.
Ships' personnel are responsible for frequent monitoring checks. The type of moorings
found at tanker berths varies from a conventional berth type mooring pattern, to offshore
ship-to-ship lightering or buoy moorings. Each will have their own specific requirements.
Good mooring practice should be adhered to at all times which will include turning up ropes
on bitts and not leaving then on drum ends; ensuring there are a minimum number of turns
of wire on the working drum, and ensuring moorings are correctly adjusted. It is especially
important that spring lines are kept tight at all times when loading arms (chiksans) are used,
because of the limited fore and aft operating range of the arms.
v). Emergency Towing Off Wires.
Current industry advice is that the use of Emergency towing off wires is not recommended.
Research has shown that far more injuries to personnel have occurred in rigging them than
can be justified by their perceived benefit. In fact the industry research could not identify
a single incident of the wires being used for their intended purpose. However, terminal
regulations may still require them to be rigged.
If they are to be used then the emergency towing off wires should be rigged forward and
aft on the offshore side from the berth in order that tugs can attach themselves to a tanker
rapidly in the event of an emergency. The wires should be of adequate length and strength
(6x6 construction, 28mm diameter & 45 metres long for ships over 20,000 dwt). The eye
of the wire should be kept approximately one metre above the waterline forward and aft.
This can be achieved by means of a light lashing on the wire, secured on the ship's rail.
Sufficient slack on the wire should be maintained on deck between the bitts and fairlead to
enable a tug to make fast and tow effectively.
C). Precautions whilst at Alternative Mooring Arrangements.
i). Buoy Moorings.
There are two types: Conventional (CBMs) and Single Buoy Moorings (SBMs) and Single
Point Moorings (SPMs). The latter are a cost effective operation to creating a tanker 'port'
for a relatively low cost when compared to constructing concrete jetties and its associated
infrastructure. They can be placed as near or as far from the shore as necessary or possible.
Conventional buoy moorings involve anchoring forward and tying up aft to as many
as six buoys, which is a very time consuming and labour intensive job. Cargo hoses are
lifted on board by means of the ship's crane. SBMs /SPMs are single buoys to which the
ship ties up to forward by picking up a chafing chain secured to the buoy rope mooring.
The chain is secured onboard by a bow chock on the forecastle and the ship is free to rotate
about the buoy with the wind & tide. Good communications and regular checks on mooring
condition (especially chaffing of ropes) should be made. The proximity of the vessel to an
SBM must also be monitored closely. The vessel must not over-ride the buoy under any
circumstances and so the main engines are usually kept on stand-by throughout the port stay.
A pilot/loading master and assistant usually remain on board throughout.
D). Loading.
On receipt of cargo orders from the charterers it will be necessary to establish whether the
ship can comply with the charter party requirements. Nowadays, voyage orders are complex
and detailed so the required detail must be extracted as to grade, quantity, load and discharge
ports, heating requirements (if any), draft restrictions etc.
i). Charter Party Terms Related to Voyage Orders.
There are a number of chartering terms used in voyage orders of which officers need
to be aware. The movement of oil around the world is a commercial enterprise involving a
number of stakeholders: the buyer of the oil (typically the charterer), the seller of the oil, the
ship owner and commercial banks. There are also likely to be brokers involved to facilitate
the commercial venture. It is common practice for charterers to finance the purchase of oil
cargoes by arranging for a letter of credit (LOC) with a bank. Essentially the bank holds
the money on behalf of the buyer and seller until the cargo has been loaded. The LOC will
specify a maximum cargo quantity (and hence monetary value) up to which the bank will
honour the LOC. If the vessel loads too much then the LOC will have to be re-negotiated and
as banks only work 9 - 5 Monday to Friday, the vessel will invariably be delayed or have to
pump the excess back ashore.
The following chartering terms are commonly seen and must be understood:
• MOL CHOPT-More or Less at Charterers Option. The vessel is to load more or less
the specified quantity within a percentage margin either side of the nominated quantity.
For example 100,000 tonnes ±5% CHOPT would mean the vessel has to load between
95,000 and 105,000 tonnes but it is for the charterer to decide the exact quantity within
these limits.
• MOLOO-More or Less Owners Option, as above but it is up to the owner (ie: the ship)
to decide the quantity.
• MIN/MAX- minimum/maximum. The vessel is to load the exact quantity nominated.
This is difficult to achieve with liquid cargoes and remember that Bill of Ladings are
based on shore not ship figures. In practice a small tolerance is allowed. If min/max
is specified it is suggested that a shore stop is arranged for the nominated quantity, but
this does not absolve the ship from closely monitoring quantities received and liaising
with the terminal accordingly, especially towards the end of cargo operations. A 'shore
stop' should not be used if the vessel is loading to her Load Line marks or to a draught
restriction.
• ACAPT-As Close As Possible To; usually followed by "but not more than" or
"but not less than" a specified amount.
• LAYDAYS/LAYCANS-the period of time within which the must be available to
load the nominated cargo. If the vessel does not tender Notice of Readiness (NOR)
within the specified time range then the charterers have the option to cancel the charter
(LAYCAN date, normally the last date/time of the LAYDAYS). In tendering the NOR,
the Master is declaring the vessel is in all respects ready to load the nominated cargo
and the normal place of tendering is on arrival at the sea buoy or normal waiting area
for that port. This does not mean the vessel will proceed directly to the berth, but it does
mean she should be able to and load the cargo without any delay. If tank cleaning has
not been completed, perhaps through being advised the vessel will anchor for a period
of time, then NOR should not be tendered.
• LAYTIME-the period of time the vessel has to complete the operation. Penalties may be
imposed on the owner for any delays within their control. The Charter Party, which is the
contract between the charterer and the ship owner for the carriage of the cargo, will have
numerous clauses outlining penalties for non-performance. It is important that ships'
staff protect their owner's interests by recording anything that may affect the ability of
the vessel to perform that what has been contracted for. For example, the number and
sizes of the shore hoses provided should be noted, the size, length and diameter of the
shore line recorded as well as the number and elevation of the shore storage tanks the
vessel is pumping to as all these items will affect loading (or discharging) performance.
ii). Charter Party Clauses.
There are some common charter party clauses that are directly related to operational
performance. For example, the cargo retention clause, of which there are numerous forms.
Typical wording could follow along the lines:
'In the event that any cargo remaining onboard on completion of discharge, charterers
shall have the right to deduct from freight an amount equal to the...port of loading
value of such cargo plus freight...provided the that the volume of cargo remaining
onboard is liquid andpumpable and reachable by vessels pumps...as determined by
an independent surveyor...'.
Such clauses are a lawyer's dream as much is open to subjective opinion. For example,
where is the dividing line between liquid and non-liquid? In practice the independent
surveyor looks to see if any oil drips off the sounding rod, hardly a scientific method for
how can pumpability be determined for a couple of centimetres at the after end of the tank.
The tank suction is only a few millimetres above the tank bottom and trim, ambient
temperatures, tank construction will all impact on 'pumpability'.
Another point is whether or not the small amounts remaining are representative in terms
of viscosity, density and temperature. This is not easily determined without a decent sized
sample that will not be able to be obtained due to the small amounts available in a tank. As
for 'reachable', there may be puddles of oil in the forward reaches of a tank that are prevented
from running aft due to sediment build up from the cargo under question. The rhetorical
question has to be asked if it is 'reachable'. In order to protect the ship-owners interests, it
might be best to try persuading the inspector that the ROB quantity is non-liquid, or to use
the wedge formula to calculate remaining liquid volumes.
CRUDE TYPE MINIMUM TEMPERATURE COW CODES REQ REMARKS
REQUIRED (°C) (COWT) (SBT)
LOAD CARRIAGE DISCHARGE AW/AS BW/BS
South Pars Condensate - - - - - More information required.
Soyo - 35 35 A8 B8/B7
Spilamberto Gasolina - - - - - More information required.
Stag No Heat No Heat No Heat Al Bl
Statfjord No Heat No Heat No Heat Al Bl COW with this crude may result in high
tank pressures.
Surat No Heat No Heat No Heat A2 B2 Prior to COW if no residues are detected
COW should be minimised to prevent
losses throuqh vapour emissions.
Syrian Light 30 30 A8/A7 B8/B7 This crude is affected by ambient
conditions, especially sea temperature.
Heating during winter months may
need to be increased.
Talakanskaya No Heat No Heat No Heat Al Bl
Tantawan 35 35 35 A4 B4
Tapis Blend - 30 30 A5 B5 This crude may be subject to wax
laydown in cold conditions. Heating to
30°C may be required.
Tazerka No Heat No Heat No Heat A2/A1 B2/B1
Tchatamba No Heat No Heat No Heat A2/A1 Bl Washing with this grade may cause
unacceptably high tank pressures. Wax
laydown may occur in cold conditions.
Tempa Rossa No Heat No Heat No Heat A2 B2
Tempa Rossa 2 See Tempa Rossa.
Tengiz No Heat No Heat No Heat Al Bl COW with this crude may result in high
tank pressures.
Terengganu - 25 25 A2 B2 Excessive heating and COW with this
crude may result in high tank pressures
and losses. More information required.
Terengganu No Heat No Heat No Heat None - COW with this crude may result in high
Condensate tank pressures.
Terra Nova 25 25 25 A3 B2
Thammama'F' No Heat No Heat No Heat None - COW with this crude may result in high
Condensate tank pressures.
Thevenard No Heat No Heat No Heat Al Bl
Tia Juana Light No Heat No Heat No Heat Al Bl
Tia Juana Pesado 57 60 60 A5 B5
(Image: 8/5-Crude oil data sheets indicating some of the 200+ types of crude oil-Energy Institute).
iii). Pumping Clauses.

Pumping Clauses generally stipulate:
'the owners warrant the vessel is capable of discharging the entire cargo within
twenty-four hours (plus an allowance for crude oil washing) or maintain a pressure
at the ship's manifold of WOpsi., provided shore facilities permit'.
This may or may not be achievable and hourly records of manifold pressures should be
kept. It is impossible to 'maintain7 lOOpsi. throughout the discharge for pumping pressures
will fall as tank levels drop, but this may be counteracted to a greater or lesser extent
by increasing back pressure ashore due to increasing shore tank levels. Whilst stripping
tanks, the manifold pressure will be low, and some charter parties do acknowledge this.
Generally speaking pump speeds and pressures should be kept at the maximum, safe levels
throughout the bulk discharge.
For cargoes that require heating strict attention should be paid to the heating clause
requirements, i.e. carriage and discharge temperatures required. Heating records should be
maintained throughout the voyage.
iii). Cargo Plan Considerations.
The following should be considered:
• Whether or not the vessel has the volumetric capacity to load the nominated cargo,
which may be critical for lighter density cargoes. The actual loaded temperature
may not be known so previous voyage records need to be checked if available or a
check made with charterers and /or agents. The higher the temperature, the greater
the volume it will occupy so, with high-density cargoes, it needs to be ascertained
if Class Regulations impose a restriction on tank height filling. There usually is a
restriction if cargo density exceeds 1.025, unless tank bulkheads have been specially
strengthened.
• With the nominated quantity it is essential to ensure that the trim/draft/stress limits
are acceptable for all stages of the voyage which includes any canal transits that
may have trim as well as draft restrictions. The water density may not be salt and
so the vessel will not only suffer sinkage, but also change her trim with a change in
density. If it is necessary to transfer cargo whilst on passage, the charterers need to be
advised in advance-otherwise they may suspect 'suspicious circumstances'.The cargo
inspector will compare departure and arrival quantities on a tank by tank basis and any
discrepancy will be questioned.
• Partial filling of tanks may lead to sloshing of cargo, causing structural damage and
free surface effect so it is essential to see if the ships cargo loading manual states any
tank filling restrictions.
• It is necessary to ascertain that there is sufficient room for expansion. The standard 98%
filling of cargo tanks allows for about a 20 C expansion which should be checked to see
that it is sufficient for the intended voyage. The difference in temperature between the
tropics and northern Europe can exceed this, or cargo heating requirements may dictate
a lesser initial filling percentage.
• Maintain as much lead free space as possible for future cargo requirements.
Many charterers insist on lead free stowage over the last three cargoes carried.
This is a reducing requirement as most countries are now making the use of lead in
gasoline illegal due to health issues with lead.
• It is necessary to take manifold samples at the start of each grade. If you have samples
it can help to prove that any contamination occurred ashore. If manifold samples are not
taken it will be almost impossible to prove contamination did not happen on the ship.
• If the cargo has a high vapour pressure a check should be made that it is within the
vessels venting system capabilities. The RVP is usually given with cargo documentation,
based on a temperature of 37-8°C. Should the cargo be hotter then the vapour pressure
is higher than that specified.
• If cargo heating is required by charterers the vessel must be capable of complying
with this. Heating coils should be tested prior to loading which can be done with air.
Heating instructions normally specify a carriage temperature and a discharge
temperature (normally about 10 higher). The ability of the vessel to heat cargoes
depends on a number of factors, such as whether the tanker is single or double hulled;
sea and air temperature (for most heat loss is through the deck), and the condition of
heating coils or exchangers. Records must be kept throughout the voyage of individual
tank temperatures if the cargo is heated. If the cargo is received at below the charterer's
carriage temperature either Note Protest or refuse the cargo pending confirmation by
charterers that it is acceptable to load.
iv). Loading Different Grades.
If the vessel is to load a number of grades then the following needs to be considered:
• If a number of grades are to be loaded then, generally speaking, the more sensitive
grades should be loaded first and discharged last to reduce pipeline contamination.
• Kerosenes should be kept well away from gasolines as far as possible. Gasolines can
affect gas oil (diesel) flashpoints adversely and vice versa.
• The largest quantity grade should be loaded first. Smaller grades can be loaded during the
time of the biggest grade-there is thus no delay in starting or stopping grades this way.
• Generally, not more than two grades should be handled at any one time or the operation
may become unmanageable.
• The loading/discharge sequence needs to be considered to see if the plan allows
for any change of orders on passage, and whether or not it is sufficiently flexible.
Once a loading plan has been decided, the discharge has to be considered in the light of
stress, trim and draft factors. The discharge sequence is often at the charterer's discretion
and can be reversed at fairly short notice so, in order to provide flexibility grades
need to be spread evenly forward and aft. With double hull tankers having segregated
ballast tanks this is not so much an issue as tanks can be ballasted concurrent with
cargo operations. Ballasting sequences with heated cargoes need to be taken into
account and if possible the ballasting of adjacent tanks needs to be avoided until the
cargo tank in question is empty. This is due to the cooling effect of the ballast.
E). The Loaded Passage.
i). Duty of Care of the Cargo.
Care of the cargo is paramount. This involves compliance with any heating instructions,
maintaining watertight integrity of cargo tank spaces and vapour release control. The latter
is increasingly being considered and methods are being introduced to reduce this cargo loss.
It has been estimated that 1.6 to 4 million tonnes of cargo is lost due to VOC emissions every
year (Intertanko, Gunnar, T. 1999 and others). Compare this to oil spills (10s of 1,000s tonnes
at worst yearly). Emissions produced by venting during loading and venting on passage are
calculated to be in the range of 0.1% to 0.3% depending on vessel design (double hull tankers
maintain higher cargo temperatures due to the insulating effect of the double hull) and cargo
vapour pressure.
ii). Prevention of Air Pollution.
MARPOL Annex VI addresses air pollution and will reduce the quantity emitted during
loading due to the use of vapour return lines. However the wording of the regulations in this
regard essentially leaves it to individual flag states to set control measures, consequently
the use of vapour recovery is presently patchy; some countries use it and some do not.
For voyage emissions there are currently no restrictions when deep sea. If the pressure in the
tank builds up then either the ships venting arrangements will release or, more commonly,
manual venting via the mast riser is undertaken. The pressure in a cargo tank is made up
of: Atmospheric + IG + Cargo vapour. Historically pressure was, and still is, manually
released to a random low level, without regard to what type of gas is being released.
Any release of hydrocarbon vapour has a polluting consequence as well as a commercial one,
for it is releasing valuable lighter factions into the atmosphere. If these can be retained on
board then they are part of the cargo and available to the refinery. Atmospheric pressure
can be ignored as it is essentially a constant. The IG is unsaturated and the cargo vapour
saturated and will react differently during the venting operation. Tanker officer's need
guidance or equipment to have better control over vapour emissions. Control valves (VOCON
valves) have been developed by one manufacturer to control the venting process but are
not yet widely fitted. An alternative is to monitor the pressure drop profile whilst venting.
This can be achieved manually or by the IG oxygen and pressure recorder (a faster paper feed
rate may be needed).
To manually record the pressure drop the following should be done:
• Record the pressure on the IG line before venting .
• Open the tank PV valve or mast riser and record the pressure at, say, 30 second
intervals.
• Plot the pressure drop profile.
• When the rate of pressure drop becomes constant, after the initial rapid pressure drop)
then close the PV valve/mast riser.
• Monitor the final tank pressure in the tank until tank conditions have settled.
Time (minutes)
(Image: 8/6-Pressure Drop trend diagram-T. Gunnar).
Diagram 8 / 6 shows the pressure drop trend. It will be seen there is an initial rapid pressure
drop-this is basically the IG being vented. Any further venting will mainly be of cargo vapour
and manual venting should be stopped at this point. Different cargoes and circumstances
will have different profiles. If there is no inflection in the curve stop the venting at about
800mmWG anyway.
One consequence of using this procedure, either manually or by VOCON valves, is
that higher pressures will be maintained in the tanks than has previously been the case.
An alternative is to use a cooling system. These re-liquifaction plants are used on gas carriers
and their use is being trialled on oil tankers as a means of condensing the cargo vapour back
into its liquid phase.
ii). Phase Separation.
A liquid cargo can exist in three states or 'phases'; liquid, vapour or solid. The ideal
condition is of course to maintain the cargo in its liquid phase but there is a tendency for
phase separation to occur. Refined products such as gasoline or jet fuel will only exist at
normal ambient temperatures and pressures in the liquid and vapour phase, crude oils and
fuel oils may encounter all three phases. Evaporation will occur and, if the cargo is cooled
sufficiently then phase separation to solids will occur. Once the latter has occurred and sludge
formed no amount of heating will return it back to liquid. It is therefore important to prevent
sludge formation from occurring in the first place. This is not always possible but steps can
be taken to minimise the amount of sludge, generally by maintaining heat on the cargo.
Some crudes and most fuel oils will require varying temperatures but guidance is available
from various sources. The charterers issue heating instructions for carriage and discharge
and these must be followed strictly to avoid having an unacceptable quantity remaining on
board following discharge.
F). The Discharge Port.
i). Planning the Discharge.
The cargo discharge is potentially the time where things could go wrong. The tanker's
performance is directly under control of the ship's staff and it will soon be evident if there are
deficiencies in equipment or operational practice. A number of factors need to be considered
and allowed for in the planning of the discharge:
• If Crude oil washing (COW) is to be carried out, the crude used needs to be suitable.
Lighter crude oils are generally better due to an increased solvent effect but washing
with very light crude may give rise to excessive vapour losses or high tank pressures.
With heavier crudes it may be more prudent to carry out a "minimum" COW as required
by MARPOL with ballasted cargo tanks plus 25% of remains in cargo tanks for sludge
control purposes. In very cold conditions adjacent cooling from ballast needs to be
considered, enquiring if this can be staggered so those adjacent cargo tanks are not
ballasted until they are emptied. Some crude oils such as Laguna, TJP etc are totally
unsuitable for COW and the vessel's COW manual will give guidance in the form of a
list of unsuitable crudes or criteria to assist this decision. The owners/charterers should
be consulted if any doubt exists.
• The configuration of the terminal set up needs to be ascertained on arrival particularly
the size and length of shorelines, and elevation of storage tanks. The use of booster
pumps should also be decided. These factors impact on vessel performance and may be
useful information for fighting any claim from the charterers.
The properties of the cargo carried are clearly important and these are considered in the
next section.
G). Characteristics of Crude Oil.
Crude oil is the base material for refined products. Whilst it might be thought that all
crude oils have similar characteristics, and in some cases this is true, each of the hundreds of
different crude oils has its own individual characteristics. This affects the way they are handled
on board. It was shown in chapter two that crude oil is a complex mixture of hydrocarbon
chains and other components, so the competent tanker officer will have knowledge of the
characteristics of the cargoes carried. This is as equally as true for products or chemicals as
it is for crude oil.
i). Types of Crude Oil.
Typically different types of crude oil have been described in terms of a geographical
name and a brief description of their density, such as Arabian Heavy, Iranian Light,
North Sea Blend, West Texas Intermediate. These descriptors do not inform as to how they
act but a guess maybe made that lighter crudes emit more vapour, or that heavier crudes may
deposit more sludge, but this is not always the case. There are three main types of crude.
a). Paraffinic Crudes.
These have a high wax content and usually require heating to prevent the wax
falling out and sludge depositing itself on the tank bottom.
b). Aromatic Crudes.
Which have a high number of cyclical hydrocarbon chains with double bonds
(such as benzene, toluene, and xylene). They are high viscosity crudes and therefore
require heating to remain pumpable.
c). Napthenic Crudes.
These crudes are higher density and viscosity crudes and are relatively high in
metals and acids, but low in wax.
Just to confuse the issue, all crudes contain paraffinic, aromatic and napthenic
components and it is the level of each that determines its description:
Crude Name Paraffins Aromatics Napthenes Density Type
(% vol) (% vol) (%vol)
Nigerian Light 37 9 54 0.84 Napthenic
Arabian Light 63 19 18 0.85 Paraffinic
Arabian Heavy 60 15 25 0.89 Paraffinic
Venezuelan Heavy 35 12 53 0.91 Napthenic
Venezuelan Light 52 14 34 0.88 Paraffinic
North Sea Brent 50 16 34 0.84 Paraffinic
From an operational viewpoint it is useful to describe them as:
• High Viscosity-these generally have high aromatic content. These crudes
may not have a sludge deposit problem but will require heating for carriage
and discharge, usually with a temperature differential for the two stages of the
voyage. The high aromatic content has health implications (such as benzene
content). If there is a high aromatic content and it is used to wash paraffinic
crude oil tanks during COW then a chemical reaction can take place which
results in sludge deposits of asphaltines from the paraffinic crude.
• Volatile crude-due to high level of C, to C4 hydrocarbons excessive gas
evolution can be created, especially when crude oil washing. Rapid increase in
tank pressures can be found when COW commences due to the disturbance of
residue releasing lighter components. The IG pressure should be kept low but
positive when washing commences. As previously discussed, it is not desirable
to vent off due to the loss of valuable lighter ends of the cargo.
• Waxy Paraffinic-prone to sludge deposits due to high wax content. Heating
is required to prevent the formation of wax crystals, although there is often no
difference between carriage and discharge temperature.
(Image: 8/7-Photograph of Slop Tank Bulkhead under construction showing access ladders,
heating coils and sacrificial anodes-Shell International Shipping and Transport).
(Image: 8/8-Photograph of Heat Exchanger-Internet Source).
(Image: 8/9-Cutaway of Heat Exchanger-Aurora Industrial Machining).

ii). Terminology.
• The following terms are relevant to successful operations:
• Wax Content. The total wax content is usually expressed as a percentage weight and
can give an indication of the amount of sludge deposit. There are many variables that
must be taken into consideration such as ship type, cargo temperature, voyage length,
heating efficiency. As a guide:
Wax % weight Sludge
<3 Minor
3-6 Some deposits in cooler climates
>6 Cargo heating probably required
• Pour Point. This is the temperature at which the cargo turns from a semi-liquid to
a semi-solid such that a phase change occurs. If a cargo is below its pour point then
sludge deposits will start to appear. Generally a cargo should be kept about 10 C above
its pour point although research has indicated that a significant amount of sludge can
occur even at temperatures above the pour point due to phase separation.
• Cloud Point. This is the temperature at which phase separation (liquid/solid) occurs and
is sometimes known as the wax appearance point. The cloud point can be determined
by calculation or experiment. Some sectors of the industry are of the opinion that the
cloud point is a more reliable indicator of wax formation than the pour point.
• Kinematic Viscosity. Viscosity is the resistance to flow of a liquid and is a function of
the molecular attraction within the liquid. Viscosity is either quoted in centistokes (cSt)
or as a unit of mm 2 /s. Temperature is critical as raising temperature decreases viscosity.
Ideally the viscosity should not exceed 250mm 2 /sec for cargo pump bulk discharging
or 600mm 2 /sec for stripping operations. Numerically cSt and mm 2 /sec are the same.
The cargo Certificate of Quality (COQ) issued after loading should contain details of the
above specifications.
The above explanation confirms that crude oil is not a simple cargo, but there are a number
of other factors which need to be considered, not least of which is Crude Oil Washing.
H). Crude Oil Washing (COW).
As will be mentioned when discussing tank cleaning in chapter ten, MARPOL Annex I
dictates that all tankers over 20,000 dwt carrying crude oil, must carry out crude oil washing.
Annex I also specifies the number of tanks that need to be washed. It is implied, but not
explicitly stated in Annex I, and also in the ship's Crude Oil Wash Manual that a full wash of
a tank is required covering top, side and bottom washes. This may not always be beneficial
in meeting the legal (MARPOL) and commercial requirements of removing as much oil
as possible from the crude. For example a light, gassy crude may result in excessive gas
evolution during the washing, whereas washing with a high viscosity or waxy crude may
lead to a high ROB. The latter cargoes are listed in the COW manual, but the list is almost
certainly not exhaustive. The chances are a high density cargo that requires heating may not
be suitable for COW and advice should be sought from the owners/charterers.
For the light, gassy crudes, a bottom wash (0°-40°-0° washing angle) may be the best
solution or even no washing if the tank in question is not required for ballast water. However,
minimum legal COW requirements must be met which covers the number of tanks that are
to be washed.
For waxy paraffinic crude oil the slop tanks should be heated to a higher temperature
(typically 10 C higher) than the cargo to help the removal of wax in the cargo.
In determining the degree of crude oil washing necessary some idea may be found from
dipping the cargo tanks when the oil level is at the stripping stage, when there is 0.50m or so
sounding left in the tank. By using a sounding rod any sludge may be found either through
'feel' or by inspection of the end of the rod. If no sludge is found at multiple dipping points,
then the need for COW is arguable, although there may still be residue clinging to bulkheads
and frames that can be removed.
I). Stripping of Tanks.
For any stripping operations it is necessary to maintain a good stern trim, typically
at least four metres by the stern for a large vessel. If tank pump suctions are not on the
centre-line then a small list in the appropriate direction should also be put onto the
vessel.
The type of cargo should also be considered. For a high viscosity or waxy crude oil then
any run down from bulkheads will be slow so therefore stripping should be carried out twice;
initially and then a short time afterwards whilst the cargo is still warm. A final strip should
be carried out shortly before the completion of all discharge operations.
For low viscosity crude oil, tanks should be left as long as possible before final stripping
takes place in order to allow as much cargo run down to occur. It is again preferable to strip
twice even if there is not much time available.
Further details can be found in The Institute of Petroleum Publication: HM40 Guidelines
for the Crude Oil Washing of Ships' Tanks and the Heating of Crude Oil
J). Heating Systems.

