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Magnetic Field Application and its Potential in Water and

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Magnetic Field Application and its

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Treatment Systems
a a a
Nur Syamimi Zaidi , Johan Sohaili , Khalida Muda & Mika
b
Sillanpää
a
Department of Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Civil
Engineering , Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM) , Johor , Malaysia
b
Laboratory of Green Chemistry , Lappeenranta University of
Technology , Mikkeli , Finland
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To cite this article: Nur Syamimi Zaidi , Johan Sohaili , Khalida Muda & Mika Sillanpää (2014)
Magnetic Field Application and its Potential in Water and Wastewater Treatment Systems, Separation
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DOI: 10.1080/15422119.2013.794148
Magnetic Field Application and its Potential

in Water and Wastewater Treatment Systems
NUR SYAMIMI ZAIDI1 , JOHAN SOHAILI1 , KHALIDA MUDA1 ,

and MIKA SILLANPÄÄ2
1
Department of Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Civil Engineering,
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM), Johor, Malaysia

2
Laboratory of Green Chemistry, Lappeenranta University of Technology, Mikkeli, Finland
This review is intended to critically convey information on water

magnetization and to discuss each application that employs mag-
netic field as an aid in wastewater treatment. The magnetically
assisted wastewater treatments are presented and compared in
terms of performances with those of conventional treatment sys-
tems. The advantages and limitations of magnetic field application
are discussed in order to evaluate their environmental benefits. The
main conclusion from the literature review is that magnetic field
application has the potential to improve the physical performance
in terms of solid-liquid separation mainly through aggregation of
colloidal particles. The application is also significant in influenc-
ing the biological properties through the improvement of bacterial
activity. Both of these enhancements lead towards increase in
efficiency of the water and wastewater treatment performances.
KEYWORDS Magnetic field, water and wastewater treatment,

solid-liquid separation, aggregation, performance efficiency
INTRODUCTION
This article reviews magnetic field applications, particularly in environmen-

tal engineering to improve treatment systems or processes. The concepts
of magnetization, such as magnetic gradient, Lorentz force, and magnetic
Received 27 June 2012, Revised 15 December 2012, Accepted 27 February 2013.

Address correspondence to Nur Syamimi Zaidi, Department of Environmental
Engineering, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM), Johor Bahru,
Johor 81310, Malaysia. E-mail: nursyamimi@utm.my or nursyamimizaidi@yahoo.com
206
Magnetic Field for Water and Wastewater Treatment 207
memory are all considered. The implementation of magnetic field in var-

ious applications, particularly in the crystallization of calcium carbonate,
water purification, coagulation and sedimentation of colloids particles, and
wastewater treatment are presented. Then, the potential benefits and lim-
itations of magnetic field applications in water and wastewater treatment
systems are discussed, and conclusions are drawn. Recommendations for
future research work are emphasized.
Magnetic field applications have been known for centuries (1, 2). The
concept of induction was introduced by Michael Faraday as early as 1830,
claiming that when a magnetic field flux is crossed by flow ions or a
conductive material, electrical current is induced. Although magnetic field
applications were rapidly pursued in order to prove Faraday’s claim, atten-

tion from researchers and industrialists worldwide was lacking (3). Still,
Faraday’s results are the foundation of all electrical power systems, includ-
ing motors and generators. For water applications, Faunce and Cabell (4)
improved the findings later on by designing an electromagnetic device to be
installed in the cooler system so as to recycle and treat hard water. As a result
of the feedback regarding this device, magnetic field applications in this area
have improved considerably. The first commercial magnetic device for water
treatment was patented in Belgium by Theo Vermeiren (5). According to
Baker and Judd (6), the effectiveness of magnetic field for water treatment
applications is still a controversial question, and the relevant phenomena
cannot be clearly explained (7).
Early evidence of possible magnetic applications in water treatment was
obtained some decades ago by Russian scientists (16). When water passed
through the pipelines of a boiler or engine machinery, mineral deposits from
the water adhered to the walls of the pipes. Over time, the passage became
narrower and the delivery of water to the machinery was reduced. The
efficiency, fuel consumption and mechanical strength of the machine were
subsequently degraded. While studying this problem, the scientists noticed
that the mineral deposits did not stick to the sides of those pipes carry-
ing magnetized water. These observations agreed with those of Hibben (8),
Raisen (9), Szostak and Toy (10), Pandolfo et al. (11), Watt et al. (12), Hogan
et al. (13), Paiaro and Pandolfo (14), and Hammond (15). The magnetization
of water for industrial use was then established. Researchers also found that
water or other types of fluids can become magnetically charged when they
are kept in contact with a permanent magnet of the proper strength for a
considerable time (16).
Magnetic field has also been successfully applied for separation pur-
poses (17, 18). Magnetism is a unique physical property that independently
facilitates applications such as water purification by affecting the physical
properties of contaminants in water. In combination with other processes,
it can improve the efficiency of purification technology (19). This physical
treatment helps to avoid the use of chemicals such as polyphosphates or
208 N. S. Zaidi et al.
corrosive substances, which are expensive and can be harmful to human life
or disruptive to the environment.
Magnetic technologies are currently being implemented in various ways
through the application of either permanent magnets or high-gradient mag-
netic separation (HGMS) in combination with magnetic seeding, magnetic
adsorption, or an electromagnetic device. The different approaches to mag-
netic applications have significantly different effects on the performance of
each system. The use of permanent magnets normally creates a uniform mag-
netic field. However, the field can be varied by changing the orientation and
arrangement of the magnets. Different shape of permanent magnet can also
exhibit different magnetic field. Meanwhile, if an electromagnetic device is
used, dynamic magnetic field is generally obtained. Hence, this review arti-
cle also presents evidence of how various implementations of magnetic field
affect system performance.
CONCEPTS OF MAGNETIC APPLICATIONS
The mechanism of magnetic applications has not been completely confirmed

scientifically by researchers. Many papers describe different types of mag-
netic mechanisms, and several of them are even in conflict with each other.
This is because most of the literature does not consider the entire effect of an
application. According to Kronenberg (20), the basic principle of magnetic
applications is related to the existence of molecular nucleation. However,
this principle does not explain how it can be achieved or why the effect of
magnetism can differ depending on the media or application. This review
article highlights four factors that contribute to the use of magnetic field:
magnetization and exhibition of a magnetic field (21, 22), a magnetic gradi-
ent (8, 23), Lorentz force (6, 24, 25), and magnetic memory (2, 26–31). These
factors determine a complete concept and mechanism for the effectiveness
of magnetic field applications.
Magnetization and Exhibition of Magnetic Field

