Political, Social & Religious condition of Islam:

In addition to idol-worship, which was the order of the day, star-worship had taken as firm a
root in the soil of Arabia. Human destiny was associated with the movements of various stars
and the phenomena of nature affecting the fortunes of man for good or evil were attributed to
their influence. Whereas on the one hand, the worst form of idolatry had its hold on the Arab
mind in general, there were also some who had no faith in the existence of God, the immortality
of the human soul and the day of retribution. To them all religion was mockery. They held up to
ridicule the very idols they professed to adore. It is said of the famous poet, Imra' al-Qais,
that on the murder of his father he consulted an oracle in accordance with the traditional
practice among the Arabs, to decide whether or not he should avenge the murder. The process
consisted in marking two arrows, one with the word na'am (yes), the other with la (no), to
indicate respectively whether the undertaking should be entered upon or not. A blank one was
also put in, which if drawn, advised the lot to be drawn afresh. Imra' al-Qais drew the arrows
three times and each time the negative one came out. In a fit of rage he flung the arrow in the
face of the idol, saying: "O Wretch! Had it been the murder of thy own father thou wouldst not
have forbidden me to avenge it."

Such was the state of irreligion and idol worship in Arabia! Social life presented no better a
picture. The Arabs were ignorant of the very rudiments of social virtues. Their manner of life
made the evolution of any social virtue impossible. Tribal feuds engaged their whole attention. A
settled and peaceful mode of life, indispensable to the cultivation of social qualities, was
unknown to them. The prospect of hostilities with another clan that might break out at any time
was ever present before their minds. They led a nomadic life, wandering with their cattle from
place to place. They would set up their tents of camel-skins wherever they found water to drink
and forage for their cattle. Only a small minority of them had settled in villages and still fewer in
towns. How was it possible, under such circumstances, that the blessings of an ordered and
settled society should accrue to them?

There was no central government to enforce law and order in the country, which was
rent into innumerable petty states, each clan forming a separate and independent
political unit. They were too weak to enforce justice; to wrench one's rights from
another, one had to depend upon one's strength of arm. Each tribe had a chief of its
own, its leader in battle, but there was no law whatsoever binding the tribe to the nation.
Each was independent, owing no allegiance to any central authority until Islam came
with its unifying force. William Muir says that "The first peculiarity, then, which attracts
our attention is the subdivision of the Arabs into innumerable bodies, governed by the
same code of honour and morals, and exhibiting the same manners, speaking for the
most part the same language, but each independent of the others; restless and often at
war amongst themselves; and even where united by blood or by interest, ever ready on
some insignificant cause to separate and give way to an implacable hostility. Thus at
the era of Islam, the retrospect of Arabian history exhibits, as in the kaleidoscope, an
ever-varying state of combination and repulsion, such as had hitherto rendered abortive
any attempt at a general union … The problem had yet to be solved, by what force
these tribes could be subdued, or drawn to one common centre; and it was solved by
Muhammad (pbuh)."

The Qur'an sums up succinctly this utter deterioration that embraced every phase of life
in a single sentence: "You were on the brink of a pit of fire…" [The Qur'an, 3:103.]
Hostilities once breaking out continued for generations. Trifles, such as a word of
contempt, or a slight mischief in a horse race, led to the slaughter of thousands and the
eternal bondage of the vanquished. It was this fallen humanity whom the Holy
Prophet (pbuh) raised to the highest level of moral rectitude. He welded these
discordant elements into a brotherhood, unique in the history of the world. A mighty
transformation! A miracle, as a modern writer calls it in his Ins and Outs of
Mesopotamia: "A more disunited people it would be hard to find, till, suddenly, the
miracle took place. A man arose who, by his personality and by his claim to direct
Divine guidance, actually brought about the impossible, namely the union of all these
warring factions.

Drinking was another vice to which the whole of Arabia was hopelessly wedded.
Intoxicating liquors were served several times daily. There was not a household but had
a number of wine pitchers in store. No sooner, however, was the Quranic prohibition
proclaimed [The Qur'an, 5 : 90.] than the very pots used for storing liquor were broken
to pieces and thrown away; and, it is related, wine flowed like rain-water in the streets of
Madinah. The centuries-old habit of drinking was thus rooted out in no time, and utter
abstinence became the order of the day.

Gambling was another curse which had a firm hold on the Arab society. It was indulged
in as a common daily pastime. Those who abstained were looked down upon as
miserly. The Holy Prophet Muhammad's (pbuh) spiritual force made short the work
of this as well, and relieved Arabia of another longstanding evil.
Opposition of Quraish:
After the revelation of: “O you enveloped. Arise and warn” (74:1-2), the Prophet (sall-Allaahu
‘alayhi wa sallam) began to call his close family and friends to Islam. The Prophet’s preaching,
and the worship of the Muslims, for the next three years was done secretly. At this stage, the
opposition to those who embraced the faith was mainly on a family and individual level.

However after Allah revealed: “And warn your tribe of near kindred” (26:214), the Prophet’s
call became public. He stood on Mount Safa, called the various tribes, and warned them of a
severe torment if they did not accept his message of tawheed. Following this public
proclamation, a number of verses were revealed refuting idol worship, describing the idolaters as
misguided, and threatening them with Hellfire if they did not abstain from idolatry. This open
rejection of idolatry deeply offended the Makkans, galvanising them to start a concerted
campaign against the Prophet (sall-Allaahu ‘alayhi wa sallam) and his followers.

There were three main factors behind the Quraysh’s opposition to Islam; religious, social and
economic. We will take each factor in turn.

The primary division between the Prophet (sall-Allaahu ‘alayhi wa sallam) and his opponents
was a religious one; or more specifically, the issue of tawheed and shirk. The Makkans believed
that Allah was their Creator, and He was all-Powerful: “And if you asked them: Who created
the heavens and the earth, and subjected the sun and the moon, they would surely say
Allah.” (29:61). In times of difficulty they would direct all of their worship to Allah alone.
However they would also worship other then Allah. Believing that they were too sinful to
approach Allah directly, they invented intermediaries between themselves and Allah, whom they
would call upon, and ask them to carry their request to Allah. Their goal was to worship Allah,
but the way to reach Allah was through these intermediaries. The Prophet (sall-Allaahu ‘alayhi
wa sallam) declared that every act of worship, including supplication, vows, sacrifice, should be
directed to Allah alone.

The Ka’ba had hundreds of idols situated inside it the most famous being Hubal al-Uzza, an idol
situated near Makkah, which was visited by pilgrims from all over Arabia. This veneration of
idols, as well as certain trees (Dhat Anwat) and buildings (the tomb of al-Lat) was deeply
engrained in the psyche of the Makkans and they deeply resented anyone challenging this
practice which they had inherited from their forefathers.

The idea of Prophethood being granted to someone who was poor, and an orphan was antithetical
to the Quraysh. Al-Walid in al-Mughirah complained that he was more deserving of Prophethood
due to his high status. “And they said: why is not this Qur’aan sent down to a leading man in
either of the two towns.” (43:31) They also contended that Allah should send an angel as a
Prophet, and not a mere mortal.

Finally, the Makkans rejected the concept of Resurrection believing that it was impossible for
decayed bones to brought back to life. “They say, what! When we die and become dust and
bones, can we really be raised up again.” (52:82)
Islam was also a threat to the social customs of the Makkans. It meant that century old traditions;
fornication, robbery, deception, oppression of the women, slaves and the poor and the burying
alive of female children, would have to come to an end. This is why the Makkans were willing to
accept the personal leadership of the Prophet (sall-Allaahu ‘alayhi wa sallam) if he abandoned
his mission, as this did not mean an end to their traditional way of life. However, the acceptance
of Islam as a religion meant an end to any tradition or belief that conflicted with the Qur’aan.

Tribal differences also played a part in the opposition particularly from Banu Ummayah and
Banu Makhzum. Acceptance of Islam meant that the powerful tribal leaders would have to
submit to a previously un-influential man from a rival tribe. There were further consequences.
Tribes from all over Arabia made their annual pilgrimage to the Ka’ba to worship their idols in
and around Makka. An important spin off from this was that Makka become an important
commercial centre. Abandoning idol worship would have three main consequences; the Quraysh
would lose their position of priestly class, this in turn would threaten their financial gains from
the pilgrimage, and finally they feared that a coalition of tribes might oust them as guardians of
the Ka’ba. “And they say, if we followed the guidance with you, we would be ousted from
our land.” (28:57)

Finally the memory of Abrahah’s fateful attempt to destroy the Ka’ba was still fresh in the minds
of the Makkans. The latter saw some similarity between the Prophet’s message and Christianity,
and hence rejected it.

There were three main results of the Quraysh’s opposition to Islam.