Cargo is heated by means of heating coils within the cargo tanks. Steam is used as the
heating'medium or sometimes, on chemical tankers, thermal heating oil is used. The heating
coils are made of stainless steel, aluminum/brass or steel with copper-nickel alloys. The
later may not be suitable for product tankers as leeching out of the copper can render off
specification certain cargoes such as jet fuels.
Alternatively deck mounted heat exchangers are used. They are in effect mini-boilers
where the cargo is passed over steam heating coils in the tube on deck. These are more
efficient but have a big disadvantage in that they cannot be used whilst discharging a tank as
the cargo is re-circulated through the heater and back into the tank to achieve heat. During
discharge therefore, recirculation cannot take place and the cargo is subsequently cooling
throughout the discharge time for that tank.
K). Remains on Board (R.O.B).
Most charter parties retain the right to withhold from the freight payments to the owner
the value of any licjuid cargo remaining on board at the end of discharge. This is known
as the cargo retention clause. It is rare for a tanker to discharge all of her cargo due to
pump and pipeline design restrictions, and such things as cargo run down from bulkheads.
Determining whether cargo is liquid or solid (sludge) is a matter of judgment and it is usually
the appointed cargo inspector who has the final say.
Irrespective of whether the ROB is liquid or not, there is also the issue of whether the
cargo is 'reachable' by the ships pumps. This is a matter for pump experts and lawyers and
is an arguable point.
In order to protect the owner's interests ships' officers should attempt to 'persuade' cargo
inspectors that the ROB is non-liquid.
L). The Ballast Voyage.
On a double-hulled crude oil tanker, the ballast voyage will involve at most a quick water
wash of any cargo tank that is to be gas-freed and inspected. The heavy weather ballast tank
may also be washed.
On a product tanker, the ballast voyage is a busy period where the cargo tanks are prepared
for the next cargo. The degree of cleaning required will depend upon:
• The cargo to be loaded.
• The previous cargo(es).
• Tank coating condition.
• Ambient weather conditions.
Irrespective of any charterers 'advice' it is the vessel's responsibility to arrive at the load
port ready in all respects to load the nominated cargo and the master tenders his Notice
of Readiness on this basis. Integral to this is that tanks, pumps, and cargo lines have been
cleaned to the required standard. Charter Party clauses usually state that tanks should be
cleaned to the cargo inspector's satisfaction, so the ship is in the position of having to assess
a third party's judgement before the event.
Tank cleaning is as much of an art as a science in that there are many variables. Product
tanker cargoes are sold on guaranteed specifications and any contamination may affect some
of these specifications and affect the value of a cargo. Some cargoes may be able to tolerate
some pipeline mixing between grades, whilst others cannot.
M). Critical Properties of Petroleum Products.
Generally speaking, product tanker cargoes should be kept separated from each other
both in the tanks and within pipelines and cargo pumps. This is not always possible so which
grades are able to withstand some minor line contamination with other grades needs to be
quite clear. As a general rule, kerosene, gasoline and diesel based products should be kept
segregated by not going down the same line.
The following are some of the properties that need to be considered:
i). Flashpoint.
It is essential to maintain the flashpoint specification for medium /high flash cargoes.
Contamination with low flashpoint cargoes should be avoided.
ii). Lead.
This is used as a performance enhancer for motor engines. Due to environmental issues
its use in petroleum is being phased out. It may still be carried in certain parts of the world.
Following the carriage of a 'leaded' cargo it is usually required to have the last three
cargoes 'unleaded' before carrying lead critical cargoes. It is therefore essential to The
number of 'leaded' tanks used should be kept to a minimum in order to not cause restrictions
on tank availability for certain cargoes on future voyages.
iii). Water.
Some grades are particularly water sensitive. When preparing for these grades, it is
essential all tanks are hand mopped dry and pipelines and pumps are thoroughly drained
of water. There have been recent accidents in the media when jumbo jets have experienced
problems of freezing water as ice in the fuel and engine system.
iv). Colour.
Certain grades are dyed for Customs purposes to indicate duty has been paid. Others are
either naturally clear or have a slight colour. Although this in itself will not affect product
performance, the darkening of a product within a ships cargo tanks indicates the presence of
a contaminant probably from previous cargoes. Most oils have a solvent effect and will draw
out any previous cargo trapped in tank coatings or pipelines.
v). Octane Number.
Any unavoidable pipeline admixture between Avgas or Mogas grades should be from the
higher to lower octane number (load higher octane first and discharge last).
vi). Hydrogen Sulphide/Mercaptans.
These are sulphur based components and are rarely present in petroleum products, but
they may be found in Naphtha and condensates. Aviation fuels are particularly sensitive to
sulphur components and cannot be carried after 'sour' (sulphur present) grades.
For those new to product tankers, the names given to certain products may appear
confusing. Some products are known by different names in different areas of the world
or may be given a numerical tag. For example petrol, mogas, gasoline are all the same
thing. Mogas 95 refers to the octane rating. Mogas 97 is a higher specification than 95.
Diesel oils (DO) may be high or low sulphur (HSDO/LSDO) and the same applies to
Fuel Oils. Gas Oil is a more refined version of Diesel. Aviation products may be either
kerosene or gasoline based and will have different specifications depending on whether they
are for commercial or military use. The following describes the common aviation products
carried:
• Avgas: Aviation gasoline, used for piston engine aircraft.
• Avtur: Aviation turbine fuel and is a kerosene, also known as Jet A1 (the
military equivalent is JP-8) and has a flashpoint of >38 C and a freezing
point of at least - 47 C.
• Avtag (JP-4): A distillate of naphtha and kerosene and has higher flammability. Mainly
used in colder climates due to better cold weather performance.
• Avcat (JP-5): A special blend for military carrier based aircraft and is a high flashpoint
kerosene.
N). From Dirty to clean Cargoes.
Cleaning from dirty oils such as crude or fuel oil to clean oils is sometimes undertaken
which is a specialist operation. It is almost inevitable that either an interim cargo of a solvent
such as diesel or gas oil will need to be carried, or washing carried out with 'cutter' stock
such as diesel or gas oil, followed by hot water washing for a long period (6-8 hours per
tank). Even then, results are not guaranteed and it is often getting the pipelines clean that is
more problematical than the tanks themselves.
CHAPTER 9
TYPES OF BERTH AND CARGO TRANSFER
Introduction-Jetty Considerations: design-berthing - Meteorological & Tidal Conditions-
Conventional Mooring Patterns-T and Finger Piers-
Multiple Buoy Mooring Arrangements-Single Buoy Moorings (SPM/SBMj-
Floating Process Storage and Off-loading Units (FPSO) & (FSO)-
ship to ship transfer (STS): check-lists-moorings-Cargo Transfer Equipment-
Pressure Surge - Emergency Shut-down Systems (ESD).
Introduction
The type of berth a tanker may visit during its trading may vary quite dramatically.
It may berth alongside, at the end of a jetty or hanging off a buoy mooring. Each of these
different patterns will be described with the relevant advantages and concerns examined.
Due to the perceived hazardous nature of oil tankers' cargoes, port authorities plan berths
for these ships well away from areas of population and the dock areas more commonly used
by other cargo ships. For the same reason, tank farms storing or receiving the tankers' cargoes
will more likely be located remote from residential areas but perhaps on the periphery of
industrial estates. It is not uncommon to find oil terminals close to the entrance of large rivers
which may lead to dock areas of large cities.
It is comparatively rare for a tanker to berth alongside a conventional wharf similar to
a dry cargo ship. This is sensible considering that large tankers are amongst some of the
biggest vessels afloat and present unique difficulties during berthing approaches. A sea island
with multiple berths may still present a similar challenge to the berthing pilot when berthing
between two tankers already alongside.
A). Jetty Considerations.
Some jetty designs may appear from a distance to be flat sided similar to a conventional
berth. Their design is generally far more complex because the impact of the tanker edging
alongside at as low velocities as possible requires unique cushioning effects and are built to
withstand vast forces of kinetic energy. The oil export terminal sea island at Ras Tanura in
the Arabian Gulf provides a good example of berths which appear flat sided but in reality are
more complex. When it was originally opened in the 1970s as a man-made island, it could
handle eight tankers up to 500,000 tonne dwt, and the reason for its construction was that the
depth of the water around it could accommodate the largest tankers.
i). Design.
When designing a berth at which a tanker lays alongside, a compromise has to be reached.
The berth has to be sturdy enough to cushion the approach of the ship during berthing, but
the berth and moorings need to hold it alongside in the face of:
• Wind forces
• Current and tide
• Surge due to passing ships
• Waves and swell
• Change of draft and freeboard
• Ice
111
(Image: 9/1 -A typical mooring jetty for oil tankers showing rigid chiksan connections-Ray Solly).
The effects of these forces may be mitigated by maintaining as effective an area of contact
as practicable between the tanker and jetty. It is most unlikely that any two of these forces
will be acting in the same direction, so the strength of the jetty and the moorings will have
to be sufficient to resist all influences.
The strain put on both the jetty and mooring arrangements will alter as the ship changes
its draft. As the ship discharges cargo it rises out of the water and its surface area makes it
more prone to wind effects. Conversely, as it loads its underwater area will be affected by the
sea and current. Ideally, the greatest possible area of contact between the ship and jetty will
be the most effective arrangement but this is unlikely to be achieved, due to the expense and
magnitude of fashioning such a structure. More common is an arrangement where a partial
length of the ship, commonly incorporating the manifold area, would be adjacent to the
ship. The mooring dolphins therefore provide an essential component of ship safety whilst
alongside which requires constant monitoring.
Even with this arrangement, the actual area of ship's side in contact with the jetty would be
reduced to that touching the fender arrangements, which adds to the complexity of the berth.
ii). Berthing.
Despite what may appear to be a simple manoeuvre, the action of berthing anything other
than a very small tanker is a highly complex procedure. Although a number of tugs may be
available to assist the berthing operation of the larger tankers, they inevitably make initial
contact with the berth at an angle rather than face on. There is a distinct possibility that the
first mooring lines are made fast before the tanker has an opportunity to align correctly the
cargo manifolds on the ship with the connections on the jetty. Close co-ordination of the
mooring procedure is vital, since the mooring parties on the poop deck and forecastle cannot
see each other or the tension on their respective mooring ropes. Either party may make their
lines fast without the ship being flat alongside the berth. This is avoided by the master and
pilot on the bridge wing juggling both the transverse position, pivoting on the jetty fenders,
and the longitudinal position. It is only when the tanker is correctly in position that further
warps can be connected and the berthing operation completed.
(Image: 9/2-Chicksan connections between shore and ship pipes of different dimensions-Ray Solly).
B). Meteorological and Tidal Conditions

Oil terminal berths or jetties are located where external factors of wind and current are
not always identical but are invariable predictable. On river or estuary berths the jetty is
constructed so that when tankers are moored, the current runs in a fore and aft plane past the
ship. Winds are less predictable but again meteorological records will indicate the prevailing
direction. The Fawley Terminal for example, on the south coast of England, (See Image 2/2)
lies in a south-east/north-west plane where the winds are generally from the south west and
routinely push moored vessels away from the berth. Whilst a wind blowing ships onto their
berths may be preferable, this is not so important because of the predictability of winds may
be taken into consideration during the berthing plan.
C). Conventional Mooring Patterns
Whilst it may sound remarkably easy to facilitate the mooring of a tanker alongside a
conventional berth, berthing has long been an issue of contention between terminal managers
and ship operators. This is because oil terminals always want more mooring lines put out
than the ship considers necessary and, whilst both understand the importance of keeping
the tanker not just alongside its berth but in the correct position longitudinally, the means
by which this achieved is frequently a source of contention. Such disagreement has become
so prevalent that OCIMF in 1997 published a notice warning of the dangers of terminals
requesting too many additional mooring lines from tankers.
The problem facing tankers is that the request for more lines often exceeds the design
of the mooring points. This has led to single bitts being used to make moorings fast, rather
than figure of eight configurations around two bitts as designed. Whilst hoping that such
negative and dangerous practices have disappeared the objective is to make best use of the
available facilities. The following is an indication of a conventional mooring pattern for
large tankers:
• 2 bow lines.
• 2 forward breast lines.
• 1 forward back spring.
• 1 aft back spring.
• 2 aft breast lines.
• 2 aft stern lines.
It is unusual for each line to be increased by one generally because the mooring facilities
provided do not support three lines each end, three breast lines and two back springs in
each direction.
Under conditions where weather conditions begin to become slightly heavier but not so
severe as to stop cargo operations, or lead to the un-berthing of the ship, additional moorings
may be supplied by the terminal. There are no particular problems with this facility as long
as the tankers are able to secure the extra moorings. Problems may begin when separate wire
and rope moorings are led in the same direction since, understandably, wire and rope do not
possess the same qualities of elasticity.
Sullom Voe Mooring Guide Basic minimum safe mooring arrangements for
vessels having an ail-wire mooring system.
(Image: 9/3-Typical berthing plans-Shetland Ports and Harbours).
D). T and Finger Piers.

Less common than berths parallel to an estuary or river bank (T head jetties), are berths
perpendicular to the line of the coast (finger piers). The locating of these jetties will need
careful consideration since the effects of wind, sea and current may be far less predictable
than previously described conditions.
It is for these reasons that the consideration of meteorological conditions is so vital when
tankers berth. Strict environmental mooring limits, related to strength and direction of current
and wind, are set not only during berthing and un-berthing operations but whilst the tanker
is alongside.
E). Multiple Buoy Mooring Arrangements.
There are alternatives to berthing alongside a jetty or pier head several involving the
use of single buoys or single points, which are more substantial contraptions than buoys.
There is also a multi-buoy mooring system that comprises five buoys but may be up to seven.
This requires quite a complicated mooring procedure involving the dropping of both ship's
anchors simultaneously, as the vessel crabs sideways. Once the second anchor has been
dropped, the vessel moves astern so a large flare of anchor cable (V shape) extends beyond
the forecastle. It is a very similar manoeuvre to a Mediterranean moor. From this latter
position, five mooring lines are sent out to surroundings buoys, two athwart ship, two on
each quarter and one astern. Theoretically, any forces on the moorings form any direction
will not affect the tanker's position, as long as the moorings remain taught. When in position,
underwater pipelines may be connected to the tanker's manifolds for the purposes of cargo
transfer. The benefits of having completed such a complex mooring operation should result
in a stable positioning of the tanker during cargo operations.
1 Ship drops starboard anchor and 2crabbes across to port.

2 Ship drops port anchor and edges in the direction of starboard quarter.
3 Ship makes fast to mooring buoys with both anchor chains ranged.
(Image: 9/4-Multi-buoy moor).
i). Single Point/Buoy Moorings (SPM/SBM).

More common is the Single Point Mooring (SPM) where the single points are commonly
buoys that lead to the description Single Buoy Mooring (SBM). The name illustrates the
arrangement for the tanker is simply moored by a chain from its forecastle head to the buoy
itself. Theoretically any change in current or wind direction would not compromise the
tanker's moorings because it is free to swing 360° around the buoy. The danger is that the
tanker may ride up to the buoy so, for the success of this arrangement, the ship is kept away
from the buoy either by running the engines astern on very low revolutions, or for a local tug
to maintain the tanker's distance from the buoy.
(Image: 9/5-Bow chock for SBM mooring I-E. Angell).
(Image: 9/6-Bow chock for SBM mooring II-E. Angell)

(Image: 9/7-SBM plan of mooring-bluewater.com).
(Image: 9/8-VLCC making fast to SBM-Smit.com).
(Image: 9/9-VLCC made fast to SBM-P. Harrington)

Single buoy moorings are more common in the generally less tempestuous coastal
regions of the world, such as the tropical zones. Whilst there are certainly exceptions to this
generalisation, the point moorings in rougher seas are of more sturdy construction than where
less tranquil conditions exist. Like any other berth if pre-determined weather conditions are
exceeded, then cargo operations will cease; lines will be disconnected and the tanker be
moved off the berth. It takes a much lower weather condition to reach this stage on a single
point mooring than it does on a conventional berth.
F). Floating Process Storage and Offloading Unit (FPSO)
Since the mid-1990s a new type of craft has emerged into the industry known as an FPSO
which has replaced to some degree oil rigs and platforms. They offered certain advantages
not afforded by their predecessors especially in deep water or at a point so distant from
the coast. Generally, a FPSO will be significantly more practical and cheaper to run than a
platform. Oil or gas from a sub-sea well can be processed and stored on the unit, negating
the need for a long and expensive pipeline. Tankers need not be delayed or taken out of the
spot market since they can trade elsewhere during the time needed to refill the unit from
its supply.
FPSOs and their non-processing counterparts FSUs (Floating Storage Units) are currently
very common and part of their commercial attraction is that many of them are simply old
tankers, with a process deck constructed on top of their main cargo deck. The much celebrated
former largest tanker in the world, the 564,763 dwt Jahre Viking had, when it left trading
service, been converted into an FSU under the name of Knock Nevis before finally being
scrapped in early 2010.
(Image: 9/tO- At 564,763 dwt the Jahre Viking until recently in service as the world's largest ULCC before being
converted to the FSU Knock Nevis and finally being scrapped in early 2010.-Jahre, Wallem Ship Management).
(Image: 9/11-Mixed mooring warps and drum end-Ray Solly).
Despite the apparent commercial appeal of these craft, berthing an operational tanker
astern of these units is also something of a challenge for the berthing master or pilot.
The concerns are not dissimilar to those approaching and maintaining a mooring off a
Single Point Mooring, although a FPSO/FSU will generally swivel around a turret, rather
than a point or buoy which is fixed in position. This collects the oil or gas from up to fifty
risers and is incorporated into the body of the tanker and usually located aft of the fo'c'sle
head. The arrangement is compounded by the operating tanker astern of the unit, so the
whole composition will need to rotate around the turret which relies on power being available
on the ship. The manoeuvre is completed very gradually in response to any changes in wind
or sea direction.
There is a significant difference in mooring patterns between these ships and a
conventional tanker and berth. A shuttle tanker adapted to trade with a FPSO will have
incorporated into its design a substantial superstructure on the fo'c'sle head, compared to
conventional tankers. There is nothing especially complicated in these superstructures, but
what is different is that the cargo hoses from the FPSO are secured on the fo'c'sle head.
They are connected at the ship's manifold amidships as normal but run down on the deck
from the fo'c'sle head.
Conventional tankers will have very little superstructure on the fo'c'sle head and
though they may secure themselves to Single Point Moorings via fo'c'sle equipment, the
cargo lines on and SPM or SBM mooring will run directly from the water to the mid-ships
manifolds. A 'conventional' tanker can still moor alongside a FPSO for the occasional
cargo.
Unlike SPMs and SBMs, FPSOs are fairly prominent in traditionally less tranquil waters
such as the North Sea off Continental Europe because the mooring arrangements are able to
withstand heavier weather conditions than the SPM.
G).Ship to Ship Transfer (STS).
The introduction of VLCCs resulted in these vessels being draft constrained at many
ports. Ship to ship transfers resolve this problem by using smaller lightering vessels to
off-load the VLCCs cargo and transport this to terminals located in the port. Off-shore
lightering zones are designated and may be located many miles off the coast. In theory, any
tanker may act as a lightering vessel but in practice dedicated ships are commonly used.
This is particularly relevant to the main regions where STS operations are carried out such
as offshore Galveston.
The VLCC is referred to as the vessel to be lightered (STBL) or 'the mother ship' and
typically, for a two million barrel cargo there may be four lightering operations carried
out. Invariably the lightering vessel (LV) will moor to the starboard side of the STBL for
ship handling purposes, especially transverse thrust when going astern which will bring
in the lightering tanker's stern when fitted with a normally clock-wise rotating propeller.
During mooring operation the VLCC will maintain a steady course at a slow speed of five
knots and the lightering vessel will manoeuvre alongside. Up to four large "Yokohama"
fenders along with two baby fenders at the extremities are used on the LV to prevent damage.
Once they are moored the two vessels will normally drift or anchor to carry out the cargo
transfer. Normal safety procedures are observed but there are particular problems associated
with the STS transfer. These are concerned mainly with the management of moorings and
weather criteria when it may be necessary to stop or abandon the operation.
i). Check-lists.
There are five check-lists that must be completed prior to each stage of the operation.
These cover:
1. Pre-chartering.
2. Pre-mooring.
3. Mooring Operations.
4. Cargo Transfer.
5. Unmooring.
Each check-list must be completed before the next stage is started.
ii). Moorings.
Conventional mooring techniques will be used with one vessel tending moorings as would
be the case alongside anyway. Cargo hoses are rigged between adjacent mid-ship manifolds
as usual. The real challenge for ship-to-ship transfer, as mentioned in chapter seven, is the
bringing of the tankers together until they are separated only by fenders.
The problem specifically associated with moorings is that of chafing as both ships moved
in a seaway. This can be resolved by keeping a close eye on the condition of the moorings
and, if necessary, greasing fair-leads. Wires and ropes should not be sent out through the
same fairlead, which is good general practice, and all moorings must be of the same type so
that wire is not mixed with polypropylene or other man-made fibre.
The precise operation is described in OCIMF's Ship to Ship Transfer Guide
(Petroleum).
Smaller tankers may have occasion to work cargo between barges and very similar
guidelines apply as mentioned above.
H). Cargo Transfer Equipment

The subject of cargo pumps is covered in detail in chapter seven, so this section deals
with the equipment used between pumps and tanks. Tankers will generally use either flexible
hoses or hard arm 'Chicksans'. Even more crucial than the delicate operation of bringing
a tanker alongside are the problems encountered in maintaining position in a longitudinal
plane, bearing in mind the forces acting on the ship whilst it is alongside, described earlier in
this chapter. The latitude for movement in a longitudinal plane during cargo transfer is very
limited but is most limited when utilising the hard arm chicksan because these devices have
a very limited arc of operation. It is imperative for the ship's deck staff to adjust moorings
appropriately to ensure the ship's position is maintained throughout the time alongside
The arc of operation must consider design and the vertical movement of the ship expected as
a result of both tidal range and the rise and fall of the tanker during cargo operations.
Much is made of the term 'maximum cargo rate' especially by terminal staff prior to a
cargo loading operation. Frequently, the capability of the ship's lines and tanks is questioned,
and even the capability of the cargo transfer equipment, and yet the parameters of these items
of equipment is very rarely taxed. Some chief officers experience relief over the idea of a
quick and expedient loading operation, when terminal operatives request the ship's details.
But only rarely are these operations as quick and expedient as the loading terminals might
imply by their investigations. The test and working pressures of lines or hoses, maximum back
pressures and venting are rarely exceeded by subsequent loading rates. There are exceptions
to this, such as at Kharg Island in the Arabian Gulf where something in the region of a
loading rate of 20,000m3 per hour of crude oil can be pumped through the four foot diameter
manifolds of a VLCC. This regularly makes the deck and manifold area shake vigorously,
although it is quite safe.
All equipment such as hard arms or hoses will need some form of verification that it
is safe for use and fit for its purpose. Whilst not unusual to find oil tankers with their own
cargo hoses, they are not as common as on chemical tankers. It is not within the remit of this
publication to describe the detail of specifications of hoses and arms, since there are many
much more informed sources of information available.
i). Details.
The following are amongst the details that the tanker operative should be confident about
which ever hoses or arms are being utilised:
• Conform to a recognised standard.
• Pressure, vacuum and temperature parameters are stated.
ii). Markings.
The markings are appropriate and in date, the markings related to:
• Manufacturer.
• Specification.
• Test pressure.
• Date of manufacture.
• Identification number.
• Electrical continuity verification.
For reasons in addition to pressure parameters, the maximum flow velocities should be
stated and prevention of an electro-static discharge will be achieved in part by not exceeding
these rates.
I). Pressure Surge