Particles or molecules can be categorized as positively charged (positive χ)
or negatively charged (negative χ), where χ is their magnetic susceptibility.
Their magnetization M can be expressed as
M = χv .H (1)
where H is an applied magnetic field in emu/cm3 , M is magnetization of a

particle after exposure to H , and χv is a measured magnetic susceptibility of
the molecules’ electrons due to the magnetization. Molecular substances can
also be classified as polar or nonpolar. In a nonpolar molecule, the center of
FIGURE 1 Effect of a magnetic field on polar (top) and nonpolar (bottom) molecules.
gravity of the positively charged nuclei and the electrons coincide, while in
a polar molecule, they do not.
Both polar and nonpolar molecules are illustrated in Figure 1. In the
absence of magnetic field, polar molecules are positioned randomly. Thus,
their negative and positive charges are impossible to attach to each other,
even though collisions between the molecules occur. However, when the
samples are exposed to a magnetic field of certain intensity, the polar
molecules are easily aligned in accordance with their positive and negative
charges. Meanwhile, nonpolar molecules in the absence of a magnetic field
move continuously at random because the positive and negative charges
coincide in the centers of molecules. This inhibits coagulation. However,
under the influence of a magnetic field, the positive and negative charges
can be separated. The molecules are aligned in accordance with the direc-
tion of the magnetic field (21). With the resulting alignment, as shown in
Figure 1, the molecules are in an orderly arrangement, causing the particles
to coagulate and aggregate. In addition, the number of dipoles pointing in
the direction of the field increases with increasing field strength. This makes
it more likely that the particles coagulate and that uncommon or unnecessary
particles or pollutants can be removed.
Magnetic Gradient
Hibben (8) and Oshitani et al. (23) claimed that the effectiveness of a mag-
netic application ultimately depends not only on the magnetic strength but
also on the magnetic gradient or magnetic flux concentration, which changes
frequently along the magnetic device. The energy E produced by the mag-
netization M of a material and the magnetic field H for a volume V of the
material can be expressed as follows:
E = −VM.H = −V (χv .H ) .H (2)
Eq. (2) can be simplified by assuming that the material load is parallel to the
magnetic field and density when M is uniform. Thus, the magnetic interaction
force F can be obtained as expressed in Eq. (3), where χo is the magnetic
susceptibility of the material that accommodates the magnetized material.
F = − (dE/dx) = (χv − χo ) VH (dH /dx) (3)

In Eq. (3), the most critical parameter that affects the effectiveness of
magnetic applications is dH /dx, which indicates the rate of change of the
magnetic field strength with distance and is called the magnetic gradient.
When the magnetic field is uniform, dH /dx = 0, so the particles are mag-
netized and aligned with the magnetic field. However, the particles are not
exposed to a magnetic force that would ensure their separation from the
solution. The magnetic gradient also becomes more significant when the
volume V of material that is separated is small. The highest magnetic gra-
dient is required in order to produce the strongest magnetic force on the
particles for separation purposes. In addition, existence of the magnetic gra-
dient and a magnetic field of alternating strength become more effective
than a static magnetic field for the aggregation such as CaCO3 . The imple-
mentation results in more rapid crystallization occurrences,thus enhancing
the de-scaling process in a shorter period of time. These significant effects
were proven by Kronenberg (20), Oshitani et al. (23), Iwasaka and Ueno
(32), and Franzreb and Holl (33).
Magnetic filtration can also be conducted by creating a magnetic gradi-
ent that can trap suspended solids (34) and starch (35, 36) from a solution.
In this case, the magnetic gradient can be developed by allowing a solution
containing charged particles to flow through coils that are magnetized by
permanent magnets located outside the pipes. The north and south poles
of the magnets are arranged alternately in opposite directions to create an
alternating magnetic field (37). A combination of coil magnetization and the
magnetic field produces magnetic gradient of higher intensity. This causes
the flux lines to become considerably close to each other and more con-
centrated. The flux intensity increases with increasing coil concentration.
When the solution flows through the coils, the charged particles are attracted
thus separated from the original solution (22). The intensity of the mag-
netic gradients therefore depends greatly on the magnetic strength and the
characteristics of the coil magnetization.
Lorentz Force
Another significant factor that influences the mechanism of magnetic applica-
tions is the Lorentz force. This force affects charged particles moving through
a magnetic field. The force increases linearly with particle charge, the par-
ticle velocity, and the orthogonal vector component of the magnetic field
strength (6). As shown in Figure 2, when charged particles flow in the direc-
tion perpendicular to the direction of the magnetic field in the same plane,
they produce a Lorentz force that is also perpendicular to the direction in
which the charged particles flow and the magnetic field direction (24, 25).
The Lorentz force acts in the z-plane. Consequently, the charges on the sur-
faces of the particles are displaced from their original positions, causing the
molecules to become unstable. The unbalanced particles move randomly and

collide with each other, which cause them to aggregate (21, 38). The Lorentz
force has been proven to promote enhancement of water-related mech-
anisms, including dissolution enhancement (39, 40), crystallization nuclei
formation (41), stabilization of coordinated water (30), and double layer
distortion (42).
Lorentz force is commonly exemplified by the phenomenon of electrical
generators as shown in Figure 3. This figure indicates that when a wire
carrying an electrical current I is placed in a magnetic field B, each of the
moving particle charges comprising the current can experience the Lorentz
force F. The force can also appear when both magnetic and electrical
fields are acted on the moving particle charges. The induced Lorentz force
creates a macroscopic force on the wire that is responsible for the motional
electromotive force (EMF), the force underlying many electrical generators.
When a conductor is moved through a magnetic field, the Lorentz force tries
to push electrons through the wire, creating the EMF (22). This phenomenon
has been applied in the development of a magnetic treatment device (MTD)
in water applications to inhibit limescale deposition on pipe wall (39,40).
FIGURE 2 The Laplace-Lorentz force on a moving charged ion is at right angle of both the
ion flowing direction and the magnetic field direction.
FIGURE 3 An electric wire with cross-section A flown by a current I is submitted to a force

F when placed into a magnetic field B. Figure 2 gives the direction of F.
Magnetic Memory
Magnetic memory can be defined as a period in which particles can sus-
tain their magnetization properties after being exposed to magnetic field
of certain intensity. Magnetic memory phenomena have been reported by
Ellingsen and Kristiansen (26), Tombácz et al. (27), Higashitani et al. (28,
29), Srebrenik et al. (30), and Colic and Morse (2, 31). The effects of mag-
netic memory on particles were recorded over time periods ranging from
10 minutes (26) to 150 hours (28, 29). Higashitani et al. (43) found that
the magnetic memory can be observed until 6 days after the exposure of a
CaCO3 solution to magnetic field.
In explaining magnetic memory, Lychagin (44) postulated that when
a magnetic field affects water molecules, it changes their kinetic energy.
These occurrences change the momentum of the dipolar molecules and thus
cause particles aggregation. The formed aggregates are stable and sufficiently
large, making it difficult for them to return to their original shapes even
after the magnets are removed. This indicates that the magnetic memory
stored by the aggregates can last almost permanently (22). The results were
also supported by Colic and Morse (2), who claimed that changes in the
molecular structure are caused by magnetic memory. However, the effects of
magnetic memory on microorganisms or bacteria may differ from those on
water molecules or other particles. For particles, higher magnetic memory is
proven to improve the aggregation, but the condition is not so applicable for
bacteria or microorganisms. Magnetic memory of either weak or high may
improve or hinder their growth activity, thus influencing the performance
of systems, especially the wastewater treatment system. Such consequences
can be explained in terms of magnetic susceptibility. Different bacteria exist
in a system and may have limitations on the susceptibility level towards the
magnetic field. When the level is exceeded, the bacteria may die or exhibit
growth reduction (45–46).
IMPLEMENTATION OF MAGNETIC FIELD