A number of converts were excommunicated from their tribes rendering them extremely
vulnerable to persecution and even death. Sixteen Muslims emigrated to Abyssinia to seek refuge
with a Christian king who was known for his justice. A second migration to Abyssinia, involving
98 Muslims, also took place. The effect of this migration showed that the intense persecution by
the Makkans had not met its desired objective. Islam was introduced to a new continent, an
upshot of this was that a delegation of 20 Christians came to the Prophet (sall-Allaahu ‘alayhi wa
sallam) and embraced Islam. The Negus also embraced Islam.

Secondly ‘Umar’s determined resolve to kill the Prophet (sall-Allaahu ‘alayhi wa sallam) led
him on journey that culminated with his acceptance of Islam. Likewise, Hamza, the Prophet’s
uncle, out of tribal loyalty, was outraged that Abu Jahl assaulted his nephew. After, retaliating on
behalf of the Prophet (sall-Allaahu ‘alayhi wa sallam), Hamza declared his conversion to Islam.

Thirdly, the intense persecution meant that the Prophet (sall-Allaahu ‘alayhi wa sallam) had to
look elsewhere (outside Makka) to deliver the message and ask for support. Most of the tribes
refused him, but a number of prominent Medinians from the Aws and Khazraj tribes, on a visit
for pilgrimage, accepted his message, and pledged allegiance to the Prophet (sall-Allaahu ‘alayhi
wa sallam) in what was known as the first and second pledges of Aqabah. Islam spread in
Medina, opening the way for the Muslims to migrate to Medina, to practice Islam openly without
fear of persecution, and establish a city state that was to convey Islam far beyond its borders.
BADR: Causes & Results
The Quraysh first threatened the Madinans, in a letter addressed to ‘Adbullah ibn Ubayy ibn
Salul, to kill their males and enslave their females unless they expelled God’s Messenger from
Madina. The Prophet, upon him be peace and blessings, put a timely end to the mischief which
Ibn Ubayy inclined to cause. Besides, when Sa‘d ibn Mu’adh went to Makka to perform minor
pilgrimage (Umrah), he was stopped at the entrance of the Ka’ba and prevented from performing
circumambulation. Also, the Makkans quite regularly sent invading parties to Madina. In such
circumstances, the Muslims were left no choice but to gain and consolidate control over that
trade route in order to force the Quraysh and other tribes unfriendly to the Muslims to reconsider
their hostile policy.

It was, at last, at the beginning of 624, two years after the Hijra that a large caravan of the
Quraysh, escorted by no more than 40 security guards en route to Makka from Syria, arrived at a
place within reach of the Muslims. Fearing that the Muslims would stop their caravan and restore
their usurped goods, Abu Sufyan, the leader of the caravan, rushed a messenger to Makka and
sought help and reinforcements.

This caused an uproar through Makka. The leading chiefs of the Quraysh decided to wage war
on the Prophet, upon him be peace and blessings, and about 1000 fighters moved out of Makka
with much pomp and show. They had decided to deal a crushing blow to the rising power of the
Muslims.

God’s Messenger, who always kept himself abreast of developments which had any bearing on
his mission, realized that if an effective step was not taken right then, the preaching of Islam
might suffer a blow from which it might be very difficult for it to recover. Had the Quraysh
taken the initiative and launched an attack on Madina, it might have put an end to the existence
of the small Muslim community in that town.

Having decided to use the resources available to him, the Prophet, upon him be peace and
blessings, left Madina. Although he may have been intent upon a decisive battle with the
Quraysh, some of the Muslims desired to stop the caravan. In order to inform his Companions of
the situation, the Prophet gathered them and told them that the trading caravan of the Quraysh
was in the north whereas the invading Quraysh army was in the south and moving towards
Madina. He also informed them that God had promised the Muslims that they would be able to
seize any of the two parties they wished (al-Anfal, 8.7) Now it was for them to make the choice
whether they wished to stop the trading caravan or attack the approaching army. Aware of the
Prophet’s intention, Miqdad ibn ‘Amr, one of the Emigrants, replied as follows:

O Messenger of God! Proceed as God has commanded you to. We are with you wherever you
go, even as far as Bark al-Ghimad. We shall not say as the Children of Israel said to Moses: ‘Go
forth, you and your Lord, and fight, We shall remain here sitting!’ We rather say: ‘Go forth, you
and your Lord, and fight, and we shall fight on your side as long as the eyelid of any one of us
keeps moving.’18
Until the Battle of Badr, God’s Messenger had not sought help from the Helpers in military
expeditions. This was the first occasion when the Helpers would prove their commitment to
support Islam. Without addressing them directly, God’s Messenger, upon him be peace and
blessings, again put the same two alternatives before his audience. Realizing that God’s
Messenger aimed to ascertain the views of the Helpers on the question, Sa‘d ibn Mu‘adh rose
and spoke as follows:

O Messenger of God! I think your question is directed to the Helpers. We have believed in you,
affirmed the veracity of your claim to be the Messenger of God, and borne witness to the truth of
your teachings. We took the oath of allegiance to you that we would hear and obey you. O
Messenger of God! Do as you wish! By the One Who has sent you with the truth, if you were to
take us to the sea and plunge into it, none of us should remain behind. So take us along to the
battlefield with God’s blessings.19

The decision was given in favor of attacking the approaching army. This was also the decree of
God:

God promised you that one of the two hosts would be yours, and you wished that the one with no
power should be yours. But God willed to establish the truth through His words and to annihilate
the unbelievers to the last remnant, that He might prove the truth to be true and falsify falsehood,
even if the sinful are averse. (al-Anfal, 8.7-8)

The Makkan army consisted of 1000 fighters, including 600 soldiers in coats of mail, and 200
cavalry. They were accompanied by singers and dancers. Whenever the army halted, dancing and
drinking parties were held. Also the army arrogantly vaunted its military power and numerical
strength before the tribes and localities which fell on the way, and boasted of its invincibility.20
What was even worse was that they were not fighting for any lofty ideal. They aimed to defeat
the forces of belief, truth, justice and good morals.

Against the force of the Makkan army, the Muslim army was made up of 313 fighters. Of these,
86 were Emigrants and the rest, the Helpers. Such was the scarcity of resources that only two or
three Muslims had horses. The number of camels was no more than 70 so that three or four
persons took turns on each camel. God’s Messenger himself took turns with two persons. When
they asked him to ride the camel to exclude themselves from the turns, God’s Messenger, upon
him be peace and blessings, answered: You are no better in strength than me. Concerning the
reward, I am not in less need of it than you.21

The Muslim soldiers were fully devoted to the cause of Islam and were fired with the zeal to
sacrifice their lives for their cause. In order to accomplish what He had already decreed, God
made the Makkan army appear as small in number in the dream God’s Messenger had, just as He
made the number of the Muslims appear smaller in the eyes of the Makkans (al-Anfal, 8.44).

At the battlefield
The two armies finally encountered each other at Badr. The Makkan army outnumbered the
Muslims by three to one. Moreover, the Muslims were scantily equipped. However, they would
fight for the most sublime of causes, to establish God’s religion based on belief, good morals and
justice. They were deeply convinced of the truth of this cause and accordingly ready to sacrifice
their lives. They had reached the battlefield earlier than their opponents and been positioned
around the wells. Apart from that, the heavy downpour which had come the previous night, was
to the advantage of the Muslims. It had provided them with an abundant water supply which they
quickly stored in large reservoirs. Rain had also compacted the loose sand in the upper part of the
valley where they had pitched their tents. This helped the Muslims plant their feet firmly and
facilitated their movement. But in the lower part of the valley, where the Quraysh army was
stationed, the ground had turned marshy. In addition to all those Divine blessings, God brought
on them drowsiness and gave them a feeling of peace and security (al-Anfal, 8.11).

God’s Messenger, upon him be peace and blessings, positioned his army in the upper part of the
valley overlooking the whole of the battlefield, and divided them into three parts, one centre and
two flanks. The central force consisted of the leading figures among the Emigrants and Helpers,
who were foremost in devotion to God’s Messenger. Mus‘ab ibn ‘Umayr was carrying the
standard of God’s Messenger. Mus‘ab belonged to one of the richest families of Makka. He had
accepted Islam as an adolescent. He was very handsome, and when he used to go out, before his
conversion, in silken clothes, the Makkan girls used to stare at him from the windows of their
houses. However, after he embraced Islam, he became a whole-hearted follower of God’s
Messenger. He sacrificed whatever he had in the way of God and finally died a martyr at the
Battle of Uhud, during which he was again the standard-bearer of the Prophet, upon him be
peace and blessings. When he lost his right arm, he took the standard in his left hand, and when a
blow of an enemy sword took it away too, he was left with a ‘head’ to protect God’s Messenger,
before whom he was finally martyred.22

The flanks were commanded by ‘Ali and Sa‘d ibn Mu‘adh. ‘Ali was famous for his courage and
deep devotion to God’s Messenger. He was only nine or ten years old when he answered God’s
Messenger, ‘I will help you’, when the Messenger gathered his kinsmen to call them to Islam at
the outset of his mission and asked them: ‘Who among you will help me in this affair?’23 Again,
on the night of the Prophet’s Emigration, he slept on the Prophet’s bed in order that God’s
Messenger, upon him be peace and blessings, might be able to leave Makka in safety.24 Those
who surrounded the house of the Prophet had thought that it was God’s Messenger who was
sleeping in the bed and waited until daybreak. By the time they rushed into the house only to find
‘Ali in the Prophet’s bed, God’s Messenger had already reached the Cave of Thawr outside
Makka. ‘Ali was a man wholly dedicated to the cause of God.

