i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 5 ( 2 0 2 0 ) 6 9 8 2 e6 9 9 3

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journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/he

Multi-agent direct current systems using

renewable energy sources and hydrogen fuel cells*

R.N. Shulga a, I.V. Putilova b,*

a
VEI - the Branch of the Federal State Unitary Enterprise RFNC-VNIITF, 12 Krasnokazarmennaya Str., Moscow,
111250, Russia
b
Centre for Science and Education “Ecology of Power Engineering”, National Research University “Moscow Power
Engineering Institute”, 14 Krasnokazarmennaya Str., Moscow, 111250, Russia

article info abstract

Article history: Direct current provides accumulation of electricity and is therefore necessary when using
Received 7 December 2019 renewable energy sources. Hydrogen energy storage devices in the form of fuel cells are the
Accepted 27 December 2019 most effective and environmentally friendly way of energy storage and conservation.
Available online 23 January 2020 Shortcomings of electric power networks compared with DC networks in terms of stability,
controllability, reliability and redundancy are noted. The necessity of transition from
Keywords: digitalization in the form of automated process control systems to smart grids, and sub-
Hydrogen sequently to multi-agent DC networks with a high degree of redundancy, is revealed. Be-
Hydrogen fuel cell sides, the paper deals with application of distributed generation consisting of traditional
Electric power network and renewable energy sources, as well as accumulators and static converters. Character-
Multi-agent DC network istics of the above mentioned elements are given for simulating the modes in order to
Distributed generation select the structure and control algorithms that provide increased power supply reliability.
Renewable energy sources © 2020 Hydrogen Energy Publications LLC. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Redundancy

friendliness have significant advantages compared to other

Introduction
The relevance of the topic under development is due to the
need to integrate energy storage devices in energy systems to
maintain their stability, and hydrogen storage devices due to
their greater electrical capacity and environmental friendli-
ness have significant advantages compared to other types of
storage devices.
The relevance of the topic under development is due to the
need to integrate energy storage devices in energy systems to
maintain their stability. By this, hydrogen storage devices due
to their greater electrical capacity and environmental
types of storage devices.
Existing electric power systems (EPS) and alternating cur-
rent networks of different voltage classes have a hierarchical
centralized management structure and possess significant
shortcomings: poor controllability and stability, insufficient
reliability and redundancy, the need for synchronization and
synphasing, the need for a “hot” reserve and additional fuel
consumption for its maintenance, insufficient automation,
monitoring and diagnostics, low environmental friendliness
due to the use of oil, sulfur hexafluoride, the impossibility of
electricity storing, etc. [1].

*
This paper is the English version of the paper reviewed and published in Russian in International Scientific Journal for Alternative
Energy and Ecology “ISJAEE”, issue 288e290, number 04e06, date February 25, 2019.
* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: rnshulga@vei.ru (R.N. Shulga), putilovaiv@ecopower.ru, putilovaiv@mpei.ru (I.V. Putilova).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2019.12.226
0360-3199/© 2020 Hydrogen Energy Publications LLC. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 5 ( 2 0 2 0 ) 6 9 8 2 e6 9 9 3 6983

Nomenclature VAC volt-ampere characteristics

VC voltage converter
AB accumulator battery
VMS vector measurement system
AC alternating current
WPP wind power plant
AG asynchronous generator
CB DC circuit breaker Greek letters
CS control system a angle
CSR controlled shunt reactor d phase angle
DC direct current x triangulation function
DCL DC link
Latin letters
DCN DC network
C Capacitance, F
DCT DC transmission
E Power, VA
DG distributed generation
E EMF, V
DPS diesel power station
I, i Current, A
EPS electric power system (AC)
H Hydrogen
ES energy storage devices
l Length, m
FACTS flexible AC transmission systems
L Inductance, g
FCPP fuel cell power plant
O Oxygen
HFC hydrogen fuel cell
p Pressure, atm
HPM hydrogen power module
P Power, W
HS hydride storage
r Resistance, Om
ICUF installed capacity utilization factor
S The Laplace operator
IGBT insulated gate bipolar transistors
t Time, s
IGCT integrated gate commutated thyristors
U Voltage, V
KES kinetic energy storage
w relative charge level
MADCN multi-agent DC network
W Power, J
MAEC multi-agent energy complex
X Line reactance, Om
MGTPP microgas turbine power plant
MMLC modular multi-level converter Subscripts
MPR maximum power regulator b battery
PC photocell B bus
PEM polymeric or proto-exchange membrane heat heat
PEMFC proto-exchange membrane fuel cell n nominal
PST phase shifting transformer nl No-load
PVI photovoltaic installation op operating
RES renewable energy sources pv photovoltaic
SC supercapacitor s series
SG synchronous generator sg load
SOFC solid-oxide fuel cells t time
STATCOM static compensator on IGBT devices T period
STC static thyristor compensator p parallel
TC telecommunication w setpoint
TCSC thyristor controlled series compensation