IN VARIOUS APPLICATIONS
Magnetic technology has been used for decades in various applications. The
following sections highlight application of magnetic technology in the field
of water and wastewater treatment.
Crystallization of Calcium Carbonate (CaCO3 )

CaCO3 precipitation has been the focus of numerous investigations because
of its application in several industrial processes as pigment, brightener filler,
and adsorbent (47–51). However, CaCO3 scale deposition causes damages
and operational issues such as pipe blocking, membrane clogging, and effi-
ciency decay in heaters or heat exchangers. Various methods have been
used to prevent scaling, which include water decarbonization through elec-
trochemical processes, seeding or acid addition, and the addition of chemical
inhibitors. However, these chemicals are deleterious to human health, and
their use is forbidden in drinking water. Therefore, physical methods have
been developed to avoid the addition of these chemicals; magnetic treatment
of hard water is one of the methods currently used to prevent incrustation
by these mineral salts (51, 52).
CaCO3 can be categorized into three different polymorphs: calcite, arag-
onite and vaterite. Of these three, the most dominant polymorphs are calcite
and aragonite. Donaldson (53) proved that the existence of a magnetic
field may cause occasional differences in the type of precipitated crys-
tals. The initial ratio of calcite and aragonite was 80:20, but changed to
20:80 after magnetic treatment. This change promoted the precipitation of
CaCO3 because aragonite seemed to be more easily precipitated as compared
to calcite (54). Calcite in contrast, is the most thermodynamically stable form
at standard temperature and pressure (7), and is likely to form dense layers
that are difficult to be removed mechanically. Under normal conditions, arag-
onite seed crystals grow very little. When a magnetic field was applied, the
aragonite grew significantly; the growth rate increased to a constant value
after a certain period of magnetization (55). The pre-magnetization time to
reach a steady growth rate was also shortened when applying higher mag-
netic field intensity or applying the magnetic field to the aragonite seed
crystals.
A large number of studies have also been conducted to support the
proposed mechanisms of magnetically affected crystallization behavior, with
reference to crystallization nuclei formation (6, 56, 57). Experimental studies

in this area reported that magnetic treatment can both accelerate nucleation
(6, 20) and suppress it (6, 53, 58) depending on the solution chemistry. Two
theories have been developed to address the effects of magnetic field on
CaCO3 precipitation: (1) a direct effect on dissolved ions and (2) a magnetic
effect on particulates. Examples of direct effect on dissolved ions have been
presented by Higashitani et al. (29), who investigated the characteristics of
CaCO3 crystals formed from a mixture of magnetically treated, calcium chlo-
ride and sodium carbonate. Magnetic flux density of less than 300 mT with
an exposure time of greater than 10 minutes resulted in the suppression
of CaCO3 nucleation frequency and acceleration of the growth of nucle-
ated crystals. The solutions exposed to the magnetic field maintained the
magnetic effect on CaCO3 formation for at least 120 h (29, 59). Meanwhile,
the second theory that postulates a magnetic effect on particulates can be
explained in terms of the effect towards the particles presence in water. The
effect changed the surface charge of the particles thus positively influenced
the rate of nucleation and precipitation of CaCO3 (59).
Wang et al. (60) also reported that without a magnetic device, precip-
itation of CaCO3 began at a slow rate. The turbidity reading was very low
and increased only to 0.05/cm after a period of 4 to 8 min. However, with
exposure to a magnetic field, the turbidity reached its maximum of 0.81/cm
in 2 min and decreased gradually as the particles settle. A remarkably steep
increase in turbidity, which indicates rapid nucleation and precipitation, was
observed in this study. Similar results have been obtained by Tebenihin and
Gusev (61), who passed hard water through a constant magnetic field at
a fixed speed of 0.1 m/s. The results also show that the number of par-
ticles increased with increasing magnetic field up to 800 mT, whereas the
crystal sizes decreased with increasing magnetic field up to 300 mT (60).
The observations suggest that the nucleation rate is directly related to the
application of the magnetic field. Wang et al. (60) also claimed that the
types of effects that most probably affect the dispersion solubility, crystal-
lization of CaCO3 are magnetically modified hydration of ions and solid
surfaces (62–64), and the Lorentz force that affects ions and dispersed
particles (65, 66).
Contradicting observations on the effect of magnetic field towards
crystallization have been reported by Szkatula et al. (67). For hard water
containing silica, magnetic application was found to cause less effect on
crystallization. This could be due to silica activation that is activated by
the induced Lorentz force exhibited from the exposure of magnetic field.
Lorentz force was observed to facilitate the adsorption of positively charged
calcium and magnesium ions towards the negatively charged silica colloidal
particles. As a result, Ca-Mg-silica hydrosols were created in the processes
of adsorption and coagulation. Occurrences of calcite crystallization were
inhibited due to this strong adsorption of calcium and other metal ions
on magnetically activated silica. The total mass of the deposit in magneti-

cally treated water containing silica was approximately 25 times less than
that in untreated water (67). The counteractions of silica and carbonate
cations under magnetic field exposure inhibiting crystallization have also
been observed by many researchers (28, 43, 62, 68). Hence, in order to pre-
vent the water system against scaling, it is necessary to magnetically expose
only a small fraction of silica that is present in the system (67).
From the literature, it can be concluded that a magnetic field may
gradually convert the CaCO3 clusters in a supersaturated solution from a
calcite-like form to an aragonite-like form, accelerating aragonite growth and
suppressing calcite growth. The description of the mechanism also indicates
that magnetic treatment can decrease scaling by encouraging the homoge-

neous nucleation of CaCO3 . However, for the treatment of water containing
silica, exposure of magnetic field has to be conducted precisely so that
accurate amount of silica is exposed. Thus, normal process of CaCO3 crys-
tallization can still occur. Table 1 summarizes the studies on the effects of a
magnetic field on crystallization of CaCO3 .
TABLE 1 Effects of magnetic field on crystallization of CaCO3
Magnetization Factors Observed Effect Ref.
Intensity (126.56–180 mT) Higher intensity of 180 mT developed aragonite (55)