God’s Messenger, upon him be peace and blessings, had not neglected to take all the necessary
precautions and perfect all the preparations for the war. He had mobilized all the resources
available to him and chosen his best and most qualified men as commanders. He had stationed
his army at the upper part of the valley and pitched his tent at a place from where he would be
able to see the whole of the battlefield and have all his commands conveyed to his soldiers
instantaneously. And, as the final prerequisite, for the desired result, he outstretched his arms and
prayed with great earnestness and humility:
O God! Here are the Quraysh who in their vainglory seek to deny and cry lies against Your
Messenger. O God! Support us with the help You promised me. O God! Were this small group
of Muslims to perish, none in the whole earth would remain to worship You.25

After the prayer, he threw a handful of dust at the enemy saying: May their faces be scorched!26

The Battle of Badr was a severe test for all the Muslims. They would either gain the victory or be
martyred. They were not to flee the battlefield. Although they were not forbidden to retreat in
orderly fashion under strong pressure from the enemy provided the retreat was resorted to as a
stratagem of war – for example, seeking reinforcements or regrouping with another party in the
rear (al-Anfal, 8.15) – any disorderly flight because of cowardice and defeatism was strictly
forbidden. That kind of retreat takes place because the deserter holds his life dearer than his
cause, and such cowardice has been characterized as one of the major deadly sins.

The battle began. In the first frontline of the Quraysh were ‘Utba ibn Rabi‘a and his brother,
Shayba, and his son, Walid. They challenged the Muslims to single combat. Three young men of
the Helpers went forward against them. ‘We will not fight with the farmers and spherherds of
Madina,’ ‘Utba shouted out of an arrogance which would cause their perishing. This was, in fact,
what God’s Messenger expected. He ordered ‘Ali, Hamza and ‘Ubayda ibn Harith to go forth for
single combat. Hamza, may God be pleased with him, advanced against ‘Utba and killed him.
‘Ali killed Walid with two blows. ‘Ubayda, who was old, marched against Shayba. They
exchanged blows, and the sharp edge of Shayba’s sword struck ‘Ubayda’s knee and cut it.
However Hamza and ‘Ali rescued him from Shayba. They killed Shayba and carried ‘Ubayda
away.27

The Quraysh were shocked at the beginning of the war. The belief and sincerity of the Muslims
won them God’s help. The Quraysh, who had exulted in their power, suffered a decisive defeat at
the hands of the ill-equipped Muslims. Seventy of the Quraysh were killed. The two young
brothers, ‘Awf and Mu‘awwidh, from the Helpers, together with ‘Adbullah ibn Mas‘ud, killed
Abu Jahl, who had been described by God’s Messenger as the Pharaoh of the Muslim Ummah.28
Almost all the leaders of the Quraysh, including Abu Jahl, Walid ibn Mughira, ‘Utba ibn
Rabi‘ah, ‘As ibn Sa‘id, Umayyah ibn Khalaf, and Nawfal ibn Khuwaylid were killed. Prior to the
battle, God’s Messenger, upon him be peace and blessings, had indicated the spots where they
were killed, saying: ‘Utba will be killed here; Abu Jahl here, Umayyah ibn Khalaf here, and so
on.29

Another seventy of the Quraysh were taken as war prisoners. God granted the Muslims
permission to accept ransom for them. God’s Messenger released some of them in return for
ransom, and the others who knew how to read and write, on the condition that they should teach
the unlettered Muslims how to read and write.

Such treatment of the captives proved very beneficial for the Muslims. For those people who had
expected execution welcomed the chance to pay ransom and paid it. Second, the rate of literacy
in Madina was very low, and, in order to propagate Islam, the Muslims had to know how to read
and write. Besides, the Muslims had to be culturally superior to the polytheists. Third, those who
were kept in Madina to teach the Muslims how to read and write would be able to learn Islam
better than before and find the opportunity to be in close contact with the Muslims. This was
certain to soften their hearts toward Islam and accelerate their conversion, together with that of
their families. Fourth, the families and relatives of those captives had despaired of their lives.
But, when they saw them before them unexpectedly, their enmity to Islam was considerably
lessened or broken.

The decisive victory gained at Badr made Islam a force to reckon with across all of Arabia, and
many hardened hearts were inclined to accept the message of Islam.

Causes & Results of : Hijrat – e Madina

Hijra of Muhammad
In September 622, warned of a plot to assassinate him, Muhammad secretly slipped out of Mecca
with Abu Bakr.[3] By degrees, Muhammad and his followers emigrated to the city of Yathrib,
320 kilometres (200 mi) north of Mecca. Yathrib was soon renamed Madinat un-Nabi, literally
"the City of the Prophet", but un-Nabi was soon dropped, so its name in English is Medina,
meaning "the city".[4] The Muslim year during which the Hijra occurred was designated the first
year of the Islamic calendar by Umar in 638 or 17 AH (anno hegirae = "in the year of the hijra").
[4]
In the following chronology[4] the city will be referred to as Medina, and the region
surrounding it as Yathrib.

Day Date Notes

Day 1 26 Safar AH 1 Left home in Mecca. Stayed three days in the Cave of Thur near
Thursday (9 September 622) Mecca.
1 Rabi' I AH 1
Day 5
(13 September Left the environs of Mecca. Traveled to the region of Yathrib.
Monday
622)
8 Rabi' I AH 1
Day 12
(20 September Arrived at Quba' near Medina.
Monday
622)
12 Rabi' I AH 1
Day 16
(24 September First visit to Medina for Friday prayers.
Friday
622)
Day 26 22 Rabi' I AH 1
Moved from Quba' to Medina.
Monday (4 October 622)

The Muslim dates are in the Islamic calendar extended back in time. The Western dates are in the
Julian calendar. The lunar year is about 300/309 solar year. The Hijra is celebrated annually on
8 Rabi' I, about 66 days after 1 Muharram, the first day of the Muslim year. Many writers
confuse the first day of the year of the Hijra with the Hijra itself, erroneously stating that the
Hijra occurred on 1 Muharram AH 1 or 16 July 622.[4]
All dates given above may have occurred about 89 days (three lunar months) earlier. The Muslim
dates may be those recorded in the original Arabic calendar and their month names may not have
been changed to account for the (probably three) intercalary months inserted during the next nine
years until intercalary months were prohibited during the year of Muhammad's last Hajj (AH 10).
[5]

A delegation from Medina, consisting of the representatives of the twelve important clans of
Medina, invited Muhammad as a neutral outsider to serve as the chief arbitrator for the entire
community.[1][2] There was fighting in Yathrib (Medina) mainly involving its Arab and Jewish
inhabitants for around a hundred years before 620.[1] The recurring slaughters and disagreements
over the resulting claims, especially after the battle of Bu'ath in which all the clans were
involved, made it obvious to them that the tribal conceptions of blood-feud and an eye for an eye
were no longer workable unless there was one man with authority to adjudicate in disputed cases.
[1]
The delegation from Medina pledged themselves and their fellow-citizens to accept
Muhammad into their community and physically protect him as one of themselves.[3]

Muhammad instructed his followers to emigrate to Medina until virtually all of his followers had
left Mecca. Being alarmed at the departure of Muslims, according to the tradition, the Meccans
plotted to assassinate him. With the help of Ali, however, he fooled the Meccans who were
watching him, and secretly slipped away from the town.[4] By 622, Muhammad had emigrated to
Medina, then known as Yathrib, a large agricultural oasis.[3] Following the emigration, the
Meccans seized the properties of the Muslim emigrants in Mecca.[5]

Among the things Muhammad did in order to settle the longstanding grievances among the tribes
of Medina was drafting a document known as the Constitution of Medina (date debated),
"establishing a kind of alliance or federation" among the eight Medinan tribes and Muslim
emigrants from Mecca, which specified the rights and duties of all citizens and the relationship
of the different communities in Medina (including that of the Muslim community to other
communities specifically the Jews and other "Peoples of the Book").[1][2] The community defined
in the Constitution of Medina, umma, had a religious outlook but was also shaped by the
practical considerations and substantially preserved the legal forms of the old Arab tribes.[3]
Muhammad also adopted some features of the Jewish worship and customs such as fasting on the
Yom Kippur day. According to Alford Welch, the Jewish practice of having three daily prayer
rituals appears to have been a factor in the introduction of the Islamic midday prayer (previously
Muhammad was keeping the morning and evening prayers). Welch thinks that Muhammad's
adoption of facing north towards Jerusalem when performing the daily prayers (qibla) however
need not to necessarily be a borrowing from the Jews as the reports about the direction of prayer
before migration to Medina are contradictory and further this direction of prayer was also
practiced among other groups in Arabia.