Inflicting a pressure surge on lines and hoses tests their capabilities. This is something
which is more easily achieved than might be imagined and it is important that it is avoided.
1SGOTT! the latest edition, covers this in detail but whilst omitting the mathematics it is
worth emphasising the damage which might be caused.
The most likely mechanism of a pressure surge occurs if a valve is closed against a flow
of fluid. Many pumps these days are of the design which will detect a pressure build up
and trip out by themselves, as a result of the activation of an in-built defence mechanism.
This cannot be relied upon for many mechanical defects have been caused, particularly
within shore pipelines when the ship has closed usually a tank valve against a bulk loading
rate. The pressure surge in a long pipeline full of liquid, caused by the instantaneous halting
of the liquid molecules at the valve face, is more energetic than might be realised. It is rather
like a motorway pile up with molecules, instead of cars, moving faster and closer together.
If such an inadvertent valve closure occurs on your ship, with these consequences, then a
rather large financial claim will propagate in the other direction.
There is a very precise association between the concern to avoid a pressure surge and the
designed closing time of valves within automated Emergency Shut Down (ESD) systems.
These are universal procedures on liquefied gas tankers but not so on oil tankers. The time
taken for the valve to dose under so called emergency conditions is calculated very carefully
to <wo\& sucY\ a pressure w\\\\st mm\\msmi t\\c opportunity lor escape of cargo.
Once again it will be a sound mark of professionalism of the tanker staff to establish these
facts with the terminal operators prior to cargo transfer starting.
CHAPTER 10
Tank Cleaning and Crude Oil Washing (COW)
Introduction - Reasons for Tank Cleaning -
The Washing Medium: cold, hot and chemical washes-
Tank Atmosphere: undefined—too lean-too rich-tank cleaning equipment-
tank draining—Washing Cycle Preparation: open and closed cycles -
COW: practical operations and instructions-advantages and disadvantages-precautions -
Line Cleaning: introductory-preparation-operations).
Introduction.
Crude oil washing (COW) is required for crude oil carriers under most circumstances
and in this chapter the means and processes for cleaning the cargo tanks will be investigated.
Tank cleaning is time and labour intensive work and is as much an art as a science for
what proves effective on one ship may not work on another. This is due to the condition
of the tanks; previous cargo history and ambient conditions amongst other considerations.
It is a necessary part of tanker life and although tank cleaning guidance is available personal
experience of those onboard is as important. Junior officers are advised to take a keen
interest and keep a notebook of procedures used during each voyage, noting for example the
grade of the last cargo; next grade, the amount of cleaning carried out, the tank condition
(good/average/bad), as well as ambient sea and air temperatures. This will not be wasted
effort for as a chief officer he will have to make decisions regarding tank cleaning.
Previous ship records also can help in this regard. Equally as important after COW is the
process of tank, line and pump draining and cleaning afterwards.
A). Reasons for Tank Cleaning.
Tank cleaning is carried out to monitor quality control for carriage of the next cargo; to
put clean ballast in cargo tanks, residue control (crude and fuel oil ships) and for dry dock
preparation. It may be necessary also to undertake tank inspections or carry out repairs for
which tanks will have to be cleaned and gas-freed enabling safe entry. The degree of tank
cleaning varies; ranging from very little if the same grade of cargo is being carried next
voyage, to highly intensive for particularly sensitive grade changes.
B). The Washing Medium.
Whatever the method of cleaning, this is one of the most hazardous operations carried
out in the voyage cycle. ISGOTT recognises this and gives comprehensive advice on safety
precautions to be taken, most of which has resulted from hard-earned experience. Skills and
experience had not grown at the same rate as tanker size for until the 1950s tankers were
small and generally hauled products around the world. Tanks were washed by hand hoses and
each company and even individual masters/mates had their own procedures. There was very
little in the way of anti-pollution legislation and existing laws did not cover non-persistent
oils such as products. Following the nationalisation of various oil exploration industries in
various producing countries, trading patterns changed and refineries were built in Europe
benefiting from politically stable climates. At that time it was crude oil that was moved deep-
sea with increased frequency. A steady increase in ship and hence tank size meant that hand
123
washing was no longer an option so portable tank cleaning machines were used and cleaning
procedures re-considered. Steam was favoured for sweating out residues from generally
un-coated tanks and was carried out in conjunction with water washing. Steam was used also
for driving ventilation fans.
There are three types of water wash:
i). Cold water
ii). Hot water
iii). Chemical
i). Cold Water Wash.
For the majority of cargoes it will only be necessary to wash with cold, ambient temperature
seawater which is drawn directly from the sea and pumped through the tank cleaning line
and to the machines. Alternatively, one of the slop tanks is filled with cold water that is then
pumped through the tank cleaning system.
ii). Hot Water Wash.
Due to their high pour point which is the temperature at which a liquid will not flow,
some cargoes may require washing with hot water of at least 60°C. The means of heating
is usually by a tank cleaning heater (sometimes known as a 'Butterworth' heater) that is
located in the pump-room. Alternatively water in the secondary slop tank can be heated by
heating coils located in the tank, but to achieve the required temperature is a slower process.
Practically, it is unwise to waver between the two: if warm water is used, there is no benefit,
for the temperature will not be hot enough to soften the residues, although it may be hot
enough to remove some lighter ends. This leaves an even denser residue of sludge to remove.
Softening the residue does not inherently make it pumpable, but the combination of heat and
the force of the impact of the washing jet will break the sludge into small lumps that can be
pumped out with the liquid washings. Coated tanks may have a recommended maximum
temperature, for washing, typically 75 C, which should not be exceeded.
iii). Chemical Wash.
In extreme cases the addition of tank cleaning chemicals will be required, although these
occasions occur only rarely, at least on oil tankers. Chemical tankers tend to use them more
often due to the higher standard of cleanliness required. The method of application varies
depending on the area to be covered and it may be necessary only to spot clean by hand
as a final touch-up in persistent spots. Alternatively it may be decided that the nature of
the previous cargo or existing residues requires the chemical to be incorporated into the
main washing programme. The chemical is either injected into the tank cleaning main for
mixing or a "soup" is made up in the slop tank and re-circulated, but the mixture will have
to be re-freshened regularly to maintain its effectiveness. If a hydrocarbon cleaner is used
and subsequently discharged overboard with the 'clean' part of the slop tank contents then
compliance will have to be made with MARPOL regulations. IMO guidelines cover this and
as their contribution, manufacturers have been proactive in developing alternative 'green'
tank cleaning chemicals.
The decision to use chemicals should not be taken lightly as problems may occur in
disposing of the wash residues because reception facilities ashore will not generally accept
them. This is because the oil cannot be recovered and processed readily and the reception
firm still has the problem of disposal. They cannot be mixed or processed with non- chemical
treated residues.
C). Tank Atmospheres.
The concept of controlling tank atmospheres during washing was not universal up until
this time but a lot of research was done and the Tanker Safety Guide in 1963 recommended
that atmospheres were controlled-but did not specify which method was preferred.
Some companies opted for washing in a too lean condition, others in a too rich state.
The fifth edition of ISGOTT categorises tank washing atmospheres into two groups,
inert or non-inert atmospheres. However within these categorisations the atmospheres can be
further sub-divided:
i). Undefined (uncontrolled)-flammable atmosphere may be present, eliminate risk
of static.
ii). Too lean - tank atmosphere well below LFL- but flammable atmosphere still possible
due to uneven gas/air mixture in tank, so static precautions are necessary.
iii). Inert-oxygen content below 8% in the tank. The preferred option.
iv). Too rich-tank atmosphere well above the UFL-difficult to achieve throughout the
tank as atmosphere is unevenly distributed and ingress of air into the cargo tank is
always possible. Not recommended as an option.
i). Measures taken to avoid static generation:
• No tank cleaning machines through-put can be greater than 60m V hour.
• Total water throughput must not be greater than 180m1 /hour.
• No re-circulated water may be used.
• No tank cleaning chemicals may be used.
• Heated water is allowed but not > 60 C.
• No steam can be used.
• Do not allow water build up in tank.
Precautions are to be taken for static risk. There should be no sounding for five hours, or
one hour if the tank is continuously ventilated, unless a full-length sounding pipe is used or a
wooden sounding rod on natural fibre line. Properly bonded gauging equipment can be used.
ii). Too Lean. Static control and flammable gas content monitoring and
control measures:
Flush tank lines and pumps as well as tank bottoms with clean water and strip back to
slop tanks.
• Before washing the tank atmosphere must be < 10% LEL. Ventilate before & during
washing.
• If the gas content reaches 35% LFL stop, ventilate to 10%LFL before resuming.
• Tank cleaning hoses must always be connected when in the tank.
• No re-circulated water can be used nor steam.
• Check for Earthed probes-chemicals-Hot water-but pay close attention to LFL.
iii). Inerted. Non-flammable atmosphere control measures:
• 8% 0^ in tank-one metre into tank and halfway down.
• Positive pressure.
iv). Too rich. Static accepted. Flammable atmosphere control measures taken.
The latest version of ISGOTT does not acknowledge the use of the too rich method and
it is rare to meet anyone who has participated in it.
Tank washing in the inerted condition is preferable and conditions other than this have
operational restrictions. Generally, it is the aim of all precautions to reduce the chance of an
electrostatic spark igniting a flammable atmosphere.
D). Tank Cleaning Equipment.
The majority of tank cleaning is carried out by means of portable or fixed tank cleaning
machines. Due to a reduction in manning on merchant ships and the use of inert gas on
most tankers the use of fixed machines is more prevalent. Irrespective of type, the machines
are powered by the washing medium and comprise a single or multiple nozzle system that
rotates through 360 and about its own axis. This ensures maximum coverage of the cargo
tank surfaces in a helical pattern. The water pressure dictates the jet length. This is typically
8 bar to 10 bar but the manufacturer's manual needs to be consulted for guidance.
Nozzle indicator
(Image: 10/1:-Detail view of the Scanjet SC 30T Tank Cleaning Machine-Scanjet).

The number of machines depends upon the size of the tank and internal structure.
MARPOL dictates a maximum amount of shadow sectors allowed, stated in terms
of a percentage of the horizontal and vertical surface area of individual cargo tanks.
Portable machines have an advantage in that they can be 'spotted' at any height within the
tank. They are lowered into the tank through circular access holes by means of a flexible
hose that is connected to the washing main on deck. For ease of lowering and to reduce
load on the hose and machine itself a hand rope is attached to the machine with a half hitch
around the lower part of the hose. It is important to check rope has not slipped as it may foul
the nozzle and prevent it from turning. Typically three or four "drops" per tank are used
for a full wash with typically four machines used per tank. The drop heights are decided
after consulting ships plans. This is especially important at the after end of the tank where
correctly positioned drops are essential to clean effectively the upper and lower surfaces
of platforms. Drops are carried out from top to bottom with a longer washing time on the
bottom, as this is where the washings collect. It is important to check electrical continuity
of hoses in dry condition before use. The tank cleaning hoses have a trace wire in them so
that any static charge picked up in the tank has a pathway to electrical earth. A multi-meter
is used to measure the electrical resistance and if there is a break in the wire trace then the
resistance will be high. As a general rule, if the resistance is greater than 6 Ohms per metre
length of hose then it should be condemned for use as a tank cleaning hose. This is because
it is now effectively acting as an insulator and prevent any static charge collected being sent
to electrical earth. It is essential that the machine/hose is connected to the wash main before
lowering into tank and not disconnected until after removal. This again is an anti-static
discharge precaution. The use of portable machines is declining, mainly due to reduced crew
manning levels and the use of inert gas as standard.
Fixed machines are located on the end of fixed steel piping and are required if the vessel
is inerted and may be either programmable or non-programmable. The former has drive units
that control the vertical angle the machines operate between 0, having the nozzle pointing
vertically downwards, and 180 pointing vertically upwards. This is useful for concentrating
washing effort on certain areas of the tank (top, middle, bottom).
(Image: 10/2:-Modern fixed and portable tank cleaning equipment-Scanjet and Alfa Laval).
Dense pattern Bottom pattern

(Image: 10/3-Example of washing cycle programme-Alfa Laval).
E). Tank Draining.
The success of the tank cleaning is closely linked to the ability to keep the tank well
drained. If a build up of water/oil is allowed to occur the bottom of the tank will not be
clean. Stripping pumps or eductors are used for draining purposes and must be able to
remove the tank contents at a greater rate than the tank cleaning machines are introducing the
washing medium.
F). Washing Cycles.
A vessel may use an open or closed cycle washing programme.
i). Open cycle.
Washing involves continuously drawing the washing medium from its source and
collecting the tank drainings in the slop tanks. The source is the sea when water washing,
or a cargo tank when crude oil washing. There will be a constant increase in the slop
tank level.
ii). Closed cycle.
Washing takes the washing medium from one slop tank and collects the drainings in
another slop tank. Open cycle washing reduces the risk of static electricity being generated
but a closer eye has to be kept on slop tank levels. If the ship is inerted a closed cycle is
probably preferable.
G). Crude Oil Washing (COW).
COW was initially developed as a means to reduce pollution and also for commercial
reasons. If cargo tanks are cleaned with an efficient washing medium during the discharge
more oil will be pumped ashore and will not be onboard when the ship is at sea and there is
less oil to cause pollution. There is also a greater cargo out-turn at discharge so more profit
is achieved by the cargo owner.
i). COW System.
A COW system uses essentially the same equipment as for water washing, such as fixed
machines and a pumping system for delivery and stripping the tanks. The number of tanks
to be crude oil washed is laid down in MARPOL Annex I which stipulates all cargo tanks
that are to contain ballast. For a single hulled tanker this will mean the departure (dirty) &
arrival (clean) ballast tanks. For an SBT tanker only the cargo tank designated as the heavy
weather tank need be washed for ballast purposes. Additionally approximately 25% of tanks
on a rotational basis shall be washed for residue control purposes. No tank need be washed
more than once every four months. However, as there is a commercial benefit in crude oil
washing it is common for all tanks to be bottom washed towards the end of discharge in
order to maximise cargo outturn. The vessels COW manual will give detailed guidance on
operational procedures and the equipment fitted.
When crude oil washing, it is the solvent effect of the oil that has a large impact on the
cleaning efficiency and generally lighter oils have the higher solvent effect. Some crude
oils due to their high viscosity are not suitable for crude oil washing and a list of these can
be found in the vessel's COW manual. Some of these crudes are: Laguna, TJP, Boscan,
Maya, Cabinda, and Sumatran Light & Heavy, but the list is not exhaustive. Extra care
has to be exercised with any crude requiring heating that has a high density (ie: over about
0.9000 t/m 3 ), or one with a high viscosity, or pour point. Advice should be sought from the
owners/charterers if any doubt exists.
(Image: lO/4-COW pump-E. Angell).
ii). Practical COW Operations and Instructions.

It is necessary to pressure test the COW line before arrival at the discharge port and this
is done by running up a cargo pump at slow speed, taking suction from a cargo tank and
pressurising the COW line to its working pressure. The line should then be inspected for
leaks and the line test recorded in the Log Book.
Certain actions should always be observed:
a). When crude oil washing, only 'dry' oil should be used. This means washing with oil
and not an oily/water mixture and is achieved by de-bottoming the cargo tanks at the
beginning of discharge by one metre (or more if necessary) to remove any free water.
b). If using a closed cycle wash by re-circulating wash oil from the slop tank, then
recharge the oil in the slop tank regularly with 'fresh' oil in order to maintain the
solvent effect.
c). If open cycle, i.e. bleeding off from main cargo discharge and stripping directly
to slop tank, watch the slop tank level. The level will also increase if closed cycle
washing.
d). Washing the tank sides can be carried out once sufficient oil has been discharged
from the tank. A typical wash pattern would be from 40-120-40 degrees.
For the side washing cargo is bled off the main cargo lines during the bulk discharge
and for the last few tanks that are being bottomed washed, most of the cargo would
already have been pumped ashore. Cargo is kept in the slop tanks for washing
purposes and discharge is suspended for two to four hours for final bottom washing
and line stripping. This extended discharge time is allowed for in most tanker
charter parties.
e). It is essential to maintain the correct operating pressure for line/machines as detailed
in the vessels COW manual. If pressure is too low washing will not be effective but
the tank cleaning line should not be over pressurised.
f). All COW must be completed before departure from the final discharge port.
Cargo is not allowed to be retained onboard for crude oil washing on passage following
departure from last discharge port but may be carried between ports if a multiple port
discharge is being carried out.
iii). Advantages and Disadvantages of Crude Oil Washing.
a). Advantages:
• Reduced operational sea pollution.
• Improved cargo outturn.
• Reduced tank corrosion.
• More cargo able to be carried due to less residues reducing available
deadweight.
• Less de-sludging time for dry dock preparation.
• Less salt water discharged to refineries.
b). Disadvantages:
• Higher workload during cargo discharge.
• Discharge time extended (6 to 12 hours typically).
• Higher risk of pollution in port.
iv). COW Precautions.
The following points need to be considered before and during COW operations:
• There must be a port specific plan that is understood by all concerned.
• COW line must be pressure tested before use.
• There must be close co-ordination between ship and shore.
• Communications must be tested.
• Conditions under which COW is aborted or suspended understood such as leakage,
oxygen content in tanks.
• A responsible person must check for leaks before and during operations.
• The vessel must be inerted: check and calibrate oxygen analysers, oxygen content in
tanks to be less than 8% and checked at multiple levels, with positive tank pressure
maintained.
• The washing machines must be operating correctly and only in designated tanks.
On programmable machines, make sure that the correct washing programme has
been set.
• Adequate stern trim has to be maintained to aid draining. Float type gauging equipment
should be housed to prevent damage from washing jets.
H).Line Cleaning.
i). Introductory.
An integral part of the tank cleaning process is to clean the cargo lines (and pump
casings). It is a necessary procedure for a number of reasons:
• To avoid contamination of cargo on the next loaded voyage.
• To put clean ballast into cargo tanks.
• Prior to refit or maintenance (remove hydrocarbons-fire or toxic hazard).
MARPOL Regulations prevent the lines being washed directly over the ships side and so
lines are washed into the slop tanks and then the slop tanks are decanted to sea, with the oil
content retained onboard.
Towards completion of the discharge, the cargo lines and pump casings are stripped with
the stripping pump into the slop tanks. A VLCC could otherwise have as much as 300m1 of
oil remaining on board in the lines. The slop tanks are then pumped ashore via the small-
bore MARPOL line with the stripping pump and because this line terminates outboard of
the manifold valve, this is kept shut during the procedure. On product tankers this operation
may not be possible because, for example, a small product tanker may not have a MARPOL
line fitted. The quantities remaining will be low in comparison to a VLCC.
It might be assumed that all the lines are empty of cargo but it is likely that small
quantities remain, trapped for example in dead ends of pipe line; behind valves, or coating
the interior surfaces of lines. It is the function of line washing to remove as much of this
residue as possible. Commonly an initial line flush is carried out before cleaning of the tanks
commences. The tanks are then cleaned and a follow up line wash carried out once the tanks
are clean and the lines are then drained.
A good understanding of the ships pipeline system is required to achieve a successful
outcome and for all the components of the line system to be flushed.
ii). Preparation for Line Cleaning.
• Prior to tank & line cleaning all tank suction valves should be opened to drop any cargo
remaining back into the tank.
• Slop and aftermost centre tank suction valves should be opened as they are at the end
of the lines and the vessel will have stern trim.
• Open manifold valves and the manifold drains to a nearby cargo tank, this will drain
down the top manifold lines.
• Drain bottom lines back to the slop tank.
• Drain pump room lines back to the slop tank.
• On crude ships COW lines should be drained back to the slop tank. The COW machine
valves should be opened at the slop tanks then the forward most COW machine opened
to break any vacuum in the line. Then the COW line on each tank should be opened.
iii). Cleaning Operations.
The vessel is now in a position to commence tank, line and pump washing, safe in the
knowledge that the majority of any remaining cargo is either in the slop tanks or in the
bottom of the tank. From there, it will be diluted through the cleaning process before being
stripped back to the slop tanks.
The above advice will go along way to ensuring a successful outcome. Any attempts to
take short cuts at this stage will result inevitably in later complications.
There are many different pipeline systems in use ranging from the simple to the complex.
For successful line washing, the washing water should maintain a full bore in the pipe-lines
and this is best achieved by washing UP lines rather than down, especially so far as drop
lines are concerned. Throttling in on downstream valves may help. Dead ends in pipelines
may benefit from applying suction rather than pressure for a part of the washing process.
Successful cargo operations revolve around having a good understanding of the characteristics
of the cargo being carried; a good understanding of the tankers systems, capabilities and
restrictions and proper planning.
This chapter has given an overview of the equipment and procedures used for water
washing and crude oil washing. More detailed advice on specific issues with different cargo
types and their cleaning requirements was given in the voyage cycle chapter eight.
CHAPTER 11
POLLUTION PREVENTION.
Historical Background-The Emergence of MARPOL-The Tanker Safety and Pollution
Prevention Convention (TS&PP)-The Annexes of MARPOL-
Permitted Oil Discharges under MARPOL: from cargo spaces within a special area-
from machinery spaces in special areas-from machinery spaces outside specific areas-
The International Oil Pollution Prevention Certificate (IOPP)-Record of Construction
and Equipment: for ships other than oil tankers-additionally for oil tankers-
The Oil Record Book-Oil Discharge Monitoring and Control System -
STCW'95 and Tanker Staff Requirements.
A). Historical Background.
There is nothing new about the concerns of environmental pollution for whilst there is
a tendency to consider it a recent issue, the roots grow back over a hundred years where
local harbour bye-laws can be found forbidding the pollution of navigable waters by oil.
The United States Rivers and Harbors Act of 1890, for example, prohibited the disposal of
refuse into waterways. It is the extent and detail of recent legislation that has rightly attracted
attention from the professional maritime and public domains.
The first International pollution prevention legislation was entitled OILPOL and
appeared via the 1954 the International Maritime Consultative Organisation (IMCO) which
was the previous incarnation of the International Maritime Organisation (IMO). Its detail
was not complex by comparison with today's equivalent legislation and it acted more as an
international forum for discussion. The major threats at that time were posed by discharges
of persistent oils from the cargo areas of tankers, and machinery spaces of any ship; crude
oil, fuel oil, diesel and lubricating oil. "Prohibited Zones" extended fifty nautical miles from
the nearest land, within which the discharge of oil or oil water mixtures of more than one
hundred parts per million contamination was not permitted. The 1954 OILPOL Convention
which entered into force in July 1958 attempted to make binding for the member states who
were contracting parties, that they should "take all appropriate steps to promote the provision
of facilities for the reception of oily water and residues". This 'requirement' has not been
altogether achieved by contracting states. Though some have acquiesced, some fifty years
on the lack of provision of these facilities still continues to take up IMO committee and
sub-committee meeting agenda.
It is easy, with the benefit of hindsight, to see that the 1954 convention did not fully
address the acceleration of the petrochemical industry that was taking place. The scope of
OILPOL was extended gradually in 1962, with an increased coverage of 'Prohibited Zones'
and lowering of tonnage to which the regulations applied. Though oil pollution was understood
to be a threat to the environment, it was still a major shock when the Tor rex Canyon grounded
off Cornwall, UK in 1967. The devastation caused by the oil pollution along miles of the
Cornish coast was the result of what was, at the time, the largest oil pollution incident of all.
One thing was clear and that was the inadequacy of existing legislation, with particular regard
to compensation mechanisms.
(Image: 11/1 -VOC equipment aboard a shuttle tanker-Ray Solly).
B). The Emergence of MARPOL.