seed crystals in shorter time, promoting
effective efficiency in anti-scaling
Intensity (160 mT); Exposure Total precipitate quantity of CaCO3 increased (51)
time (15 minutes)
Intensity (338.8–126.56 mT); Calcite growth rates were lower under magnetic (50)
Exposure time (24–48 hours) field exposure; aragonite was induced after
48 hours exposure
Intensity (160 mT); Exposure Nucleation rate increased as exposure time (7)
time (5–30 minutes) increased
Intensity (100 mT); Temperature Magnetic field exposure reduced amount of (69)
(20–80◦ C) CaCO3 in all temperature variations
Intensity (0.4–1.5 mT); Increased nucleation rate under higher magnetic (70)
Recirculation period (8 hours) field intensity
Intensity (400 mT) Increased in the large size of the growing (71)
crystals
Intensity (450 mT); Exposure Growth of crystals were accelerated (59)
time (30 minutes)
Intensity (300–800 mT) Number of particles increased with magnetic (60)
field up to 800 mT; crystal sizes decreased
with increase in magnetic field up to 300 mT
Intensity (> 600 mT); Mode of No effect in single magnetic exposure; grain (72)
exposure (single and size of CaCO3 deposit was increased under
recirculating flow) recirculating exposure
Intensity (700 mT) Significantly increased deposition of CaCO3 scale (73)
Intensity (> 300 mT); Exposure Growth of particles and formation of aragonite (29)
time (> 10 minutes) structure of CaCO3 crystals are accelerated by
increased magnetic exposure
Water Purification
Water management techniques can be categorized according to the source
of water and can be further classified as natural, domestic and industrial
wastewater management. Depending on the water quality, each scheme
requires a separate plan of action for reuse or disposal, and water purifica-
tion is one of the commonly adopted approaches. The possible techniques
of purification are adsorption, biotechnology, catalytic processes, membrane
processes, ionizing radiation and also magnetically assisted processes. Of all
the techniques, a review on the role of magnetization in water purification
to date is apparently lacking. Hence, this article discusses the applications of
magnetic technology in water purification.
HGMS is a commonly used magnetic particle separation technique

(74–77), in which a magnetically susceptible wire bed is placed inside an
electromagnet. When a magnetic field is applied across the column, the wires
dehomogenize the magnetic field, producing large field gradients around the
wires that attract magnetic particles to their surfaces and trap them there. The
collection of particles depends strongly on the creation of these large mag-
netic field gradients, as well as the particle size and magnetic properties.
For successful collection of magnetic particles by HGMS, the magnetic force
attracting particles toward the wires must dominate the fluid drag, gravita-
tional, inertial, and diffusion forces as the particle suspension flows through
the separator.
Ha et al. (78) claimed that a superconducting HGMS system has advan-
tages in removing pollutants and paramagnetic substances such as iron
oxides due to the generation of a higher magnetic field strength. A cryo-
cooled Nb–Ti superconducting magnet is an example of an HGMS system
that can generate field strength of up to 6 T. The efficiency of HGMS was
demonstrated by its use in the steam condensers of thermal power stations
(78). The study found that contaminants consisting of α-Fe2 O3 (hematite)
and γ-Fe2 O3 (maghemite) were effectively removed.
As the magnetic field strength increased, the turbidity of the condenser
water was reduced. In addition to the increase in magnetic strength, the
removal of turbidity in the condenser water was also enhanced as the wire
diameter of the magnetic filter decreased and the mesh size increased. This is
the rationale for determining the magnetic gradient at which changes in the
mesh size and magnetic filter diameter cause changes in the magnetic field
strength with distance (dH /dx). A higher magnetic gradient leads to efficient
purification of a contaminated water source. The use of iron oxide was also
implemented by Tuutijärvi et al. (79), and a combination of magnetic sepa-
ration and maghemite (γ-Fe2 O3 ) nanoparticles successfully adsorbed arsenic
pollutants, As(V).
Besides the usefulness of HGMS, other studies have used high-
temperature superconductivity bulk magnet systems that exhibit a higher
magnetic field intensity to separate pollutants from a water source (80). These
bulk magnets produce a magnetic field density of 1 to 2 T. In this research,
two water channels containing iron balls were placed in the strong field
to trap magnetized flock in contaminated water. The bulk magnet system
achieved performance values of 100% removal, showing a higher separation
efficiency of existing pollutants (80). The above evidence suggests that mag-
netic separation using either bulk magnets or HGMS is an effective method
of practical water purification. The efficiency of purification is considerably
greater with a combination of a magnetically assisted separation process and
the addition of a magnetite adsorbent to the polluted water (79, 81, 82).
Coagulation and Sedimentation of Colloid Particles

Magnetic technology is a physical treatment technique that has been reported
to affect the coagulation of various particles in suspension such as iron (27,
83), polystyrene latex (28) and other particles in many electrolyte solutions.
Higashitani (84) investigated the effects of magnetic field on the stability of
colloid particles and suggested that magnetic field affects the colloidal sta-
bility by altering the structure of water molecules and ions either adsorbed
on the particle surface or in the medium. Consequently, the particles were
aligned perpendicular to the direction of the applied field (85, 86), thus
resulting in coagulation enhancement. Enhanced coagulation due to parti-
cles alignment was also investigated by Wang et al. (86), who demonstrated
an increased in aggregation rate by treating a static solution with magnetic
field.
Diverse opinions have been given to support the beneficial effects of
magnetic field on coagulation. Kney and Parsons (87) proposed that the
specific mechanism that accelerated coagulation and precipitation is a sur-
face mechanism. Sakurazawa et al. (88) supported the opinion and proved
that a magnetic field of less than 1 T altered the orientation of protein
molecules compared to those of molecules grown outside of the mag-
netic field. The altered orientation of molecules in the magnetic field would
undoubtedly facilitate precipitation. This evidence was in agreement with
that of Wang et al. (60), and Sorensen and Madsen (89), who observed an
alteration of inorganic salts precipitation when exposed to a magnetic field.
Tombácz et al. (27) also reported similar observations as the coagulation
rate of hematite sols were remarkably increased under magnetic field
exposure.
However, the evidence provided by Higashitani et al. (28) regarding
the effects of a magnetic field on the occurrence of coagulation disagrees
with the above reported observations. The coagulation rate was reduced by
10% when a magnetic flux density of greater than 400 mT was implemented
for 10 minutes. Further enhancement of the effect was not recorded, even
when the magnetic dose was increased. Differences in the particle materials
and size fractions in terms of the particle radius that been exposed under
the magnetic field may be possible reasons for these contradictory findings
(6, 90).
Tombácz et al. (27) also measured the changes in particle elec-
trophoretic mobility following both static and dynamic treatment of disper-
sions. As the colloidal aggregation/disaggregation that was observed under
dynamic treatment appears to be independent to solid-phase magnetic sus-
ceptibility, the effect cannot result from direct interaction of magnetic field
and the colloidal particles. Instead, the effect was attributed to the shear
phenomenon (90), which altered the fluid flow conditions and produced
differential velocity gradients for the colloidal particles. Magnetic fields can
also affect the vortices of the fluid flow. Such magnetically induced velocity
gradients can also promote coagulation. On the other hand, the employed
intense dynamic magnetic treatment was also found to reduce the zeta poten-
tial by 25%, which increased the tendency of the electrolyte suspension to
coagulate (91). This is also supported by the earlier research conducted by
Ledion et al. (92), who observed a zeta potential reduction under magnetic
field exposure.
Synthesis of Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) from Activated Sludge