The first group of pagan converts to Islam in Medina were the clans who had not produced great
leaders for themselves but had suffered from warlike leaders from other clans. This was followed
by the general acceptance of Islam by the pagan population of Medina, apart from some
exceptions. This was, according to Ibn Ishaq, influenced by the conversion to Islam of Sa'd ibn
Mua'dh, one of the prominent leaders in Medina.
ABU BAKAR:
Abu Bakr (Abdullah ibn Abi Qahafa) (Arabic: ‫;عبد هللا بن أبي قحافة‬ Transliteration: 'Abdullāh bin
Abī Quhāfah, c. 573 CE – 23 August 634/13 AH) was a senior companion (Sahabah) and the
father-in-law of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. He ruled over the Rashidun Caliphate from
632-634 CE when he became the first Muslim Caliph following Muhammad's death.[1] As
Caliph, Abu Bakr succeeded to the political and administrative functions previously exercised by
the Prophet, since the religious function and authority of prophethood ended with Muhammad's
death according to Islam. He was called Al-Siddiq (the truthful)[2] by the Prophet and was known
by that title among later generations of Muslims.

As a young man, Abu Bakr became a cloth merchant and he traveled extensively in Arabia and
neighboring lands in the Middle East, through which he gained both wealth and experience. He
eventually came to be recognized as the chief of his clan.[3] On his return from a business trip to
Yemen, he was informed that in his absence Muhammad had openly declared his prophethood.
Not long after, Abu Bakr accepted Islam and was the first person outside the family of
Muhammad to openly become a Muslim. He was instrumental in the conversion of many people
to the Islamic faith[4] and early in 623, Abu Bakr's daughter Aisha was married to Muhammad,
strengthening the ties between the two men.[2]

Abu Bakr served as a trusted advisor and close friend to the Prophet. During the lifetime of
Muhammad, he was involved in several campaigns such as the Battle of Uhud, the Battle of the
Trench, the Battle of Banu Qurayza, Battle of Khaybar, the Conquest of Mecca, the Battle of
Hunayn, the Siege of Ta'if, and the Battle of Tabuk where he was reported to have given all of
his wealth for the preparation of this expedition.[5] He also participated in the Treaty of
Hudaybiyyah and was made one of the witnesses over the pact.[5]

In 631, the Prophet became fatally ill, and after his death Abu Bakr became the first Muslim or
Caliph. During his rule, he defeated the rebellion of several Arab tribes in a successful campaign,
unifying the entire Arabian peninsula and giving it stability.[6] This enabled him to launch
successful campaigns against the Sassanid Empire (Persian Empire) and the East Roman Empire
(Byzantine Empire) who were threatening Arabia's borders. Prior to dispatching his army to
Syria against the Romans he gave them the following commands which established the conduct
of war for later Muslim generations:

Stop, O people, that I may give you ten rules for your guidance in the battlefield. Do not commit
treachery or deviate from the right path. You must not mutilate dead bodies. Neither kill a child,
nor a woman, nor an aged man. Bring no harm to the trees, nor burn them with fire, especially
those which are fruitful. Slay not any of the enemy's flock, save for your food. You are likely to
pass by people who have devoted their lives to monastic services; leave them alone.[7][8]

Abu Bakr's Caliphate lasted for a little over two years (or 27 months), ending with his death after
an illness. Though the period of his caliphate was not long it included successful invasions of the
two most powerful empires of the time, a remarkable achievement in its own right. He set in
motion a historical trajectory that in few decades would lead to one of the largest empires in
history.
After Muhammad's death, previously dormant tensions between the Meccan immigrants, the
Muhajirun, and the Medinan converts, the Ansar, threatened to break out and split the Ummah.
Other arabic tribes also wished to revert to local leadership and split from Medina's control. In
some places, people claiming prophethood started to establish leaderships to oppose Medina, e.g.
Al-Aswad Al-Ansi and Musaylimah. All of which are events that lead to splitting the muslim
community.[72] The Ansar, the leaders of the tribes of Medina, met in a hall or house called
saqifah, to discuss whom they would support as their new leader. When Abu Bakr was informed
of the meeting, he, Umar, Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah and a few others rushed to prevent the
Ansar from making a premature decision. Accounts of this meeting vary greatly. All agree that
during the meeting Umar declared that Abu Bakr should be the new leader, and declared his
allegiance to Abu Bakr, followed by Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah, and thus Abu Bakr became the
first Muslim caliph, who was given the title, Khalifa-tul-Rasool (Successor of messenger of
Allah), a title only accepted by Sunni Muslims. Shias criticise Abu Bakr for forsaking the funeral
of Muhammad to attend the political gathering, and believe that Muhammad had already
appointed Ali in his lifetime as his successor. This view portrays Abu Bakr and Umar as plotters
in a political coup against the Alids. The Ismaili Shia Institute researcher Wilfred Madelung[73]
portrays Abu Bakr as a political opportunist whose character as the founder of Sunni Islam has
been extensively embellished by subsequent kings and emperors (caliphs) making it difficult to
openly criticise him [74]

Reign as a Caliph
After assuming the office of Caliphate Abu Bakr's first address was as follow:

I have been given the authority over you, and I am not the best of you. If I do well, help me; and
if I do wrong, set me right. Sincere regard for truth is loyalty and disregard for truth is treachery.
The weak amongst you shall be strong with me until I have secured his rights, if God wills; and
the strong amongst you shall be weak with me until I have wrested from him the rights of others,
if God wills. Obey me so long as I obey God and His Messenger. But if I disobey God and His
Messenger, ye owe me no obedience. Arise for your prayer, God have mercy upon you.

Abu Bakr's Caliphate lasted for 27 months, during which he crushed the rebellion of the Arab
tribes throughout Arabia in the successful campaign against Apostasy. In the last months of his
rule, he launched campaigns against the Sassanid Empire and the Eastern Roman Empire
(Byzantine Empire) and thus set in motion a historical trajectory[72] (continued later on by Umar
and Uthman) that in just a few short decades would lead to one of the largest empires in history.
He had little time to pay attention to the administration of state, though state affairs remained
stable during his Caliphate. On the advice of Umar and Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah he agreed to
have a salary from state treasury and abolish his cloth trade.

Ridda-Wars

Troubles emerged soon after Abu Bakr's succession, threatening the unity and stability of the
new community and state. Several Arabic tribes revolted against Abu Bakr. In four of the six
centres of the insurrection, the rebells rallied around people who claimed to be prophets, the
most prominent among these was Musaylimah. The tribes claimed that they had submitted to
Muhammad only, and that with Muhammad's death, their allegiance had ended. This was
common practice in pre-islamic Arabia. After the death of a tribal leader the alliance with the
tribe of that leader was regarded as having ended.[6] Thus several tribes acted in accordance to
this pre-islamic practice and refused to pay Zakat. Abu Bakr, however, insisted that they had not
just submitted to a simple human leader but joined the Muslim religious community, of which he
was the new head. So, in contrast to pre-islamic times, their allegiance was not seen as having
ended at all.

This was the start of the Ridda wars (Arabic for the Wars of Apostasy). The apostasy of central
Arabia was led by self-proclaimed prophet Musaylimah of in al-Yamama, while the other centers
were to the south and east in Bahrain, Oman, Mahra region and Yemen.[72] Abu Bakr planned his
strategy accordingly and formed the Muslim army into 11 corps. The strongest corps, and this
was the main punch of the Muslim army, was that of Khalid ibn al-Walid and was used to fight
the most powerful of the rebel forces. Other corps were given areas of secondary importance in
which to bring the less dangerous apostate tribes. Abu Bakr's plan was first to clear the area of
west and central Arabia (the area nearest Medina), then tackle Malik ibn Nuwayrah, and finally
concentrate against the most dangerous enemy Musaylimah. After series of successful
campaigns, Khalid ibn al-Walid finally defeated Musaylimah and his tribe, the Banu Hanifa, in
the Battle of Yamama.[75] The Campaign of the Apostasy was fought and completed during the
eleventh year after Hijra. The year 12 Hijri dawned, on 18 March 633, with Arabia united under
the central authority of the Caliph at Medina.