It was the Torrey Canyon incident above all others which led IMO to draw up plans
for a further reaching set of regulations, which resulted in what has become known as
MARPOL '73. This was despite additional gradual amendments to the existing OILPOL
in 1971 relating to protection of Australia's Great Barrier Reef and reducing the size of
individual oil carrying tanks on tankers. The International Convention for the Prevention of
Pollution from Ships (MARPOL '73) was introduced at the appropriate convention in that
year. Pollution control of the maritime environment today remains governed by MARPOL,
of which there are currently six annexes, each referring to a different source of pollution.
Environmental protection is not confined to the application of this legislation, since there
are additional sources of environmentally damaging substance, such as incompatible ballast
water, anti-fouling hull paint and ship re-cycling products, to give but three examples.
These and more sources are covered by legislation outside of the MARPOL annexes.
It has perhaps been unfairly suggested that in the previous decades IMO had not prioritised
the threat of pollution, in "an increasingly industrialised society". The Organisation however
made significant strides in the 1970s with a much more comprehensive coverage of issues.
Whilst MARPOL used OILPOL 1954 as a basis, the new convention extended way
beyond the original, and issues which ultimately formed five of the six annexes had already
been formulated in 1973, though they were not introduced as individual conventions for many
years afterwards. The first Annex to be introduced into the industry was, logically enough,
Annex I dealing with oil pollution. There was an original intention for the MARPOL
convention of 1973 to cover areas of pollution, not just oil but the additional issues of
chemicals, packaged dangerous goods, sewage and garbage (as eventually became addressed
by the subsequent annexes). Not surprisingly, the membership of the IMO was not collectively
prepared to accept all the new requirements in one go, so what became Annex I (Oil) was the
first to be adopted. The prospect of ratifying this annex alone was much more palatable for
the Organisation's members than having to deal with issues additional to oil as well.
C). The Tanker Safety and Pollution Prevention (TS&PP) Convention.
This issue was decided at a separate conference held in February 1978 entitled
'The Tanker Safety and Pollution Prevention (TS&PP) Convention'. As well as in effect
absorbing MARPOL '73, this acted as a protocol to the 1973 Convention as well as the Safety
of Life at Sea SOLAS convention, which was also significantly overhauled as a result of its
own 1974 convention. The increasing and accelerating tanker industry, and the inevitable
consequence of more accidents and pollution incidents, enhanced the need for another
convention. What was apparent to the authorities was that the greater threat of pollution was
not from the occasional though spectacular accidental spillage but from routine and deliberate
operational discharges. Slops, tank washings, engine room and cargo pump room bilges were
the oily water mixtures most frequently liberated into the marine environment. It was these
discharges which had to be addressed, with evermore increasing penalties being applied
to non-reported incidents of this nature. It is somewhat ironic that three weeks after this
conference which specifically addressed pollution and safety, that the Amoco Cadiz incident
occurred off the northern coast of France. The steering gear of the tanker had malfunctioned,
with the result that the massive tanker went careering towards coastal rocks off Brittany.
A final point concerning the TS&PP Convention of February 1978 can be made.
The increasing measure of deliberate pollution was becoming such a concern that in
March 1977 the then US President, Jimmy Carter, had issued in Congress, what became
known as a 'Presidential Ultimatum' to tanker owners to clean up their act. There was
indication in the US press that the administration of the US at the time requested IMO to hold
the TS&PP conference in London in February 1978 . Once the conferences of MARPOL '73
and TS&PP 1978 had taken place, the mechanism was clearly in place for the various annexes
of MARPOL to become introduced.
It had already been agreed, at the TS&PP conference of 1978, that the regulations
concerning pollution by chemicals would not become binding until after the entering into
force of the 1978 Protocol. The protocol entered into force in 1981 but the Oil Annex did
not become enforced until October 1983. This was followed by the Chemical Annex in
April 1987. Others followed but not always in sequence. The last MARPOL Annex which
came into force was Annex VI, relating to pollution caused by atmospheric emission.
Though this was not rigorously covered by the 1973 MARPOL Convention, the subject of air
pollution was formally discussed at the IMO Council as early as 1969.
D). The Annexes of MARPOL.
The following is the list of MARPOL Annexes, with their dates of entry into force, with
their correct technical titles:
Annex I Regulations for the Prevention of Pollution by Oil-October 1983.
Annex II Regulations for the Control of Pollution by Noxious Liquid Substances in
Bulk-April 1987.
Annex III Prevention of Pollution by Harmful Substances Carried by Sea in
Packaged Form-July 1992.
Annex IV Prevention of Pollution by Sewage from Ships-September 2003.
Annex V Prevention of Pollution by Garbage from Ships-December 1988.
Annex VI Prevention of Air Pollution from Ships-May 2005.
* [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/kidex.php?pid=45342]
(Image: 11/2-The mt Stanvac Japan was involved in an incident...-R. Weekes).
Since this publication is concerned principally with oil tankers we will look closely at the
detail of MARPOL Annex I.
Many of the applicable regulations concern the following:
• Surveys and certification.
• Piping and construction.
• Requirements for machinery spaces of all ships.
• Requirements for the cargo area of oil tankers.
• Response plans.
• Reception facilities.
E). Permitted Oil Discharges under MARPOL.
In order to deal with this, the current regulations (MARPOL Consolidated edition 2006
which entered into force on 1st January 2007) distinguish between discharges from the cargo
area and machinery spaces. It distinguishes also between discharges when the ship is within
or outside of a 'Special Area'. These are sea and coastal areas benefiting from an enhanced
protective regime which will be listed later.
i). From Cargo Spaces within a Special Area
[MARPOL 1st January 2007]. MARPOL Annex I Part C-Control of operational
discharges of oil.
Regulation 34 Control of discharge of oil B:
"Any discharge into the sea of oil or oily mixture from the cargo area of an oil
tanker shall be prohibited while in a special area".
As will be shown later, such provisions do not apply to the discharge of clean or segregated
ballast
ii). From Machinery Spaces in Special Areas.
[MARPOL 1st January 2007]. MARPOL Annex I Chapter 3 - Requirements for machinery
spaces of all ships-Part C-Control of operational discharge of oil.
Regulation 15 B Discharges in special areas: -
.3 Any discharge into the sea of oil or oily mixtures from ships of400 gross tonnage and
above shall be prohibited except when all of the following conditions are satisfied;
.1 the ship is proceeding en route.
.2 the oily mixture is processed through an oil filtering equipment meeting the
requirements of 14.7 of this Annex [a control system which automatically
stops the discharge and re-circulates the effluent, if the oil content of the
effluent exceeds 15ppm].
.3 the oil content of the effluent without dilution does not exceed 15 parts per
million.
.4 the oily mixture does not originate from cargo pump-room bilges on oil
tankers; and
.5 the oily mixture, in case of oil tankers, is not mixed with oil cargo
residues.
iii). From Machinery Spaces outside special areas.
For machinery space discharges from ships outside of a Special Area, as covered by:
MARPOL Annex I Chapter 3 Requirements for machinery spaces of all ships
Part C Control of operational discharge of oil.
Regulation 15 A Discharges outside special areas -
the requirements are essentially the same as above, except ships of less than 10,000 gross
tonnage need not have the automated control system.
iv). From Cargo Spaces outside a special area
[MARPOL 1st January 2007], MARPOL Annex I Part C Control of operational
discharges of oil.
Regulation 34 Control of discharge of oil A.
1 Subject to the provision of regulation 4 of this Annex and paragraph (2) of this
regulation, any discharge into the se of oil or oily mixtures from the cargo area of
an oil tanker shall be prohibited except when all of the following conditions are
satisfied:
.1 the tanker is not within a special area.
.2 the tanker is more than 50 nautical miles from the nearest land.
.3 the tanker is proceeding en route.
.4 the instantaneous rate of discharge of oil content does not exceed 30 litres per
nautical mile [see later],
.5 the total quantity of oil discharged into the sea does not exceed 1/30,000 of the
total quantity of the particular cargo of which the residue formed a part; and
.6 the tanker has in operation an oil discharge monitoring and control system
and a slop tank arrangement as required by regulations 29 and 31 of this
Annex, [see later].
This is the most complex of the requirements, with regard to the routine situations in
which a ship will find itself. It is necessary to analyse some of these points to present a more
practical idea of how these regulations can be met.
First for consideration is the '30 litres per mile' instantaneous discharge rate requirement,
the MARPOL publication, even in its unified interpretations accompanying the regulations,
do not make clear how the rate may be calculated. Fortunately, a publication entitled Clean
Seas Guide for Oil Tankers, published by OCIMF/ICS, does include an explanation of this
requirement.
• When an oil mixture is discharged the contamination depends on;
• discharge rate of effluent.
• oil content of effluent.
• speed of ship.
Such factors are configured into this formula, which will yield the instantaneous
discharge rate:
ppm of oil x discharge rate (m7hr) _ j j t r e s / m j j e
speed in knots x 1000
The Clean Seas Guide for Oil Tankers illustrates a couple of examples indicating the rate
for two different stages of a slops decanting operation but both examples being of the ship
making fifteen knots:
Clean part of dirty ballast, lower levels of clean slop tank;
8,00()mVhr at 30ppm = 16 litres per mile.
Decanting slops near the interface;
80m 3 /hr at 3,000ppm = 16 litres per mile.
The concentrations, expressed in ppm, in these examples may seem inordinately high but
they are used to illustrate the flexibility of the calculation.
To put these calculations into a more modern context, it will be unusual for a modern
tanker to have to put any cargo residues into the sea. That is the entire point of having a
segregated ballast system, to prevent ballast water from contacting any form of cargo residue.
In fact, the only operational circumstance where ballast would enter the cargo system would
be during the taking on of heavy weather ballast. [MARPOL Annex I Regulation 18].
This formula would then be of meaning during the decanting of the dirty ballast.
In non-segregated ballast tankers, this formula was of significance every time departure
ballast was decanted.
This subject may be rounded off by a final reference to the regulations relating to
the discharge of clean or segregated ballast. The definition of the phrase in regulation
1 (16) of Annex I refers to clean ballast has having an oil content of no more than 15ppm.
Clean ballast, which used to be referred to as arrival ballast (that is ballast that had been
taken into cargo tanks having already been washed) will have to be de-ballasted through
Oil Discharge Monitoring Equipment (ODME). Similarly, the discharge of such ballast will
have to be entered into the Oil Record Book, which is examined in Section H. There is no
legislative requirement to put any segregated ballast through an ODME or even record its
movements in the Oil Record Book, though some practitioners have reportedly chosen to
do this. It is required, however [MARPOL Annex I Regulation 30], to check the surface of
segregated ballast water, in the tank, prior to its discharge and also to observe the harbour
water surface around the discharge during the de-ballasting operation.
F). The International Oil Pollution Prevention Certificate (IOPP).
This was one of the innovative requirements as a result of the MARPOL '73 convention
although the requirement did not apply exclusively to cargo and machinery space residues of
tankers, but to discharges from machinery spaces of all ships.
The certificate is issued and re-viewed to indicate that:
"the structure, equipment, systems, fittings, arrangement and material of the ship
and the condition thereof are in all respects satisfactory and that the ship complies
with the applicable requirements of Annex I of the convention".
[MARPOL Annex I Appendix II: Form of IOPP Certificate],
There is a template of this certificate printed in MARPOL Annex II, which also indicates
the periods of validity after the various inspections, initial, annual, intermediate and five
yearly periods.
G). Record of Construction and Equipment:
Different supplements to the certificate apply either to oil tankers or ships other than oil
tankers. This is a list of sections for both:
i). For ships other than Oil Tankers;
• Particulars of ship:
• Equipment for the control of oil discharge from machinery space bilges and oil fuel tanks.
• Means of retention and disposal of oil residues (sludge) and bilge water holdings.
• Standard discharge connection.
• Shipboard oil/marine pollution emergency plan.
• Exemption.
• Equivalents.
ii). Additionally for Oil Tankers:
• Construction.
• Retention of oil on board.
• Pumping, piping and discharge arrangements.
H).OiI Record Book.
This is another innovation from MARPOL '73 in which all loading, discharging,
transferring and cleaning of cargo spaces on oil tankers (over 150 tons gross tonnage) and
the same for machinery spaces of all ships (over 400 tons gross tonnage) has to be recorded.
The list of items to be recorded is detailed at the beginning of the manuals and a template
is also featured in the consolidated editions of MARPOL. The 2007 version of MARPOL
Regulation 17 lists these requirements within its text:
"The Oil Record Book Part 1 shall be completed on each occasion a tank-to-tank
basis if appropriate, whenever any of the following machinery space operations takes
place in the ship:
.1 ballasting or cleaning of oil fuel tanks.
.2 discharge of dirty ballast or cleaning water from oil fuel tanks.
.3 collection and disposal of oil residues (sludge and other oil residues).
.4 discharge overboard or disposal otherwise of bilge water which has
accumulated in machinery spaces: and
.5 bunkering of fuel or lubricating oil."
There are further requirements such as recording any failure of the filtering equipment in
the book. As far as Part II of the Oil Record Book is concerned then the following cargo area
activities require recording by [MARPOL l sl January 2007] Annex I Regulation 36:
• loading cargo.
• internal transfer of cargo during voyage.
• unloading cargo.
• cleaning cargo tanks including crude oil washing.
• ballasting of cargo tanks and dedicated clean ballast tanks.
• discharge of ballast except from segregated ballast tanks.
• discharge of water from slop tanks.
• closing of all applicable valves or similar devices after slop tank discharge operations.
• closing of valves necessary for isolation of dedicated clean ballast tanks from cargo and
stripping lines after slop tank discharge operations and disposal of residues".
(Image: 11/3-Specimen page of Oil Record Book).

I). Oil Discharge Monitoring and Control System.
This item of oil tanker equipment has caused considerable controversy over the last couple
of decades. The OILPOL Regulations of 1954 required that no oil or oily mixtures with an
oil content above one hundred parts per million was discharged into prohibited zones within
fifty miles of land. There is nothing particularly new about the requirement to monitor effluent
and the capability and accuracy of detecting and monitoring equipment has evolved over
the years. Earlier version so this type of equipment was not especially difficult to deceive.
Tales of 'magic pipes' and water plugs abound and there is still a plethora of incidents
and case studies available through various sources of information. For a period, 'whistle-
blowers' who alerted port authorities in some countries, notably the USA, to nefarious
practices, received healthy rewards for their reports. Yet abuse of this incentive, where
purported whistle-blowers actually concocted unsustainable allegations, soon prevailed
tainting what had originally been an effective form of policing. A perpetual criticism of
these devices is that they do not genuinely detect oil but simply discoloured water. If, for
example, a carton of milk was poured into a bilge system, none of the mixture could be
legally discharged since none would make it through the ODME.
Nevertheless, the use of these devices for both machinery space and cargo area discharges
is mandatory as per MARPOL requirements. The equipment is much less open to tampering
these days and there is an additional requirement that the use of the ODME is recorded.
For example, MAPOL Annex I Chapter 4 Requirements for the cargo area of oil tankers
Regulation 31 requires that:
"The system shall be fitted with a recording device to provide a continuous record
of the discharge in litres per nautical mile and total quantity discharged, or the oil
content and rate of discharge."
Clearly, there is a close association between the oil filtering equipment in the machinery
space; ODME in the cargo area, and the two parts of the Oil Record Book. Inspectors, whether
they be port, state or commercial will scrutinise this area closely. Incongruent records alone
may form the basis of a prosecution, as many senior ship staff presently languishing in jails
around the world will testify. Falsified records are likely to result in even greater punitive
reprisals.
J). STCW'95 and Tanker Staff Requirements.
The basis of the original 1978 Conference on the Standards, Training, Certification and
Watch keeping (STCW'78) was to ensure that senior staff of certain commercial ships,
including tankers, had some specialist technical knowledge as well as their generic sea-going
qualification.
This requirement was enhanced and refined as a result of the changes brought about
by STCW'95. One result was that the specialist qualifications of tanker staff became
sub-divided into two levels:
• Operational.
• Managerial.
The distinction between the two is based on for the former level;
"Officers and ratings assigned specific duties and responsibilities related to cargo or
cargo equipment on tankers"
[STCW'95 as amended 2001 edition].
And for the latter:
"Masters, chief engineer officers, chief mates, second engineer officers and any
person with immediate responsibility for loading, discharging and care in transit or
handling of the cargo "
[STCW'95 as amended 2001 edition].
The convention lists the requirements in Chapter V Regulation V/1 and later in Section
A - V /1 Chapter V lists the topics to be covered in the training courses related to the two
levels described above. Specific training course associated to the two levels, additional to
other training requirements are cited as:
• Tanker Familiarisation Training-Tanker generic.
• Specialised Tanker Training Programmes (Oil/Chemical/Liquefied Gas).
• IMO have published model courses of these which should be available in the library
aboard all tankers.
At the time of printing this publication STCW'95 is under revision. This will, among
other considerations, address tanker training requirements.
CHAPTER 12
DANGEROUS SPACE ENTRY.
Introduction-Dangerous Spaces: Preparation by gas freeing-
dilution and displacement methods-precautions before testing-testing results-
Atmospheric Hazards: the three areas of atmospheric hazard -
Case Study One-Case Study Two-Responses to Case studies-identification of the
ignorant operator and the foolhardy-Factors Compromising the Atmosphere of an
Enclosed Space or an Area-Physical Haz.ards-Protective Measures-
Precautions: Prior to Entry-During Entry-Upon Completion-
Portable Gas Detection Instruments: Oxygen; paramagnetic-
oxvgen;electromagnetic-hydrocarbons; %LFL Explosimeters-
hydrocarbons; %volume tank-scopes- hydrocarbons; %volume infra-red scanners-
toxic gas; electro-chemical-toxic gas; chemical indicator tubes.
Introduction.
There are few tanker related sub-topics which have attracted so much increasing
attention, in terms of regulations and guidance than this one. There is a reason for this which
is perfectly clear. The mystery is why, in the face of such a plethora of literature, so many
related incidents still occur. In this chapter are covered the subject of hazards provided by
both spaces and areas aboard tankers.
There are three conditions and the terms are banded around interchangeably without
much understanding of the distinction between them:
• Enclosed spaces.
• Confined spaces.
• Dangerous spaces.
These are some of the variations: the manifold area of a tanker being prepared for
connection to shore lines, or the deck area around a free flow mast riser outlet where there
is no movement of air may both be cited as dangerous areas-but not necessarily spaces.
There need not be any distinction between these phrases because responses to entering
any spaces of this nature should be the same that they are similar general hazards. There
should also be considered the hazards specific to the task being attempted. For example,
when entering part of an inert gas plant, then there should be an awareness of toxins such as
sulphur or carbon monoxide. Entering a cargo tank which has previously carried sour crude
oil could arouse thoughts of hydrogen sulphide. By the same token, any of these phrases
would be perfectly suitable to describe the same activity, though this begs the question why
the term dangerous spaces has been favoured in certain publications.
The UK Merchant Shipping Act of 1998 Entry into Dangerous Space Regulations is one
example and suggests that the term is broader because it includes spaces or areas which are
not necessarily enclosed or confined. The term dangerous evokes a sense of alertness into the
mind of a reader, which alternative terms do not. This is perhaps less of an issue because our
response to working in any such areas or spaces should be the same.
143
(Image: 12/1-Typical enclosed space of a

tanker water ballast tank- Ray Solly).
The response should be to consult before entry one of the permits covering the space
or area concerned as a practical risk reduction measure, bearing in mind that there may be
details of the task undertaken which could distinguish it from other similar tasks. There will
probably be a section on the permit itself that describes special measures for the particular
task to be carried out.
A). Dangerous Spaces.
We might first consider exactly what we mean by this term. Several publications including,
the International Safety Guide for Oil Tankers and Terminals (ISGOTT), the International
Chamber of Shipping (ICS) Tanker Safety Guide (Chemicals) and the UK Maritime and
Coastguard Agency (UMCA) Code of Safe Working Practices for Merchant Seaman
(CoSWP) choose the term Enclosed Spaces and refer to the hazards associated purely with
such a confined environment. It is worth considering atmospheric dangers of open cargo
areas bearing the same hazards as enclosed or confined spaces. A random definition states:
"A space in which the atmosphere is potentially dangerous, health or life
threatening"
but this mentions only the atmosphere, whilst there may a multitude of physical hazards
compounding the danger. These possibilities are considered further in the chapter. That the
atmospheric hazards attract the most attention in the literature is not surprising because this
hazard is known, with justification, as 'the silent killer', even though it is not the only hazard.
The CoSWP acknowledges this factor in their definition:
"The space may be deficient in oxygen and/or contain flammable or toxic fumes, gas
or vapours".
[CoSWP Chapter 17.1.2]
Atmospheric hazards often appear at, or toward the top of the list on an entry permit and
should be analysed in more detail.
i). Preparation by Gas Freeing.
The object of gas freeing a space for entry is to establish a safe atmosphere inside the
space for entry and working, although the action itself may endanger the atmosphere of any
area around the ventilation outlet that is outside of the space in question. This is true in the
case of cargo or fuel tanks, which expel flammable hydrocarbon vapours. To minimise the
chances of this occurring, and to expedite the cleansing process, washing of the tank must
take place prior to gas freeing. On tankers with an inert gas plant, the tank before being gas
freed should be washed and purged with inert gas of hydrocarbon vapours. Other spaces
will also need to be gas freed, which involves forced mechanical ventilation. The way this is
applied may vary depending on the space to be gas freed. Cargo tanks on tankers with inert
gas, which clearly require entering routinely, may be gas freed either by either:
a), the dilution or
b). the displacement method.
These alternatives are explained but it is worth emphasising that any hydrocarbons
that are ejected from the tank will end up in the atmosphere above deck level. Mindful
of this fact, there should be strict control of sources of ignition in both the deck areas and
the accommodation. Similarly, the accommodation air conditioning intakes should be set
accordingly. In fact, the tanker may in many ways adopt an in-port condition, with respect
to the hazards posed by the surrounding atmosphere. If wind conditions are such that the
vapour does not disperse, which would be the case if the following wind was equivalent
to the speed of the vessel, once it is above deck level then gas freeing operations should be
stopped. Under similar circumstances, if funnel sparks drop onto the deck area when soot is
blowing then the operation should also be stopped. In order to assess if hydrocarbon vapour
is accumulating anywhere on the vessel, either around the deck area, or in pockets around
the outside of the accommodation block, flammable gas detecting instruments will need to
be utilised for this purpose.
Similar concerns will affect the terminal, if the tanker is in the unlikely position of
receiving permission to gas free alongside because few terminals permit this happen.
Any other craft alongside the ship for bunkering or storing would also need to be informed.
It is not good practice to gas free with any other craft alongside, not least of the reasons
being that sparks from their own funnel may compromise the safety of the surrounding
atmosphere.
a). Dilution.
This method of gas freeing is achieved through a gradual mixing process.
In order to create turbulence and a circulation of air in the tank, a high inlet capacity
and volume of fresh air is required. Each part of the tank has to receive a movement
of air, which may be difficult to achieve in the deepest recesses and corners. This will
be even more difficult in single hulled tanks, where the framing will create shadow
areas, protected from the circulation of atmosphere. Guidelines on the number of
atmosphere changes to complete the gas freeing vary, although it is commonly
accepted that three to five changes will be sufficient. This figure can be estimated
by comparing the tank's internal volume with the inlet capacity of the ventilation
equipment. This operation is usually accomplished using portable gas freeing fans
but may alternatively use the inert gas plant blowing fresh air, through the air intake
and with the boiler uptakes blocked. Where portable gas freeing fans are used, they
should be electrically bonded to the ship's hull.
(Image: 12/2-Portable gas freeing fan and typical installation-Victor Marine.).