Biomass
Several studies have examined the effects of magnetic field on bacterial per-
formance, but the results are inconsistent. Some studies show a negative
effect (93), whereas most show enhanced bacterial growth (94–96). This is
because the effect is very much dependent on the intensity of the magnetic
field and the type of microorganisms involved. Although different results for
the effects of magnetic field on microorganisms have been published, the
synthesis of polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) using a magnetic field has not
been widely reported.
A major obstacle to a wider application of PHAs for production
of biodegradable plastic, either poly-3-hydroxybutyrate (PHB) or poly-3-
hydroxyvalerate (PHV) is the high production cost, which is attributed to
the carbon source (97). One alternative for reducing the cost is using carbon
wastes such as biomass from activated sludge process (98–100). Raw car-
bon wastes require prior hydrolysis and acidogenesis to be converted into
volatile fatty acids (VFAs). VFAs can be toxic and inhibitory to microorgan-
isms depending on the pH and acid concentration (101). According to Yu
and Wang (102), acetate concentration of more than 200 Cmmol/L can inhibit
cell growth and PHA formation. Therefore, magnetic treatment is being used
to enhance the PHA production even under unfavorable conditions.
According to Chen and Li (103), and Hong et al. (104-105), under a mag-
netic field intensity of 42 mT, the minimum hydroxybutyrate (HB) synthesis
occurred, and at less than 7 mT, the maximum HB synthesis occurred, both
with individual feeding of acetate, butyrate, and propionate, or mixed feed-
ing of the two substrates. In addition, under an intensity of 21 mT, the
maximum hydroxyvalerate (HV) synthesis occurred, and under no magnetic
field exposure, the minimum HV synthesis occurred, both with propionate
fed alone or with acetate or/and butyrate. These results suggest that the
microflora involved were affected by the magnetic field; this induced changes
in the predominant microflora, thereby changing the ability to produce PHAs.
The microorganisms have a higher storage capacity at intensities of 21 mT
and 7 mT, and appeared to be suitable for enhancing the PHA storage capac-
ity of the biomass. In contrast, an intensity of 42 mT was inhibitory because it
is excessively high and degrades the involved microorganisms’ performance

of PHA production.
In the presence of static magnetic field, the adverse effect of high
acetate concentration can be successfully nullified, thus enhancing PHA pro-
duction by activated sludge biomass. Magnetic field application appears to
have potential for enhancement of PHA production, even under adverse
conditions.
Wastewater Treatment
Increases in the population growth have caused rapid increase in water
usage, thus leading to an increase in water pollution problems. Various phys-
ical, chemical, and biological methods have been described by researchers
for many years including the method by magnetic field application. However,
there are still many gaps of knowledge to be filled with regard to the treat-
ment improvement using these technologies. Table 2 presents the literatures
which study the effects of magnetic field on the wastewater treatment. The
literatures indicate that magnetic field have been used for several com-
mon treatment processes. For instance, magnetic field were applied for
the removal of colors (106–110), heavy metals (111–114), turbidity and
suspended solids (111, 115–117), organic compounds (45, 46, 117–124),
nutrients consisting of nitrogen and phosphorus compounds (111, 117, 125,
126), and toxic chemicals (94, 109).
Wastewater containing organic dyes is a typical persistent wastewater.
Conventional technologies that are applied to separate the organic dyes are
adsorption by activated carbon (127), orange peel (128), saw-dust (129),
and rice bran (130), coagulation-flocculation (131), chemical oxidation (132),
ozonation (133), and nanofiltration (134). However, existing treatment meth-
ods have several drawbacks, including long processing time, complicated
system, generation of large amount of sludge, and inefficient decoloriza-
tion. To solve these problems, studies have been conducted on magnetic
separation.
TABLE 2 Effects of magnetic field on the wastewater treatment
Magnetization Factor
Treatment Category Mode Magnetic Intensity Remarks Ref.
Color removal
• Direct red 80; Crystal violet; Magnetic seeding with HGMS 200 mT All the organic dyes were (108)
Methyl orange highly removed
• Methylene blue Magnetic nanomaterials 350 mT Higher degradation efficiency (109)
magnetized with NdFeB
magnet
• Lanasol red 6G; Maxillon Magnetite of 50 g/L N/A Removal: 80–100% (106)
yellow
• Methyl blue Strong permanent magnet 80 - 320 mT; up to 60 minutes Degradation and mineralization: (107)
> 10% with increased
intensity
220
Heavy metal removal
• Pb(II) Magnetic adsorbent N/A Removal: 50% (112)
(magsorbent)
• Fe(II); Mn(II) Permanent magnet 550 mT Removal: Fe (98.7%); Mn (111)
(92.5%)
• Hg(II) Magnetite particles with 1900 mT High uptake efficiency: 74% (113)
magnetic separation
• Cr(VI) Magnetic powder with external 6 mT (magnetic powder); Improved removal efficiency (114)
magnetization 0–4.5 mT (ext. magnet) and sludge stability
Turbidity; Solid removal Electromagnetic system 67 mT Solid removal: 41–49% (116)
Magnetite nanoparticles with 80 mT Turbidity: 110 to 7 NTU (115)
magnetic separation
Permanent magnet 550 mT Solid removal: 94.3% (111)
5 pairs of circular magnetic coils 1 nT – 100 mT Solid removal: 96.7% (117)
COD removal Magnetically anisotropic tubular 2100 Oe Removal: 72–94% (119)
support with Fe3 O4 powder
Magneto-static device 7 mT Removal: 26% (45)
Magnetic activated sludge N/A Removal: 91% (122)

(MAS) with magnetic
separator
Magnetic nanoparticles with 3200 mT Max. removal: 76% (123)
superconducting magnet
Modified Prussian-blue (PB) N/A Removal: 53.6% (118)
magnetic nanoparticles
5 pairs of circular magnetic coils 1 nT–100 mT Removal: 45.3% (117)
Permanent magnet 0–500 mT Max. removal: 42% (at 20 mT) (121)
Organic compound removal
• Formaldehyde (FA) Magneto-static device 7 mT Removal: 30% (45)
• Total organic carbon Modified Prussian-blue (PB) N/A Removal: 35% (118)
magnetic nanoparticles
221
• Dissolved organic carbon Magnetic resin N/A Removal: 65% (124)
• Substrate (Glucose) Pulsed DC and AC system 6.0–46.6 mT Max. removal: 44% (at 17.8 mT) (46)
Nutrients (P, N) removal 5 pairs of circular magnetic coils 1 nT–100 mT Removal: TP (96.0%) (117)
Pair of permanent magnets 40 mT Removal: NKjehdahl (91–97%) (126)
Permanent magnets 16.8– 218.0 mT Max. removal: N (30%) (125)
Permanent magnets 550 mT Max. removal: NH3 -N (98.7%); (111)
PO4 3− (90.2%)
Toxic chemical removal
• Diclofenac Magnetic nanomaterials 350 mT Degradation rate: 95.3% (109)
magnetized with NdFeB
magnet
• Phenol Rectangular permanent magnet 450 mT Increased degradation rate: 30% (94)
According to Fang et al. (108), two main technologies are necessary