This phenomenon was later regarded as primarily a religious movement by Arabic historians.
However, the early sources indicate that in reality it was mainly political.[76][77] After all, the
revolting Arabs only refused to pay Zakat (Charity), but they did not refuse to perform the salah.
[77]
This however is disputed and explained by Muslim scholars in that the dictation of Zakat was
one of the Five pillars of Islam and its denial or withholding is an act of denial of a cornerstone
of faith, and is therefore an act of apostasy. Bernard Lewis states that the fact that Islamic
Historians have regarded this as a primarily religious movement was due to a later interpretation
of events in terms of a theological world-view.[6] The opponents of the Muslim armies were not
only apostates, but also - if not most of them - tribes which were largely or even completely
independent from the Muslim community.[77] However, these revolts also had a religious aspect:
Medina had become the centre of a social and political system, of which religion was an integral
part; consequently it was inevitable that any reaction against this system should have a religious
aspect.[78]

The Qur'an — preservation

According to Sunni Islam, Abu Bakr was instrumental in preserving the Qur'an in written form.
It is said that after the hard-won victory over Musaylimah in the Battle of Yamama fought in
632, Umar (the later Caliph Umar), saw that many of the Muslims who had memorized the
Qur'an had died in battle. Fearing that the Qur'an may be lost or corrupted, Umar requested the
Caliph Abu Bakr to authorize the compilation and preservation of the Book in written format.
After initial hesitation, Abu Bakr made a committee headed by Zayd ibn Thabit which included
the memorizers of the Qur'an and Umar and to collect all verses of the Book. After collecting all
Qur'anic verses from texts in the possession of various sahaba, Zayd ibn Thabit and members of
his committee verified the reading by comparing with those who had memorized the Qur'an.
After they were satisfied that they had not missed out any verse or made any mistakes in reading
or writing it down, the text was written down as one single manuscript and presented in a book
form to the Caliph Abu Bakr. It is believed that this process happened within one year of the
death of Muhammad when most of his sahaba (companions) were still alive.

Prior to his death, Abu Bakr gave this authorized copy of the Qur'an to Umar - his successor. It
remained with him throughout his tenure as Caliph (10 years). Prior to his death, Umar gave this
Book to his daughter Hafsa bint Umar, who was one of the wives of Muhammad. Umar did not
nominate his successor on his deathbed, and thus preferred to leave this copy with Hafsa so as
not to indicate his personal preference of who would be the next caliph. Later on, it became the
basis of Uthman Ibn Affan's definitive text of the Qur'an which was published far and wide
merely 18 years after the death of Muhammad. Later historians give Uthman Ibn Affan the
principal credit for re-verification and publishing the Qur'an. Shi'as reject the idea that Abu Bakr
or Umar were instrumental in the collection or preservation of the Qur'an.[79]

Military expansion

Once the rebellions had been put down, Abu Bakr began a war of conquest. Whether or not he
intended a full-out imperial conquest is hard to say; he did, however, set in motion a historical
trajectory that in just a few short decades would lead to one of the largest empires in history. Abu
Bakr began with Iraq, the richest province of Persian Empire. He sent his most brilliant general
Khalid ibn al-Walid to invade the Sassanid Empire.

[edit] Invasion of Sassanid Persian Empire

After the Ridda Wars, a tribal chief of north eastern Arabia, Muthanna ibn Haris, raided the
Persian towns in Iraq. With the success of the raids, a considerable amount of booty was
collected. Muthanna ibn Haris went to Medina to inform Caliph Abu Bakr about his success and
was appointed commander of his people, after which he began to raid deeper into Iraq. Using the
mobility of his light cavalry he could easy raid any town near the desert and within moments
could disappear again in to the desert, into which the Sassanid army was unable to chase them.
Muthanna’s acts made Abu Bakr think about the expansion of the Rashidun Empire.[80]

Abu Bakr started with the invasion of Iraq. The problems faced by Abu Bakr were that the Arabs
feared the Persians with a deep, unreasoning fear which ran in the tribal consciousness as a racial
complex and was the result of centuries of Persian power and glory. In return the Persian
regarded the Arab with contempt. It was important not to suffer a defeat, for that would confirm
and strengthen this instinctive fear. To make certain of victory, Abu Bakr decided on two
measures; that the invading army would consist entirely of volunteers; and he put in command of
the army his best general Khalid ibn al-Walid. After defeating the self-proclaimed prophet
Musaylimah in the Battle of Yamama, Khalid was still at Al-Yamama when Abu Bakr sent him
orders to invade the Sassanid Empire. Making Al-Hirah the objective of Khalid, Abu Bakr sent
reinforcements and ordered the tribal chiefs of north eastern Arabia, Muthanna ibn Haris,
Mazhur bin Adi, Harmala and Sulma to operate under the command of Khalid along with their
men. In about third week of March 633 (first week of Muharram 12th Hijrah) Khalid set out
from Al-Yamama with an army of 10,000.[80] The tribal chiefs, with 2,000 warriors each, joined
Khalid; Thus Khalid entered the Persian Empire with 18,000 troops. After entering Iraq with his
army of 18,000, Khalid won decisive victories in four consecutive battles: Battle of Chains,
fought in April 633; Battle of River, fought in the 3rd week of April 633; Battle of Walaja,
fought in May 633 (where he successfully used a double envelopment manoeuvre), and Battle of
Ullais, fought in the mid of May 633. By now the Persian court already disturbed by the internal
problems, was down and out. In the last week of May 633, Hira capital city of Iraq fell to the
Muslims after resistance in the Siege of Hira. After resting his armies, in June 633 Khalid laid
siege of Al Anbar, which resisted and was eventually surrendered after a siege of a few weeks in
July 633 after the Siege of Al-Anbar. Khalid then moved towards the south, and conquered the
city of Ein ul Tamr after the Battle of Ein ut Tamr in the last week of July 633. By now, almost
the whole of Iraq (Euphrates region) was under Islamic control. Khalid got a call of help from
northern Arabia at Daumat-ul-Jandal, where another Muslim Arab general, Ayaz bin Ghanam,
was trapped among the rebel tribes. Khalid went to Daumat-ul-jandal and defeated the rebels in
the Battle of Daumat-ul-jandal in the last week of August 633. Returning from Arabia, he got
news of the assembling of a large Persian army. He decided to defeat them all separately to avoid
the risk of defeat to a large unified Persian army. Four divisions of Persian and Christian Arab
auxiliaries were present at Hanafiz, Zumiel, Sanni and Muzieh. Khalid devised a brilliant plan to
destroy the Persian forces. He divided his army in three units, and attacked the Persian forces in
brilliantly coordinated attacks from three different sides at night, starting from the Battle of
Muzieh, then the Battle of Sanni, and finally the Battle of Zumail during November 633. These
devastating defeats ended Persian control over Iraq, and left the Persian capital Ctesiphon
unguarded and vulnerable for Muslims attack, before attacking the Persian Capital Khalid
decided to eliminate all Persian forces from south and west, he accordingly marched against the
border city of Firaz, where he defeated the combined forces of the Sassanid Persians, Byzantine
Romans and Christian Arabs in the Battle of Firaz in December 633. This was the last battle in
his conquest of Iraq. While Khalid was on his way to attack Qadissiyah, a key fort in the way to
Persian Capital Ctesiphon, he received the letter of Caliph Abu Bakr and was sent to Roman
front in Syria to assume the command of Muslim armies to conquer Roman Syria.[81]

[edit] Invasion of Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire

With a successful invasion of Sassanid Persian province of Iraq, Abu Bakr’s confidence grew
and he concentrated large army at Zhu Qissah and sent them to Roman Syria, the army was
divided in four corps. Each, under its own commander and target. While these armies where on
their march towards their target they received intelligence of concentration of large Byzantine
armies at Ajnadayn. The armies stopped their advance and wrote to Abu Bakr for help. Position
in Iraq was stable by now, Caliph accordingly wrote to Khalid to take half of his forces of Iraq to
Syria and assume the command of Muslim armies in Syria. The Byzantine province of Syria in
those days consisted of modern day Syria, Jordan, Israel, the Palestinian territories, Lebanon and
southern Turkey. There were two routes towards Syria from Iraq, one was via Daumat-ul-Jandal
and the other was through Mesopotamia passing though Ar Raqqah. Muslim armies in Syria
were in need of urgent reinforcement, Khalid avoided the conventional route to Syria via Daumat
ul Jandal because it was a long route and would take weeks to reach Syria, he avoided
Mesopotamia’s route because of presence of Roman garrisons in Northern Syria and
Mesopotamia and engaging with them at the time when Muslim armies were being outflanked in
Syria, was not a wise idea. Khalid selected a rather short route to Syria, an unconventional route
passing though Syrian Desert. He boldly marched his armies though desert were it is recorded
that his soldiers marched for two days without a single drop of water, before reaching a pre-
decided water source in oasis. Khalid thus entered Northern Syria and caught Byzantine at there
right flank and according to modern historians, it was this ingenious strategic maneuver of
Khalid, his perilous march though desert and appearing at the north-eastern front of Byzantines
while they were occupied in tackling Muslim armies in southern Syria, that unhinged the
Byzantine defenses in Syria. Khalid entered Syria in June 634 and quickly captured the border
forts of