b). Displacement.
This different method relies on fresh air being introduced into the tank at very low
velocity, so an interface is formed on top of the inert gas and hydrocarbon mixture.
By this stage, as it has been purged, the interface will be down to less than 2% by
volume. The fresh air slowly displaces the existing tank atmosphere by pushing this
interface down toward the outlet, usually being a full length sounding or purge pipe.
Due to the fact that such a low entry velocity is required for the incoming fresh air,
the displacement method can only be chosen using the inert gas plant delivering air
to the deck. It is most common for the air to be introduced into the tank though the
inert gas branch line, adjacent to the tank lid that will be led down toward the outlet,
the purge pipe or sounding pipe. It may be possible to introduce the fresh air into
the tank from the bottom, through the tank loading line pushing up the interface.
The special full length purge or sounding pipe will not be necessary if this method
is used, but gravity will not be favourable because both inert gas and hydrocarbons
are heavier than air.
Tankers without an inert gas plant will not have the option of using the displacement
method, so will use only gas freeing fans. Such tanks will inevitably have a flammable
atmosphere in them at some point during the venting process but there will be no
problem as long as sources of ignition, however inadvertent, are excluded. Since the
displacement method is likely to be more thorough than the alternative, the guideline
is to replace IV2 tank capacities with fresh air, to achieve complete ventilation, though
this should be taken as a minimum. If the tanks are served by a common venting
system, the setting of the system will have to be planned carefully for it is very
disconcerting to invest hours of effort and resources into preparing an individual
tank atmosphere, only to find it compromised by inert gas and hydrocarbons pushing
through the vent system from another tank. The tanks being worked need to be
isolated from the remainder of the system.
ii). Precautions before Testing.
To ensure the space has been ventilated adequately, it is recommended to allow at least ten
minutes between stopping the ventilation and testing in order to produce a stable atmosphere.
This will allow any disturbed but not evacuated vapours to settle and become detectable.
Gas detecting instrumentation requires calibrating and testing in line with their manufacturers
advice before use.
iii). Testing Results.
Bearing in mind that for a space to be prepared for entry, so that those inside are able
to work and breathe effectively, there should be 21% oxygen, and no more than 1% LFL
and zero toxic vapours. The toxic vapour detectors selected should match those considered
most likely to reside in the space being prepared. Testing should take place regularly whilst
the space is being ventilated and not just at the estimated completion of the operation.
If the desired results are not obtained from the tests, then ventilation must be re-started
until these results are achieved. Tests should be taken at various levels and compartments, if
applicable, with the space proposed to be entered. When the gas freeing operation has been
successfully completed, all openings, with the exception of tank hatches (where applicable)
should be closed although some spaces may have no more than one opening so will need to
be kept open for access.
B). Atmospheric Hazards.
The three areas of atmospheric hazard are:
• Oxygen deficiency
• Flammable vapour
• Toxic vapour
The 'potential danger' afforded by either or all of these conditions could be fatal but also
encounters with atmospheres in these states may not prove fatal, providing conditions that
makes the situation more complex.
It is possible that failing to carry out certain precautions might lead a person to enter and
leave a tank without harm. 'Getting away with it' might therefore encourage an attitude that
the teaching learnt is at fault and lead to complacency. Whilst it may be possible to survive,
it is equally as possible that health over the long-term could be affected since certain toxins
may have a 'chronic effect' on health. The lesson is clear. The precaution should always be
taken of testing tanks before entry and so avoid potential dangers to health.
Most readers of this chapter will be aware of the significance of the subject matter and
acquainted with the decisions necessary prior to entering an enclosed or dangerous space.
To be specific, there are no such decisions to be made. If a space needs entering falls under
the category of 'dangerous' then it has to be prepared for entry. All entry operations need
to be planned in advance and fashioned into the working of the ship. Routine inspection of
enclosed spaces will usually fit into the maintenance programme but there may be occasions
when entry is required but circumstances are by no means routine. These circumstances are
best perhaps explained by examination of two rhetorical case studies.
Case Study One.
You are the master of a 40,000 t dwt petroleum product tanker. Your tanker is about two
hours from the berth of a loading port, tanks have been cleaned and inerted and are ready
for the next cargo. Your owners are anxious for the tanker to arrive in good time, to load
the cargo safely and efficiently and be on its way to the discharge port as soon as possible.
Whilst these aspirations would be the same for any cargo operation, your owners are
particularly keen for the operation to go well on this occasion, since it is due to be the first
cargo of what could ultimately turn out to be a highly lucrative charter.
On the way into port, during a final check of the cargo system, it is discovered that
a cargo tank load valve will only open about a quarter of a turn and it seems as though
something is trapped around the valve mechanism preventing it from opening any further.
Accordance with company policy dictates that in order to gas free and enter the cargo tank in
order to examine the valve a period of around ten hours is required. The port will not allow
atmospheric emissions of any kind from the cargo area including inert gas from the tank.
When you contact your owners to enlighten them to this problem, an accountant answers
your call and rather than listening to the practical issues of your quandary, emphasises the
commercial importance of securing the charter.
What do you do next?
Case Study Two.
You are an apprentice on an oil tanker having just finished a particularly rigorous
discharge operation at a river berth. The operation was fraught with anxiety and difficulty
for all concerned and took much longer than expected. Nevertheless, the operation has been
completed successfully without compromising safety or the quality of the cargo. You have
just participated in an un-mooring operation forward and have stowed the mooring ropes
inside the forecastle head. As an experienced apprentice, you have, working with senior
crew-members, supervised the stowing and securing of the ropes allowing the watch-keeping
officer in charge of the unmooring operation to return to the accommodation for a period of
much needed rest prior to the next bridge watch. Since the tanker has had a slightly delayed
departure, the height of tide in the river is decreasing and the pilot is anxious to get the
tanker out of the river as quickly as practicable in order to avoid possible concerns regarding
draft restriction. The state of the tide and the available depth of water are such that the
pilot, wishing to gain every advantage possible in this busy river, orders the hoisting of the
'restricted by draft' cylinder. You have no knowledge of where the 'shapes' are on board and
you are informed that none of them have been used for years. By the time you are ready to
clear the deck of ship's staff it is suggested to you from the navigating bridge that the cylinder
may be in one of the forecastle head lockers, which has not been opened for months. Another
member of the crew, more experienced on this ship than you, suggests the locker identified
had some paint thinners drums stowed inside which had subsequently leaked.
What do you do next?
Responses to Case Studies.
The answer to both of these situations should be exactly the same. You execute an entry
as per company procedure. There is no decision to make in either case. There is only one way
and that is the proper way. In case one, the DPA should also be contacted as per ISM code
procedures.
These depicted scenarios are reflective of the real world, when decisions are not
so straightforward. Because there are compromising circumstances, these should not
compromise our methods. These examples indicate the possible workings of the mind of
those involved and indicate how seeds of doubt are sewn. It is no wonder so many lives are
lost or individuals' health affected when such positions occur, but this cannot be seen as an
excuse to 'short circuit' established procedures.
The first example is one of facing time restrictions and commercial pressure. It is purely
theoretical and one would hope in this day no such example would apply but such pressure
being imposed upon ships' staff can well be imaged. The head office might well adopt the
line: "Get that cargo on board now: we don't care how you do it, just do it". The response of
a ships' staff request to put their orders in writing is equally as imaginable. The master of the
vessel may chose to go to anchor and come off charter in order to conduct operations safely
by executing a gas freeing and tank entry procedure. He may also be scanning the situations
vacant column in the trade press within a few days. This is not what should happen and it is
hoped that owners and managers are responsible enough to take correct and safe decisions in
support of safety aboard.
In the second example, the apprentice may not win many friends by forcing an
entry party of fatigued crew, to convene and prepare an enclosed space entry procedure.
The master will be under time pressure from the pilot and the crew will not be looking
forward to anything other than a long rest. If an entry procedure is delayed, then the sailing
of the ship is in jeopardy which may also carry commercial implications. Yet safety still
should not be sacrificed in the face of these factors and the pages of casualty reports are
peppered with examples of individuals who 'know better'. The comments from this type
of seafarer are alas fairly common: "I don't need the atmosphere testing equipment. I can
just sniff the atmosphere and if my tongue turns salty, then the atmosphere is poisonous.
If it doesn't, then it's safe".
Such supposition leads to the identification of two of the most dangerous types of
seafarer:
i). The ignorant.
ii). The foolhardy.
i). The ignorant.
Ignorance is not always the fault of the victim. Regrettably, the maritime industry today
is aware of poorly trained staff generally employed by negligent owners who barely pay their
workforce, let alone train them.
ii). The foolhardy.
The foolhardy mariners of the complacent type do not include inexperienced staff alone.
Often it is the highly experienced staff-member who expects accidents only to happen to
other people and becomes complacent in his ways and suffers as a result. The magazine
Trade Winds on 2 nd May 2008 emphasised the situation:
"More than 1,000 deaths are feared to have occurred in ships' confined spaces over
the past 20 years".
It is a salutary fact that the lesson has still not been learnt in some maritime circles and
members of the industry continue killing or harming themselves with alarming regularity.
C). Factors Compromising the Atmosphere of Enclosed Spaces or an Area.
Having established what atmospheric hazards may linger in a dangerous space, these can
know be enumerated and the causes established of oxygen deficiency, or a flammable and toxic
atmosphere by listing some but not all of the dangers to be found in an enclosed space or an area:
• Rusting, oxygen eaten by steel.
• Oxygen absorbing chemicals.
• Oxygen absorbing cargoes.
• Hydrogen from sacrificial anodes.
• Fire smothering or inerting gases.
• Paint solvent.
• Disturbance of sludge or scale.
• Cargo residue from tank surfaces.
• Piping, open ended or fractured.
• Pumps, open or fractured.
• Leakage from pipe work or adjacent spaces.
• Interaction of animal, vegetable oils or sewage with sea water can produce hydrogen
sulphide. (Anco Duke 1977).
(Image: 12/4)
(Image: 12/5)
(Images 12/4 and 12/5-An example of rust seen under a microscope, and salt crystals in the form of chloride ions
which remain after paint coatings have fallen off, each provides examples of potential dangers found in enclosed or
confined spaces-Jotun Coatings (UK)).
Leaving aside flammable vapours for the time being whose danger relates to the possibility
of ignition, focus is made initially on the dangers of oxygen deficiency and toxicity. Both may
be fatal but, as examined earlier whilst toxic vapours may not cause death they can certainly
affect health. Whilst a victim of oxygen deficiency has a supply of air or oxygen then their
prognosis of survival is good. There may well be a traumatic psychological effect, but any
prolonged physiological effect is unlikely. This may not be the case if a victim survives an
encounter with toxic vapours. Whilst they may be revived, chronic detrimental health effects
may linger. It is not within the remit of this publication to detail all the possible health effects
but for example, airways of the respiratory system may be inflamed, making breathing
difficult; eye membranes could be irritated, lung tissue may be damaged and chemical
changes in the composition of the blood, or internal organs such as the liver or kidney could
be affected. These are not symptoms that will clear up overnight and could linger as chronic
conditions for decades after exposure.
The precise concentration of oxygen in fresh air has long been a matter of conjecture, but
is estimated in some medical circles as 21% by volume. What is more relevant to the seafarer
is if the oxygen concentration is low, what might be replacing it. Should an instrument reading
of oxygen concentration be 20.50% by volume whilst testing a space for entry, it may well
be considered inappropriate for this to be entered even though it might appear safe to do so.
Consideration needs to be given to the remaining 0.46% by volume and whether or not this
is a negligible figure. Toxic concentrations re usually expressed in parts per million (ppm),
so atmospheric concentrations atmospheric conditions should be expressed in percentage by
volume, with concentrations expressed in parts per million.
100% by volume = l,000,000ppm.
1% by volume = 10,000ppm.
This means that the seemingly innocuous and negligible 0.46% by volume equates to
4,600 parts per million which could be comprised of any gas. If this were 4,600 parts per
million of carbon monoxide, or hydrogen sulphide or benzene, then any seafarers' lives would
quickly be in jeopardy. The point to be made is that each of the atmospheric tests needs to
be carried out thoroughly and should cover oxygen, flammability and toxicity, rather than be
restricted to merely one test alone.
Danger will also be present if the distinction between percentage by volume of hydrocarbon
concentrations and percentage of the Lower Flammable (or Explosive) Limit danger is not
fully understood. A mariner who was untrained to interpret the reading from a flammable gas
instrument, sent into an enclosed space who finds the reading was 2%, might well determine
that it was safe to enter, particularly if the reading was within the apparent guidance of
company policy. If the reading was actually 2% by volume rather than 2% LFL, he might
believe he was in grave danger. The difficulty with toxic gas detection is that the detector has
to match the toxin and, as will be shown later, there are various methods of detecting oxygen
and flammable vapours. A toxic vapour will only be detected by an instrument dedicated
to that one toxin and it is necessary to follow clues concerning the type of toxins likely to
linger in any area to be entered. In the case of cargo tanks, this should not be too difficult to
decide, since the previous cargo will guide us to this decision. As suggested earlier in this
chapter, any association with sources of ignition, an exhaust duct or inert gas plant, should
arouse suspicions toward using detectors of vapours associated with products of combustion,
such as nitrogen oxides, sulphur and carbon monoxide. Other parts of the ship will need to
be assessed in a similar manner.
D). Physical Hazards.
i). Common features.
The list of physical hazards likely to be encountered in a dangerous space, additional to
atmospheric hazards is a lot longer and it is difficult to provide an absolute comprehensive
list. Some of the common hazards are:
• Poor lighting.
• Electricity.
• Engulfment.
• Falling objects.
• Internal equipment.
• Falling from height.
• Slippery surfaces, which could also release vapours.
• Loose fittings.
• Hidden obstructions.
• Unsuitable access or egress.
There are two more physical hazards which are not often mentioned but can also be
highly debilitating. It is known that heat can build up very quickly in confined spaces,
which are not always efficiently ventilated. Continual ventilation before and during entry is
a crucial requirement, but a continual through flow of air is not always possible to establish
in every space entered. Sections of internal structures, which do not receive a movement or
circulation of air will be liable to temperature increase and when temperatures rise gradually,
disorientation and exhaustion can overcome the individual.
Sound can be equally as disorientating. This means that ventilation equipment that it is
vitally important to maintain during entry, can reverberate around an enclosed space. If the
frequency attained by the throbbing of the fans is anywhere near the resonant frequency of
a person's head, then the situation can quickly become almost intolerable and disorientation
will soon set in with alertness affected.
ii). Protective Measures.
With the circumstances established of aspects likely to compromise safety in terms of
atmosphere quality and physical well being, decisions may be made regarding personal
protection. These might be sub-divided into protective equipment and sound operational
practice.
Personal protective equipment will have to decided relevant to a specific dangerous space
for it this is confined it may limit the amount of equipment that may be carried mindful of the
flexibility of movement required. The following list is of the protective equipment considered
necessary before entering a dangerous space:
• Overalls.
• Protective boots.
• Gloves.
• Hard hat.
• Safety glasses.
• Flashlight.
• Radio.
• Escape breathing apparatus.
• Personal atmosphere monitoring apparatus.
(Image: 12/6-The wearing of personal protective clothing is essential not only for all deck work but when
entering enclosed or dangerous spaces-Ray Solly).
(Image: 12/7-Breathing apparatus is essential for wearing when

entering dangerous enclosed spaces-Ray Solly).
If it is necessary to carry hand tools and perhaps a rescue harness then physical movements
may be adversely affected. It might be essential to evacuate a small space at short notice with
the necessity of reducing cumbersome elements of the list. It may even be decided that the
space is not fit for entry at all especially if it is essential for a safety line and a line from
airline breathing apparatus to be worn causing considerable restriction of movement to the
point perhaps that entry is deemed impossible.
iii). Precautions before entry.
Procedures for entering dangerous spaces need to be established in any operator's safety
management system, by means of risk reduction measures such as 'Permits to Work'. If it is
necessary for this publication to be referred to whilst on a ship in order to formulate an entry
procedure, then either the seafarer is not familiar with existing company procedures, or the
company is guilty of a serious shortcoming should one not be already in place. There exist a
number of minimum requirements:
• Adequate and illuminated access-beside which stand-by personnel will be required,
not only to maintain a visual contact with those therein, if possible but also with whom
to maintain radio contact.
• Rescue equipment, including line and harness. The nature of the space may enable
both to be worn by those entering the space, yet a line may prove cumbersome if it is
likely to be caught or trapped by corners or edges. The same concerns will apply to
airline breathing apparatus. On this point and in order to avoid a multi-stranded knot of
rescue lines, it is good practice to permit no more staff into a space than is absolutely
necessary because should conditions deteriorate, or immediate evacuation is necessary
for any other reason, the fewer people inside the space then the easier and quicker will
evacuation be completed.
• Resuscitation equipment and additional breathing apparatus should be available at the
space entrance in the eventuality of an emergency evacuation, or an emergency within
the space when resuscitation equipment (such as an oxygen therapy unit) may be needed
inside the space. Additional staff, beyond those originally tasked with entry, may need
to don breathing apparatus quickly in order to rescue staff inside hampered in their
attempts to evacuate the space. For this reason, the access chosen for entry should be
large enough for someone to enter whilst wearing self-contained breathing apparatus.
• Communication. The provision of one person at the space entrance is only part of
the necessary communication process. If the space being entered is part of a larger
network, such as a cargo or ballast or fuel tank, then external people will only be a
hindrance to those inside the space. The stand-by person at the space entrance will
have no influence over another staff member in another part of the ship, such as engine
or cargo control room, who may expect to commence pumping or loading operations.
The space to be entered should be taken out of commission and this fact promulgated
by posting signs at appropriate controls, or disabling the power to such controls.
Watch-keeping or shift hand-over procedures need closely monitoring to ensure the
inspection of such spaces is mentioned. This point will be reprised later on during
discussion of procedures after entry.
iv). Precautions during entry.
Ventilation must be continuous during entry and communication must be made at regular
intervals all the time the space is occupied. Some operators incorporate a specific maximum
duration between communications between staff inside and outside of the space of perhaps
twenty minutes. Remote atmosphere testing should also be carried out whilst the space is
occupied and certain operators state on their own entry permits the maximum permitted
time between remote atmosphere tests.
All involved in the entry both inside and outside of the space should be conscious and
alert that emergency evacuation may become necessary at any time. Equipment should be
ready and staff in a state of readiness to execute an emergency evacuation.
v). Precautions upon Completion.
The operation is not all over once the space has been vacated, even when all planned
work has been completed. Documentation also needs completing, which may involve the
cancelling or signing off of the entry permit. Tagging routines, if utilised, need completing
and the space needs returning to commission. Since this last item is not considered of utmost
safety-oriented, it is often dealt with dismissively. Yet it is one which often leads to confusion
and disharmony. In the same way that the de-commissioning of a space or even item of
machinery is promulgated, its re-commissioning should be as well. It is very frustrating to
spend an entire watch avoiding a section of plant under the impression that it is still out of
commission, only to find later it was available all the time.
E). Atmospheric hazards:
The following considerations should always be considered:
• Oxygen concentration should be 21% as recommended by ISGOTT.
• Flammable gas concentration no more than 1% LFL also recommended by ISGOTT.
• Toxic contaminants should be zero.
In order to decide which toxic detectors to use it will be essential to know the toxic
vapours likely to be present in the space to be entered. If this has previously contained cargo
or fuel, then the constituents of these can be tested for having examined their respective
data sheets.
If the space is part of the engine or inert gas system, then constituents of the fuel or
products of combustion, such as carbon monoxide or sulphur will be the most likely toxins
present. Elsewhere a more informed judgement will be required in relation to the use of the
space in question.
F). Portable Gas Detecting Instruments.
There have been for years been a multitude of gas instruments which perform similar
functions, whether they claim to be analysing, testing or detecting. They come in all shapes
and sizes but are generally smaller and lighter than those of the past. The greatest danger
with some is that they are so small and light they may be left inside the pockets of overalls
on their way into a washing machine and incur expensive replacement.
It may be necessary to test for each of the following elements of atmosphere:
• Oxygen
• Flammable Gases
• Toxins
A brief explanation of the principles of operation of a selection of instruments will assist:
i). Oxygen-Paramagnetic.
A practically unique property of oxygen is that it is paramagnetic which means it is
attracted by magnetism. It is a property that has been used in oxygen detecting sensors but
the fact that smaller sensors can be used, with alternative principles of operation, means that
paramagnetic types are less common.
A lightweight structure is suspended around a pivot within a chamber in which a
magnetic field has been established. Any oxygen present in the chamber will exert a torque
on the structure, causing it to rotate. An electric current around the structure will restore the
structure to its original position, so the current expended will be proportional to the oxygen
concentration present.
As with most oxygen analysers, the instrument should be tested in clear, ventilated
air for a 21% by volume reading and also with either nitrogen or carbon dioxide for a 0%
oxygen benchmark. As with all equipment, it should be operated only in accordance with
manufacturers advice. Oxygen sensors tend to work under positive pressure, where an
aspirator pushes atmosphere through the sensors, whereas flammable gas detectors will often
employ a vacuum to draw samples across the sensors by negative pressure.
(Image: 12/8-Fixed oxygen and toxic analyser-Drager).
Large Display
34 X 62 mm, 64 x 128 pixel 1.3" x 2.4"
Quick Lock mechanism

One half turn - locked
Simple 3 button operation and navigation

Graphics, icons and real text descriptions
Polytron D o c k i n g station
Durable GRP housing
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With this dongle, the Drager Polytron 7000 performs many patented sensor tests to
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replacement cycle.
Data Dongle.
Datalogger and eventlogger options are implemented in this dongle, which stores gas
values and events such as faults and alarms. Using an IR link with the PDA m515-Ex, the
data can be downloaded and evaluated on a PC with the GasVision software. By pushing
one button, a graphical 15 minute history of the gas concentration will be displayed on the
transmitter screen, for quick evaluation of the current and past situation.
Relay Module.
The Drager Polytron 7000 can be equipped with a relay module to make it a stand alone
device with two gas alarms and one fault relay. The relay module forms a part of transmitter,
so there is no additional installation cost or wiring to be done.
Simple, quick installation
The Drager two component concept of a Docking Station and a Drager Polytron
7000 electronics saves time and money. The Docking Station can be pre-installed -
mounting and wiring it into place separately - while protected by a rain and dust cover
until commissioning. At commissioning, the Drager Polytron 7000 electronics is fixed by
quicklock mechanism into the Docking Station, the sensor inserted and the system is ready
for operation.
Pump Module.
An internal pump for sampling the gas mixture to the sensor is also a module option.
The pump fits inside the Drager Polytron 7000 with no additional need for extra wiring and
mounting space. For general purpose use only.*
Accessories/Remote Sensor.
The remote sensor is easy to install on the wall or, using the duct adapter, onto ducts
and pipes.
(Image: 12/10-Personal multiple gas detecting sensor-Drager).
Secure gas entry:

Gas entry from two sides.
Visual alarm:
180r alarm.
DragerSensors:
Fast, accurate and durable.
Retro reflectors:
Easy to find in the dark or in water
Large display:
All readings at a glance.
The smallest gas detection instrument for up to 5 gases. The Drager X-am 5000 belongs to
a new generation of gas detectors, developed especially for personal monitoring applications.
This 1 to 5-gas detector reliably measures combustible gases and vapours as well as oxygen
and harmful concentrations of CO, H2S, C0 2 , Cl2, HCN, NH3, NO,, PH 3 and S0 2 . A variety
of special calibrations for the catalytic Ex sensor allow even more sensitivity when detecting
specific combustible gases and vapours. Equipped with durable XXS sensor technology, the
Drager X-am 5000 offers maximum security and extremely low operational costs.
Ergonomic mobile phone design.
Despite its advanced functionality, the Drager X-am 5000's practical, mobile phone
design and light weight make it comfortable for users to carry. Reduced to its essentials, the
two button control panel and easy to follow menu system allow for intuitive use.
Durable electrochemical sensor technology.
The longevity of the catalytic sensor and five year expected lifetime of the oxygen
sensor are unique in the market. The Drager X-am 5000 is equipped with the latest in the
miniaturised XXS generation of high performance electrochemical DragerSensors.
Flexible and adaptable sensor exchange.
It is easy to exchange, upgrade or calibrate the sensors to other gases. The ability to
customise the Drager X-am 5000's sensors makes more applications possible, including
rental equipment.
Innovate Ex sensor with full range functionality.
The catalytic Ex sensor measures 0-100 % LEL and 0-100 Vol.- % methane concentration.
The calibration concept simplifies a calibration to vapours. When set for maximum sensitivity,
the detector is even more reliable to warn about unknown hazards.
Robust and water-tight.
The Drager X-am 5000 is tough: water and dust-resistant according to IP 67, the detector
remains fully functional even after falling into water. The integrated rubber protection and
shock-proof sensors ensure additional resistance to impact and vibration. Moreover, the
Drager X-am 5000 is insensitive to electromagnetic interference.
External pump.
The optional external pump, which operates with a flexible hose up to 20m long, makes
it possible to use the detector for pre-entry measurements for tanks, shafts, etc. The pump
starts automatically when the detector is inserted.
Optimum solutions for function (bump) tests and calibrations Simple, fast and professional:
from a function (bump) test to complete documentation, users can choose from a range
of practical, on-site solutions that offer maximum safety for every application. The Drager
E-Cal automatic test and calibration station and the Drager Bump Test Station are ideal
system extensions that save time and reduce workload.
Calibration options.
Fresh air, mixed gas and single gas calibrations can be done directly using the Drager
X-am 5000 menu.
Flexible power supply.
The Drager X-am 5000 can be used with either the standard alkaline or rechargeable
NIMH batteries. In addition, it can be fitted with a T4 battery that can be charged while still
inside the instrument.
ii). Oxygen - Electrochemical.