for magnetic separation: magnetic seeding technology, which induces ferro-
magnetism in the substance, and the use of superconducting magnets (135),
HGMS, and magnetic filters. Using such treatment methods, Fang et al. (108)
achieved successful results in which all the organic dyes tested (Direct red
80, Crystal violet, Methylene blue, Methyl orange, Amaranth and Cibacron
Brilliant Yellow 3G-P) were removed with higher efficiency of more than
80% by a combination of magnetic separation and magnetic seeding.
As an alternative to magnetic seeding and magnetic separation, col-
ors from dyes have also been removed from wastewater by implementing
magnetite as an adsorbent. This was evidenced by Bolto (106), in which
the removal of both Lanasol red 6G and Maxillon yellow reached 80%–
100%. However, after four cycles of magnetite usage, the removal percentage
dropped dramatically, leading to poor effluent production. This is because
the magnetite was exhausted and did not exhibit sufficient magnetic charac-
teristics to absorb the color particles. Wang et al. (110) also used magnetite to
remove Congo red and found significant degradation and adsorption capac-
ity. Magnetic fields were also introduced into the Fenton reaction system
for the purpose of degradation and decolorization of methyl blue (107).
Under the magnetic field, the degradation rate was accelerated, and the
mineralization was improved by more than 10%.
Physical parameters such as turbidity and suspended solids have also
been significantly removed by the application of magnetic field (111, 115,
116). Chin et al. (115) used magnetic nanoparticles/magnetite as an adsor-
bent to reduce the turbidity of wastewater from 110 to 7 NTU. The efficiency
of the turbidity reduction can be further increased by exposing the magnetite-
seeded wastewater to an external magnetic field with strength greater than
80 mT. This reduced the turbidity to as low as 1 NTU. In another study,
the performance of constructed wetland in treating leachate was enhanced
with magnetic application (111). A permanent magnet of 550 mT was used
to pretreat the influent leachate before it went through the wetland. The
performance indicated that the suspended solids removal was as high as
94.3%. Unlike the case of organic compounds removal, greater amount of
the suspended solids was removed as the intensity of the magnetic field was
increased. As particles are positively and negatively charged, the enhance-
ment effect is mainly due to the alignment of these particles (21, 22), causing
them to coagulate and settle effectively.
Magnetic field was also reported to significantly influence the bacterial
activity in heterogeneous sewage, resulted to the influence performances of
organic compound biodegradations. Under a low intensity magnetic field,
activated sludge biomass growth and dehydrogenase activity was positively
affected (45). The implementation of a 7 mT field reduced the formaldehyde
(FA) concentration and COD by 30% and 26%, respectively. In another
study, Łebkowska (136) observed that induction of a weak 7–8 mT field
was sufficient to increase the biodegradation of synthetic wastewater by 25%

as compared to the process without any magnetic field.
Weak magnetic field was also evidenced to cause substrate removal and
microorganism growth to reach maximum rate of up to 44% (46). Yavuz and
Çelebi (46) observed that the substrate removal rate was initially increased by
strengthening the magnetic field intensity, reaching a maximum at 17.8 mT,
but decreased with a further increase of the intensity. However, when a
weak magnetic field was implemented by Tomska and Wolny (126), a dif-
ferent result appeared as no COD removal was taking place. Instead, the
applied 40 mT exposure promoted nitrogen compound transformation and
intensified the oxygen uptake rate of second-phase nitrifiers (126).
Higher magnetic field intensity was also found to enhance the removal
ability of organic compounds. Study conducted by Jung et al. (94) observed
30% enhancement of the phenol removal under 450 mT of field intensity.
Taking a different approach, Sakai et al. (119) studied a submerged filter
system consisting of magnetically anisotropic tubular support media that
produced high magnetization of 2100 Oe for sewage treatment with mag-
netic seeding. The magnetic support media could treat sewage containing
200 mg/L COD with removal up to 94% within 8 h of retention time.
The results discussed above show a mixed effect of magnetic field
intensity on biodegradation of pollutants by the bacteria/microorganisms.
It indicates that different bacteria may have their unique level of mag-
netic susceptibility. These bacteria may act differently, either being inhibited
or enhanced. Presently, there is no confirmation findings on the suitable
range of magnetic field intensity that can positively enhance the bacte-
rial activity, thus enhancing the biodegradation process. Further research
in understanding the phenomena is therefore needed.
COMPARATIVE ASSESSMENT BETWEEN MAGNETIC AND

NONMAGNETIC WASTEWATER TREATMENT SYSTEMS
Magnetic field has been used as aids for many purposes, such as in plant
growth development (137–141), modification of concrete properties for
strength improvement (142–144), yeast proliferation (145), and the electro-
plating process (146). The literature also indicates that magnetic application
in wastewater treatment systems is outstanding applications.
A brief comparison of various wastewater treatment systems using con-
ventional methods and with those using magnetic field exposure is presented
in Table 3. The wastewater treatment systems which employ magnetic
field application include activated sludge process (45, 46, 94, 121, 126),
anammox upflow system (125), advanced oxidation process (107, 147),
sorption process (148), and nitrifying granulation process (149).
TABLE 3 Comparison of wastewater treatment systems between conventional treatment and magnetically assisted treatment
Modified Treatment
System Conventional Treatment Magnetic Intensity System Performance Ref.
Activated sludge bioreactor Phenol biodegradation: 450 mT; 1,200 hours exposure Phenol biodegradation: (94)
3.113 mg/L/hr time 4.437 mg/L/hour (30%
increase)
Sequencing batch reactor PHA content: 50% 7–21 mT PHA content: 63–66% (105)
Activated sludge bioreactor Substrate removal:11.2 gL/h 6.0–46.6 mT Max. substrate removal: (46)
14.5 gL/h at 17.8 mT
Anammox up-flow system Removal: NH4 + -N (810 mg 16.8–218.0 mT Removal: NH4 + -N (940 mg (125)
N/L/d); TN (1200–1482 mg N/L/d); TN (1600–1780 mg
N/L/d); NO2 − -N (860–910 mg N/L/d); NO2 − −N
N/L/d) (900–1100 mg N/L/d) at
224
60 mT
Activated sludge bioreactor Removal: FA (54%); COD (60%) 7 mT Removal: FA (84%); COD (86%) (45)
Advanced oxidation-Fenton Methyl blue degradation: 80–320 mT Max. Methyl blue degradation: (107)
reaction 3.05 mmol/L 3.7 mmol/L at 320 mT
Up-flow reactor system Cu(II) capture efficiency: 87% at 1 T; 40 – 100 cm3 /minute flow Max. Cu(II) capture efficiency: (155)
40 cm3 /minute rate 99% at 40 cm3 /minute
Anaerobic sequence batch Cr(VI) adsorption-regeneration: 6 mT (Fe3 O4 powder); Max. Cr(VI) (114)
reactor (ASBR) 8.1% 0–4.5 mT (ext. adsorption-regeneration:
magnetization); 0.5–1 hour 33.5%
exposure time
Batch activated sludge process Max. COD biodegradation: 24% 0–500 mT Max. COD biodegradation: 42% (121)
at 20 mT
Activated sludge process Removal: NOrganic (82–92%); 40 mT; 20 days exposure time Max. removal: NOrganic (126)
Nkjehdahl (57–84%) (91–97%); NKjehdahl (70–94%)
Sorption process Fe removal: 4% 690 mT (separator); 2 g/L Max. Fe removal: 88–100% (148)
(magnetite seeding)
Chemical coagulation process Turbidity reduction: 9500 to 80–130 mT (separator) with Max. turbidity reduction: (115)
6.3 NTU in 60 minutes magnetite seeding 9500 to 1.04 NTU at 130 mT
in 30 minutes
Batch activated carbon sorption Activated carbon sorption: < Carbon encapsulated magnetic Activated carbon sorption: (156)
20% for Co(II); Cu(II) nanoparticles 30–60% increased for Co(II);
Cu(II)
Anaerobic SBR system Cr(VI) residual: 43.5 mg/L 0–17.4 mT (ext. magnetic field); Cr(VI) residual: 38.5 mg/L at (157)
Fe3 O4 powder; 24 hours 6 mT
exposure time
Aerobic nitrifying granulation Full granulation: Day-41; Nitrite 48 mT Full granulation: Day-25; Nitrite (149)
225
by SBR oxidation: 3.7 mg/g.h oxidation: 4.7 mg/g.h
Anaerobic serial batch reactor CH4 production: 0 – 14 mT (ext. magnetic field); CH4 production: (158)
(ASBR) 67.9 mLCH4 /gMLVSS.d; 6 mT (Fe3 O4 powder); 79.1 mLCH4 /gMLVSS.d;
CODCr removal ratio: 0.544 24 hours exposure time CODCr removal ratio: 0.364
Advanced oxidation process Max. COD removal: 42.8% 600 mT; 120 minutes exposure Max. COD removal: 60.3% (147)
(AOP) with H2 O2 time
Advanced treatment of Fe-PA Max. CODCr removal: 75.5% 50–750 mT Max. CODCr removal: 75.5% (159)
flocculation after 35 minutes after 30 minutes at 750 mT
Liu et al. (125) applied magnetic field in an anammox upflow system,