Sawa, Arak, Tadmur, Sukhnah. Qaryatayn and Hawarin after the battles of Qaryatayn and
Hawarin. After dealing with all these cities, Khalid moved towards Damascus, passing though a
mountain pass which is now known as Sanita-al-Uqab (Uqab pass) after the name of Khalid's
army standard. From here he moved away from Damascus, towards Basra, the capital of
Ghassanid Arab kingdom, a vassal of Eastern Roman empire. He had ordered other Muslim
commaders to concentrate their armies at Busra, which were still near the Syrian-Arabia border.
At Maraj-al-Rahab, Khalid defeated a Ghassanid army of Christian Arabs in a quick Battle of
Marj-al-Rahit. Meanwhile Abu Ubaida ibn al-Jarrah, the supreme commander of Muslim armies
in Syria had ordered Shurhabil ibn Hasana to attack Basra.The later laid siege of Basra with his
small army of 4000 men. Roman and Ghassanid Arab garrison, noticing that this might be the
advance guard of the larger Muslim army to come, decided to attack and destroy Shurhabil’s
army. They came out of the fortified city and attacked Shurhabil, surrounding him from all sides;
Khalid reached the arena with his advance guard cavalry and saved the day for Shurhabil. The
combine forces of Khalid, Shurhabil and Abu Ubaidah then laid the siege of Basra, which
surrendered some time in mid July 634. thus effectively ending the Ghassanid Dynasty.

Here Khalid took over the command of Muslim armies in Syria from Abu Ubaidah, as per the
instructions of Caliph. The massive Byzantine armies were concentrating at Ajnadayn to push
the invading armies back to desert. Early Muslim sources have mentioned its size to be 90,000,
while most of the modern historians doubt the figures, but consider this battle to be the key to
breaking the Byzantine power in Syria. According to the instructions of Khalid all Muslim corps
concentrated at Ajnadayn, where they fought a decisive battle against Byzantine on 30 July 634.
Defeat at the Battle of Ajnadayn, left Syria vulnerable to the Muslim invaders. Khalid decided to
capture Damascus, the Byzantine stronghold. At Damascus Thomas, son in law of Emperor
Heraculis, was in charge. Receiving the intelligence of Khalid's march towards Damascus he
prepared for the defences of Damascus. He wrote to Emperor Heraculis for reinforcement, who
was at Emesa that time. Moreover Thomas, in order to get more time for preparation of a siege,
sent the armies to delay or if possible halt Khalid's march to Damascus, one such army was
defeated at Battle of Yaqusa in mid-August 634 near Lake Tiberias 90 miles from Damascus,
another army that halted the Muslim advance to Damascus was defeated in Battle of Maraj as
Saffer on 19 August 634. These engagements delayed Khalid’s advance and gave Thomas
enough time to prepare for siege. Meanwhile Heraculis's reinforcement had reached the city,
which he had dispatched after the bad news of Ajnadyn. Before Heraculis's another regiment
could reach Damascus, Khalid had finally reached Damascus. Khalid reached Damascus on 20
August and besieged the city. To isolate the city from rest of the region, Khalid placed the
detachments south on the road to Palestine and in north at Damascus-Emesa route, and several
other smaller detachments on routes towards Damascus. Heraculis's reinforcement was
intercepted and routed at the Battle of Sanita-al-Uqab, 20 miles from Damascus. Khalid's forces
withstood three Roman sallies that tried to break the siege. Khalid finally attacked and conquered
Damascus on 18 September 634 after a 30-day siege. According to some sources the siege lasted
for four or six months. Heraculis, having received the news of the fall of Damascus, left for
Antioch from Emesa. The citizens were given peace on the terms of annual tribute; the Byzantine
army was given a three-day peace to go as far as they could. After the three-day deadline was
over, the Muslim cavalry under Khalid's command attacked the Roman army, catching up to
them using an unknown shortcut, at the Battle of Maraj-al-Debaj, 190 miles north of Damascus.
Abu Bakr died during the siege of Damascus and Umar became the new Caliph. He dismissed
his cousin Khalid ibn al-Walid from the command and appointed Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah the
new commander in chief of Islamic army in Syria. Abu Ubaidah got the letter of his appointment
and Khalid's disposal during the siege, but he delayed the announcement until the city was
conquered.

USMAN:
According to Muslim sources, unlike his predecessor, Umar, who maintained discipline with a
stern hand, Uthman was less rigorous upon his people; he focused more on economic prosperity.
Under Uthman, the people became economically more prosperous and on the political plane they
came to enjoy a larger degree of freedom. No institutions were devised to channel political
activity, and, in the absence of such institutions, the pre-Islamic tribal jealousies and rivalries,
which had been suppressed under earlier caliphs, erupted once again. In view of the democratic
and liberal policies adopted by Uthman, the people took advantage of such liberties, which
became a headache for the state, and it culminated in the assassination of Uthman.[14]

Moreover, the foreign powers became nervous at the success of the Muslims under the
leadership of Uthman, and now their only hope lay in aiding and abetting subversive movements
within the territories of Uthman's caliphate. According to some viewpoints, under such
circumstances, leaders like Abdullah Ibn Saba, felt that it was a good opportunity to accomplish
their aims of rebellion by starting arguments over religion. However, the figure Abdullah Ibn
Saba is believed by many Shia Muslims to be an imaginary one created by certain Sunni
historians to stir up anti-Shia sentiment.

However, Wilferd Madelung discredits the alleged role of Abdullah b. Saba in the rebellion
against Uthman, Madelung observes that ‘’few if any modern historians would accept Sayf's
legend of Ibn Saba’’[15]

It is believed that the movement had its links with foreign countries. Due to the lack of any
particular political department to deal with the growing political agitation in the Islamic state, the
political leaders in various towns campaigned against Uthman. Initially, they started with
arguments over Uthman's kinsmen, who were governors of Egypt, Bosra and Kufa and they were
joined by the companions who supported Ali. The most prominent of these were Muhammad ibn
Abi Bakr, who despite being an Umayyad like Uthman, was raised in Ali's house, and Ammar
ibn Yasir, who supported the right of Ali to become caliph because of his close relationship with
Muhammad. The campaign was also supported by some companions who had a personal
grievance with Uthman, like ‘Amr ibn al-’As, also an Ummayad, who was stripped of the
governorship of Egypt by Uthman, and Uthman's adopted son, Muhammad bin Abi Hudhaifa,
who Uthman had refused to appoint as a governor of any province.

The actual reason for the anti-Uthman movement is disputed among the Shia and Sunni
Muslims.[16] Many anonymous letters were written to the leading companions of Muhammad,
complaining about the alleged tyranny of Uthman's appointed governors. Moreover, letters were
sent to the leaders of public opinion in different provinces concerning the reported mishandling
of power by Uthman's family. This contributed to unrest in the empire and finally Uthman had to
investigate the matter in an attempt to ascertain the authenticity of the rumours.[17] The movement
however exploited differences between the Hashemite (Ali's clan) and Umayyad (Uthman's clan)
clans of Quraysh.

Sunni Muslims consider these claims about the governors of Uthman, who achieved much
success during their reign, to be untrue, while Sunni Muslims believe this to be a tactic used by
seditionists to overthrow the realm of Uthman, by making him lose control over the main
provinces of Egypt, Syria, Kufa and Bosra, where Uthman had appointed his own kinsmen for
loyalty's sake. On the other hand Shia Muslims suggest that these claims were correct, and
Uthman's kinsmen, although they achieved success as governors, failed to lead the people
according to the principles of Islam, giving references to various early narrations present in
primary sources of Islamic history. Sunni Muslims reject these narrations, on the basis that their
authenticity is disputed.