To eliminate the above listed shortcomings over the past
decades, numerous series and shunt compensation devices
based on power electronics have been introduced world-wide
to the EPS, formed by air and cable lines, which formed a
whole set of flexible AC transmission systems (FACTS).
It is known that the transmitted power along the lines of
the EPS P1 is determined by the expression:
U1 ,U2 ,sin d
P1 ¼
1; 2,X
where U1,U2- the voltage at the beginning and at the end of the
line, d - the phase angle of the indicated voltage; 1,2 - static
stability safety factor; X - line reactance.
Increasing stability, controllability and throughput as fol-
lows from (1) can be achieved: either by stabilizing the volt-
ages U1, U2, which is achieved by using a static thyristor
compensator (STC) or controlled shunt reactor (CSR), or by
reducing the resistance of the line X, which is achieved by
using thyristor controlled series compensation (TCSC), or by
reducing the angle d, which is achieved using the phase
shifting transformer (PST). A more expensive, but more effi-
(1) cient way is to use series or shunt voltage converters like static
compensator on IGBT devices (STATCOM) or modular multi-
level converter (MMLC) on fully controlled insulated gate bi-
polar transistors (IGBT) or integrated gate commutated thy-
ristors (IGCT).
6984 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 5 ( 2 0 2 0 ) 6 9 8 2 e6 9 9 3
Another type of FACTS devices are controlled current
limiters based on either inductive, or semiconductor, or
superconducting devices, which reduce the short-circuit cur-
rents to the level acceptable for shutting them off using the
installed breakers. This problem is particularly relevant for
megacities, for example, the Moscow region, with a capacity
of 17e19 GW, where in 110, 220, 500 kV ring circuits, the short
circuit currents approach the limit ability of the breakers to be
63 kA and at the same time the problem of distributing the
operating currents to nominal level hasn’t been resolved yet.
The use of the above mentioned devices, however, is not
enough to completely eliminate the shortcomings of the EPS,
as evidenced by the occurrence of numerous chain accidents
(USA, 2003; Moscow, 2005, 2006, etc.), leading to multibillion
damage and decrease in the country’s energy security [2e4].
The alternative is to transfer the EPS or trunk links to direct
current in the form of DC transmission and links (DCT and
DCL), which possess the absolute stability, controllability,
redundancy, no need for synchronization and synphasing
when introducing the sources, lower losses, the possibility of
accumulating electricity, reducing fuel consumption to
maintain the “hot” reserve through the use of ES, full auto-
mation and monitoring, inherent in “smart grids”, high envi-
ronmental friendliness and compatibility with renewable
energy sources (RES) and use of hydrogen as a supplemental
energy source [5]. Much fundamental work on the use of
hydrogen fuel cells was carried out by the Founder and the
President of the International Association for Hydrogen En-
ergy T.N. Veziroglu and presented in Refs. [6,7].
The power transmitted by DCT P1 is determined by the
expression
U21
P1 ¼
ro l
where U1 is the voltage at the beginning of the DCT, ro e
specific resistivity of the line, l e the line length.
Comparing expressions (1) and (2), it is clear that in order to
ensure complete controllability and sustainability of EPS, it is
necessary to measure and agree on 8 parameters of the steady
mode (frequency, phase, active and reactive components of
current, voltage, capacity, used in the VMS [8,9]). In recent
years, the interest and practical application of DCN has
sharply increased in the world, which is confirmed by the last
two CIGRE sessions on this issue [10,11]. DCNs on the basis of
bipolar DCT have higher power supply reliability compared to
EPSs, since the shutdown of one of the poles is compensated
by a brief overload of the other pole, while shutting down one
of the phases of EPS at single-phase short-circuit leads to the
complete cessation of power supply. 1500 kV DCT Ekibastuz-
Center, initially installed in our country, served as the proto-
type for similar transmissions in China and India with voltage
up to 1600 kV with the subsequent formation of the DCN. In
the USA, it is planned to create a ring DCN around the coun-
try’s perimeter by 2030 based on superconducting HFC [12].
A purpose of the paper is to assess the possibility of
creating multi-agent DC networks using distributed genera-
tion in the form of traditional sources, RES, ES and static
voltage transformers. As electricity storages, the HPM
containing an electrolyzer, a hydride storage, a fuel cell, a
security system based on hydrogen sensors, is increasingly
being used.
EPS and DCN due to the progress of energy information
system technologies pass through three stages of automation:
digitalization in the form of automated process control sys-
tems; smart (active-adaptive) networks in the form of digital
substations, VMS and other technologies, and, finally, multi-
agent (neural) networks based on self-learning instead of
programming [13,14].
At the first stage of automation, the process control sys-
tems did not cope with the dimension problem due to the
abundance of maintenance of numerous sensors and intel-
lectualization problems. The smart network was able to solve
the dimension problem by organizing local area networks on
the “process” bus, packet data transmission between network
elements, and implementing intellectualization and dis-
patching tasks via the “substation” bus in the hierarchical
structure of EPS. Insufficient study of redundancy and a de-
gree of reliability of AC power supply in the conditions of
distributed generation and rapidly changing consumption
limits the use of smart grids. Multi-agent DC networks allow