and results in significant nutrient removal. In this magnetic system, the max-
imum NH4 + –N removal rate reached as high as 940 mg N/L/d on day 50.
In a conventional system, only 810 mg N/L/d of removal was achieved by
day 65. The enhanced treatment performance can be attributed to increase
activity in the anammox mixture under magnetic field. This caused strong
anaerobic ammonium oxidizing activity, which in turn resulted in a rapid
increase in nitrogen removal as compared to that in the absence of a mag-
netic field (125). The study which varied the magnetic field intensity between
16.8 and 218 mT observed maximum nitrogen removal at intensity of 60 mT.
Apparently, an excessively strong magnetic field could be harmful to the
anammox bacteria while the low field intensity has no or less effect to the
bacteria. Thus, the choice of field intensity is crucial for this application
system.
Similar results were also observed in activated sludge (126) and
anaerobic nitrifying granulation system (149). Nitrogen removal in terms of
nitrite oxidation rate was enhanced from 3.7 mg/g•h under conventional
treatment to 4.7 mg/g•h under magnetic field exposure (149). The removal
efficiency depends on the enhanced activity of nitrite oxidizing bacteria
(NOB). Although many studies on the effects of magnetic field on bacteria
have been reported, the mechanisms in which a weak magnetic field affects
the biological systems are still not clear. Some studies have demonstrated that
magnetized water has a higher pH, conductivity, and osmotic pressure than
nonmagnetized water, and thus has better permeability through cell mem-
branes (150, 151). The changes of water characteristics due to the magnetic
field may further influence the metabolic activities of bacteria, such as their
enzyme activity. This may be the reason for the higher NOB activities that
caused higher nitrite oxidation rate under magnetic field application. The
enhancement of granules development has also improved under the pres-
ence of magnetic field (149). Development of biogranules takes approximate
41 days in the absence of magnetic field. Application of 48 mT field intensity
shortened the development period to 25 days. Faster development of the
granules improves the treatment system by speeding up the biodegradation
or removal process.
Under the influence of a magnetic field, a reduction of approximately
one-quarter in the start-up time for the anammox process has been also
recorded (125). This advantage contributed to the novelty of a research work,
since only few of previous researchers had achieved success of shortening
the start-up period (152, 153). Conventionally, an SBR was observed to take a
longer period for start-up, about 57 days compared to 31 days for an upflow
biofilter (154). Due to the reduction in the start-up time under the assistance
of magnetic field, the biological activity of the anammox mixture could be
further enhanced which led to an increase in the efficiency of the nitrogen
removal performance (125).
Positive effects were also demonstrated in a chemical coagulation

wastewater treatment system (115). In treating chemical mechanical polish-
ing wastewater, turbidity was reduced from 9500 to 1.07 NTU under an
80 mT magnetic separator and further decreased to 1.04 NTU under 130 mT
(115). This reduction differs greatly from that achieved by the process with-
out magnetic treatment, in which a smaller reduction in turbidity, 9500 to
6.3 NTU, was obtained even within a longer period (115). In this particular
modified magnetic treatment of a coagulation system, magnetite seeding was
employed, and a magnetic separator of the specified intensity was used in
the later stage. This was achieved by electrostatic attraction arising from the
fact that they are highly oppositely charged. Collisions between magnetite
seeds and silica nanoparticles eventually enhanced the coagulation process,

thus improving the turbidity reduction.
In general, significant enhancements were observed when wastewater
treatment systems are coupled with magnetic application. It was evident that
magnetic field improves the bacterial activity through an increase in growth
of bacterial involved. This occurrence shortens the start-up time, increases
the biodegradation, and removal performance of the systems. In addition,
physical treatment system had also been remarkably improved with the
implementation of magnetic field.
ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS OF MAGNETIC FIELD EXPOSURE

IN WATER AND WASTEWATER TREATMENT SYSTEMS
Many studies have been conducted on the potential of magnetic field in

various environmental engineering applications, specifically, in water and
wastewater treatment systems. As mentioned earlier, the application of a
magnetic field as an aid to facilitate system activities has been signifi-
cantly effective due to its ability to overcome the constraints of conventional
treatment processes.
The advantages of magnetic field implementation in water and
wastewater systems can be summarized as follows:
a. The use of permanent magnets, particularly as a mode of magnetic field

application, can be considered a sustainable and green technology (116).
The application of magnetic field as a system enhancer introduces no
hazard.
b. The use of permanent magnets as an aid in the system is cost saving as
the magnets are purchased only once at the early stage of installation
(160). The strength of the magnet can last for many years (161). In fact,
changes in the performance of the magnetic field are not significant even
when their intensity is reduced (22, 162). For example, the strength of a
Samarium cobalt magnetic material is only reduced by 1% over a period

of 10 years (22).
c. By having magnetic field exposure towards a treatment system, the oper-
ation time is potentially shortened since the effect of magnetic field can
speed up the treatment processes. It increases the COD removal rate
(45, 118–120, 122, 123), granular development rate (149), biodegradation
rate of other compounds (45, 46, 94, 124), and solid-liquid separation
processes (115–117).
d. The employment of magnetic field in a treatment system is simple as
it is applied directly to the influent or returned sludge requiring treat-
ment. When a magnetite adsorbent is used as the mode of magnetization,
the adsorbent can be regenerated up to 5–7 times and can be recycled

for further use, while maintaining higher adsorption efficiency (110, 124,
163–166).
Nevertheless, there are also limitations that need to be considered in the