Uthman's emissaries to the provinces

The situation was becoming tense and so the Uthman administration had to investigate the
origins and extent of anti-government propaganda and its aims. Some time around 654, Uthman
called all the governors of his 12 provinces to Medina to discuss the problem. In this Council of
Governors, Uthman directed the governors that they should adopt all the expedients they had
suggested, according to local circumstances. Later, in the Majlis al Shurah (council of ministry),
it was suggested to Uthman that reliable agents should be sent to various provinces to investigate
the matter and report about the sources of such rumours. Uthman accordingly sent his agents to
the main provinces, Muhammad ibn Maslamah was sent to Kufa; Usama ibn Zayd was sent to
Basra; Ammar ibn Yasir was sent to Egypt, while `Abd Allah ibn `Umar was sent to Syria. The
emissaries who had been sent to Kufa, Basra, and Syria submitted their reports to Uthman, that
all was well in Kufa, Basra and Syria. The people were satisfied with the administration, and
they had no legitimate grievance against it. Some individuals in various locations had some
personal grievances of minor character, with which the people at large were not concerned.
Ammar ibn Yasir, the emissary to Egypt, however, did not return to Medina. The rebels had
carried on with their propaganda in favour of the Caliphate of Ali. Ammar ibn Yasir had been
affiliated with Ali; he left Uthman, and instead joined the opposition in Egypt. Abdullah ibn
Saad, the governor of Egypt, reported about the activities of the opposition in Egypt. He wanted
to take action against Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr (foster son of Ali), Muhammad bin Abi Hudhaifa
(adopted son of Uthman) and Ammar ibn Yasir.[10] However, Uthman did not want Abdullah ibn
Saad to be harsh against them because he held them in high regard. After the Egyptian emissary's
failure, Uthman looked for further developments in Egypt.
[edit] Further measures

In 655, Uthman directed the people who had any grievance against the administration to
assemble at Mecca for the Hajj. He promised them that all their legitimate grievances would be
redressed. He directed the governors and the "Amils" throughout the empire to come to Mecca
on the occasion of the Hajj. In response to the call of Uthman, the opposition came in large
delegations from various cities to present their grievances before the gathering.[14]

Uthman addressed the people and gave a long explanation of the criticism about himself and his
administration and then said: "I have had my say. Now I am prepared to listen to you. If any one
of you has any legitimate grievance against me or my Government you are free to give
expression to such grievance, and I assure you that, I will do my best to redress such grievance."

The rebels realized that the people in Mecca supported the defence offered by Uthman and were
not in the mood to listen to them.[4] That was a great psychological victory for Uthman. It is said,
according to Sunni Muslim accounts, that before returning back to Syria, the governor
Muawiyah, Uthman’s cousin, suggested Uthman should come with him to Syria as the
atmosphere there was peaceful. Uthman rejected his offer, saying that he didn't want to leave the
city of Muhammad (referring to Medina). Muawiyah then suggested that he be allowed to send a
strong force from Syria to Medina to guard Uthman against any possible attempt by rebels to
harm him. Uthman rejected it too, saying that the Syrian forces in Medina would be an
incitement to civil war, and he could not be party to such a move.[10]

[edit] Agitation in Medina

After the Hajj of 655 things remained quiet for some time. With the dawn of the year 656,
Medina, the capital city of Uthman, became a hotbed of intrigue and unrest. Muhammad ibn Abi
Bakr returned to Medina from Egypt, and assisted in leading a campaign against the Caliphate of
Uthman.

When the crisis deepened in Medina, Uthman addressed the congregation in the Masjid-e-
Nabawi and gave an explanation and rebuttal of all the claims against him. The general public
was again satisfied with Uthman. He had hoped that after his speech in which he had explained
his position, and offered full defence for his actions, the allegedly false propaganda against him
would cease.

[edit] Armed revolt against Uthman

The politics of Egypt played the major role in the propaganda war against the caliphate, so
Uthman summoned Abdullah ibn Saad, the governor of Egypt, to Medina to consult with him as
to the course of action that should be adopted. Abdullah ibn Saad came to Medina, leaving the
affairs of Egypt to his deputy, and in his absence, Muhammad bin Abi Hudhaifa staged a coup
d'état and took power. On hearing of the revolt in Egypt, Abdullah hastened back but Uthman
was not in a position to offer him any military assistance and, accordingly, Abdullah ibn Saad
failed to recapture his power.[18]
In middle of 656, Uthman’s governor of Kufa, Abu-Musa al-Asha'ari, was unable to control the
province. In Basra the governor, Abdullah ibn Aamir, left for Hajj, and in his absence the affairs
of the province fell into a state of confusion. The three main provinces of Egypt (which was
already the center of the dissident movement), Kufa, and Basra became essentially independent
from the Caliphate of Uthman, and became the center of revolt.

[edit] Rebels in Medina

From Egypt a contingent of about 1,000 people were sent to Medina, with instructions to
assassinate Uthman and overthrow the government. Similar contingents marched from Kufa and
Basra to Medina.[19] They sent their representatives to Medina to contact the leaders of public
opinion. The representatives of the contingent from Egypt waited on Ali, and offered him the
Caliphate in succession to Uthman, which Ali turned down. The representatives of the contingent
from Kufa waited on Al-Zubayr, while the representatives of the contingent from Basra waited
on Talhah, and offered them their allegiance as the next Caliph, which were both turned down. In
proposing alternatives to Uthman as Caliph, the rebels neutralized the bulk of public opinion in
Medina and Uthman's faction could no longer offer a united front. Uthman had the active support
of the Umayyads, and a few other people in Medina,[16] but the rest of the people of Medina
chose to be neutral and help neither side.

[edit] Siege of Uthman

Main article: Siege of Uthman

The situation in Medina was a big gain for the rebels. When they felt satisfied that the people of
Medina would not offer them any resistance, they entered the city of Medina and laid siege to the
house of Uthman, essentially taking it over but not confining the Caliph. The rebels declared that
no harm from them would come to any person who choose not to resist them. Uthman strongly
instructed his supporters to refrain from violence but his various servants (about 40 of them)
appealed for permission to fight against the rebels, along with a thousand other citizens of
Medina. Uthman, who was a wealthy man even from the days before Islam, freed all 40 of his
slaves and ordered them to stay away from the civil war between the Muslims.

The early stage of the siege of Uthman’s house was not severe,[20] the rebels merely hovered
around the house and did not place any restrictions on him. Uthman went to the Al-Masjid al-
Nabawi as usual, and led the prayers. The rebels offered prayers under the leadership of Uthman.
While Uthman addressed the people in the Al-Masjid al-Nabawi he was criticized by opponents.
At this the supporters of Uthman took up cudgels on his behalf. Tempers flared up on both sides,
hot words were exchanged between the parties, and that led to the pelting of stones at one
another. One of the stones hit Uthman, he fell unconscious and was carried to his house, still
unconscious.

The proceedings in the mosque showed that most of the people of Medina (or at least those in the
mosque) preferred not to fight, but to watch developments. When the rebels felt that the people
of Medina were not likely to offer active support to Uthman, they changed their strategy, and
tightened the siege of the house of Uthman, thus confining Uthman to his home. Uthman was
denied the freedom to move about and was not allowed to go to the mosque.
As the days passed, the rebels intensified their pressure against Uthman.[20] They forbade the
entry of any food or provisions, and later water as well, into his house, even turning down a few
widows of Muhammad. Ramlah bint Abi-Sufyan, a widow of Muhammad, came to see Uthman
and brought some water and provisions for him but she was not allowed to enter. Another widow
of Muhammad, and the daughter of the late Caliph Abu Bakr, Aisha, made a similar attempt, and
she was also prevailed upon by the rebels to go back.

With the departure of the pilgrims from Medina to Mecca, the hands of the rebels were further
strengthened, and as a consequence the crisis deepened further. The rebels understood that after
the Hajj, the Muslims gathered at Mecca from all parts of the Muslim world might march to
Medina to relieve Uthman. They therefore decided to take action against Uthman before the
pilgrimage was over. During the siege, Uthman was asked by his supporters, who outnumbered
the rebels, to let them fight against the rebels and rout them. Uthman prevented them in an effort
to avoid the bloodshed of Muslim by Muslim. Unfortunately for Uthman, violence occurred
anyhow. The gates of the house of Uthman were shut and guarded by the renowned warrior,
Abd-Allah ibn al-Zubayr.[20] The sons of Ali, Hasan ibn Ali and Husayn ibn Ali, were also
among the guards[citation needed]; while amongst those inciting the people to fight included Aisha,[21]
one of the wives of Muhammad. A skirmish erupted between the opponents and the supporters of
Uthman at the gate, some anti-Uthman partisans were killed, and the rebels were finally pushed
back. Among the supporters of Uthman, Hasan ibn Ali, Marwan and some other people were
wounded.[citation needed]

When Uthman came to know of this action he said: No, I do not want to spill the blood of
Muslims, to save my own neck.

Assassination
Finding the gate of Uthman's house strongly guarded by his supporters, the rebels climbed the
back wall and snuck inside, leaving the guards on the gate unaware of what was going on inside.
The rebels entered his room and struck blows at his head.[22] Naila, the wife of Uthman, threw
herself on his body to protect him.