to realize any degree of reliability and redundancy, to carry
out risk assessment and management in conditions of
distributed generation and rapidly changing consumption in
conditions of increasing RES share.
Future networks should have the following properties:
network architecture, intellectualization, multi-agent man-
agement, active adaptation (self-organization), industry inte-
gration, scalability, connectivity with the global information
space, convenience for the end user. These networks are
characterized by the following features: the transition from
the centralized to the distributed generation with an increase
in the share of RES and environmental improvement. Energy
(2) efficiency will be achieved by bringing sources closer to con-
sumers through the use of micro and small gas generation,
RES using ES. Existing EPSs are not designed for use by the DG,
since either the source disconnection or the power reversal in
one of the units leads to a loss of stability in the system, not to
mention the problems of electricity accounting and paying for
it. The presence of HPM allows increasing the energy effi-
ciency of the DG by reducing the installed power generation
and reducing the fuel consumption.
As a result, it is necessary to change the control algorithms
of distribution systems, increase their throughput, change the
systems of measurement, control, protection and, ultimately,
to apply DCNs. Under these conditions, there is a sharp in-
crease in the need of developing and applying the models that
work in real time taking into account the distribution and
decentralization of the DG.
Fig. 1 shows the structure of a bipolar DCT with double
redundancy, since in case of an accident in one branch of one
pole, this branch is turned off by the DC breaker in each of the
circuit elements, the other branch is forced, and the remain-
ing DCN units remain in operation without changing the
initial mode.
Each element of Fig. 1 contains the multi-agent energy
complex, shown in Fig. 2 and consists of WT, PVI, AB, HFC, as
well as DC and AC loads; the latter being connected via the VC.
AC sources (WT, DPS and MGTPP) are also connected via VC,
 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 5 ( 2 0 2 0 ) 6 9 8 2 e6 9 9 3
Fig. 1 e Simplified electrical circuit of bipolar DCT and its
transformation into the DCN
Re e rectifier; Inv e inverter.
and the rated power of each MAEC unit varies from 0.05 to
1 MW [15].
Considering the average ICUF for WPP equal to 30%, one
obtains the annual average power of each unit (Fig. 2) equal to
50 kW. For PVI one can apply ICUF ¼ 50% and the output power
will make 10 kW. More realistic estimates are usually made
taking into account wind load and insolation maps for certain
modes.
The most promising wind-driven electric plans are instal-
lation of the rotary type, which are relatively cheap, silent,
modular, less visible and environmentally friendly. They run
at the minimum wind of any direction at a speed of 1e3 m/s
(bladed wind turbines are expensive, make noise and run at a
speed of 5 m/s). These wind turbines have been tested in
northern latitudes and southern regions; they can be modified
under the conditions of the Arctic [16,17].
PVI planar-type installations are the most common and
cheap, with low efficiency of about 10e12%. PVIs using heter-
ojunctions are more expensive, but have an increased effi-
ciency up to 20e30%. PVIs reduce the efficiency at heating and
Fig. 2 e MADCN scheme.
Re e rectifier; CB e circuit breaker; D e disconnector; WP e wind power; PC e photocell; CS e control system; TC e
telecommunication; FC e fuel cell; UPS e uninterrupted power supply, Ин e invertor.
6985
therefore are promising for northern latitudes, considering
that the rate of solar radiation is 3.5e4 kWh/m2, which is
comparable to Yakutia and Sochi. In polar night conditions PVI
do not work, so they, along with WPPs, should charge fuel cells
with energy having long storage life (about three months).
WPPs and PVIs produce electricity stochastically, and
therefore their use is possible only when it is accumulated.
HPMs contain the electrolyzer, HS, ES in the form of AB and
SC, and HFC. HPM performs the function of converting the
stored chemical energy into electrical energy during the
required periods of use, HS performs the function of long-term
storage for months by using hydrogen storage along with a
balloon metal hydride system, and batteries being helium or
acid ones; supercapacitors provide short-term storage and are
used for peak load coverage.
The core of the autonomous power supply system is the
control, regulation, protection, automation and monitoring
system, which is connected to a remote control room and
service point through the satellite or TC.
The specified power supply system works as follows. When
receiving a command from the dispatcher, the control system
connects the ES - fuel cells and the uninterrupted power
supply through appropriate switches and then connects one
or more E1-E6 sources to ensure the charge of accumulators.
After the load on the bus lines reaches the voltage close to the
nominal value, the CS switches the load through the corre-
sponding switch, the power setting of which is set on the CS
by the dispatcher or autonomously.
Receiving data from meteorological sensors and, taking
into account the correction for auxiliaries (for control, pro-
tection, alarm, ventilation, heating, etc.), the CS adjusts the
power setpoint and additionally connects the required num-
ber of generation sources, providing the nominal voltage level
on the load bus lines. If the weather conditions change or the
alarms are received in the alarm system, the power settings of
the sources are adjusted. In emergency situations, the CS
determines the location of the damage and turns off the cor-
responding source or load [18].
6986 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 5 ( 2 0 2 0 ) 6 9 8 2 e6 9 9 3