These sensors can now be manufactured so small they could fit into a thimble and are not
surprisingly very popular, especially in portable multi-gas detecting instruments. The sensors
assess the concentration of oxygen in a sample of atmosphere by measuring the yield of an
electrochemical cell. The cell comprises of an anode, positioned adjacent to a membrane,
which is separated from a cathode by a salty gel, acting as an electrolyte. As oxygen diffuses
through the membrane a current flows between the two electrodes, which is proportional to
the concentration of oxygen detected.
These sensors are susceptible to poisoning by sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxide
concentration of more than 0.25% by volume [according the 5th edition of ISGOTT. p30]
and more than 1% by volume of mercaptan and hydrogen sulphide. Again, calibration for
21% and 0% oxygen should be routine.
iii). Hydrocarbons - %LFL - Explosimeters.
The principle of these instruments can be seen as something a little ironic, since they
do to flammable vapours exactly what the rest of us told not to do, that is virtually try to
set fire to them. The vapours are heated to between 400°C and 600°C in order to induce
the sensor to react, but flame arrestors prevent any inadvertently formed flame from exiting
the instrument. Being an electrical instrument, it has conditions of use in a flammable
atmosphere imposed on it. The sensor in a catalytic monitor forms part of a circuit based on
what used to be called the 'Wheatstone Bridge' that comprises amongst other components,
two resistors. One of these resistors forms the sensor whilst the other is protected and used
for comparison purposes.
Both are heated but any hydrocarbons around the sensing resistor will oxidise, resulting
in a further rise in temperature. The difference in temperature between the sensing and
compensator resistors is proportional to the concentration of hydrocarbons, expressed as a
%LFL. It is important to emphasis that the units of measurement differ with those expressed
by the non-catalytic instruments. High concentrations of hydrocarbon gases will adversely
affect this instrument, since it is designed to register only the smallest concentrations.
The oxidation mentioned will only take place if sufficient oxygen is present, which is around
11% by volume. It is traditionally for this reason that oxygen is the first atmospheric test
carried out prior to entry. Of course, if the results of the first test do not match expectations,
whichever gas is tested for first, ventilation will have to be re-started.
iv). Hydrocarbons-% volume-Tank-scopes.
These will not be used prior to entry but only with inert gas when purging hydrocarbons
from a tank. These are non-catalytic instruments which work on a similar principle as
the explosimeters and the same circuitry although with the non-catalytic design, the rate
of heat loss of the sensing element is assessed, which is dependent upon the concentration
of hydrocarbon gases surrounding it. By contrast to the explosimeter, concentrations of
hydrocarbon gases slightly in excess of its working scale will not poison the sensor. Like the
explosimeter, calibrations should be carried out in line with manufacturers advice.
v). Hydrocarbons -% volume-Infra-Red Sensors.
Hydrocarbon gases absorb infra-red radiation, so this principle is used in a number of
models. In one design, an infra-red beam is shone through two chambers, one a sampling
chamber and the other for comparison purposes. What is detected at the other end of the
beam, at the sensor, compares the beams of light with each other, to determine how much
light has been absorbed by any hydrocarbon gases present in the sample chamber.
Another type is based on a beam reflector. Inside the detection chamber an infra-red
beam reflects from a mirror toward a beam splitter. Part of the beam passes through the
splitter to a measuring detector whilst part is deflected to a reference detector. If there are
hydrocarbons in the sensing chamber, there will be a difference in infra-red light between the
measuring detector and the reference detector.
vi). Toxic Gas - Electrochemical.
The construction of an electrochemical sensor was described earlier and that is no
different for an oxygen or toxic gas detecting sensor. What is different is that substance
specific reactants created for use in toxic gas detectors generate an electric current in the
presence of such toxins. Given the construction of these sensors they can fitted into very
small and lightweight units, and are commonly used in multi-gas detectors. They are also
commonly used as stand alone appliances.
vii). Toxic Gas-Chemical Indicator Tubes.
These are by far the common form of toxic gas detecting equipment in use. They are
constructed of sealed glass tubes containing crystals which become discoloured when
exposed to toxins. The equipment is designed to allow a stream of sample atmosphere
to be directed through these tubes via a hand pump. There are very precise instructions
about how the samples of atmosphere are directed toward the crystals and the fixed volume
stated, should not be exceeded. The devices measure concentrations of specific toxins in air.
The glass tubes of crystals have a shelf life which means they need regular replacing.
There is a statutory requirement, under most flag state administrations, that at least two
detectors for each toxic gas likely to be present, are carried by every tanker. Parcel tankers
carry several different grades at once with chemical parcel tankers carrying up to twenty or
more grades of cargo at one time.
Fixed gas detectors are generally used for monitoring spaces, rather than testing prior to
entry, for example, empty double hull ballast spaces whilst a tanker is loaded.
CHAPTER 13
CARGO CALCULATIONS
Introduction-Measuring Equipment: open gauging-restricted gauging-closed
gauging-Methods of Measuring: ullage-sounding (or innage)-tank reference
height-tank calibration tables-trim correction-list correction-temperature
measurement-density measurement - Measurement Terminology: total observed
volume-gross observed volume-gross standard volume-net standard volume-total
calculated volume-Supplementary Terms: ROB/OBO-The Wedge formula-vessel
experience factor-The Calculation Process-Calculation Tables-Cargo Sampling.
Introduction.
In this chapter the process of calculating cargo quantities is examined. Oils and chemicals
are unlike other cargoes carried because they expand and contract with temperature.
A container ship loading in China in January and discharging in Rotterdam in February
will still have the same number of containers on board on arrival, but an oil cargo would
have shrunk in volume due to the temperature differential experienced between the two
ports and on passage. This volume change needs to be accounted for. The mass of the
cargo also needs to be calculated accurately for stability, trim and stress calculations,
a problem which is compounded because liquid cargoes are handled 'blind'. Counting
containers coming onboard is easy, but oil is not visible in normal operations as it is
pipelined into closed cargo tanks. The cargo may come from different storage tanks
ashore giving rise to slight differences in temperature and density and may be blended 'in
line' within the terminal that leads to uncertainty regarding the final density. The cargo
may also contain sediment and water (crude, dirty products) that need to be quantified
where possible.
Accurate ship's measurement is important from a commercial point of view. The ship
is independent of the contract between the supplier and buyer of the oil and also the buyer
and receiver of the oil at the discharge port. If there are any disputes as to quantity loaded
and/or discharged it is often resolved by comparing with the quantities received or discharged
by the ship.
Internationally accepted guide-lines are also examined in this chapter that govern marine
cargo measurement and sampling.
A). Measuring Equipment.
The first stage of quantifying a liquid cargo is to measure the level in the tank. This can
be achieved in a number of ways, depending on the equipment used:
i). Open Gauging.
This is the traditional method of using a calibrated steel or fabric tape. A brass 'bob'
is fitted to the end of the tape which is lowered through an appropriate opening, typically
located on the tank lid. There are some issues with this method as the user is exposed to
vapour coming out of the tank lid whilst using the tape, and the device needs to be earthed
to prevent static charges flowing along the tape. It remains in use by cargo inspectors for
'official' measurement at the beginning and end of cargo operations.
163
(Image: 13/1 -Traditional and digital sounding tapes-Enraf).
ii). Restricted Gauging.

These are portable, battery operated electronic devices that can measure level, temperature
and water interface within the cargo and hence are known as UTIs (ullage, temperature, and
interface). They are intrinsically safe, but should still be earthed by means of the earthing
clamp fitted, and typically most tankers have a few onboard. They are 'restricted' because
they penetrate the tank via a vapour lock restricting the amount of vapour to which the user is
exposed. When the end probe contacts oil (or chemical) the electrical conductivity is changed
and a continuous tone is emitted, and the level is read off against the tape reading reference
point on the device. If water is encountered the electrical conductivity is different to that of
oils and chemicals, and an intermittent tone is generated enabling the he amount of water to
be measured.
iii). Closed Gauging.
This method does not allow any release of vapour and may be either mechanical, float
type equipment (Whessoe) or more commonly a radar based system such as manufactured
by Saab and Autronica. Their use is almost universal since the advent of inert gas. Radar
systems have a high degree of accuracy and can be integrated with pressure and temperature
sensors. The readings can have real time input to a vessel's loading computer.
B). Methods of Measuring.
Irrespective of the method used to determine the level in a tank there are a number of
important references and methods of measuring that need to be understood:
i). Ullage.
This is the distance from the measuring location to the surface of the liquid. When taking
an ullage the tape is lowered to just below the surface of the liquid and the distance the tape
has been lowered into the tank is recorded. The amount of oil (in cm) is deducted from the
total, such that if 1.40m of tape is lowered into the tank and 4cm of oil is measured, then the
ullage is 1.40m-0.04m = 1.36m. With portable UTI devices, the reading is taken when the
continuous tone is heard. The tape is rotated up and down over a short distance to establish
the exact reading from when the tone is first transmitted.
(Image: 13/2-Diagrams of Radar type device-Saab/Rosemount Radar).
ii). Sounding (or innage).