Raising her hand to protect him she had her fingers chopped off and was pushed aside, and
further blows were struck until he was dead. The slaves of Uthman then counterattacked the
assassins and, in turn, killed them. There was further fighting between the rebels and the slaves
of Uthman, with casualties on both sides, after which the rebels looted the house.[23]

The rioters wanted to mutilate his body and were keen that he be denied burial. When some of
the rioters came forward to mutilate the body of Uthman, his two widows, Nailah and Ramlah
bint Sheibah, covered him, and raised loud cries which deterred the rioters. The rebels left the
house and the supporters of Uthman at gate hearing it, entered, but it was too late.[24]

Thereafter the rioters maintained a presence round the house in order to prevent the dead body
from being carried to the graveyard.
Financial & Military : Hazrat Umer
The government of Umar was more or less a unitary government, where the sovereign political
authority was the Caliph. The empire of Umar was divided into provinces and some autonomous
territories like in some regions Azerbaijan and Armenia, that had accepted the suzerainty of the
Caliphate. The provinces were administered by the provincial governors or Wali. The selection
of which was made personally by Umar, who was very fastidious in it. Provinces were further
divided into districts, there were about 100 districts in the empire. Each district or main city was
under the charge of a junior governor or Wali, usually appointed by Umar himself, but
occasionally they were also appointed by the provincial governor. Other officers at the provincial
level were:

1. Katib, the Chief Secretary.

2. Katib-ud-Diwan, the Military Secretary.
3. Sahib-ul-Kharaj, the Revenue Collector.
4. Sahib-ul-Ahdath, the Police chief.
5. Sahib-Bait-ul-Mal, the Treasury Officer.
6. Qadi, the Chief Judge.

In some districts there were separate military officers, though the Governor (Wali) was in most
cases the Commander-in-chief of the army quartered in the province. Every appointment was
made in writing. At the time of appointment an instrument of instructions was issued with a view
to regulating the conduct of Governors. On assuming office, the Governor was required to
assemble the people in the main mosque, and read the instrument of instructions before them.[46]

Umar's general instructions to his officers were:

"Remember, I have not appointed you as commanders and tyrants over the people. I have sent
you as leaders instead, so that the people may follow your example. Give the Muslims their
rights and do not beat them lest they become abused. Do not praise them unduly, lest they fall
into the error of conceit. Do not keep your doors shut in their faces, lest the more powerful of
them eat up the weaker ones. And do not behave as if you were superior to them, for that is
tyranny over them."

Various other strict code of conducts were to be obeyed by the governors and state officials. The
principal officers were required to come to Mecca on the occasion of the Hajj, during which
people were free to present any complaint against them. In order to minimize the chances of
corruption, Umar made it a point to pay high salaries to the staff. Provincial governor received as
much as five to seven thousand dirham annually besides their shares of the spoils of war (if they
were also the commander in chief of the army of their sector). Under Umar the empire was
divided into the following provinces.

1. Arabia was divided into two provinces, Mecca and Medina;

2. Iraq was divided into two provinces, Basra and Kufa;
3. In the upper reaches of the Tigris and the Euphrates, Jazira was a province;
 4. Syria was a province;
5. Umar divided Palestine in two provinces Aylya and Ramlah;
6. Egypt was divided into two provinces, Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt;
7. Persia was divided into three provinces, Khorasan; Azarbaijan and Fars.

Umar was first to established a special department for the investigation of complaints against the
officers of the State. This department acted as Administrative court, where the legal proceedings
were personally led by Umar.[47] The Department was under the charge of Muhammad ibn
Maslamah, one of Umar's most trusted man. In important cases Muhammad ibn Maslamah was
deputed by Umar to proceed to the spot, investigate the charge and take action. Sometimes an
Inquiry Commission was constituted to investigate the charge. On occasions the officers against
whom complaints were received were summoned to Medina, and charged in Umar's
administrative court. One of Umar's most powerful department was his intelligence department
of secret services[dubious – discuss]. Umar's iron fist rule on his empire, is often credited to this
institution . His agents were everywhere, in the army, in the bureaucracy and in the enemy land.
For the officials of Umar it was said to be the most fearsome department[dubious – discuss].

Umar was a pioneer in some affairs:

1. Umar was the first to introduce the public ministry system, where the records of officials
and soldiers were kept. He also kept a record system that had the messages he sent to
Governors and heads of states.
2. He was the first to appoint police forces to keep civil order.
3. He was the first to discipline the people when they became disordered.[48]

[edit] Reforms
Umar is regarded as one of the greatest political geniuses in history.[5] While under his
leadership, the empire was expanding at a unprecedented rate, he also began to build the political
structure that would hold together the vast empire that was being built. He undertook many
administrative reforms and closely oversaw public policy. He established an advanced
administration for the newly conquered lands, including several new ministries and
bureaucracies, and ordered a census of all the Muslim territories. During his rule, the garrison
cities (amsar) of Basra and Kufa were founded or expanded. In 638, he extended and renovated
the Masjid al-Haram (Grand Mosque) in Mecca and the Al-Masjid al-Nabawi (Mosque of the
Prophet) in Medina.[49] Umar also ordered the expulsion of the Christian and Jewish communities
of Najran and Khaybar allowing them to reside in Syria or Iraq. He issued orders that these
Christians and Jews should be treated well and allotted them the equivalent land in their new
settlements. Umar also forbade non-Muslims to reside in the Hejaz for longer than three days.[50]
He was first to establish army as a state department. Umar was founder of Fiqh, the Islamic
jurisprudence.[51] He is regarded by Sunni Muslims to be one of the greatest Faqih. Umar as a
jurist started the process of codifying Islamic Law. In 641, he established Bayt al-mal, a financial
institution and started annual allowance for the Muslims. A year later he also started allowance
for the poor, underprivileged and old non-Muslim citizens of the empire. As a leader, 'Umar was
known for his simple, austere lifestyle. Rather than adopt the pomp and display affected by the
rulers of the time, he continued to live much as he had when Muslims were poor and persecuted.
In 639, his fourth year as caliph and the seventeenth year 17 since the Hijra, he decreed that the
Islamic calendar should be counted from the year of the Hijra of Muhammad from Mecca to
Madinah.

[edit] Military expansion

It is widely believed that Umar stressed more on consolidating his power and political influence
in the conquered land, rather than pursuing conquests. Nevertheless under Umar, The Islamic
empire grew at an unprecedented rate. In 638, after the conquest of Syria, Umar dismissed
Khalid, his most successful general due to his every growing fame and influence. Later however
Umar regretted over his decision. The military conquest were partially terminated between 638–
639 during the years of great famine and plague in Arabia and Levant respectively. During his
reign Levant, Egypt, Cyrenaica, Tripolitania, Fezzan, Eastern Anatolia, almost whole of Sassanid
Persian Empire including Bactria, Persia, Azerbaijan, Armenia, Caucasus and Makran were
annexed to Islamic Empire. Accordiong to one estimate more than 4050 cities were captured
during these military conquest.[52] Prior to his death in 644, Umar had ceased all military
expeditions apparently to consolidate his rule in Egypt and newly conquered Sassanid Empire
(642–644). At his death in November 644, domain of his rule extended from present day Libya
in west to Indus river in east and Oxus river in north.

[edit] The great famine

In the year 638, Arabia fell into severe drought followed by a famine. Bedouin people began to
die because of hunger and epidemic disease. Hundreds of thousands[citation needed] of people from all
over Arabia gathered at Madinah where food was rationed. Soon the reserves of food at Madinah
began to decline, and Umar wrote to the provincial governors of Syria, Palestine and Iraq for aid.
A state of emergency was declared in Madinah and Arabia. The timely aid of Umar's governors
saved the lives of thousands of people through out Arabia. The first governor to respond was
Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah, the governor of Syria and supreme commander of Rashidun army.
He sent a historic letter to Umar saying

I am sending you the Caravans whose one end will be here at Syria and the other will be at
Madinah.

Later, Abu Ubaidah paid a personal visit to Madinah and acted as an officer of Disaster
management cell, which was headed personally by Umar. Once an adequate supply of rations
reached Madinah, Umar dispatched his men to the routes of Iraq, Palestine and Syria to take the
supply caravans to the desert settlements deeper into Arabia, which in turn saved millions from
starvation. For internally displaced people, Umar hosted a dinner every night at Madinah, which
according to one estimate had attendance of more than hundred thousand people.[53] By early 639
conditions begun to improve. Arabia received precipitation and as soon as the famine ended,
Umar personally supervised the rehabilitation of the displaced people. They were given adequate
amounts of rations and were exempted from payment of zakat for that year and the next year.