implementation of magnetic field in water and wastewater treatment systems.
In terms of practical use, the exposure intensity is the most critical aspect that
has to be considered. The most common range of intensity for degradation
of contaminants in the presence of bacteria or microorganisms is 1 mT to 1 T
(45, 167, 168). Higher magnetic field intensity may halt the bacterial activ-
ity, thus causing an adverse effect to the treatment performance. However,
knowledge in terms of specific intensity level that is suitable to support the
growth rate of certain bacteria/microorganisms is still limited. Each bacterium
has its unique susceptibility level to the magnetic field intensity. Some can
proliferate under a higher magnetic field, whereas others can sustain only
at low intensity levels. Further research is required because various types
of bacteria/microorganisms play a vital role in the treatment processes, and
the presence of them in wastewater can either give an adverse effect on the
treatment system (for instance, filamentous microorganisms) or vice versa.
In addition, the modes of influent flow also need to be considered in
magnetic field applications. The type of flow (single pass or recirculation)
influences the coagulation and removal ability of contaminants. Repeated
exposure of the wastewater to magnetic field through recirculation yielded
better removal performance as compared to a single exposure (6, 70, 72, 162,
169, 170). This can be explained by the magnetic memory that is stored in
the particles as they are repeatedly exposed. The magnetic memory strength-
ens the charges contained in the particles, and increases the interactions
between negatively and positively charged particles. As these interactions
become stronger, solid-liquid separation is enhanced, and the particles settle
more efficiently (22). For enhancing biological wastewater treatment, single
pass flow is more suitable. As discussed earlier, induced magnetic memory
may positively or adversely influence the bacterial activity depends on their
susceptibility level. Using single pass, the adverse effect can be minimized.
However, trial runs should be able to assist in the selection of the flow types.
As for magnetite adsorbent, the limitation would be the adsorption
capacity of the adsorbent. The application of magnetite has to be supported
by the magnetic separator. Through such approach, the exhausted adsor-
bent can be easily removed from the wastewater (113, 118, 122, 123, 148).
To prolong the efficiency of the magnetite, the surface area must be suffi-
ciently large so that the life of magnetite can be extended (165, 171–175). The
capacity of magnetite to adsorb also depends on the regeneration frequency
of the adsorbent.
Based on the advantages and limitations of the magnetic field applica-
tions, it can be indicated that this technology is reliable and beneficial for the
enhancement of water and wastewater treatment systems. The limitations are
challenges that can be overcome through further research and improvement.
CONCLUSIONS AND SCOPE FOR FURTHER RESEARCH
Magnetic field technology is highly suitable for various types of envi-

ronmental engineering applications. Significant outcomes of the magnetic
applications have been demonstrated under various types of magnetic
modes such as permanent magnets, direct or alternating current, mag-
netic adsorbent, HGMS, and superconducting magnets. It is evident that the
implementation of magnetic field accelerates the crystallization of CaCO3 ,
enhances both the purification efficiency of contaminated water and the
synthesis of PHAs even under unfavorable conditions. Magnetic field is also
proven to improve the physical properties of the particles for enhancement
of precipitation, coagulation and sedimentation. The improvement occurs as
the magnetic field positively influences the aggregation of the colloidal parti-
cles and enhances solid-liquid separation process. The improvement resulted
in better performance of the treatment systems. Magnetic field application
also significantly influences the bacterial activity and enhances the biological
treatment processes. This indicates that a magnetic field has the potential to
minimize the proliferation of filamentous microorganisms, thus reducing the
occurrence of bulking sludge.
Bulking is a notable operating problem that occurred in the activated
sludge process caused by the excessive proliferation of the filamentous. Due
to the severity of these occurrences, bulking problem represents a frontier
area for future research. Application of magnetic field towards minimizing the
bulking sludge is apparently missing and is an area to be further explored.
The mechanisms on the involvement of magnetic field in enhancing the treat-
ment processes are also still not completely understood and thus necessitate
further investigations. This will require more fundamental research in the
future.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We thank the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation (MOSTI)

and Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM) for the financial support (Project
No. 4S032). We are also grateful to Professor Dr. Ahmad Fauzi Ismail,
Professor Gustaf Olsson, and Dr. Azmi Aris for advice given and rectification
towards the article completion.
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Magnetic Field Application and its Potential in Water and

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Magnetic Field Application and its Potential

NUR SYAMIMI ZAIDI1 , JOHAN SOHAILI1 , KHALIDA MUDA1 ,

Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM), Johor, Malaysia

This review is intended to critically convey information on water

KEYWORDS Magnetic field, water and wastewater treatment,

This article reviews magnetic field applications, particularly in environmen-

Received 27 June 2012, Revised 15 December 2012, Accepted 27 February 2013.

memory are all considered. The implementation of magnetic field in var-

applications were rapidly pursued in order to prove Faraday’s claim, atten-

CONCEPTS OF MAGNETIC APPLICATIONS

The mechanism of magnetic applications has not been completely confirmed

Magnetization and Exhibition of Magnetic Field

where H is an applied magnetic field in emu/cm3 , M is magnetization of a

E = −VM.H = −V (χv .H ) .H (2)

F = − (dE/dx) = (χv − χo ) VH (dH /dx) (3)

molecules to become unstable. The unbalanced particles move randomly and

FIGURE 3 An electric wire with cross-section A flown by a current I is submitted to a force

IMPLEMENTATION OF MAGNETIC FIELD

Crystallization of Calcium Carbonate (CaCO3 )

reference to crystallization nuclei formation (6, 56, 57). Experimental studies

on magnetically activated silica. The total mass of the deposit in magneti-

that magnetic treatment can decrease scaling by encouraging the homoge-

TABLE 1 Effects of magnetic field on crystallization of CaCO3

Magnetization Factors Observed Effect Ref.

Intensity (126.56–180 mT) Higher intensity of 180 mT developed aragonite (55)

HGMS is a commonly used magnetic particle separation technique

Coagulation and Sedimentation of Colloid Particles

Synthesis of Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) from Activated Sludge

is excessively high and degrades the involved microorganisms’ performance

TABLE 2 Effects of magnetic field on the wastewater treatment

Treatment Category Mode Magnetic Intensity Remarks Ref.

Magnetic activated sludge N/A Removal: 91% (122)

According to Fang et al. (108), two main technologies are necessary

was sufficient to increase the biodegradation of synthetic wastewater by 25%

COMPARATIVE ASSESSMENT BETWEEN MAGNETIC AND

System Conventional Treatment Magnetic Intensity System Performance Ref.

Liu et al. (125) applied magnetic field in an anammox upflow system,

Positive effects were also demonstrated in a chemical coagulation

seeds and silica nanoparticles eventually enhanced the coagulation process,

ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS OF MAGNETIC FIELD EXPOSURE

Many studies have been conducted on the potential of magnetic field in

a. The use of permanent magnets, particularly as a mode of magnetic field

Samarium cobalt magnetic material is only reduced by 1% over a period

the adsorbent can be regenerated up to 5–7 times and can be recycled

Nevertheless, there are also limitations that need to be considered in the

CONCLUSIONS AND SCOPE FOR FURTHER RESEARCH

Magnetic field technology is highly suitable for various types of envi-

We thank the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation (MOSTI)

1. Basset, C.A.L. (1993) Therapeutic uses of electric and magnetic fields in