This is the depth of liquid in a tank, measured from the tank bottom up top the level of
liquid. They are not generally used on tankers except when a tank is empty, or almost so.
The reason for this is that there are numerous obstructions such as lengths of pipelines that
can prevent the sounding rod or tape reaching the bottom (see tank reference height).
iii). Tank Reference Height.
This is the height of the tank from the gauging point to the tank bottom. It can be obtained
from the vessel's tank calibration tables. Often it is stencilled on the tank lid, or should at
least be readily available as it is important that when taking a sounding the total distance the
tape is lowered into the tank should be recorded and compared to the tank reference height.
This ensures that the tape has gone the full distance and not hit an obstruction.
iv). Tank Calibration Tables.
These are produced by the shipyard for each tank on board (cargo, ballast, fuel, freshwater).
They show for each centimetre of ullage the corresponding volume. As cargo tanks will have
pipelines in them, the tables usually (but not exclusively) allow for the volume of oil contained
in the pipelines. If pipeline volumes are excluded, there will be a statement to this effect and
the user must add the appropriate pipeline contents to the total ship quantity loaded.
v). Trim Correction.
Liquids will find their own level so that when a vessel is trimmed the liquid surface will
remain parallel to the sea surface and consequently there will be a higher level of cargo at
one end of the tank than the other. Unless the cargo level is measured at the exact geometric
centre of the tank, a trim correction needs to be applied to obtain the equivalent even keel
liquid level. There are a number of ways to achieve this, either by correcting the ullage reading
or by correcting the volume in the calibration tables. The later practice is more common.
vi). List Correction.
This is a similar concept to trim corrections but is used when the vessel is listed.
It is generally required that tankers complete loading with zero list.
The first step is to measure the level and subsequently determine the volume of cargo on
board. It is also required to account for cargo expansion/contraction with temperature, to
calculate the mass of cargo, and to measure the water content.
vii). Temperature Measurement.
It is essential that accurate temperature measurement is taken as small errors can result
in significant volume differences. Calibrated, laboratory standard, thermometers should
be used either to take the cargo temperature or to check electronic devices are recording
accurately. Whichever method is used, temperatures should be taken at top (one metre below
the surface), middle and bottom (one metre above the tank bottom) levels within the cargo
and an average used on a tank by tank basis for calculations. With heavier cargoes such as
fuel oil, it is important to leave the thermometer or electronic device in the cargo at each
level for a few minutes to settle to the correct temperature. It is helpful to move the device
up and down a few centimetres. If thermometers are to be used, then to ensure accuracy of
measurement they should be fitted to an open cup container that will retain some cargo at the
bulb end of the thermometer.
viii). Density Measurement.
Mass = volume multiplied by density.
When carrying out this calculation, the temperature of the oil volume must correspond
to the temperature at which the hydrometer is calibrated. If this is not the case, and it will
almost certainly not be, then either the volume or density has to be corrected, which is
examined below.
Density is mass per unit volume.
It is expressed as grammes per centimetre, kilograms per cubic metre or tonnes per cubic
metre i.e. 0.861 lt/m\ It is also possible that the Specific Gravity or Relative Density is
given. These are both ratios of the density of a substance to the density against a reference
liquid, which is typically fresh water. As they are ratios there are no units involved but
will be numerically the same as density. Alternatively an API gravity figure may be given.
This is simply a factor based upon Specific Gravity. The formula is:
API = 141.5/(SG @ 60°F)- 131.5.
Tables exist that convert API to density.
C). Measurement Terminology.
Having established that volume, temperature and density are required measurements it
is now necessary to apply them. In order to achieve this, it is necessary to understand the
terminology used by cargo inspectors, and indeed the language used by loading computers:
i). Total Observed Volume (TOV).
This is the total volume of all petroleum liquids, basic sediment and water (abbreviated
to BS&W) in suspension plus any free water. AT THE OBSERVED TEMPERATURE &
PRESSURE:
a). As pressure differentials between the outside atmosphere and the inside of the
tanks on oil and chemical carriers is small the effects of pressure are ignored.
b). Unrefined oils will contain impurities in the form of solid particles, sand etc. and
there may also be carried over water from the production process.
c). The BS&W is not readily measurable on board except by laboratory analysis of
the cargo sample and is expressed as a percentage of the total volume (i.e. 0.10%
BS&W).
d). Free water is the measurable amount of water under a quantity of oil once it has
settled out, it is found by means of an interface detector or water finding paste
(changes colour when in contact with water and does not react to oil)
ii). Gross Observed Volume (GOV).
The total of all petroleum liquids and BS&W but EXCLUDING free water.
AT OBSERVED TEMPERATURE & PRESSURE. (Free water is possible in some products
from carry over from water plugs to clear shore lines etc or poor line draining on board)
iii). Gross Standard Volume (GSV).
The total of all petroleum products and BS & W but EXCLUDING free water, corrected
to a STANDARD TEMPERATURE. (60°F/ 15°C) by the appropriate temperature correction
factor for the observed temperature, API, RD or density.
iv). Net Standard Volume (NSV).
The total of all petroleum liquids EXCLUDING BS&W and free water, corrected to
a STANDARD TEMPERATURE. (Applicable to crude cargoes-BS&W is refined out in
products).
v). Total Calculated Volume (TCV).
The total of all petroleum liquids and BS&W corrected to a standard temperature and
including any free water. (Applicable when comparing total volumes received ship/shore,
in-transit etc.)
Of the above TOV, GOV, GSV and TCV are involved in shipboard calculations.
In the next section the process of calculating cargo quantities on board is examined.
If an ullage in a tank is taken and the volume, corrected for trim and list if necessary,
the TOV volume can be found, but this is the volume at the observed temperature and is
purely quantative; there is no distinction between the oil and any detectable water in the tank.
Also there will invariably be a difference in cargo temperature between the load and discharge
port, which will result in a physical volume lose or gain depending on whether there is
a temperature drop or wise. This 'loss' is resolved by correcting volumes to a Standard
Temperature, of which there are two; 15°C and 60°F. The two are not exactly equal, the
former is used when calculation is based on cubic metres and the latter if basing volume on
US Barrels (a US barrel is approximately 159 litres). Volume Correction Factors (VCFs) are
used to reduce observed volumes to those at the standard temperature. These are essentially
expansion factors calculated from an average of different oil types (crude, products and
lubricating oils). Everything else being equal the Standard Volume at the load port will be
the same as the standard volume at the discharge port.
A qualitative measure of the tank contents is also taken. Certain crude oil cargoes contain
water, some of which will settle out of the oil during loading and on passage due to the
difference in density between oil and water. This water is termed Freewater and can be
measured. An interface detector is used, or a sounding tape with water finding paste smeared
on the bob can be used. The paste does not react to oil but if freewater is detected the paste
turns typically from yellow to purple. The volume of water is found by going into the tank
calibration tables and working up from the bottom sounding for the measured innage of
water and obtaining the corresponding volume. The amount of water will change over the
voyage and generally increase due to the extra settling time available. It is standard practice
to measure freewater immediately after loading, again after four days on passage and finally
on arrival at the discharge port. If the volume of water is deducted from the TOV the gross
volume (GOV) is found.
There is one other qualitative measure that needs to be understood, which is the Net
Standard Volume or NSV. It cannot be measured on board but is done so by analysis in the
refinery laboratory from cargo samples (typically from a composite sample of the shore
tanks used during loading). Crudes, and other dirty oils to a lesser extent, will have water and
sediment in suspension. Basic Water and Sediment, or BS&W is measured as a percentage
of the GSV i.e. 0.10%; this can be quantified as an equivalent volume. It is important from
a commercial point of view in that a buyer of the oil only pays for the NSV delivered or
received. The NSV is declared on the Certificate of Quality issued once the cargo has been
loaded and may also be stated on the Bill of Lading.
D). Supplementary Terms.
There are also a number of other terms that need to be understood as they form part of
the calculation process:
i). ROB/OBQ.
The quantity of oil, sediment & water Remaining On Board after discharge or the
On Board Quantity of oil, sediment & water before loading.
ii). Wedge Formula.
This is a mathematical approximation for calculating the volume of liquid oil remaining
in a tank when the vessel is trimmed. It is only applicable when the depth of oil is small
enough that the leading edge of the oil does not reach the forward bulkhead. It is not
generally applied to water volumes and is only valid for flat sided tanks so slop tanks and
one wings may not be measurable. The formulae used, and there are a number of them, are
generally considered to be more accurate than trim correction values derived from ships
calibration tables, although this may not be the case on modern double hulled ships where
computer aided design modelling of tanks may be more accurate than traditional methods
used. Volumes calculated from wedge formulae will generally show less volume than using
trim corrections.
Wedge formulae are only applicable to liquid oil, if the ROB or OBQ is considered to be
non-liquid (i.e. sludge), then the innage is taken to be an equal depth across the entire tank
bottom. This is a bit of a nonsense really as 1cm measured on the end of a 0.5cm diameter
sounding rod used in one location of a cargo tank is hardly representative! If multiple dipping
points are used an average of the readings is taken and used.
iii). Vessel Experience Factor (VEF).
This is used for comparing ship and shore figures over a number of voyages to arrive
at arithmetic mean factor (ship-loaded quantity divided by the shore delivered quantity).
The vessel loading ratio is averaged over a number of voyages to arrive at a mean factor that
should represent the status of a vessel's calibration accuracy. It is used in cargo reconciliation
calculations. Traditionally ships calculated quantities indicate more than the delivered shore
quantity due to calibration differences between ship tanks and shore tanks. Modern double
hull tankers have more accurate tables due to flush-sided tanks and lack of construction
within the tanks making calibration easier and hence ship to shore ratios are converging
towards parity. The VEF is important as the master of the vessel will be signing the
Bill of Lading (BOL). A function of the BOL is to act as a receipt for goods shipped and the
master needs to be sure, as far as is possible, that the quantity declared on the BOL (which
is usually based on the shore-delivered quantity) is actually on board. There will be slight
variances due to small calibration, density or temperature differences between the ship and
shore figures. The VEF aims to reduce these differences to an historic norm.
E). The Calculation Process.
Having understood the terminology it is now put into practice by considering a crude oil
tanker loading a cargo.
The vessel will have arrived at the load port with, probably, a small quantity of the
previous cargo remaining which has clung on bulkheads. This may have gathered in the
bottom of the tank whilst on passage from the last discharge port, so there may be a thin layer
of non-liquid sludge in some tanks. There may also be a mixture of oil and water in the slop
tanks if tank cleaning had been carried out. This is considered to be OBQ and needs to be
measured before loading operations commence. Typically, an independent cargo inspector is
appointed to carry out official measurements ashore and onboard throughout the port stay.
Ship's staff should bear in mind that inspectors do not represent the interests of the ship, as
their independent status is derived from their fee being split between the seller and buyer
of the oil. All measurements and sampling undertaken by the inspector should therefore be
witnessed by a member of the ship's staff and if any cargo samples are taken then the ship
also should be provided with one.
Once loading has been underway for a while it is prudent to take a sample and check
the density is in line with that stated by the terminal. In practice the vessel will be informed
at the loading port what the cargo density is, but this should not be assumed to be correct.
Often cargo is taken from numerous storage tanks ashore and there may be slight differences
in density of each. The figure given may be an estimation of the likely density. The final
density used for calculations of the Bill of Lading quantity may not be known until shortly
after completion of cargo loading when a representative sample will be taken from the shore
tanks and the final density measured. This density is also used for final ship board calculations,
but good tanker practice dictates that at stages through the loading ships staff take their
own densities as a check, any substantial differences should be reported and investigated.
Cargo temperatures should also be checked at regular intervals for calculation purposes.
F). Calculation Tables.
A decision has to be made as to whether to use US Barrels or cubic metres as the unit of
volume, as this will dictate which Volume Correction Tables are to be used. It is probably
easier to use the metric system and convert to barrels at the end as most ships calibration
tables these days are in cubic metres. The following describes the most commonly used
tables which have been those produced by the ASTM/IP (American Standards for Testing
and Materials/Institute of Petroleum).
There are two main sets of tables for volume correction: A and B, for crudes and
generalised products respectively.
The 54 series is for use with the metric system of measurement and the 6 series for the
American (barrels) system. Additional tables give factors for converting between US Barrels
at 60°F to Cubic metres at 15°C (Table 52); Long Tons per barrel (Table 11), and Metric
tonnes per barrel (Table 13).
Depending on which tables are used, the following list will give the Tables to be consulted
in order to arrive at a volumetric and weight/mass calculation of quantities onboard:
a). American System:
Table 6A/6B = Volume correction factors to 60°F.
Table 11 = Long Tons per Barrel.
Table 13 = Metric Tonnes per Barrel.
Table 53 = Barrels at 60°F to Cubic metres at 15°C.
b). Metric System:
Table 54A/54B = Volume correction factors to 15°C.
Table 52 = Cubic Metres at 15°C to Barrels at 60°F.
It should be noted that there is no need to interpolate the Volume Correction Factors
as there is a non4inear change between adjacent values. Simply enter with the nearest
temperature and density to those in the Table.
Loading has now been completed, the final density known and the closing inspection
carried out. All tanks will be measured for ullage, temperature and free water. Temperatures
will be taken using calibrated equipment and recorded at top, middle and bottom levels
within the cargo and an average on a tank by tank basis used for calculations.
The volumetric calculation can now be made back in the ships office/cargo control room.
The sequence of calculation is:
Correct the recorded ullage for trim and/or list if necessary.
Obtain TOV from ships calibration tables.
Obtain Free water volume corresponding to measured innage.
Deduct Free water volume from TOV to find GOV.
Enter appropriate VCF tables with cargo density and observed cargo temperature to
obtain VCF. Table 54 for metric, Table 6 for Barrel calculations. The 'A' series for crudes, the
'B7 series for generalised products.
Multiply GOV by the VCF to find GSV. This is the volume of oil loaded at the standard
temperature.
Add the measured free water volume to the GSV to obtain the TCV.
Deduct the OBQ volume found on arrival from the TCV. This is the total volume of liquid
(oil plus free water) received.
Divide TCV received by the Vessel Experience Factor to get VEF adjusted volume.
Or, as formulae:
TOV-Free water = GOV
GOV x VCF = GSV
GSV + Free water = TCV
TCV-OBQ = TCV received
TCV received divided by VEF = VEF adjusted volume received
It is now necessary to calculate the mass of cargo received. With the metric system this'
is easily done by multiplying the GSV by the density to obtain metric tonnes, although there
is one potential area for confusion. Density is defined as mass per unit volume in vacuo,
with no allowance made for the buoyancy effect of air. Ships do not operate in a vacuum so
a correction has to be made, which can be done using Table 56. For most cargoes carried,
simply deduct 0.0011 from the density in vacuo to get density in air and use this for mass
calculations. For example:
Density(vac) = 0.8611
Correction-0.0011
Density(air) = 0.8600
It is always prudent to confirm from the terminal or cargo inspector if the density being
given is in vacuo or air to avoid misunderstandings and errors in calculations.
Convention dictates that free water is assumed to have a density (in air) of 1.0000 t/m 3
and is always at the Standard Temperature, therefore volume equals mass. This is done as
free water is not usually capable of being sampled as generally only a few centimetres are to
be found.
GSV loaded x Density (in air) = metric tonnes (air) of oil loaded.
GSV + TCV volume = TCV loaded in metric tonnes (air).
If working in Barrels then the process is more complicated as it is not possible to multiply
GSV barrels by the density to obtain mass. It is necessary to use Table 13 which corrects
from Barrels at 60°F (ie: GSV) to metric tonnes in air.
GSV xTable 13 = metric tonnes(air).
G). Cargo Sampling.
Cargo samples are taken at all stages of a custody transfer and are required for quality
control purposes. Ship's staff should protect their owner's interests by witnessing any
sampling and/or drawing their own samples. It is essential that ship's staff draw samples
from the manifold at the start of loading, especially on product or chemical tankers.
If this is not done, it is very difficult to prove that any contamination was not caused by
the ship. Most products are 'water white' or a pale yellow in colour, although some may be
dyed for Customs purposes. Irrespective of this, the manifold sample should be inspected
to see that it is 'clear and bright' i.e. not hazy, does not have any visible particles floating
in it nor water present. The latter can soon be seen if the sample is put to one side for a few
minutes as any water will settle to the bottom of the sample bottle. If there is any concern
about the perceived quality of the sample, loading operations should be stopped until the
issue is resolved. The vessel's responsibility for the cargo begins at the manifold, so if any
doubt exists the cargo should be stopped. Cargo samples should be retained on board in a
dedicated locker outside of the accommodation and disposed of eventually in accordance
with Company procedures. If samples are placed on board for delivery to the discharge port
cargo receivers, a receipt should be obtained upon delivery.
Cargo calculating on tankers is not an exact science but by following industry practice;
understanding the terminology, and using calibrated equipment, the margin of error is within
acceptable limits. The ship measurement is often used to resolve load port and discharge
port discrepancies and so should be accurate as possible. Cargo losses can be 'real' such
that oil has physically gone astray somewhere during the custody transfer, or may be due
to calculation errors which are regarded as a 'paper' loss. Close monitoring and accurate
calculations can help to ensure the ship is not the source of either type of loss.
CHAPTER 14
VETTING INSPECTIONS
Introduction-Statutory Surveys-Port State Control Enforcements (PSC>-
Commercial Inspections: Oil Majors' vetting schemes-Independent vetting schemes-
The Inspection Process-Tanker Management Self Assessment (TMSA)-
Tanker Officer Training Standards (TOTS).
Introduction.
Tankers, like all merchant vessels, are subject to numerous inspections during their life
literally from cradle (building) to grave (scrapping). Many of the inspections are carried out
by flag state inspectors or classification societies acting on their behalf, to ensure compliance
with regulations or revalidation of ship certificates.
When a ship calls at a foreign port, the port state authorities have the legal right to inspect
foreign flag ships to check on certification and to see they do not pose a threat to the local
environment or infrastructure. These are known as Port State Control (PSC) inspections
and are carried out within regional frameworks known as Memorandum of Understanding
(MOUs). There are also internal and external audits associated with the ISM Code or a
company's quality system.
Since the late 1980s the concept of commercial, as opposed to regulatory, inspections
have become embedded in the tanker industry. They are commonly known as fvetting
inspections' and are used as a risk management tool by mainly oil, chemical and gas tanker
chartering companies (typically the oil 'majors') to assess the suitability of a vessel for the
carriage of their cargoes.
Deck officers on a tanker will be exposed to vetting inspections and so knowledge of
the reasons for and the conduct of them are required. Additionally, the charterers, risk
assessment strategies have in recent years begun to address the human element of shipboard
operations. One aspect of this is the Tanker Officer Training Standards (TOTS) and this
has a day to day impact on tanker officers as it is individual to each of them and requires
the progression through a record book and carrying out Computer Based Training (CBT) to
assess competence.
A).Statutory Surveys.
The International Maritime Organisation (IMO) is the United Nations agency with
responsibility for shipping. It has no regulatory or enforcement powers but member states
incorporate the various Conventions and Codes into their respective countries laws. It is
within Conventions such as SOLAS, MARPOL, load line and tonnage that certification
and subsequent surveys or inspections are conducted. The difference between a survey and
inspection is not a clear one, but the former relates to issuing or validating certificates, whilst
inspections relate to a non-statutory process.
In theory, statutory surveys are undertaken by flag state administrations, but due to
resource limitations many of the surveys are carried out by class societies on behalf of the
flag state. Even if this is the case, the flag states retain legal responsibility for applying the
laws under which the survey is conducted.
173
Class societies will also be involved in providing technical knowledge and expertise
during the ship-building phase and on-going maintenance issues throughout the ship's life.
The following lists the main statutory certificates a tanker will have:
• Cargo Ship Safety Construction Certificate.
• Cargo Ship Safety Equipment Certificate.
• Cargo Ship Safety Radio Certificate.
• Load line Certificate.
• IOPP (for MARPOL Annex I).
• IMO Certificate of Fitness (for Chemical Tankers).
• IMO Certificate of Fitness (for Gas Carriers).
• ISPS Certificate.
• IAPPC Certificate (MARPOL Annex VI).
• EIAPPC Certificate (MARPOL Annex VI).
• ISPP Certificate (MARPOL Annex IV).
Statutory certificates are valid for five years and have annual, intermediate and renewal
surveys. An understanding of the purpose of the particular certificate and good preparation
for an up-coming survey will ease the process and help to ensure no surprises at the time
of the survey. For example, a load line survey is essentially concerned with the water tight
integrity of the vessel and involves inspection of water and weather tight doors; hatch securing
arrangements, ballast tank vents, and scupper arrangements. All well run ships will have
these inspected regularly and in advance of a survey. The officer carrying out the inspection
should inspect the condition of rubber door or hatch seals and carry out a hose test where
appropriate. Vents should be inspected for corrosion and the float mechanisms checked to see
that they are free to move and not damaged.
For fire fighting or live saving equipment, the requirement is for all equipment to
be fit for the intended purpose; ready for immediate use, located in the correct position
(with cross checks against the ship's plans and the attachments to the relevant certificate),
well maintained and regularly inspected. Items with a limited life span such as food
provisions, hydrostatic release units should be within their period of validity.
B). Port State Control (PSC) Enforcements.
Port state control is the means by which port states enforces regulatory requirements,
such as MARPOL, STCW, and ISM Code and, by extension, they find sub-standard ships.
Port states are government agencies and have legal powers to police and enforce legislation
within their jurisdiction. In the past each PSC had operated in isolation but, since the early
1980s, regional agreements have developed known as Memorandum of Understanding
(MOUs). The first was the Paris MOU in Europe and there are presently nine others, such
as Tokyo, Caribbean, Indian Ocean and the Arab States. In the USA, the USCG, which is a
quasi-military organisation, performs a MOU function.
This regional approach aims to, in the words of the Paris MOU, to:
"eliminate the operation of sub-standard ships through a harmonised system of Port
State Control".
The various MOUs have resource and budgetary constraints so have developed
sophisticated targeting models in order to achieve their aims. In assessing a potential ship
for inspection, various risk factors will be assessed such as type of ship (it may be thought
tankers are more of a risk than cargo ships, but from a detention viewpoint the reverse
is the case); where the vessel is registered (ie: its flag state), her governing classification
society, crew nationality, and date of last inspection. With regard to flag states these are often
graded in white, grey or black lists, depending upon statistical performance. The White List
considers quality flags and the Black List indicates sub-standard flags in any given year.
Classification societies are similarly graded.
PSC inspectors have great power. They may detain a ship or require deficiencies to be
corrected before sailing and even ban a ship from their region. One of the criticisms of PSC
is that the inspections do not look at the whole ship. Often targeted campaigns are carried
out in a given year such as looking at an ISM Code or fire fighting appliances. Commercial
vetting inspections automatically inspect the entire ship. With PSC there is also no guarantee
that a ship will be inspected within a given region, although the increasing sophistication of
the targeting matrices makes this less likely.
C). Commercial Inspections.
These are non-statutory and may be carried out by the ship operator as part of a quality
or safety management system, by an insurance company such as a P & I Club, a prospective
buyer or by an inspector working within one of the main ship vetting schemes. This section
will concentrate on the latter:
i). Oil Majors' Vetting Schemes.
Modern ship vetting schemes have been around since the early 1990s and developed as
concerns over the increasing number of shipping, and in particular tanker, casualties and
incidents. With increasing exposure to stringent penalties for pollution, and negative media
coverage affecting a charterer's reputation, came the realisation that the regulatory regime
concerning safety at sea was insufficient. The use of third party tonnage was perceived as
introducing added risk due to varying standards of operation. The oil majors in particular,
having divested themselves of owning tonnage (partly as a result of the Exxon Valdez
incident and other high profile casualties), needed to charter in tonnage to meet supply and
demand commitments. Ship vetting was introduced by charterers as a risk management tool
to basically address the question regarding the standard to which any proposed ship would
be considered acceptable. What was 'acceptable' was subjective leading each charterer to
develop their individual criteria and inspection format. Typically ex-tanker senior deck
officers drawn from the oil majors own fleet were used as inspectors.
It was gradually realised that ships were in an invidious position as they were sometimes
meeting oil company X' criteria but falling short of the requirements of oil company 'Y'.
It was not unknown for three or four inspectors representing different charterers, or other
interests such as terminal superintendents or insurance companies, to board the vessel
simultaneously. This over-burdened ship's staff and was perceived to be counter-productive
to the safety concept the inspection was aiming to promote.
ii). Independent Vetting Schemes.
More formal vetting schemes were developed as a result, namely the Oil Companies
International Marine Forum (OCIMF) introduced the Ship Inspection Report Programme
(SIRE) scheme. Around the same time, the Chemical Distribution Institute (CDI) scheme
for chemical tankers and gas carriers was started. Although similarities exist between the
schemes, there are crucial differences in procedures and application. For example, oil tankers
are still subject to multiple inspections (typically three per year) and each charterer will send
an inspector to a ship according to their needs as part of their risk assessment pre-charter,
even though the various inspectors will use the same SIRE report matrix. The CDI scheme
relies on one inspection per ship each year (or more if the technical manager changes within
the year), and the various users of the scheme accepting that ship have access to the report
via the CDI database. There is some cross over between the two schemes as many chemical
tankers are also certified to carry oil and thus may be inspected by both CDI and SIRE.
The latter has chemical and gas supplements to their standardised report formats for this
scenario. The two schemes also use a common Vessel Particulars Questionnaire (VPQ) that
concentrates on non-variable items such as vessel dimensions, tonnages, mooring equipment
fitted etc. This was introduced as a means of cutting down inspection workloads for the ship
and inspectors, although there is no cross-acceptance of reports.
The present ship vetting schemes are self-regulatory devices that sit alongside 'commercial'
audit schemes such as classification society surveys and inspections, and regulatory
inspections such as regional port state control inspection by government bodies. The ISM
Code is mandatory for most ship types and involves internal and external audits. Ship vetting
can be considered to be a parallel device to ISM Code requirements.
E). The Inspection Process.
The inspection process is governed by standard reporting formats and is largely aimed at
equipment and checking of paper-work. As the human element is a critical factor in maritime
incidents, the inspector will be looking for a safely operated ship and harmonious working
relationships. The CDI scheme has gone further by requiring from 2007 the inspectors to
question officers and crew about their job role, seeking evidence of their knowledge and
proficiency with the policies, procedures and equipment on board.
It will be necessary to prepare and plan for a scheduled inspection. Both schemes use a
standard reporting format which is readily available from the respective organisations and
the inspector must follow this format and answer all questions in the inspection books. With
this level of transparency, the inspection process can be a relatively painless event and the
duration, making manageable the workload on ship's staff.
Each inspector has his own preferred sequence of inspection, but a common one used
will follow the pattern:
1. Introductions and opening meeting to set the terms of the inspection.
2. Checking of ship and crew certificates.
3. Bridge.
4. Deck.
5. Outside accommodation, including Life Saving Appliances.
6. Engine room.
7. Internal accommodation, including galley, storerooms, medical locker.
8. Closing meeting to provide the Master with the findings of the inspection and to give
the Master an opportunity to question or challenge the inspector's findings.
In preparing for the inspection it is sensible to have, the ship's certificates available in
the order they appear in the inspection books. Pre-checking of equipment such as breathing
apparatus, fire extinguishers should be also undertaken. It should be remembered that the
inspector is looking for compliance and not the level of compliance. If three out of four
breathing apparatus are in good order, but the last one is only 50% full of air then the
inspector will record a 'no' response and make an observation. The minimum acceptable
level is compliance with statutory requirements, but the aim of the inspection is to require
'best practice'. This is a higher standard and will involve meeting areas that involve a
recommendation from an authoritative body such as the mooring equipment guidelines, or a
desirable item such as all officers having ECDIS training. The latter is not currently required
by STCW, but is something a quality operator would require.
The Inspection Books contain guidance notes for the inspector. These should be used
when preparing for the inspection. As an example, the following question, and guidance note
is in the SIRE inspection book:
9.19 Are mooring wires, ropes and synthetic tails in good order?
Notes: Splicing of ropes is acceptable, but reduces the strength of the rope by
about 10%. Splices in eyes and for repairs should have a minimum of 5 tucks.
Particular attention should be paid to the eyes of mooring wires, if there are more
than three broken wires in any strand, or five in any adjacent strands in a length
of wire 10 times the diameter, the damaged part requires removal and the wire
re-splicing.
There should be a routine for the maintenance of wires and the lubrication
of them using a preservative which will effectively penetrate the strands
and wires.
A frequently asked question concerns if an inspection has been passed or failed, but
it should be understood that the inspector does not 'pass' or 'fail' the ship. His role is to
act as an auditor. It is the end user of the completed report who, in conjunction with other
information, decides whether or not to charter the vessel based on the report. There will be
variable criteria involved as a part of the entire risk-assessment process and it cannot be said
that a tanker with ten negative responses will fail and one with nine will pass. It is not so
much the number of negatives as to where they have occurred. The fact that a fridge door
retaining clip is broken is of less concern than there being inadequate passage planning
carried out. It can safely be said that charterers will require a 100% positive response on
questions relating to a regulatory item. Beyond that they may require a similar level on some,
or all of the cargo or bridge related questions.
At the closing meeting, the inspector will present the master with his findings and provide
a record of observations which often relate to negative responses. If the master can provide
subjective evidence that the inspector was wrong, then the observation will be amended or
removed. The master also has the opportunity to make his own comments at this stage, but
answers cannot be changed once the inspector has left the vessel.
The inspection report will be uploaded to the respective database for the end user to
access. The ship owner (or technical manager) has the opportunity to make his own comments
within a limited time frame which is typically fourteen days, but the inspector does see these
comments.
F). Tanker Management Self Assessment (TMSA).
TMSA was an initiative launched in 2004 by the oil majors as a means by which tanker
operating companies could measure and improve their own ship management systems.
It was a reaction to the perception held that despite the ISM Code having been in force for
a number of years, there were still inadequate safety management issues. It has not been an
easy task to decide if the ISM Code has been effective. Certainly, reputable companies have
benefited through having an improved safety record, but 'mid-range' companies could regard
it merely as a 'paper exercise' and a means of compliance, whilst sub-standard operators
obtain certification and use port state control merely as a feedback tool.
From a potential charterer's viewpoint it is hard to differentiate between a mid-range
operator and the bad. An effectively operating ISM code and regulatory compliance is
considered the minimum requirement but the charterer will require a quality operator to
reduce the risk of accidents. From an operator's perspective, it is difficult within a sector to
judge how one operator is performing against the competition in terms of safety management.
This has been addressed by 'bench-marking' where each company assesses their own
performance against Key Point Indicators (KPIs) and enters them on a database administered
by OCIMF. It is an anonymous procedure and so sensitivity about revealing company specific
data is removed, but it enables a company to assess its 'league position' across the KPIs.
One of the main aims of TMSA is to improve safety management and measuring progress is
part of that process.
The KPIs aim at 'best practice' and have an emphasis on safety and environmental
excellence. There are eleven areas, namely:
• Management, leadership & accountability.
• Recruitment & management of shore-based personnel.
• Recruitment & management of ship's personnel.
• Reliability & maintenance standards.
• Navigational safety.
• Cargo, ballast & mooring operations.
• Management of change.
• Incident investigation & analysis.
• Safety management.
• Emergency preparedness & contingency planning.
• Measurement, analysis & improvement.
Within each area, or element, there are four stages, with Stage 1 being lowest and Stage 4
the highest. The ship operator decides which stage within each element the company is at,
and decides what needs to be done to reach the next stage. The operator needs to be realistic
about the stage, otherwise a false sense of security can be achieved and a charterer, when
auditing the office, will pick this up. It is important to be at the correct stage and to be able
to fully document it. Stage 1 can be considered to be full compliance with the ISM code and
Regulatory compliance, Stage 4 is the Gold Standard that should be aspired to. In 2008 most
companies were between Stage 2 and 3 in most KPIs.
TMSA is not designed to replace a companies Safety Management System (SMS) but
works alongside it. It may be that a company does not have to do anything to their system, or
may only have to 'tweak' it. A company's aim should be towards a long term improvement
rather than a quick fix by examining, for example, if bringing forward the inspection
interval for cargo line tank valves on an individual ship would have a better management
outcome than instigating a fleet wide refresher training programme on the company's
Planned Maintenance System. It may be argued that the latter is better in achieving long
term improvement. TMSA can be seen as an extension of the original vetting schemes in
that auditing of the company is involved.
G).Tanker Officer Training Standards (TOTS.)
Whereas as statutory inspections, vetting or TMSA can be seen as an assessment of a
ship or a company, TOTS is directly aimed at the individual officer. It is a new initiative
that was introduced by INTERTANKO (the organisation that represents the interests
of independent tanker owners) in April 2008 to address a couple of problems that have
surfaced over the past few years. Firstly, some charterers have started to specify within
charter parties (the contract between the ship owner and the charterer of the ship for the
carriage of the cargo) to specify 'Officer Matrix' requirements for the manning of the ship
for the duration of the charter. These cover 'Time in Rank', 'Time with Company' and
'Time on Tankers', all of which contribute to assessing whether there is sufficient experience
on board to safely operate the vessel. Time with the company is considered important as it
suggests familiarity with a company's safety and quality management systems. There is no
standard officer matrix clause and charterers have developed their own. The aim is to have a
sufficient level of experience on the ship in each rank. One clause required twenty-five years
'Time in Rank' with a 'reasonable' distribution amongst the ranks. Another is more
prescriptive requiring the following: Senior deck officers to have aggregate five years in
rank, two years with the company and each a minimum five years service on tankers.
The senior engineers are to have five years in rank and two years with the company.
Inevitably, there are a number of problems with both of these classifications particularly
with the definition of the word 'reasonable'. What is reasonable to the ship operator may
not be so for the charterer, which is important as the latter decides if a ship is or is not
'acceptable'. In the latter there is a barrier to promotion or hiring in people from another
company, who may be very good. TOTS are not a replacement for an Officer Matrix but
should help to ease compliance.
The second driving force behind TOTS is an increasing number of incidents whether
collision, stranding, fire or hull and machinery failures, over the past few years after a long
period of decline. There is a feeling in certain sectors that this rise in incidents may be due
to lack of experience by ships staff. This may be for a number of reasons but the world wide
shortage of skilled seafarers and the reduction in sea service requirements for certification by
many administrations can be seen to support the argument.
TOTS will impact directly on a tanker officer as he or she will be provided with a TOTS
Training Record Book (TRB) as part of the programme. This is only part of TOTS, as there
are a total of four elements involved:
1. Training Record Books (TRB).
2. Computer Based Assessment.
3. Company Verification.
4. Ship-specific Practical Simulator.
The training record book comprises Part A, which includes a record of 'time in rank'
and ship specific details plus three modules based on rank, namely master, senior officer
(deck and engine) and junior officer (deck and engine). Within each module are a number
of tasks that must be satisfactorily completed and signed off on board. A junior officer is
expected to complete the junior officer tasks but may also carry out senior officer ones.
The TRB is therefore not only a current rank competency record but enables officers to
prepare for promotion. Part B which details time with the Company is aimed at showing an
officer's familiarity with the company's safety management system, reporting and operating
procedures, company's planned maintenance system and security matters. If the officer
changes company he or she will have to start again with Part B task as the procedures in the
new company will be needed to 'learnt'.
The TRB junior deck officer module comprises tasks under the following headings:
• General Shipboard operations.
• Navigation.
• General tanker section.
• Chemical tanker supplement.
• Product tanker supplement.
• Crude oil tanker supplement.
Within each heading are sub-sections with specific tasks to be completed. The task is
described and will be signed off by the supervising officer. Then there is a section for advice
on areas for improvement or comment on ship specific tasks. The task is then signed off
for a second time if the evaluation is satisfactory. There are record sheets for the master's
monthly inspection of the TRB and also the designated training officer on board and also the
company inspection of the book. It is therefore a comprehensive record of competence and
training and should be viewed as such by the individual, colleagues and the company.
The Computer Based Assessment (CBA) is to verify the officers understanding of the
tasks. It is CD-ROM based and comprises around 2000 questions. Once the tasks for a
particular section are completed the candidate selects the module which is rank based and the
section such as pilotage or mooring. Questions are answered and on completion a certificate
is generated with the percentage score for that module. Further attempts can be made but
the questions will be different on each occasion. The final assessment is made under exam
conditions either on board ship or ashore from a separate CD-ROM. There is no limit to the
number of attempts a candidate may have but the attempts must be authenticated that the
officer personally sat the test.
The company verification section is designed to verify an officer's understanding of
the company management procedures. It will be up to the company to decide how to do
this, which may be through in-house seminars and testing, or possibly by computer based
assessment. It can be aligned with TMSA auditing requirements.
The final section covers simulator training and verification and is aimed at specific type
of TOTS such as chemical, product and crude cargoes. Each module runs alongside the
tanker supplements in the TRB and will be run by maritime training establishments that will
be subject to auditing to ensure the appropriate level of training and verification is achieved.
Once the officer has completed the appropriate type specific simulator training it is expected
he or she will attend the appropriate simulator verification course for senior officers.
TOTS is a new initiative and is ambitious in its outlook. It has benefits to all parties
involved in marine transportation of liquid cargoes and aims at continuous improvement
and verification of competence and as a means of easing compliance with the charterers
increasingly stringent demands.
It can be argued that merchant ship's, and tankers in particular, are 'over inspected' but
this is the reality today and the tanker officer must accommodate the various inspection
regimes into his or her job. Understanding of the rationale behind a particular inspection,
whether port state, flag state or any of the industry driven inspections will guide the competent
officer and enable adequate preparation to be made. It should always be borne in mind that
all inspections are aimed at maintaining or improving standards and hence making the lives
of those at the sharp end of seafaring safer.
(Image: 14/1-Specimen pages from TOTS-Intertanko).
A. General Shipboard Operations

A.I Ship Handling & Characteristics
Task Completed Advise on Areas for Task Completed
Supervising improvement Supervising
No. Task / Duty
Officer/Instructor Comment on ship specific task Officer/Instructor
(1) (2) (3)
Initials Date Initials Date
The candidate is to showa full understanding
ofthe requirementsand preparations before
anchoring. The candidate will accompany
1. the Master to observe the requirements
and practical operation involved in the
anchoring procedure from the bridge on at
least one occasion.
The candidate will understudy the Master
to carry out the requirements and practical
2. operation evolved in the anchoring
procedure from the bridge on at east one
occasion.
The candidate will under the supervision
of the Master carry out the requirements
3. and practical operation involved in the
anchoring procedure from the bridge on at
least one occasion.
Thecandidateistoshowafull understanding
ofthe requirements and practical execution
of navigating the vessel on the approach
to the anchorage and the anchoring
4.
technique. This will include understanding
engine movements and why they are made,
along with practical ship handling skills in
the anchorage area.
The candidate will observe the actions
of the Master during the approach to
the anchorage and during the anchoring
5.
process with regard to engine movements
and ship handling throughouttheanchoring
procedure on at least one occasion.
Thecandidateistoshowafull understanding
ofthe requirements and practical execution
of navigating the vessel on the weighing
anchor technique and departure from the
6.
anchorage This will include understanding
engine movements and why they are made,
along with practical ship handing skills in
the anchorage area.
The candidate will observe the actions of
the Master during the weighing anchor and
departure process with regard to engine
7.
movements and ship handing throughout
the anchorage departure procedure on at
east one occasion.
25th April 2008 TOTS 1A. 1M Edition

INTERTANKO Tanker Officer Training Standard Page 35 of 93
10. Master's Monthly Inspection of Record Book

Name in BLOCK
Ship Comments Initials Date Ship's Stamp
CAPITALS
25,h April 2008 TOTS 1A. Is1 Edition

11. Company's Inspection of Record Book

Name
Ship Comments Initials Date
(BLOCK CAPITALS)
25th April 2008 TOTS 1 A. I s1 Edition

CHAPTER 15
RESPONSE TO OIL SPILLAGE
Introduction-Oil Spillage: Ship-board Oil Pollution Emergency Plan (SOPEP)-
reporting of incidents-actions to control discharge-steps to initiate external response-
Case Study-spill response equipment-Grounding-Collision -
Fire: General-Fire: Cargo Manifold or Deck-
Fire: Cargo Pump-room-Pump-room rescue.
Introduction.
The number and nature of emergency scenarios that could develop on an operational
tanker are considerable. In this chapter a list of the statistically most likely eventualities
are examined, along with contingency plans to deal with them. Like all lists this one is not
comprehensive and different scenarios are likely to be encountered.
A). Oil Spillage.
i). Ship-board Oil Pollution Emergency Plan (SOPEP):
Though an oil spillage, from whatever source, may not be the most safety compromising
of the situations listed above, it is surely the most likely on an oil tanker. It is commonly
held amongst seafarers and governments that environmental protection is a priority and
legislation was examined in chapter eleven which dealt directly with this issue. What has
become prescribed more recently is a legislative requirement for ships to possess their own
Shipboard Oil Pollution Emergency Plan (SOPEP).
Before considering the structure, purpose and function of the SOPEP, identification is
necessary of the most likely sources of oil spillage:
• Leaking lines or valves.
• Leaking manifold blanks on lines not in use.
• Leaking manifold connections.
• Burst lines or hoses as a result of pressure surge.
• Fractures in pipe work on deck or under the deck.
• Fractures in bulkheads, particularly between cargo and ballast tanks.
• Leaking Crude Oil Washing or other tank cleaning lines.
• An overflow from a cargo or bunker fuel tank as a result of negligence or
excessive list.
• Leaking sea chest or over board valves-note the ICS/OCIMF publication
Prevention of Oil Spillages through Cargo Pump-room Sea Valves.
• Inadequately fitted or missing scupper plugs.
• Inadequate, full or leaking drip trays.
Again this list does not pretend to be exhaustive but gives the most likely sources.
In each case the significance of checking, double checking and constant observation cannot
be over emphasised. Rather than deal with each point separately and how they might be
individually avoided, a sound and comprehensive approach to the operation based on the
company operations manual should result in safe and efficient ship-board practice.
183
(Image: 15/1-Specimen page from SOPEP-Sea Coast).
Vessel Response Plan Table of Contents
Volume 1 — Shipboard Oil Pollution Emergency Plan (SOPEP)

Review & Revisions
Approvals & Certifications
Table of Contents
Shipboard Spill Response Field Guide
1. Introduction
2. Preamble
3. Reporting Requirements and Notification Procedures
4. Shipboard Response & Mitigation Procedures
5. National and Local Coordination
6. 24-hour Contact Information
7. U.S. COTP Zone Contacts
8. International (Coastal State) Contacts
9. List of All Parties With a Financial Interest in the Ship
10. Non-Mandatory Provisions
Vessel-Specific Appendices
Alaska ODPCP Supplemental Appendix
Volume 2 — Shore-Based Response and Supplemental Information
11. Introduction - Volume 2
12. Shore-Based Response Procedures
13. Health and Safety Plan
14. Communications
15. Prevention Plan
16. Training and Exercise Procedures
17. Response Strategies
18. Waste Storage and Disposal
19. Non-Mechanical Response
20. Additional Information
21. Glossary
Geographic-Specific Appendices (for each COTP Zone)
USCG VRP #01700 Page TOC i