C ¼ 4.4 mF, filtering inductance L ¼ 1 mH, nominal output

Selection of energy sources and types of voltage U ¼ 230 V.
electricity storage An example of the volt-ampere characteristics (VAC) of the
PC panel as a function of the intensity of solar radiation [W/
This material is important for hydrogen energy, because it m2] is shown in Fig. 5. Monitoring the voltage of the PC panel
allows the easiest way to switch from the use of hydrocarbons Upv is carried out using a pulse voltage converter (chopper),
as a source and accumulator of energy to the direct generation which extracts the greatest power of the PC.
and conservation of electricity in one cycle instead of several The chopper model in accordance with Fig. 4 is described
conversion cycles with increased efficiency and waste by the equations:
treatment.
As the basic energy source of multi-agent networks, the dUpv 1

¼ , ipv  iL (3)
synchronous generator, rotated by diesel, is introduced. An dt Cpv
alternative to it is an asynchronous generator, which is part of
WPP or MGTPP. An additional source may be PC, used either to dipv 1

¼ , Upv  UT (4)
cover MADCN auxiliaries or to charge ES. dt L
Hydrogen fuel cells, accumulator batteries and super- The IGBT gate compares the setpoint voltage in the range
capacitors are considered to be ES. SG and/or AG produced by from 0 to 1 with the modulating triangulation function x,
the industry, depending on the load capacity and ES, are which is shown in Fig. 6.
selected from 1 to 6 MW for a voltage of 0.4e6 kV. The working component of the voltage Un depending on
The results of work in the field of fuel cells are presented in the angle a is determined by the ratio:
the works of T.N. Veziroglu [19,20]. Dynamics of ES develop-
ment is determined by the competition between the fuel cells Ut ¼ ð1  aÞ,U (5)
and AB [21] and their widespread introduction of large sys- isg current at the MPR output can be easily calculated if we
tems into the electric power industry. Transformer equipment neglect the losses in the chopper. In this case, the balance of
is also selected as the standard 6/0.4 kV transformer with a energies at the input and output of the converter is
power of 1 MVA. Special equipment - reactors, filters, valves maintained:
and other elements of converters is being developed according
to separate specifications. As energy sources the following is iL , Ut ¼ U,isg (6)
considered: photovoltaic cells (PC or PVI); hydrogen fuel cells,
By substituting the above two formulas we get:
traditional sources in the form of synchronous generators
(DPS, MGTPP) and WPP, connected to MADCN buses through isg ¼ iL ,ð1  aÞ (7)
VC [22].
Fig. 7 shows the block diagram of PC model with MPR in the
The structure of the hydrogen energy module is shown in
form of transfer functions, where S is the Laplace operator.
Fig. 3 according to the data of Toshiba (Japan).
As a result, the PC model with MPR is reproduced by two
Simulation of PC parameters: the voltage Upv and the current isg.

HFC modeling
An important issue of hydrogen energy is its compatibility
with PCs, not only for energy storage, but also for improving
Various types of HFC using hydrogen are the most attractive
energy efficiency by cooling panels in order to increase their
for the storage and conservation of electricity.
efficiency.
Currently, the most promising ES is based on the use of
Fig. 4 shows the equivalent circuit of the PC with the
HFC. There is a number of types of fuel cells, the classification
maximum power regulator (MPR) [18], which corresponds to
of which is based on the type of electrolyte (liquid, gaseous,
the power of the PC panel with an output capacitance
solid) with the characteristics given in Table 1 [23].

Fig. 3 e HPM structure according to Toshiba (Japan).

 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 5 ( 2 0 2 0 ) 6 9 8 2 e6 9 9 3
Fig. 4 e Substitution diagram of the PC with the maximum power regulator.
Fig. 5 e VAC of the PC panel as a function of the intensity of solar radiation (W/m2).
The type of electrolyte determines the type of chemical
reaction, operating temperature, power and efficiency of HFC.
The most common ES is PEM. PEM is implemented on the
basis of a proto-exchange membrane of about 0.2 mm thick,
which is enclosed between two electrodes (anode and cath-
ode), from which electrons and ions, respectively, entering the
external circuit (load) are removed.
Fig. 6 e Comparison of the setpoint of the set voltage Uw
with the triangulation function x
6987
According to Faraday’s law, the electrochemical potential
of hydrogen in PEM is 1.48 V. In HFC hydrogen and oxygen are
synthesized at a temperature of 25  C, which are converted
into water, creating the potential U ¼ 1.23 V. The potential
difference between the PEM electrodes is 0.95e1 V (due to
polarization losses). Constructive voltage on HFC is 0.75 V (in
the range of 0.6e0.8 V). Thus, the average efficiency of PEM is
0.75 V/1.48 V ¼ 50%. The volt-ampere characteristic of the HPC
based on the PEM is shown in Fig. 8, from which it can be seen
that the voltage Unl ¼ 1.16 V at a temperature of 80  C and a
pressure of 1 atm. The operating voltage Uop ¼ 0.7 V (with an
electrical efficiency of 60%). The operating voltage with com-
bined use of HFC Uop ¼ 0.9 V (the efficiency is 77%), and the
heat efficiency is about 23%.
As an example, the characteristic of HFC is 1.16 V with
plates of 100 cm2, pressure p ¼ 1 atm, temperature 80  C. From
the VAC (Fig. 8) at the nominal voltage Un ¼ 0.7 V, the total HFC
current makes 0.6$100 ¼ 60 A. According to the heat release,
Rheat ¼ (1.16e0.7) V $ 60 A ¼ 0.46 V $ 60 coulombs/s $ 60 s/
min ¼ 1650 J/min. Thus, HFC produces 1.7 kJ/min of heat and
2.5 kJ/min of electricity.
Today it’s known the ES for the HFC with a power of
250 kW, which yields energy for 8 h. The mentioned HPC uses
two tanks with a liquid electrolyte with a capacity of 140 tons.
The area of ES is 200 m2, the working temperature is 5e40  C,
the speed is less than 5 ms. ES is used to stabilize voltage in the
6988 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 5 ( 2 0 2 0 ) 6 9 8 2 e6 9 9 3

Fig. 7 e Block diagram of PC model with MPR. where: u - voltage, a - control angle, 1 - setpoint.

Table 1 e HFC characteristics.

HFC type Operating Output power, kW Efficiency, % Special features Application area
(electrolyte) temperature,  C
Alkalin (AFC) 90e100 10e100 60-70 electrical Military, space
Polymeric or 50e100 <250 50-60 electrical Fast start Portable devices,
proto-exchange transportation,
membrane (PEM) distributed generation
Phosphoric acid (PAFC) 150e200 50-1000 (250- module) 80-85 combined. Large plates, pure hydrogen Distributed generation
36-42 electrical
Cast carbon (МСFC) 600e700 <1000 (250- module) 85 combined. Flexibility, different catalysts. Electricity, large distributed
60 electrical generation
Solid oxides (SОFC) 650e1000 5e3000 85 combined. Flexibility, different catalysts, Auxiliary power, electric
60 electrical low corrosion power industry
large distributed generation

power system of 25 kV at a voltage at HFC output of 480 V; the U1

i1 ¼ (10)
duration of the voltage fall is 30 min. R1
where Eв - EMF; U1 - voltage on the capacitor C1; Ro - internal
AB modeling AB resistance; R1 - resistance in the circuit R1, C1; i1 - current in
the resistance R1, U1 (o) - the initial voltage on C1.
The main parameters of the AB mode are the voltage at the EMF value for one AB element is equal to [24]
terminals UB and the current iB. For consideration of AB
properties the equivalent circuit is considered (Fig. 9). EB ¼ 1; 96 þ 0; 193w þ 6; 7 ðw  0; 55Þ7 V ; (11)
The equations that describe the operation of AB in accor- where w is the relative charge level, when w ¼ wв/С10 (wв is the
dance with Fig. 8, have the form] charge level, C10 is the energy capacity of the AB cell at 10 h of
UB ¼ EB þ U1 þ RO ,iB (8) discharge).
AB can’t be discharged to zero. w can be reduced to the
0 1 0 13 level of wminz0.35e0.4, and the operating range is between 1
Zt
1 … 0.35. In this regards, w needed to calculate EB is determined
U1 ¼ U1 @0A þ ½ib ðtÞ  i1 @tA5dt (9)
C1 by the integral
0

Zt
0; 65
w ¼ wo þ ib ðtÞdt (12)
C10
0

The actual energy consumption of the battery C (ib) de-

creases with increasing discharge current and is determined
by the formula

Cðib Þ¼ C10 $Fðib Þ ; (13)

where F (ib *) is a function that is based on the discharge

characteristics of the battery, ib * ¼ ib/I10 is the relative current
of the battery (I10 is the current of the 10-h discharge). Dividing
the last value by F (ib *), we get

Zt
1 ib
w* ¼ w*0 þ
* dt (14)
C10 F ib
0
Fig. 8 e VAC of HFC.
 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 5 ( 2 0 2 0 ) 6 9 8 2 e6 9 9 3
Fig. 9 e Schematic equivalent AB circuit.
This value of w*, called the reduced charge, is convenient
for calculating AB, since it does not depend on the type of
discharge graph ib (t), and when discharged it changes from 1
to 0, making it possible to estimate the residual energy of AB.
The resistances Ro, R1 included in the original equations
are complex functions of the charge and the AB mode. Studies
performed earlier in the short time interval of units-tens of
seconds allow us to significantly simplify the scheme of Fig. 8,
taking into account only the internal resistance Ro, which is
assumed to be 0.3 mOhm for one section of the battery (acid
type), and the change in the capacitance of the battery during
the discharge process is taken into account by changing the
value of EB (Fig. 9). Comparative characteristics of current
sources are shown in Table 2.
Modeling of supercapacitors
Supercapacitors have certain advantages in short-term, for
example, starting modes, and the hydrogen accumulator and
hydrogen system ensure the stable operation of transport
systems over long distances that exceed the capabilities of
supercapacitors. Supercapacitors are necessary for short-
term processes of creating high torque when starting under
load, or for a time-limited emergency power supply of the
auxiliary current at the substation. A hydrogen battery, unlike
electrochemical batteries, can increase the emergency power
supply time by an order and ensure its independence from low
temperatures, which is especially important in the North.
SCs or ionistors accumulate energy in the electric double
layer on the surface of a highly porous structure. SC devices
have capacities from 10 to 12000 F with an operating voltage of
Table 2 e Characteristics of current sources.
Current Sources Power output Service life
(Wh/kg) (number of
charge-discharge cycles)
Lead Acid Batteries 30 300
Nickel cadmium 40e60 1500
Nickel metal hydride 75 500
Lithium ion 100 500
Lithium polymer 175 150
6989
Rp
Ro L
+ -
С
Fig. 10 e Equivalent SC scheme.
1e15 V. The specific energy of SC is 10 kJ/liter, the specific
power is 3 kVA/liter. The equivalent SC scheme is presented in
Fig. 10.
In Fig. 10, the following is indicated: С e SC capacitance, Rs
- series resistance (ESR), Rp - parallel leakage resistance, L -
inductance (determined by SC design).
Inductance L must be taken into account on high frequency
or pulsed operation. Resistance Rp is much higher than Rs, so
Rp can be ignored for high power modes.
SCs can be divided into the type of electrolyte: liquid; solid-
state; polymeric (most common); based on biological objects.
The stored energy and SC power are determined by the for-
mulas, respectively: Е ¼ СU2/2, W ¼ U2/4R, where С is SC
capacitance, U is the voltage on SC electrodes, R is the effec-
tive series resistance.
Typical SC characteristics have the values: maximum and
nominal voltage - 2.5 and 2.3 V; maximum pulse current - 30 A;
working temperatures - (30  C) ÷ (þ75  C); range of capacities
0,47 ÷ 48 F; range of containers ± 20% (at 20  C); enclosure di-
mensions, mm (diameter, height) 6.3/11e18/40; ESR at 1 kHz,
20  C - 0.1 ÷ 7.0 Ohm.
MS 2600 SCs of the Maxwell Technologies company (ca-
pacity e 2600 F, operating voltage - 2.7 V) have dimensions
138х57.7 mm and weight 470 g. SC battery of 6 MC2600 cells
has a mass of 5 kg and dimensions 420х160х70 mm.
The cost of MS 2600 is $ 27 with sales of 1 million units. The
cost of 1 F is 1 cent (it is planned to reduce the cost by 2 times
in 5 years). SC, in contrast to current sources (Table 2), has a
specific power, which can be 4 orders of magnitude higher
than the values of batteries in the form of lead-acid batteries.
Comparison of specific indicators of various ESs is shown
in Fig. 11, where the specific power [W/kg] is plotted along the
ordinate axis, and the specific energy [Wh/kg] is plotted along
the abscissa, SC - supercapacitors, EC - electrolytic capacitors,
SB (AB) e storage batteries, FC e fuel cells, SCIS-
superconducting inductive storage, KES - kinetic energy stor-
age [25,26].
From the analysis of the graph presented in Fig. 10 follows
that SCs have the highest specific power and perform the
charge-discharge cycle for 5e60 s, SB do the same for one to
10 min, HFC- for one to 10 h.
NFC is the most profitable energy storage device not only
due to its greater electric capacity, but also due to the
increased efficiency and improved environmental perfor-
mance. HFC cost performance is rapidly declining due to the
development of infrastructure and logistics of natural gas
motor fuel based on LNG. Due to the higher hydrogen filling
speed, HFCs are widely used in transport and industry, espe-
cially in the North, in comparison with electrochemical
batteries.
6990 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 5 ( 2 0 2 0 ) 6 9 8 2 e6 9 9 3

Fig. 11 e Specific indicators of various types of ES.

the cathode, where they react with oxygen to form water.

Fuel cells
Hydrogen is becoming an integral source of energy not only in
transport, but also for energy supply through the introduction
of HFC.
The evolution of fuel cells in recent years has led to the
industrial development and commercialization of fuel cell
power plants (FCPPs) with efficiency up to 60% in simple and
cogeneration cycles, and in the hybrid cycle up to 75% using
gas-turbine plants, steam and gas plants, steam power plants
or gas engine generators, which significantly exceeds the
performance of the specified electromechanical transducers
of EMF with efficiency below 60% and significantly exceeds the
environmental performance of the latter. Of the numerous
HFC options, the most dynamically developing and used in
power engineering are fuel cells based on a proto-exchange
membrane (PEMFC) and solid-oxide fuel cells (SOFC).
Membrane-electrode units are connected in series in the
battery using bipolar plates. To ensure the required reaction
rate at a temperature of up to 100  C, bimetallic platinum
catalysts are used in the units, which, due to carbon monoxide
poisoning, have a limited resource and high cost. PEMFCs,
despite these shortcomings, are today the most common and
multipurpose sources, in particular for transport.
The use of facilities in the field of power engineering re-
quires the absence of platinum, low demands for the purity of
hydrogen, increased resource, and the use of heat for cogen-
eration, which is inherent in SOFC. SOFC consists of a porous
anode, a solid electrolyte and a porous cathode. The operating
temperature of SOFC has now been reduced from 900e1000  C
to 500e800  C, which makes it possible to reduce the cost of
materials and increase reliability. SOFC is versatile in relation
to fuels, resistant to substances that are poisons for other
HFCs (except sulfur).

Principle of SOFC and PEMFC operation

The principle of SOFC and PEMFC operation is shown in

Fig. 12, where hydrogen is used as a fuel, oxygen is used as an
oxidizing agent, and water is a reaction product. The overall
oxidation reaction is

H2O þ O2 / 2H2O,

It corresponds to the hydrogen combustion, but in an

electrolyte medium with high ionic conductivity on the elec-
trodes, electric current can be produced with heat; the fuel is
oxidized at the anode, and oxidant is reduced at the cathode.
The electrolyte may be in a solid or a liquid state, but must
have high ionic and low electronic conductivities. The type of
electrolyte is the basis for the classification of HFCs. Unlike
SOFC, in PEMFC, a proton-conducting polymer membrane is
used as an electrolyte through which hydrogen ions diffuse to Fig. 12 e The principle of SOFC operation.
 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 5 ( 2 0 2 0 ) 6 9 8 2 e6 9 9 3
Applications and construction of HFC
In micro power engineering, HFCs have no competitors, and in
large-scale power engineering, they combine well with gas
and steam turbines.
In the micro power (up to 10 kW) for households, SOFC has
no competitors. In small and distributed generation (up to
1 MW), it is advisable to use FCPP together with a gas turbine
and gas engine plants, i.e. to apply hybrid gas-turbine power
plants with an increase in efficiency up to 75% due to cogen-
eration. High-capacity FCPP (10e100 MW) with the use of gas-
turbine ones can also be used in centralized and distributional
generation, and the power of heat-power units should be 2e5
times higher than the power of gas-turbine ones due to their
low efficiency at low power.
A block diagram of one SOFC-based FCPP module is shown
in Fig. 13, in which gas (methane) and air are burned in the
burner (below), heat the SOFC batteries and are used for pre-
start preparation. A heat exchanger is installed in the upper
part to produce hot water, which is needed for steam
reforming. For air reforming (for stand-alone installations)
water isn’t used. Fuel and air heated in the heat exchanger
flow into the electrochemical zone with a block of sections of
the SOFC battery. FCPP of 100 kW with 16 modules is made in a
heat-resistant steel case and has the following indicators:
methane consumption - 27.7 m3/h, water - 820 m3/h, water -
52 l/h, output voltage - 260 V, current - 500 A, start time - 12 h,
the overall efficiency - 68.8%, electrical efficiency - 42.2%.
It should be noted the possibility of creating a reversible
cycle that allows switching to the mode of water vapor and
carbon dioxide electrolyzer, creating energy storage for RES.
Opportunities for HFC commercialization
The commercialization of hydrogen storage devices is due to
the development of infrastructure, the typification of HFCs
Fig. 13 e SOFC-based FCPP module.
6991
and the reduction in the cost of hydrogen production, as well
as the benefits of using HFC in transport, energy and in
everyday life.
PEMFCs due to use on transport make up 46.9 thousand
units (72% of the fuel cell power plants implemented in 2016)
with a total capacity of 311.2 MW (65%), showed an increase of
5 times over 5 years. However, the growth rate of the number
of SOFCs for 5 years is 26.7 times, the number of FCPPs was 16
thousand units (24.5%) with a total capacity of 53.7 MW
(11.2%). The preferential development of SOFCs is due to high
electrical efficiency up to 75% taking into account cogenera-
tion and in the hybrid cycle, the efficiency of using chemical
energy of fuel up to 90%, refusing to use precious metals as
catalysts, resistance to catalytic poisons, direct use of hydro-
carbons of any kind of fuel.
The widest commercialization gained FCPP, produced by
Bloom Energy (USA) at the planar SOFC, which are called three
types of servers: ES-5700, ES-5710, UPM-570, respectively, with
nominal AC powers of 200, 250 and 160 kW. The power effi-
ciency of the servers reaches 60%, and the mass is 19.4 tons
(for UPM - 2.3 tons). The server dimensions are as follows:
height - 2.05 m, width - 2.6 m, length - 8.06 m (for UPM - 1.27
m), volume - from 42.6 m3 to 6.8 m3 (UPM). Temperature
ranges from 20  C to þ45  C, humidity - up to 100%, water for
operation is not required.
The widespread introduction of hydrogen energy by the
example of Bloom Energy (USA) developments in relation to
energy supply is an example for other companies in terms of
an economical and environmentally friendly solution
providing autonomous energy supply through distributed
generation.
Perspectives of FCPP
Hydrogen energy is rapidly developing in various applications
due to increased efficiency, infrastructure development, lower
6992 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 5 ( 2 0 2 0 ) 6 9 8 2 e6 9 9 3
cost of hydrogen production and the absence of carbon diox-
ide emissions.
While under the conditions of large-scale power genera-
tion (above 100 MW), the technical and economic character-
istics of FCPP are currently inferior to gas generation units
(CCGT), then for distributed generation with capacities of
1e10 MW, FCPP indicators look promising. In terms of energy
efficiency, FCPPs have the best performance, especially in
hybrid power plants, due to the absence of emissions; they
can be installed directly at the consumer using fuel with fuel
utilization factor up to 95%, and efficiency up to 75% in
cogeneration and trigeneration modes. The reduction of en-
ergy and heat economy allows reducing consumer’s costs.
Reducing emissions and improving reliability allow setting
FCPP in the residential area. FCPP cost depends on the new
technologies being developed and the scale of industrial
production.
In the production of fuel cells in the amount of 500 thou-
sand pieces/year (by the example of road transport), according
to the US Department of Energy, the specific cost of FCPP with
PEMFC with a capacity of 100 kW is below $ 50/kW, and by 2030
it will decrease to $ 30/kW. New technologies and investment
in FCPP development in the amount of $ 2.5 billion allowed for
10 years (2004e2013) to reduce the cost of fuel cells by 6 times
thanks to the latest technologies. An increase in the annual
FCPP production from thousands to hundreds of thousands of
units will reduce the cost of fuel cells by 4 times. Increasing
FCPP power from 0.5 to 5 kW will reduce the unit cost by 2
times. If at present the electrical efficiency of 3 MW FCPP is
42e47%, then by 2020 it’s expected to have more than 50%,
and the fuel utilization factor will exceed 90%. The specific
cost of equipment today should be reduced from $ 3000 …
4000/kW to $ 1000/kW, i.e. will decrease by 3 times. The ser-
vice life should increase from 40,000 h by 2 times, and the
probability of failure-free operation should increase from 95%
to 99%.
HFC market, due to the development of autonomous and
distributed generation taking into account renewable energy
sources, is beginning to displace traditional generation,
especially in megacities, as well as in sparsely populated re-
gions, for example, in the Arctic.
Conclusions
Hydrogen energy is undergoing a rebirth thanks to its good
compatibility with LNG, the development of LNG infrastruc-
ture and the displacement of traditional sources of energy by
gas engine fuels. The next stage in the development of
hydrogen energy is the direct generation of electricity from
hydrogen and its conservation and accumulation.
Currently, the existing trend of centralized power supply in
Russia has led to an unacceptable increase in tariffs; therefore
the distributed and autonomous power supply is becoming
more economically advantageous for industrial consumers.
The economic effect from the introduction of distributed
generation is about 30% [8].
The shortcomings of EPS compared with DCN in terms of
stability, manageability, reliability and redundancy are noted.
The need to move from digitalization in the form of
automated process control systems to smart networks, and
later to multi-agent DC networks with a high degree of
redundancy is revealed.
The use of distributed generation in the composition of
traditional sources and renewable energy sources, as well as
storage and static MGTPP converters is considered.
The characteristics of the above elements are given for
simulating MGTPP modes in order to select the structure and
control algorithms that provide an increased degree of reli-
ability and invulnerability of the power supply.
Commercialization in the field of small and distributed
energy is still hampered by the high specific cost of SOFC up to
8000 USD/kW and limited resource up to 40 thousand h
despite their high efficiency up to 60% and 75% for hybrid
plants, fuel utilization rate up to 90% and high environmental
friendliness.
According to the US Department of Energy, the specific
cost for large-scale power engineering is $ 5350/kW (for do-
mestic nuclear power plants - up to $ 3500/kW), WPP - up to $
2200/kW, PVI - up to $ 4000/kW, while as for thermal power
plants e it’s up to $ 1700/kW (even with the O2 accumula-
tion). The resource of industrial installations must be at least
30 years, the electrical efficiency of nuclear power plants is at
least 30%, WPP - up to 40%, PVI - up to 15e20%. ICUF for
nuclear power plants is more than 70%, for WPP and PVI -
about 30%.
Prospects for using SOFC in the large-scale power genera-
tion are not obvious, however, for the micro- and small-scale
power generation their commercialization abroad goes at an
increasing rate, despite the above limitations. Thus, over the
10 years from 2007 to 2016, FCPP sales increased 13 times
worldwide and the capacity made 480 MW (Asia’s share was
51.4%), with the volume of PEMFC reaching 65%. SOFC sales
increased by 160 times for all the time (16 thousand units in
2016).
Russia has a huge domestic market for FCPP introduction
(114 GW by 2035) with needs up to 44 million micro-capacities,
hundreds of thousands of low power units (up to 200 kW el.)
and tens of thousands of power units over 2 MW. The specified
volume of the domestic market allows transferring domestic
developments into the field of industrial development in the
near future.
Due to its large hydrocarbon reserves, Russia intends to
develop hydrogen energy first by transferring transport and
industry to gas engine fuel, and then by directly generating
energy from hydrogen as its production, infrastructure and
logistics become cheaper. Of particular relevance to this di-
rection is the importance of developing the Arctic and the
benefits of using hydrogen in the North being sparsely popu-
lated and the need to develop autonomous and distributed
generation.
Acknowledgements
Authors express great appreciation to the editor-in-chief of
the International Scientific Journal for Alternative Energy and
Ecology (ISJAEE) A.L. Gusev for many years of work in the field
of hydrogen energy and the promotion of the most environ-
mentally friendly technologies in production.
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