AK ODPCP #033-CP-2217
CA OSPR VRP #V8-FL-0345
(Image: 15/2-Specimen page from SOPEP-Sea Coast).
3.0 REPORTING REQUIREMENTS AND NOTIFICATION

PROCEDURES
This Section provides reporting requirements and notification procedures. Reporting and notification may be
verbal or written.
The Master will notify the SCT Duty Operations Manager. The Qualified Individual (Ql) or designee is
responsible for reporting a spill to federal and state agencies and determining if notification of the
OSRO/RAC is necessary. Upon receiving notification from Duty Operations, the Ql or designee will continue
with additional notifications and activation of the appropriate level of incident response. If Duty Operations or
the Ql or an alternate is not available, the Master or Person-in-Charge (PIC) is responsible for reporting the
event to the USCG National Response Center (NRC), local USCG Office, and state office of emergency
services and determining if notification of the OSRO/RAC is necessary.
Reporting Sequence
3.1. When to Report

Notification should be made immediately, once initial safety, control and containment actions are underway, by
the quickest means available for any oil discharge to water, and as soon as possible for any incident that
could lead to a significant discharge or threatens to impact the marine environment. It is up to the Master/PIC
to continually assess a situation and make spill call-out notifications once a situation represents a threat of
discharge. This information should be provided once initial containment and control actions are underway.
USCG VRP #01700 Page 3-1

AK ODPCP #033-CP-2217
CA OSPR VRP #V8-FL-0345
Yet after all considerable training and education, oil spillages still occur every day.
This is the reason why legislative authorities impose the requirement for a SOPEP on all
ships (over 400 tons gross) irrespective of its cargo and on all tankers over 150 tons gross.
Whilst there is inevitability that spillages will continue to occur, the provision is that each
ship will have a plan once these happen.
SOPEP provides a course of action that shipboard personnel should follow in responding
to an oil pollution emergency. It is not exhaustive and should not be used as a sole reference
in response. The steps are designed to assist ship personnel in actions to stop or minimise
the discharge of oil and mitigate its effects. The bulk of SOPEPs are composed of two
subject areas: to whom to report the incident, and shipboard action to deal with the incident,
with the bulk of the material under the first category about three times the volume of that
under the latter.
In more detail, these are the sub-headings under the two areas:
a). Reporting:
When to report.
How to report.
Who to contact.
What to report.
b). Actions to Control Discharge:
Navigation measures.
Seamanship measures.
ii). Steps to Initiate External Response
Individual chapters within the plan will deal with each of these issues in much greater
detail as well as the matters of national and local response co-ordination. The importance
of record keeping, plan review and training and drills for SOPEP response actions are also
covered.
Spillage of oil into the sea must be avoided, other than for reasons of preserving the safety
of the ship. If a spillage occurs from a tanker whilst alongside, considerable repercussions
will occur resulting in extremes of outcome. In addition to action from the port and coastal
authorities, the local press are likely to pay a visit with resulting adverse publicity to ship and
owners. A Case Study illustrates an example of an incident emphasising a likely scenario:
Case Study:
A crude oil tanker was re-circulating a slop tank during part of its final COW and tank
stripping operation. There was more oil in the slop tank than had been estimated by the deck
operatives, so a small over flow resulted. Regrettably, oil from the tank lid reached the fish
plate surrounding the deck and found its way over the side of the ship and into the harbour.
The local lunchtime television news bulletin could not wait to inform the public at large of
the morning's local environmental apocalypse and gleefully announced how 'between four
and five barrels' of oil had escaped into the water. By the evening television bulletin, though
the spillage had been contained instantly, the figure was changed to '196 gallons' making
the disaster sound even more spectacular. The wonder is in the quest for sensationalism the
escaped quantity was not measured in millilitres with the additional gravitas of numerous
additional zeros in their report.
Spill Response Equipment:
The spill response kit is part of an ordered SOPEP There are no precise legislative
requirements in terms of items of specified equipment, but the following are commonly
included:
• One or more absorbent floating booms, with which to envelop the ship.
• Absorbent mats.
• A series of protective overalls, boots and gloves for staff dealing with the spillage
(examined in chapter twelve).
• Environmentally sensitive dispersant for application through spray guns.
• A supply of dispersant with which to replenish the spray equipment.
The kit is often kept in one or more deck lockers but it is more practical to have them in
'wheelie bins' in order to reduce response times in the event of a spillage.
B). Grounding.
A grounded tanker inevitably evokes adverse media response and even when the offending
vessel is a dry cargo ship it is frequently erroneously reported as a tanker probably for emotive
effects. To establish whether any bottom damage has occurred, the initial seamanlike response
is to sound around the tanks to ensure that there is no oil where there should not be or to
ascertain if oil is present in undesirable areas. The impact of a tanker running aground may
be severe enough for superstructure to buckle and mechanically ignite escaped flammable
cargo vapour.
It was the horrendous results of the Exxon Valdez grounding in Prince William Sound
which led to the introduction of the American Oil Pollution Act of 1990 (OPA90) and the
amended Annex I of MARPOL, leading to the eventual insistence on double hulled tankers,
as mentioned in chapter eleven.
(Image: 15/3-The Exxon Valdez incident was instrumental in leading to extensive legislation with far reaching
repercussions on the tanker industry. Here the vessel is seen as the re-named Exxon Mediterranean-R. Weekes).
C). Collision.
There is no shortage of case studies of tankers involved in collision and the subsequent
release of oil cargo and perhaps fire as well. The June 1993 collision between the
British Trent and Western Winner is an example of such an incident. The former was the tanker
which ended up with greater loss of life and severe fire damage than the dry cargo ship.
The impact of the collision, similar to that occurring during a grounding, may cause
buckling and the subsequent ignition of escaped flammable vapour by mechanical sparking.
The double hull tanker design is less likely to prevent a spillage in this case, although this
will be decided by the level of the impact of the collision.
SOPEP again will indicate the immediate response in the event of an escape of oil as a
result of either grounding or collision, or any other reason for that matter.
D). Fire: General.
It is a sign of confused values that frequently in tanker casualties the extent of a fire is
often reported with emphasis rightly on any environmental pollution, but frequently at the
expense of loss of life board the ship. An incident within a VLCC lightering zone in which
a pump-room fire on a tanker claimed the lives of four men, but the coastal radio stations
headlined their bulletins with details of the spillage of oil into the water with subjugation of
news of the loss of life. The very ethic of SOLAS is based on recognition of the priority of
human life.
All ships are required to have contingency plans and to conduct drills practicing their
emergency response. In the event of a fire breaking out whilst the tanker is alongside, the
terminal will need to co-ordinate a response, even if it constitutes only of evacuating the
region and calling the local fire brigade. If the fire is big enough, there is the possibility that
ships from adjacent berths may need un-mooring. Fire plans should be regularly up-dated in
terms of changes of crew and positions of fire fighting appliances. This information should
be kept in a fire-proof wallet on the bridge whilst at sea, but in a terminal office away from
the jetty when alongside.
Though this point may be more in the domain of terminal management, the visit of local
fire fighting personnel to tankers should be encouraged. This is in order to familiarise their
staff to fire fighting appliances commonly fitted on such ships and ship's staff should not be
surprised to find shore fire staff requesting such visits.
As examined in chapter nine, fire wires may have to be rigged at either end of a tanker
alongside, as required by the particular terminal, so that in the event of a major fire tugs
can be summoned and tow the tanker away from the berth without any mooring operations
having to be conducted separately on board the tanker.
If the fire is not so large but still requires the use of shore fire fighting staff, there will
need to be a way of connecting ship and shore fire mains. This connection is known as
an International Shore Connection (ISC) and takes the form of a flange, obviously with
different fittings on either face. It is not within the remit of this publication to detail the
dimensions of this item of equipment, yet its presence on board is a mandatory requirement.
All ships' copies of ISGOTT illustrate the fitting in more detail.
E). Fire: Cargo Manifold or Deck.
Whilst a tanker is alongside and working cargo, fire fighting equipment should be ready
for immediate use such as:
• Hoses run out, connected to the hydrants and charged with water.
• Portable dry chemical powder extinguishers positioned adjacent to the manifolds.
• The main fire pump running.
• Fire monitors, if fitted, ready for immediate use.
• It should be remembered that all ships should retain sufficient staff on board, at all times,
to respond to and deal with an emergency situation. This is of particular importance
when there is a temptation to allow shore leave to too many crew at one time.
F). Fire: Cargo Pump-room.
One additional resource at the disposal in a tanker pump room will be the smothering
system, most likely consisting of carbon dioxide. The major issue to be established before
the smothering medium is set off, is that the pump-room has been entirely evacuated of
personnel. Even then, rather like the same situation with an engine room fire, is the question
of whether or not the fire proves so severe that the smothering system might have to be set off
before the space can be evacuated. Something of a moral dilemma is presented to the master,
since he or she has to weigh up the loss of one or two lives being less damaging than the lives
of everyone else on the ship. This is especially relevant if the fire is likely to be so severe that
loss of the ship is a possibility.
The level of fire in a pump room may or may not require the activation of the fixed
smothering system. Smaller fires may be extinguished by portable apparatus but water hoses
are likely to be of very little use considering that oil is the most likely fuel of a fire in this
space. The fitting of fixed hydrocarbon gas detectors in many tanker cargo pump rooms
has become mandatory in order to reduce the chance of flammable vapour being detected
before it has a chance to be ignited. If uncontained flammable vapour is compromising the
atmosphere in the pump-room, even with the ventilation fans running, or perhaps even if
the ventilation has stopped, there will be an emergency escape set of breathing apparatus
positioned at the bottom of the pump-room.
(Image: 15/4-Fire monitor on the deck of an

operational tanker-Ray Solly).
G). Pump-room Rescue.

This is another activity that should be practiced regularly during emergency drills.
The nature of the machinery in this space makes rescue particularly difficult necessitating
emergency evacuation of this space. A lifeline and fitting for a harness or rescue stretcher is
often led through a fitted shackle or block and tackle arrangement. This will go under the
heading of 'enclosed space rescue' and should one part of a broader enclosed space rescue
programme.
INDEX
Aframax Size Tankers 23 C O W Disadvantages 130
Aframax Size Tankers-Tank Arrangement Plan 24 C O W Instructions 128
Air Pollution Prevention-Loaded Passage 102 C O W Line Cleaning 130
Atmosphere Explosible (ATEX) 40-43 C O W Operations.... 128
Auto Ignition Temperature 11 C O W Precautions 130
Ballast Voyage 109 C O W Systems 128
Bell Mouth 76 Critical Properties of Petroleum Products 109
Berthing 112 Cross-Overs 75
Bouy Moorings (SBM/SPM)-Precautions 98 Crude Oil 6
Breathing Apparatus 154 Crude Oil-Chracteristics 104
Brush Discharge 45 Crude Oil-Refining Process 7
Bunker Fuel Lines 19 Crude Oil—Tvpes 105
Buov Moooring Arrangements 114 Crude Oil Washing ( C O W ) 107
Buov Mooring-Multiple Bouvs 115 Crude Oil Washing ( C O W ) 123
Buoy Mooring-SPM/SBM...'. 115 Current Electricity 47
Butterfly Valves 82 Dangerous Space Entry 143
Cape-size Tankers 23 Dangerous Spaces-Atmospheric Hazards 148
Cargo-Calculation Process/Tables 169-171 Dangerous Spaces-Case Study One 148
Cargo-Care during Passage 102 Dangerous Spaces-Case Study Two 149
C a r g o - H e a t i n g Systems 108 Dangerous Spaces-Entry Precautions 155
Cargo-Loading Different Grades 102 Dangerous Spaces-Gas Freeing 145
Cargo-Measuring Equipment 163 Dangerous Spaces-Physical Hazards 153
Cargo-Measuring Methods 163-165 Dangerous Spaces-Protective Measures 153
Cargo-Measuring Terminology 166 Deck Pipe-Lines 76
Cargo-Planning the Discharge 104 Dilution Gas Freeing 145
Cargo-Remains on Board (ROB) 108 Direct Heat 29
Cargo-Sampling 171 Direct Line 74
Cargo-Stripping 108 Discharge Mechanism 43
Cargo-Terminology 107 Displacement Gas Freeing 146
Cargo Discharge Plan 91-96 Double Hull Spaces 28
Cargo Loading Report 89 Double-Hulled Tankers-Features 25
Cargo Measuring-Supplementary Terms 168 Dresser Couplings 77
Cargo Plan-Considerations 101 Duty and Care of Cargo 102
Cargo Planning 87 Eductors 85
Cargo Pump Shafts 18 Effective Cargo Plans 87
Cargo Pumps 83 Electrical E q u i p m e n t - Examples 40
Cargo Samples 19 Electro-Static Discharge 45
Cargo Temperature Control Lines 19 Electro-Static Discharge-Precautions 46
Cargo Transfer Equipment 121 Elephant's Foot 76
Centrifugal Pumps 83 Emergency Shut Down (ESD) Systems 122
Characteristics of Crude Oil 104 Emergency Tow-Off Wires 97
Charge Accumulation 44 Enclosed Space Entry Permit 147
Charge Separation 43 Enclosed Spaces 143
Charter Party Clauses 99 Expansion Trunk 1
Charter Partv/Vovage Orders Terms 98 Finger Piers 114
Chemical Distribution Institute (CD1) 175 Fire-Cargo Manifold/Deck 188
Chemical Energy 34 Fire-Cargo Pump Room 188
Chemical W a s h ' 124 Fire-General 188
Chemistry of Oil-Hydrocarbon Chain 5 Fire Temperature Point 11
Cold Water Wash.....' 124 Fire Triange 9
Combination C a r r i e r s - O B O 27 Flammabilitv 8
Commercial Vetting Inspections 175 Flammable Range 10
Confined Spaces 143 Flashpoint 10
Contaminated Clothing 20 Flashpoint 109
Conventional Mooring Patterns 113 Float Level Gauges 71
Corona Discharge 45 Floating Storage Units (FSU) 118
C O W Advantages 130 Flue G a s - D i a g r a m 54
191
192 INDEX
Flue Gas Inert System 51 Oil Spillage-Collision 187
FPSO .' 118-119 Oil Spillage —Grounding 187
F P S O Unit 118 Oil Spillage Pollution Emergncy Plan (SOPEP) 183
Gas detecting Instruments —Fixed 157 O I L P O L - 1 9 5 4 Convention....' 133
Gas Detecting Instruments-Portable 159 OPA90 25,187
Gas Evolution-Application 63 Oxygen-Paramagnetic Property 156
Gas Evolution-Discharging Cargo 66 PSd Clubs 175
Gas Evolution-Loading Cargo 63 Panamax Size Tankers 23
Gas Freeing-Dilution 145 Parcel Tankers 73,84
Gas Freeing-Displacement 146 Parcel Trades 25
Gas Safe Zone 21 Petroleum Products-Critical Properties 109
Gate Valves 83 Phase Separation 104
Gauging Systems 71 P i e r s - T and Finger 114
Handy Size Tankers-Handymax 23 Pipe-Line Systems 74
Hazardous Areas 17 Port State Control (PSC) Enforcements 174
Hazardous/Safe Zones 40 Portable Gas Detecting Instruments 156
Heatring Systems for Cargo 108 Positive Displacement Pumps 84
H o t Water Wash 124 Pressure Drop diagram 103
H o t Work Permit 35-36 Pressure Surges 122
ICS 183 Pressure Tapes 72
Ignition Energy 29-30 Pressure/Vacuum Relief 68
IMO .'. 59, 60,124,173 Propogating Brush Discharge 46
I M O Publications 47 Pump Room Lines 78
IMO/IMCO 133 Pump Room Rescue 189
Independant Vetting Inspections 175 Pumping Clauses 100
Independent Vetting Schemes 175 Pumps-Centrifugal 83
Inert Gas-Definition 50 Pumps-Positive Displacement 84
Inert G a s - D i a g r a m 52 Pumps - Screw 85
Inert Gas-Emergency Operations 60 Pyrophoric Iron Oxides 39
Inert Gas Composition 41 Pyrophoric Iron Sulphide 61
Inert Gas system-Deck Isolation Valve 56 Radar Gauges 71
Inert Gas System (IGS) 18 Reasons for Tank Cleaning 123
International Oil Prevention Certificate (IOPP) 139 Remains on Board (ROB) 108
INTERTANKO 179 Retention on Board 70
ISGOTT 2 1 , 2 2 , 2 7 , 3 3 , 34, 45, 47, Ring Main 74
123,125,144,156 Rivers and Harbours Act 1890 (USA) 133
I S G O T T Safety Guide 21 Safe Tanker Designs 17
Isherwood, Sir Joseph 2 Safety Barrier-Legitimate Penetrations 20
ISM Codes 174,177 Safety Barriers 18
Jetties-Consideration Ill Safety Barriers-Permitted Breaches 18
Jetties-Design Ill Safety Procedures-Tanker & Terminal 88
Load on Top 70 Screw Pumps 85
Loaded Passage-Prevention of Air Pollution 102 Segregated Ballast Tanks (SBT) 74
Lower Explosive Limit (LEL) 9 Shell Tanker Company 1
Lower Flammabilitv Limit/Level (LFL) 9 Ship Inspection Report Programme (SIRE) 175
Manifolds '. 77 Ship to Ship Transfer (STS) 120
MARPOL 67, 68, 74, 77, 81,102,107,124,126, SHIPS-Aegean Sea, rat 34
131,134,141,173,174,187 S H I P S ./•<,„,. VLCC 3,73
M A R P O L Annexes 135-138 S H I P S /)'';/.'•*/' Trent 34,187
M A R P O L Regulations/Recommendations 25 S H I P S El,-. Maersk, VLCC 3
Material Hazard Data Sheets ( M H D S ) 12-16 SHIPS-Elisabeth Knutsen, mt 44
Measures to Avoid Static Generation 125 S H I P S - £ n / ' « , mt 28
Mechanical Sparking 34 S H I P S /•:..', Glasgow, mt 39
Merchant Shipping Act 1998 UK 143 SIIII'S Exxon Valdez., V L C C 25,187
Monitoring Conduits 19 S H I P S - GulfScandic, mt 23
Multi-Buoy Mooring 115 S H I P S /,,/•••< Viking, U L C C 118
OCIMF...' 67,113,120,175,178,183 S H I P S - K i n g Hakkon IV, V L C C 49, 50
Offshore Loading Plan 88 S H I P S Knwi Nevis, U L C C 118
Oil Discharge Monitoring Equipment S H I P S La Prudencia, V L C C 3
(ODME) 74,81,171 SHI PS - Mactra, VLCC 49
Oil Discharge Monitoring/Control System 141 bill's A / . , V L C C 49
Oil Majors' Vetting Schemes 175 S H I P S - Mast era, mt 24,73
Oil Record Book 139-140 SHIPS-MobilPetrel, VLCC 69
INDEX 193
SI lll'S /'./,•(/ /!//y. mt 2 Tanker Mangement Self Assessment (TMSA) 177
SHIPS -Prestige, mt 28 Tanker Officer Training Standards ( T O T S ) 179
SHIPS Shabam.ii'. L N G 70 Tanker Officer Training Standards ( T O T S )
SHIPS Sii".nina. mt 24 Record Book 181-182
SHIPS-Stan-vacJapan, mt 34, 136 Tanker Safety and Pollution Prevention 1978 135
SHIPS \,v,M Vision, U L C C 22 Tanker Structure Co-Operative Forum 26
S H I P S - Torrey Canyon, mt 133 Tanker/Berth Precautions 97
SHIPS - Welsh Venture, mt 69 Tanker/Mooring Arrangements 97
SHIPS - Western Winner 187 Tankers Classes 22
Single Buoy Mooring (SBM) 118 Terminology of Crude Oil Cargo 107
Single Point Mooring (SPM) 115 T e r m s - C h a r t e r Party/Voyage Orders 98
Single Ring Main 75 Too Lean Tank Atmosphere 125
SOLAS 1974 17,21, 49, 51, 52, 53, 56, Too Rich Tank Atmosphere 125
65,66,69, 70,135,173 Toxicity 11
SOLAS-Reporting Requirements 62 Toxicity-Effects 12
S O P E P - C a s e Study 186 Toxicity-Safe Levels of Exposure 12
S O P E P - O i l Spillage Emergency Plan Reporting 185 Toxicity-Threshold Limit Values (TLV) 12
S O P E P - S p i l l Response Equipment 187 Trade Winds magazine 150
Spark Discharge 46 True Vapour Pressure (TVP) 8
Static Electricity 42 Types of Crude Oil 105
Static Generation-Measures to Avoid 125 LTLCC-Ultra Large Crude Carrier 23
Statutory Surveys 173 Upper Explosive Limit (UEL) 9
S T C W Regulations 174 Upper Flammability Limit/Level (UFL) 9
STCW95 141 Vac-Strip System 84
Stripping of Tanks 108 Valves-Butterfly 82
Stripping System-Diagram 85 Valves-Gate....' 82
STS-Chec'k Lists 1 120 Vapour Control 66
STS-Moorings 120 Vapour Emission Control 67
Summer Tanks 1 Venting Systems 66
Swash Bulkhead 2 Vetting Inspection Process 176
T Piers 114 Vetting Inspections 173
Tank Atmospheres 125 Vetting Schemes-Independent 175
Tank Cleaning-Crude Oil Washing ( C O W ) 123 Vetting S c h e m e s - O i l Majors' 175
Tank Cleaning-Draining 128 VJ Couplings 78
Tank Cleaning-Equipment 126-127 V L C C - E n d - o n View and Dimensions 25
Tank Cleaning-Fixed/Portable Machines 127 V L C C - General Arrangement/Tank Plan 4
Tank Cleaning- Reasons 123 V L C C - T a n k Construction 26
Tank Cleaning-Washing Cycles 127 V L C C - T a n k Nomenclature 26
Tank Cleaning-Washing Medium 123 V L C C - V e r y Large Crude Carrier 23
Tank Draining 75 Volatility and Vapour Pressure 8
Tanker & Terminal Safety Procedures 88 Work Permit 36-37

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CONTENTS

Chapter One: Historical Background 1

(Image: 1/2-The introduction of the transversal web frame swash bulkhead

GENERAL ARRANGEMENT/TANK SECTION

i). The Hydrocarbon Chain.

(Image 2/1-Diagram showing various hydrocarbon chains).

B). Crude Oil.

Substance Carbon Atoms Atmospheric Usage

D). Volatility and Vapour Pressure.

Hydrocarbon AIT (°C) Flashpoint (°C)

MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEET

Product Name: Crude Oil Last Revision: 06/26/07

Synonyms: Petroleum Oil, Crude

2. COMPOSITION & INFORMATION ON INGREDIENTS

Note: This product has not been tested by El Paso Corporation

Carcinogenicity: NTP IARC Monographs OSHA Regulated

Potential Health Effects From Overexposure

Skin: Moderately irritating; causes redness, drying of

Inhalation: Will cause narcosis and/or chemical pneumonitis.

Ingestion: Extremely irritating to throat and stomach. Causes

Additional Medical and Toxicological Information

4. FIRST AID MEASURES

Eye Contact: Flush thoroughly with large amounts of water for at

Skin Contact: Remove contaminated clothing. Wash affected areas

Inhalation: Remove to fresh air. If breathing has stopped,

Ingestion: Do not induce vomiting. If spontaneous vomiting

Eye Protection: Remove contact lenses and wear chemical safety

Hazardous Decomposition Products- CO ГО чп , , ,

(Image: 3/1-The 'Design for Safety' as introduced by SOLAS 1974, which

i). Safety barriers.

(Image: 3/4-...and looking aft.-Ray Solly).

B). Different Classes of Tankers

ii). Other types of tanker

(Image: З/9-The forward end-on view and tank section

ii). Double Hull Spaces

WORK PERMIT SYSTEM ! no.

4.20.0. HOT WORK PERMIT

GENERAL To be prepared by Master/Responsible Officer

2.2 I quipment Pipeline containing following substances, when in service:

2.4 Special Conditions Precautions required:

In the circumstances noted it is considered safe to proceed with the work:

HOT WORK PLAN & PROCEDURE:

Following Safety Precautions made (ref. fig.9.2 IS(JOTT):

4.20.2. (•as Measurements:

Time Result (level) Remarks s

WORK PERMIT SYSTEM Dec MO.

4.17.0. ASBESTOS/HAZARDOl S MATERIAL WORK PERMIT

GENERAL: To be prepared by Master/Responsible Officer

SECTION 1 To be prepared by Officer in Charge of work to be performed.

1.5 Has electrical equipment been isolated" • Yes ONo DNA

SECTION 2 To be prepared by Master/Responsible Officer

Information and instructions to person carrying out work:

2.3 Special C onditions Precautions:

Authorised person in charge: Date: lime'

WORK PERMI T SYSTEM 1 toe no

4.22.0. ENCLOSED SPACE - ENTRY PERMIT

GENERAL To be prepared by Master/Responsible Officer

Requirements: Time measured: Readings: