Lecture # 10

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Contents of the lecture
 Water resources
 Earth’s water supply & distribution
 Water quality parameters
 Sources & types of water pollutants
 Types of water pollution
 Water borne diseases
 Water pollution control measures

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Water Resources
 Sea water

 surface water

 Ground water

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Sea water
 Seawater or salt water is water from sea or ocean. On
average, seawater in the world's oceans has a salinity of
about 3.5% (35 g/L). This means that every kilogram
(roughly one litre by volume) of seawater has
approximately 35 grams of dissolved salts. Average
density at the surface is 1.025 g/ml.

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Surface Water
 Water naturally open to the atmosphere; water from lakes,
ponds, reservoirs, rivers, streams, etc.
 Although the only natural input to any surface water
system is precipitation. The total quantity of water in that
system is also dependent on factors like storage capacity in
lakes, the permeability of the soil beneath,
the runoff characteristics of the land in the nearby land, the
timing of precipitation and local evaporation rates. All of
these factors also affect the proportions of water loss.

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Ground water
Groundwater is the water located beneath the earth's
surface in soil pore spaces and in the fractures of rock
formations. A body of permeable rock which can contain
or transmit groundwater is called aquifer
The depth at which soil pore spaces or fractures and voids
in rock become completely saturated with water is called
the water table

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The earth's water supply

If the world's water supply were only 26

gallons, our usable supply of fresh water
would be only 2.5 teaspoons!
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World’s water Supply
Only about 0.014% of the earth's total volume of water is
easily available to us as

 Soil moisture
 Atmospheric water vapor
 Lakes, streams and rivers

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Interesting Fact!
 More than half of the world's water supply is contained
in just nine countries:

United States, Canada, Colombia, Brazil, the

Democratic Republic of Congo, Russia, India,
China and Indonesia

 Over 1.5 billion people do not have access to clean, safe

water.

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Water consumption
 We use water for drinking,
irrigation, industrial purposes
and energy production. Water
use
 agriculture and energy
production - 80%
 industry and public use - 20%

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Water Quality Parameters
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Water Quality Parameters
The following goals may be formulated for the examination
of water:

 Determination of physical, chemical & biological

characteristics of water
 Assessment of suitability of water for various purposes e.g,
drinking, industrial, irrigation etc.
 Establishment of size of various treatment units.
 Determination of amount of chemicals required for
purification and conditioning of water for industrial usage.

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Water Quality Parameters
 Color  Chemical oxygen demand
 Odor  Nitrogen and phosphorus
 Temperature  Sodium
 Solids  Chlorides
 Turbidity  Sulphates
 pH  Coliforms and pathogens
 Hardness
 Dissolved oxygen
 Biochemical oxygen
demand

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Color
Pure water is colorless. However color is contributed to
natural water by many sources.

Sources:
 End products of organic matter degradation
 Algal metabolism such as chlamydomnas excrete yellow
substances into the water.
 Divalent ions of iron & manganese may convert to
Fe(OH)3 and MnO2 as a result of oxidation in surface
water.

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Color
 Color caused by suspended matter is called apparent color.
 Color caused by dissolved solids that remains after
removal of suspended solids is called true color.

Color Removal:
 Apparent color is removed by simple filtration, ultra
filtration or chemical precipitation methods.
 True color causing organic compounds require chlorine
demand.

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Color

Type of Color Indication

Red Shows the presence of blood & other TNT
complex
Yellow/green & other Discharge of industrial wastes without treatment
(e.g. from paint industry)
Soil colours (e.g. red) Seepage of rain water & other industrial flows in
wastewater
Black Presence of industrial wastes & existence of septic
conditions
Odour
Smell Problem

Rotten-Egg Odor,
Musty Odors,
Hydrogen sulfide, sulfate-reducing bacteria, algal by-
grassy, fishy,
products, bacteria
vegetable and
cucumber like odor

Oily Smell Gasoline or oil contamination, possibly nuisance bacteria

Organic decomposition - note natural gas has no odor, but
Methane Like Gas the natural gas delivered to your home
Smell has mercaptans (sulfur -compounds)
added that create a strong odor to help detect leaks.
Phenolic Smell Industrial or gasoline contamination
Chemical Smell Organic chemicals, Industrial waste may present
Temperature
 The temperature of wastewater streams is very important
factor in the selection of treatment processes as it can
affect the efficiency of process

 Lower temperatures increase the viscosity of wastewater

which in turn decreases the dissolution of chemicals in
wastewater and thus increases the chemical requirements
and hence cost of the process

 Higher viscosities also decrease the settling of solids by

resisting the downstream motion of particles
Solids
Based on the chemical nature
 Organic
– In domestic wastewater, solids are about 50 percent
organic. This fraction is generally of animal or vegetable
matter, plant tissue or organisms, but may also include
synthetic organic compounds. The principal organic
compounds present in domestic wastewater are proteins,
carbohydrates and fats. They subject to decay.
 Inorganic
– Inorganic solids are substances that are inert and not
subject to decay. Inorganic solids are frequently called
mineral substances e.g. sulphates, chlorides, phosphates
and include sand, gravel and silt.
Solids
Based on the physical state
 Suspended solids
Suspended solids are those which are visible and in suspension in the
water. They are the solids which can be removed from the wastewater
by physical or mechanical means, such as sedimentation or filtration.
– Settleable Solids
 Settleable solids are that portion of the suspended solids which
are of sufficient size and weight to settle in a given period of
time, usually one hour.
– Colloidal Solids
 Colloidal suspended solids are solids that are not truly
dissolved and yet do not settle readily. These are somewhat
loosely defined as the differences between the total suspended
solids and the settleable solids.
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Solids
Based on the physical state
 Dissolved Solids
– Dissolved solids are smaller in size than suspended and
colloidal solids. The term means all of the solids which
pass through the filter paper.

 Total Solids
– Total solids, as the term implies, includes all of the
solid constituents of a wastewater. Total solids are the
total of the organic and inorganic solids or the total of
the suspended and dissolved solids.

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Turbidity
 Turbidity is a measure of water clarity, how much the
material suspended in water decreases the passage of light
through the water and it affects its color.
 Suspended materials include soil particles (clay, silt, and
sand), algae, plankton, microbes, and other substances.
 These materials are typically in the size range of 0.004 mm
(clay) to 1.0 mm (sand).
 Higher turbidity increases water temperatures because
suspended particles absorb more heat. This, in turn, reduces
the concentration of dissolved oxygen (DO)
 Drinking water standard is less than 5 NTU
 pH
 The indicator for acidity or alkalinity is known as the pH
value. A pH value of 7 means a substance is neutral. The
lower value indicates acidity, and a higher value is a sign
of alkalinity.
 The ideal pH for efficient wastewater treatment is 6.5 to
8
 DW has an avg. pH of 7.0 (neither alkaline nor acidic)
and sea water has an avg. pH of 8.3 (slightly alkaline)
Hardness
 As water moves through soil and rock, it dissolves very
small amounts of minerals and holds them in solution.
Calcium and magnesium dissolved in water are the two
most common minerals that make water "hard."
 Hard water requires more soap and synthetic detergents for
home laundry and washing, and contributes to scaling in
boilers and industrial equipment.
Water Hardness Scale
Milligrams Per Liter (mg/L) Classification
less than 17.1 Soft
17.1 - 60 Slightly Hard
60 - 120 Moderately Hard
120 - 180 Hard
over 180 Very Hard
Hardness
Hardness is classified into two types:

 Temporary Hardness: It is due to the presence of

bicarbonates of calcium and magnesium. It can be easily
removed by boiling.

 Permanent Hardness: This type of hardness can not be

removed by boiling. This is due to the presence of
chlorides and sulphates of calcium and magnesium. The
hardness can be removed by the addition of some agents.

 Drinking water standard is Ca < 25 mg/L and Mg < 75

mg/L
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Dissolved Oxygen (DO)
 Amount of gaseous O2 present in water
 O2 enters water either from atmosphere or by
photosynthesis reaction of the plants present in water
 Fundamental to aquatic life
 DO is inversely proportional to temp: Max amount of O2
dissolved in water at 0◦C = 14.6 mg L-1
 Main factor contributing to changes in DO levels is the
build-up of organic wastes which consumes large O2
 The amount of DO is usually measured by oxygen probe
method.
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)
 Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) is the amount of
DO needed by aerobic biological organisms in a body of
water to break down organic material present in a given
water sample at certain temperature over a specific time
period.
 High BOD indicates the potential of developing DO sag (a
dip in the amount of DO in water body)

 A low BOD indicates either clean water or the presence of

toxic or non-degradable pollutants
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)

BOD Level (ppm) Water Quality

1-2 Very good (not much
organic waste present)
3-5 Moderately clean
6-9 Somewhat polluted
10+ Very polluted

BOD of waste water is usually b/w 110-440 mg/l

and must be reduced to 20 mg/l before discharge.
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)

 BOD is measured as the amount of O2 adsorbed by a

sample of sewage during a specified period (5 / 7 Days), at
a specified temperature (20 deg. C)

 The difference in DO b/w initial measurement and the 5th

day measurement represents the BOD.

 BOD is an empirical test in which water conditions such

as temperature, oxygen conc. Or type of bacteria play a
decisive role.
Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)

 Measure of the amount of material that can be oxidized

(along with O2) in the presence of a strong chemical
oxidizing agent (K2Cr2O7)

 The most common COD method is the wet chemistry

method. A known amount of oxidizing agent is added.
Then reaction takes place to form CO2 and H2O. The
remaining (unconsumed) amount of oxidant is determined
by titration. This involves a two hour digestion at high
heat under acidic conditions in which potassium
dichromate acts as the oxidant for any organic material
present in a water sample.
Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)
Advantages:

 Major advantage of the COD test is the short time required

for evaluation.

 COD test is conducted in approximately 3 hours while

BOD is conducted in 5 days.

 COD test is much more useful for estimating strength of

certain industrial wastes of both organic & inorganic which
contained toxic chemicals.
Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)
Disadvantages:

 COD test does not differentiate b/w biological oxidizable &

biologically inert organic matter.

 Some amino acids, ketones or saturated carboxylic acids,

benzene, pyridine etc. are not oxidized by dichromate.

 Some oxygen is consumed by inorganic substances such as

nitrites, chlorides, sulphates, reduced metal ions, etc. So,
test is a poor measure of strength of organic wastes unless
these factors are considered.
Nitrogen and Phosphorus
 Nitrogen and Phosphorus are important nutrients for
biological growth

 Nitrogen occurs as: organic nitrogen, ammonia, nitrate,

nitrite and dissolved N2 gas

 Phosphorus occurs as: organic phosphate and inorganic

orthophosphate or polyphosphates

 The various forms of nitrogen and phosphorus can all be

measured analytically.
Sulfates
 Almost all natural waters contain sulfate ions. Their
concentrations vary considerably according to the mineral
content of the earth in any given area
 Sources are rain water especially in areas of air pollution
and Release from degradation of proteins
 For human consumption the acceptable limit = 250 mg L-1
 Problems linked with sulfates: boiler troubles, odor
problems, corrosion of sewers
Sodium

 Sodium is a mineral that can be found in drinking water

supplies.
 The human body needs sodium in order to maintain blood
pressure, control fluid levels and for normal nerve and
muscle function.
 Sodium in drinking water is not a health concern for most
people but may be an issue for someone with severe
hypertension, congestive heart failure or on a sodium-
restricted diet
 Sodium concentrations above 200 mg/L, may alter the taste
of water.
Chlorides
Chlorides is present in all natural waters at greatly varying
concentrations.
 When chlorides concentrations of 250 mg/L is present
along with sodium ions, a salty taste can be observed.
 Chlorides can be removed by reverse osmosis and
distillation.
Sources:
 Effluent from chemical industries
 Irrigation drainage
 Sea water
 Human body

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Coliforms and Pathogens

 Coliforms are a broad class of bacteria found in our

environment, including the feces of man and other warm-
blooded animals. The presence of coliform bacteria in
drinking water may indicate a possible presence of
harmful, disease-causing organisms.

 Drinking water must be free of disease-causing organisms

called pathogens. Pathogens can be viruses, protozoa or
bacteria. Waterborne pathogens cause diseases such as
hepatitis, diarrhea, and dysentery.
Contaminant Secondary Noticeable Effects above the
MCL Secondary MCL
Al
uminum 0.05 to col
or
edwater
0.2mg/L *
Chl
or
ide 250 mg/L sal
tytaste

Col
or 15 col
or visibl
etint
units
Cop
per 1.0 mg/L metal
l
ictaste; bl
ue-gr
een staining

Cor
rosivity Non- metal
l
ictaste; cor
rodedp
ipes/ f
ixtur
esstaining
corr
osive
F
luor
ide 2.0 mg/L tooth discol
or
ation

F
oamingagents 0.5 mg/L f
r
othy, cl
oudy; bittertaste; odor

Ir
on 0.3 mg/L r
ustycol
or
; sediment; metall
ictaste; r
eddish or
or
angesta ining
Manganese 0.05 mg/L bl
ack to br
own color; bl
ack staining; bitter
meta l
lictaste
Odor 3 TON "rotten-egg", mustyorchemica lsmel l
(threshol
d
odor
number )
p
H 6.5 - 8.5 l
owp H: bittermetal
lictaste; corr
osion
high p
H: slipp eryf
eel
; sodata ste; deposits

Sil
ver 0.1 mg/L sk
in discol
or
ation; grayingof thewhitep
artof
theeye
Sul
f
ate 250 mg/L sa ltytaste

TotalDissol
ved 500 mg/L har
dness; dep
osits; col
oredwater
; staining;
Solids(TDS) sa ltytaste

Zinc 5 mg/L meta ll

ictaste
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*mg/Lismil
ligr
amsof
substancep
erliterofwa ter
.
Pollution of water
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Water Pollution

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Where do Water pollutants come from?
 Point Sources – A single definable source of the pollution,
e.g. a factory, a sewage plant, etc. Point-source pollution is
usually monitored and regulated.

 Non-point sources – No single source, but a wide range of

sources, e.g. runoff from urban areas, or farmland. Non-
point sources are much more difficult to monitor and
control.

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Non-persistent (degradable) water pollutants
 These compounds can be broken down by chemical
reactions or by natural bacteria into simple substances such
as carbon dioxide and nitrogen.
 If the pollution load is high, this process can lead to low
oxygen levels.
 E.g. paper, leaves, leather, cardboard, some plastics,
clothes.

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Persistent (Non-degradable) water pollutants

 This is the most rapidly growing type of pollution

 This includes substances that degrade very slowly or
cannot be broken down at all;
 They may remain in the aquatic environment for years or
longer periods of time.
 Some pesticides, industrial chemicals (like
hexachlorobenzene), radioactive materials and metals,
glass etc.

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Pollution of Water

1. Surface water pollution

2. Groundwater pollution
3. Microbiological pollution
4. Oxygen depletion pollution
5. Nutrients pollution
6. Suspended matter pollution
7. Chemical pollution
8. Thermal pollution
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Pollution of Water

1. Surface water pollution

It is the visible form of pollution and

can be seen on waters in lakes,
streams, rivers. E.g. plastic bottles,
shopping bags and trash from human
consumption

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Pollution of Water

2. Groundwater pollution

Effects drinking water and aquifers

below the soil caused by highly toxic
chemicals and pesticides from farming

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Pollution of Water

3. Microbiological pollution

Natural form of water pollution caused

by microorganisms. E.g. bacteria and
viruses cause serious diseases.

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Pollution of Water

4. Oxygen depletion pollution

Some microorganisms in water use up

the available oxygen, called as oxygen
depletion which results in lower
oxygen.

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Pollution of Water

5. Nutrients pollution

Found in waste water and

fertilizers. They can cause excess
vegetation in water such as algae
and weeds which use up oxygen
in water hurting marine life.

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Pollution of Water

6. Suspended matter pollution

It occurs when pollutants enter the

water and do not mix with water
molecules. These suspended matter
forms fine silt in water.

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Pollution of Water

7. Chemical pollution

There is a lot of chemical run off from

factories into the water bodies which
includes metals, solvents, pesticides
from industries. They add poison to
wildlife in water.

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Pollution of Water

8. Thermal pollution

Thermal pollution is the rise or fall in

the temperature of a natural body of
water caused by human influence.
Elevated water temperatures
decreases oxygen levels, which can
kill fish, and can alter food
chain composition, reduce species
biodiversity.

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Water borne diseases
Diseases caused by the ingestion of water contaminated with
pathogenic bacteria, viruses, or parasites include:
 cholera
 typhoid
 Dysentery
 Other diarrheal diseases

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Introduction to
Wastewater Treatment
Lecture # 11

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Waste water
Wastewater is any water that has been adversely
affected in quality by human activities. It comprises liquid
waste discharged by domestic residences, commercial
properties, industry, and/or agriculture and can
encompass a wide range of potential contaminants and
concentrations.

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Types of waste water
Grey water
Black water

Greywater is defined as wastewater generated from

dishwashers, wash-hand basins, showers and baths & washing
machines.
Blackwater is the wastewater containing feces, flush water
and toilet waste.

It is preferred to be kept separate both waste water sources to

reduce the amount of water that gets heavily polluted.

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Wastewater Treatment
Wastewater treatment generates a Cleaned Water
Stream and sludge

 Cleaned water my be re-used for irrigation or

rarely drinking water production or disposed into
river
 Sludge refers to the residual, semi-solid material
left from industrial wastewater and comprise
solids found in wastewater plus organisms used in
the treatment process

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Wastewater Treatment Processes

Physical Chemical Biological

Processes Processes Processes
Screening Coagulation Aerobic
Sedimentation flocculation process Anaerobic
Filtration Chlorination
Reverse osmosis Chemical
precipitation

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Waste Water Treatment Stages

Pre/Primary Treatment
Secondary Treatment
Tertiary & Advanced WWT
Sludge Treatment

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Waste Water Treatment Stages

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Primary Treatment
Primary treatment process mainly involves the use of
some physical means to separate certain materials.
The typical materials that are removed during
primary treatment include fats, oils, and greases
(also referred to as FOG), sand, gravels and rocks
(also referred to as grit), larger settle able solids
including human waste and floating materials.
Primary treatment usually reflects processes like
settling and floating, sedimentation and filtration.

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Secondary Treatment
It involves mainly the biological processes especially aerobic and
some physical processes like sedimentation.
Secondary treatment removes up to 85 – 95 % of the
biodegradable organic matter.
Following factors are involved in the selection of an appropriate
biological process

 Quantity of WW
 Biodegradability of waste
 Availability of land

Most commonly used biological processes include; activated

sludge reactors, membrane bioreactors and trickling filters
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Tertiary Treatment
Tertiary treatment uses physical filtration and chemical
precipitation methods to remove rest over biologically
degradable organic matter, nitrogen, and phosphorus from
water.
The main goal for such kind of treatment is to remove a
particular type of contaminant or to treat water in such a way
that it can be reused. Some common processes for tertiary
treatment involve; removal of phosphorus compounds by the
coagulation process using different chemicals, removal of
nitrogen compounds (using ammonia stripping process),
removal of some organic and colored compounds ( using
adsorption on activated carbon) and the removal of dissolved
solids (using membrane processes).
In order to remove pathogenic compounds, WW is often treated
with some disinfectant such as chlorine 13
Sludge Treatment
Sludge treatment involves biological and physical processes
such as digestion and grit or water removal.
Sludge contains biomass generated as a result of biological
operations and also some precipitates coming from the different
chemicals added for treatment
Selection of an appropriate sludge treatment process depends
upon the following factors:

 Nature of sludge
 Environmental consequences/factors
 Final disposal options available ( e-g incineration or landfill)

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Waste Water Treatment Plant

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Waste Water Treatment Plant

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Wastewater Treatment (Case study)

Primary Treatment

Step 1 Sanitary Sewer

Step 2 Bar Screen
Step 3 Primary Settling Basin

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Step 1: Sanitary Sewers
They carry wastewater
from homes and
businesses to the raw
wastewater pumping
station at the treatment
plant. Routine cleaning
and closed circuit
television inspection of
sanitary sewer lines
helps keep the sewer
collection system in good
shape.
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Step 2: Bar Screen
They let water pass, but
not trash (such as rags,
diapers, etc.). Bar
screens are vital to the
successful operation of
a plant, they reduce the
damage of valves,
pumps, and other units.
The trash is collected
and properly disposed
of. The screened
wastewater is pumped
to the Primary Settling
Basins.
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Step 3: Primary Settling Basins
They allow smaller
particles to settle from
wastewater by
gravity. This primary
wastewater flows out to
the next stage of
treatment. Scrapers
collect the solid matter
that remains (called
"primary sludge"). A
surface skimmer
collects scum or grease
floating on top of the
basins.
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Wastewater Treatment Stages
Secondary Treatment

Step 1 Aeration Basin

Step 2 Final Settling Basins

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Step 1: Aeration Basins
They supply large amounts of air
to the mixture of primary
wastewater and helpful bacteria
and the other microorganisms that
consume the harmful organic
matter. The growth of the helpful
microorganisms is speeded up by
vigorous mixing of air (aeration)
with the concentrated
microorganisms (activated sludge)
and the wastewater. Adequate
oxygen is supplied to support the
biological process at a very active
level.

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Step 2: Final Settling Basins
They allow the clumps of
biological mass (the
microorganisms) to settle
from the water by gravity.
This mixture, called
"activated sludge," is
returned to the aeration
basins to help maintain
the needed amount of
microorganisms.

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Wastewater Treatment Stages
Sludge Treatment

Step 1 Sludge Thickener

Step 2 Digester
Step 3 Subsurface Injection

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Step 1: Sludge thickener

The primary sludge continues

on to the Sludge Thickener
where the solids are
concentrated by removing the
water from sludge and pumped
to the anaerobic digesters.

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Step 2: Digesters

Primary and activated

sludges are anaerobically
digested (decomposed by
bacteria without the presence
of air) in the digester.
Stabilized sludge has little
odor and conforms to the EPA
requirements to further reduce
harmful microorganisms.

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Digesters

Methane gas is produced

by this anaerobic digestion
and is used as fuel for an
engine-generator providing
electrical power used in the
treatment process.

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Step 3: Subsurface injection
Application of the
stabilized sludge
(biosolids) onto farmland
by subsurface injection
(plowing). The biosolids
are utilized in an
environmentally
acceptable manner as a
beneficial and valuable
fertilizer and soil
conditioner.

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Waste Water Treatment Methods

Lecture # 12
 Primary Treatment Methods
• Removal of large objects from sewage (Screening)
• Sand and grit removal (Detritor)
• Sedimentation (Sedimentation Tanks)

3
 Screening
• Screens are used as a physical treatment for the
removal of large suspended and floating solids
present in waste water.
• For normal operations a medium screen with 10 to
20 mm spaces between its bars is considered as
standard
• In order to avoid clogging in screens, the flow
velocity should always be kept above 0.5 m/sec

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Screening

5
 Bar screens
The picture can't be display ed.

6
 Detritor
• Primary treatment typically includes a sand or grit channel
or chamber where the velocity of the incoming wastewater
is carefully controlled to allow sand grit and stones to
settle, while keeping the majority of the suspended organic
material in the water column. This equipment is called a
detritor or sand catcher.
• Sand grit and stones need to be removed early in the
process to avoid damage to pumps and other equipment in
the remaining treatment stages.
• The contents from the sand catcher may be fed into the
incinerator in a sludge processing plant, but in many cases,
the sand and grit is sent to a landfill.

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Detritor

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 Sedimentation
• Many plants have a sedimentation stage where the sewage is
allowed to stay in large tanks, commonly called "primary
clarifiers" or "primary sedimentation tanks". The tanks are large
enough that fecal solids can settle and floating material such as
grease and oils can rise to the surface and be skimmed off.
• The main purpose of the primary stage is to produce a generally
homogeneous liquid capable of being treated biologically and a
sludge that can be separately treated or processed. Primary
settlement tanks are usually equipped with mechanically driven
scrapers that continually drive the collected sludge towards a
hopper in the base of the tank from where it can be pumped to
further sludge treatment stages.

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 Secondary Treatment Methods
• Secondary treatment is designed to substantially degrade
the biological content of the sewage such as are derived
from human waste, food waste, soaps and detergent.
• There are number of ways in which this is done. In all
these methods, the bacteria consume biodegradable soluble
organic contaminants (e.g. sugars, fats, organic short-chain
carbon molecules, etc.) and convert them into simpler
compounds. Secondary treatment systems are classified as
– Fixed Film
– Suspended Growth

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 Secondary Treatment
• Fixed Film treatment process including trickling filter
where the biomass grows on media and the sewage passes
over its surface.
• Suspended Growth Systems such as activated sludge, the
biomass is well mixed with the sewage and can be
operated in a smaller space than fixed-film systems that
treat the same amount of water.

However, fixed-film systems are more able to cope with

drastic changes in the amount of biological material and
can provide higher removal rates for organic material
and suspended solids than suspended growth systems. 12
 Secondary Treatment
Treatment methods for secondary treatment may
vary:

• Activated Sludge Process

• Surface-aerated basins
• Filter beds (oxidizing beds)
• Membrane bioreactors

13
 1. Activated Sludge Process
• The activated sludge process is suitable for treating
domestic WW which contains large amount of organic
matter but also can be used for industrial waste.
• It is a process in which active biological matter is created
resulting in the absorption of organic waste present in WW
and ultimately producing simple products such as nitrates
and carbon dioxide
• These types of plants tend to remove about 85 – 95% of
OM and SS from sewage water

14
 1. Activated Sludge Process
• The conventional activated sludge systems have a tank for
WW aeration which is followed by a settling tank and a
line for recycling solids. WW enters the aeration tank and
remains there for about 4-8 hrs (residence time). The
biological organisms present in the activated sludge
convert the organic waste in to biomass and other products
(gases)
• Due to high BOD of WW entering in to the system, there
will be a high oxygen demand when the WW is entering
into the reactor. But as the process goes on, the oxygen
demand is reduced. The concentration of oxygen in the
reactor should be at least 2mg/l 15
Activated Sludge Process

16
 Activated Sludge Process Overview
(MLSS)
• Mixed Liquor is a mixture of raw or settled wastewater and
biological mass within an aeration tank in the activated
sludge process

• Mixed Liquor Suspended Solids (MLSS) is the

concentration of suspended solids in the mixed liquor,
usually expressed in milligrams per litre (mg/l)

17
 Activated Sludge Process Overview
(MLSS)
• If MLSS content is too high
– The process is prone to bulking and the treatment system becomes
overloaded
– This can cause the dissolved oxygen content to drop with the effect
that organic matters are not fully degraded.
– Excessive aeration required which wastes electricity
• If MLSS content is too low
– The process is not operating efficiently and is wasting energy
• Typical Control band
– 2,000 to 4,000 mg/l

18
 Activated Sludge Process Overview
(RAS & SAS)
• A proportion of the floc, which is returned to aeration tank
is called Return Activated Sludge (RAS)
• Measuring the solids concentration of RAS allows the
return volume to be adjusted to keep the solids level in the
aeration basin within the control parameters
• Excess sludge which eventually accumulates beyond that
returned is defined as Surplus or Waste Activated Sludge
(SAS/WAS)
• This is removed from the treatment process to keep the
ratio of biomass to food supplied (sewage or wastewater)
in balance 19
 Activated Sludge Process Overview
(HRT & SRT)
• The hydraulic retention time (HRT), also known as
hydraulic residence time is a measure of the average length
of time that a mixed liquor remains in aeration tank.
• Hydraulic retention time is the volume of the aeration tank
divided by the influent flow rate.
• Solids Retention Time (SRT) on the other hand is the
average time a unit of suspended solids stays in the
activated sludge system.
• Solids retention is the pounds of SS in aeration basin
divided by pounds/day of SS wasted from the system.

20
The picture can't be display ed.

Activated Sludge Tanks

21
 2. Surface-aerated basins
(Aerated lagoon)
• Most biological oxidation processes for treating industrial
wastewaters have in common the use of oxygen (or air)
and microbial action. Surface-aerated basins have retention
times of 1 to 10 days. The basins may range in depth from
1.5 to 5.0 meters.
• In an aerated basin system, the aerators provide two
functions: they transfer air into the basins required by the
biological oxidation reactions, and they provide the mixing
required for dispersing the air and for contacting the
reactants (that is, oxygen, wastewater and microbes).

22
The picture can't be display ed.

Aeration Tanks

23
 3. Filter beds (Oxidizing beds)
(Trickling filters)
• Trickling filter beds are used where the sewage liquor is
spread onto the surface of a bed made up of coke,
limestone chips or specially fabricated plastic media. Such
media must have high surface areas to support the biofilms
that form. The liquor is distributed through perforated
rotating arms radiating from a central pivot.
• The distributed liquor trickles through this bed and is
collected in drains at the base.. Biological films of bacteria,
protozoa and fungi form on the media’s surfaces and eat or
otherwise reduce the organic content.

24
 3. Filter beds (Oxidizing beds)
(Trickling filters)
• WW is made to contact with the microorganisms resulting in their
growth enhancement on a fixed filter media. WW contains organic
matter which serves as a food for these microorganisms (bacteria).
After this the clean water is collected as it passed through the media
• Due to the active growth of microorganisms, the level or oxygen is
decreased resulting in an anaerobic environment. After this, these
microorganisms tend to die and are drained out by using some fluid

25
Trickling filter bed using plastic media

26
 4. Membrane Bioreactors
Membrane bioreactors (MBR) combines activated sludge
treatment with a membrane liquid-solid separation process.
The membrane component uses low pressure microfiltration
or ultra filtration membranes and eliminates the need for
clarification and tertiary filtration. The membranes are
typically immersed in the aeration tank (however, some
applications utilize a separate membrane tank).

27
Tertiary Treatment Methods
The picture can't be display ed.

28
 Tertiary Treatment
• Tertiary treatment provides a final stage to raise the
effluent quality before it is to be re-used. More than one
tertiary treatment process may be used at any treatment
plant. If disinfection is practiced, it is always the final
process. It is also called "effluent polishing".

Secondary Clarifier

29
 Tertiary Treatment Methods
• Ultra filtration and Reverse Osmosis
• Lagooning
• Nitrogen removal
• Phosphorus removal
• Disinfection

30
 Ultra filtration and Reverse Osmosis
• Osmosis is a process that involves the movement of water from
lower concentrated solution to a higher one through a selective
permeable membrane but in reverse osmosis, pressure is applied
to the solution at higher concentration and the flow is reversed to
permit the flow of water through the membrane
• During this, the dissolved impurities and minerals are left behind
within the concentrated solution and water is separated
• Typically, a pressure of approximately (2000 to 7000) kilo-Pascal
is required for this process
 Lagooning
• Lagooning provides settlement and further
biological improvement through storage in
large man-made ponds or lagoons. These
lagoons are highly aerobic.

32
 Nutrient removal
• Wastewater may contain high levels of the nutrients
nitrogen and phosphorus which can in turn encourage the
overgrowth of weeds, algae, and cyanobacteria (blue-green
algae). This may cause an algal bloom, a rapid growth in
the population of algae.
• The decomposition of the algae by bacteria uses up so
much of oxygen in the water that most or all of the animals
die, which creates more organic matter for the bacteria to
decompose. In addition to causing deoxygenation, some
algal species produce toxins that contaminate drinking
water supplies. Different treatment processes are required
to remove:
– Nitrogen
– Phosphorus 33
 Nitrogen removal
• The removal of nitrogen is effected through
the biological oxidation of nitrogen from
ammonia (nitrification) to nitrate, followed
by denitrification, the reduction of nitrate to
nitrogen gas. Nitrogen gas is released to the
atmosphere and thus removed from the
water.

34
 Nitrogen removal
• Nitrification itself is a two-step aerobic process,
each step facilitated by a different type of bacteria.
• The oxidation of ammonia (NH3) to nitrite (NO2−)
is most often facilitated by Nitrosomonas
• Nitrite oxidation to nitrate (NO3−) is facilitated by
Nitrobacter
• And nitrate reduction (denitrification) to nitrogen
gas by heterotrophic bacteria

35
 Phosphorus removal (biological
process)
• Phosphorus can be removed biologically in a
process called enhanced biological phosphorus
removal. In this process, specific bacteria, called
polyphosphate accumulating organisms, are
selectively enriched and accumulate large
quantities of phosphorus within their cells (up to
20% of their mass). When the biomass enriched in
these bacteria is separated from the treated water,
these biosolids have a high fertilizer value.
36
 Phosphorus removal(chemical
process)
• Phosphorus removal can also be achieved by
chemical precipitation, usually with salts of iron
(e.g. ferric chloride) or aluminum (e.g. alum). The
resulting chemical sludge is difficult to handle and
the added chemicals can be expensive.
• Despite this, chemical phosphorus removal
requires significantly smaller equipment than
biological removal, is easier to operate and can be
more reliable in areas that have wastewater
compositions that make biological phosphorus
removal difficult.
37
 Disinfection
Different disease causing microorganisms present in WW are
removed and targeted by the process of disinfection.
Disinfection is normally done by the:
o Use of chlorinated compounds (chlorination)
o Sodium & calcium hypochlorite
o Chlorine dioxide
o Chlorine
o Use of ozone
o Use of ultra violet light

38
 Chlorine as a disinfectant
Chlorination remains the most common form of
wastewater disinfection due to its low cost and long-term
history of effectiveness. One disadvantage is that
chlorination of residual organic material can generate
chlorinated-organic compounds that may be carcinogenic
or harmful to the environment. Residual chlorine or
chloramines may also be capable of chlorinating organic
material in the natural aquatic environment. Further,
because residual chlorine is toxic to aquatic species, the
treated effluent must also be chemically dechlorinated,
adding to the complexity and cost of treatment.
 UV light as a disinfectant
Ultraviolet (UV) light can be used instead of chlorine, iodine, or
other chemicals. Because no chemicals are used, the treated
water has no adverse effect on organisms that later consume it,
as may be the case with other methods. UV radiation causes
damage to the genetic structure of bacteria, viruses, and other
pathogens, making them incapable of reproduction. The key
disadvantages of UV disinfection are the need for frequent lamp
maintenance and replacement and the need for a highly treated
effluent to ensure that the target microorganisms are not shielded
from the UV radiation (i.e., any solids present in the treated
effluent may protect microorganisms from the UV light).
Ultraviolet light is becoming the most common means of
disinfection because of the concerns about the impacts of
chlorine in chlorinating residual organics in the wastewater and
in chlorinating organics in the receiving water.
 Ozone as a disinfectant
Ozone O3 is generated by passing oxygen O2 through a
high voltage potential resulting in a third oxygen atom
becoming attached and forming O3. Ozone is very
unstable and reactive and oxidizes most organic material
it comes in contact with, thereby destroying many
pathogenic microorganisms. Ozone is considered to be
safer than chlorine because, unlike chlorine which has to
be stored on site (highly poisonous in the event of an
accidental release), ozone is generated onsite as needed.
Ozonation also produces fewer disinfection by-products
than chlorination. A disadvantage of ozone disinfection is
the high cost of the ozone generation equipment and the
requirements for special operators.
Lecture # 13
 Synopsis
‡ Waste – sources, classification, composition
‡ Waste management
‡ Waste management techniques
‡ Composting
‡ Incineration
‡ Landfilling

2
 What are Wastes?

Waste…..
……“Substances or objects which are disposed of or are
intended to be disposed of or are required to be disposed
of by the provisions of the law”

Disposal…..
…..“Any operation which may lead to resource recovery,
recycling, reclamation, direct re-use or alternative uses ”

3
Sources of waste

4
Waste generation – Pakistan

5
 Classification of Waste – Nature

Bio-degradable…..
…Is a type of waste typically originating from plant and animal
sources, which may be degraded by other living organisms e.g.
green waste, food waste, paper waste & biodegradable
plastics.

Non-biodegradable…
…Is a waste that will never break down. E.g. metal, ceramics and
glass.

6
 Classification of Waste – Hazards

Hazardous wastes…
…. Is a waste that poses potential threats to human health and
environment e.g. radioactive materials & chemicals.

Non-hazardous….
…..Substances safe to use commercially, industrially, agriculturally
e.g. paper, glass etc.
 Classification of waste – Location

 Residential waste
 Homes and multi family dwellings etc.
 Commercial waste
 Stores, hotels, restaurants, markets, office buildings, etc.
 Institutional waste
 Schools, hospitals, prisons, government centers etc.
 Municipal waste
 Street cleaning, landscaping, parks, beaches, other
recreational areas etc.
 Industrial wastes
 Manufacturing & chemical plants, power plants etc. 8
Typical MSW Composition

9
 Waste Management Techniques

 Managing waste has traditionally consisted of collection,

followed by disposal.

 Depending upon the type of waste and the area, a level of

processing may follow collection. This processing may be to
reduce the hazard of the waste, recover material for recycling,
produce energy from the waste, or reduce it in volume for
more efficient disposal.

10
Waste Management Techniques

11
 Avoid
Use alternatives to plastic shopping bags. Bring along your
own reusable shopping bag or basket.
Buy only what you need - Ask, 'Do I really need this
Buy in bulk - it reduces the amount of packaging you take
home and can save you money
Avoid products with excessive packaging
Buy items with packaging that can be reused & recycled
Join online news or magazine sites rather than purchasing
magazines or newspapers
Buy products that can be refilled or are concentrated like
kitchen and laundry detergents
Buy reusable items - refillable pens, refillable containers, etc 12
REDUCE & REUSE
 Benefits of Reduction

Saves Natural Resources. Waste is not just created when

consumers throw items away. Throughout the life cycle of a
product from extraction of raw materials to transportation to
processing and manufacturing facilities to use, waste is generated.
Reusing items or making them with less material decreases waste
dramatically. Ultimately, less materials will need to be recycled
or sent to landfills or waste combustion facilities.

Reduces Toxicity of Waste. Selecting nonhazardous or less

hazardous items is another important component of source
reduction. Using less hazardous alternatives for certain items
(e.g., cleaning products and pesticides), reading label directions
carefully, and using the smallest amount necessary are ways to
reduce waste toxicity.
14
 Benefits of Reduction
Businesses. Industry also has an economic incentive to practice
source reduction. When businesses manufacture their products
with less packaging, they are buying less raw material. A
decrease in manufacturing costs can mean a larger profit margin,
with savings that can be passed on to the consumer.

Consumers. Consumers also can share in the economic benefits

of source reduction. Buying products in bulk, with less
packaging, or that are reusable (not single-use) frequently means
a cost savings.

15
 RECYCLING

Recycling turns materials into valuable resources that would

otherwise become waste.
 Steps to Recycling a Product

• Step 1: Collecting recyclables.

• Step 2: Recyclables are sent to a materials recovery facility
to be sorted
• Step 3: Once cleaned and separated, the recyclables are
ready to undergo the manufacturing process.
• Step 4: Manufacturing consist of more or less the same
steps as producing a product from raw material
except the raw material extraction and processing.
• Step 5: Purchasing recycled products completes the
recycling loop.

17
18
 Recycling

Mixed Recyclables Reception Hall

20
 Benefits of Recycling

Recycling expands manufacturing jobs .

Recycling reduces the need for land filling and incineration.
Recycling prevents pollution caused by the manufacturing of
products from virgin materials.
Recycling saves energy.
Recycling decreases emissions of greenhouse gases that
contribute to global climate change.

21
DISPOSAL

1. Composting
2. Incineration
3. Landfill
Solid Waste Disposal Methods

23
 1. Composting
Compost is organic material that can be used as a soil or as a
medium to grow plants
Composting is a natural process through which organic
material is converted into a soil-like product called compost.
The process works with the help of micro-organisms such as
bacteria and fungi combined with air and moisture.

24
25
 Composting

Composting is a natural biological process, carried

out under controlled aerobic conditions (requires
oxygen). In this process, various microorganisms,
including bacteria and fungi, break down organic
matter into simpler substances.

Composting biodegrades organic waste. i.e. food

waste, leaves, grass trimmings, paper, wood, feathers,
crop residue etc., and turns it into a valuable organic
fertilizer. 26
 Composting techniques

In-vessel composting
Aerated static pile composting

27
 In-vessel Composting
In-vessel composting is an industrial form of
composting biodegradable waste that occurs in
enclosed reactors. These generally consist of
metal tanks or concrete containers in which air
flow and temperature can be controlled, using the
principles of a "bioreactor". Generally the air
circulation is metered in via tubes that allow fresh
air to be injected and temperature and moisture
conditions are monitored.

28
29
Aerated Static Pile Composting
Aerated Static Pile (ASP) composting, refers to
systems used to biodegrade organic material in huge
volumes. The blended mixture is usually placed on
perforated piping, providing air circulation for
controlled aeration . It may be open or covered, or in
closed containers. With regard to complexity and cost,
aerated systems are most commonly used by larger,
professionally managed composting facilities,
although the technique may range from very small,
simple systems to very large, capital intensive,
industrial installations
30
31
 2. Incineration

Incineration is a waste treatment technology that

involves the combustion of organic materials
and/or substances. Incineration and other high
temperature waste treatment systems are
described as "thermal treatment". Incineration of
waste materials converts the waste into
incinerator bottom ash, flue gases and heat, which
can in turn be used to generate electric power.
The flue gases are cleaned of pollutants before
they are dispersed in the atmosphere.
32
 Incineration
Generally four elements to incineration of MSW:

1.Waste delivery and feeding

2. Furnace
3. Heat and energy recovery
4. Pollution control

33
 Waste Delivery & Feeding

 Waste received at the facility is weighed and deposited in a bunker

 The bunker is sized to hold 2-4 days of waste.
 The crane operator mixes the waste to ensure consistency
 The crane holds the waste and drop it into a hopper.
 Hoppers are partly filled with waste to minimize air leakage. Also
ensures a continual flow of waste into the furnace.
 Furnace

• The combustion reactions are function of oxygen, time, temperature

and turbulence (O, T, T, T)
• Sufficient (excess) air is provided to complete the combustion of
waste.
• Moisture is driven off at 50-100°C
• Combustion chamber temperature ranges b/w 700 -1200oC
• Bulk volume reduction in incineration is about 90%.
 Heat and Energy Recovery
• Recovering the heat that is produced by an incinerator can
be used for generating steam, which is used for driving a
turbine in order to produce electricity.
 Pollution Control

• Particulate removal
• Heavy metals (e.g. Hg & Cd)
• Acid gases (e.g. SO2 & HCl)
• Dioxins/ furans
• Oxides of Nitrogen (NO and NO2)
• CO2
Waste Incineration Setup

38
 Waste Incineration Setup
1. The incoming waste is brought to the waste incineration plant and dumped into the
holding area.
2. The waste is then grabbed and dropped into a hopper.
3. From the Hopper the waste is gradually fed into the incinerator.
4. This incinerator runs at a range of temperatures depending on the type of trash
being incinerated. The heat from the incineration of the waste is then used to heat
up the working fluid (usually water) in the boiler
5. The steam from this process is then piped to a turbine generator to create
electricity. The left over burnt waste and heaviest ash falls into a collection area
6. At this point an electromagnet can be used to pick up any left over metals that
could then be recycled. The flue gases containing fine ash and other toxic vapors
then pass through a scrubber reactor
7. This scrubber treats the flue gasses for acid pollutants such as SO2 and also
dioxins. From the scrubber, the gases can then pass through a fine particulate
removal system, which can further reduce the toxicity of the flue gasses
8. The flue gases are then released through the chimney stack(8). 39
 3. Landfill

A landfill, also known as a dump or rubbish dump, is a site

for the disposal of waste materials by burial and is the oldest
form of waste treatment. Historically, landfills have been the
most common methods of organized waste disposal and
remain so in many places around the world.

Some materials may be banned from disposal in municipal

solid waste landfills including common household items such
as paints, cleaners/chemicals, motor oil, batteries, and
pesticides. These products, if mishandled, can be dangerous to
your health and the environment

40
Potential Landfill Site
 Landfill
Landfill Lining
Lining System
• Flexible membrane liners -plastics such as PVC with
extremely low permeability.
• Chemical resistance to leachate is also critical.
 Landfill Operations
• Heavy duty compaction equipment is utilized to
maximize the void.
• The following compaction densities are achievable:
– 0.7 to 1.0 tones per m3
–1.0 to 1.2 tones per m3
• Operational area is covered on a daily basis.
• Vermin and litter control is necessary.
 Waste degradation in Landfills

• Degradation of waste in landfills is mixture of physical,

chemical and biological processes -complex
environment.

• Many factors influence the degradation within a landfill:

waste, particle size, waste compaction, site, water
content, temperature, acidity etc.
 Landfill Gas
• Product of landfilling waste, a mixture of many gases,
two main constituents -CO2 & CH4.
• Methane is 24 times worse than carbon dioxide as a
greenhouse gas.
• Need for a gas management system.
• Odorous -contains hydrogen sulphide and organo-sulphur
compounds
Landfill Gas Management
Landfill Gas Utilization
 Leachate Management
• Leachate-water that passes through the waste plus
water created in the decomposition processes.
• Contains suspended solids, soluble components of
waste and products of decomposition.
• A BOD and COD up to 200 times more than municipal
sewage.
Leachate Management
 Leachate Treatment
• Leachate is usually discharged to sewer for treatment at
sewage treatment plant
• On-site treatment of leachate is also done either by
Activated Sludge treatment, membrane bioreactors or
trickling filters.
PICTORIAL PRESENTATION

51
52
53
54
ENVIRONMENTAL
IMPACT
ASSESSMENT (EIA)
Lecture 14
 What is EIA?
“An important procedure for ensuring that the likely
effects of new development on the environment are
fully understood and taken into account before the
development is allowed to go ahead”
The process of identifying, predicting, evaluating and
mitigating the biophysical, social, and other relevant
effects of development proposals prior to major
decisions being taken and commitments made.

2
 Purpose Of EIA
An Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is an
assessment of the likely positive and/or negative influence a
project may have on the environment.

The purpose of the assessment is to ensure that decision-

makers consider environmental impacts before deciding
whether to proceed with new projects.

EIA is intended to identify the Environmental, Social and

Economic impacts of a proposed development prior to
decision making.

3
Origins and history of
EIA

First formal system of EIA established in the

US following the National Environmental
Policy Act (NEPA) of 1969

4
Environmental Impact Statement

The Environmental Statement must include:

A description of the project: location, design, size etc.

Description of significant effects.
Mitigating Measures
Assessment of no development conditions
Assessment of conditions with development
A Non-Technical summary.

5
 The EIA Process
There are two steps in EIA. The two stages are:

Preliminary Assessment: Carried out in the early

stages of planning

Detailed Assessment: Carried out during project

planning until the project plan is completed and are
reported formally as an Environmental Statement

6
7
 Steps Involved In EIA
1. Preliminary Activities and Decision of Terms of
Reference ( TOR )
2. Scoping
3. Baseline Study
4. Environmental Impact Evaluation
5. Mitigation Measures
6. Assessment of Alternative Measures
7. Preparation of Final Document
8. Decision-making
9. Monitoring of Project Implementation and Its
Environmental Impacts
8
Step 1: Preliminary Activities and Decision of
Terms of Reference ( TOR )

Preliminary activities include the defining of the Terms of

Reference ( TOR ) for the project and also the determining of
the personnel required for the assessment. A brief summary of
the project is extremely helpful at this stage. The summary
should be clear and explicit.
The existing laws and regulations that are applicable to the
project should also be reviewed along with the regulating
authorities.
An EIA team might include an engineer, an economist, a
physical geographer and a sociologist, with a senior government
official to play the role of a coordinator. All these need to be
identified and declared before the actual EIA process may
begin.

9
 Step 2: Scoping

Scoping is a process for identifying environmental impacts of the

project. At a very early stage in the preparation of an EIA, the
impacts of the project on the environment are identified. When
the list of the impacts is very large, only the most significant
impacts are selected. This process, therefore, determines the
limits and the scope of the environmental degradation involved
with the project. Scoping actually controls the cost and time of
the assessment in deciding the scope of the EIA and therefore
is a very important step both in identifying the impacts and
controlling the size of the EIA.

10
 Step 2: Scoping

Potential issues Impacts on the environment

Transport Traffic generated during construction, operation
Noise and vibration Increased noise levels during construction, traffic noise
including reversing alarms
Ecology Loss of habitat and protected species from restoration of
minerals workings
Land and soils Land contamination, temporary loss of agricultural land
Water Pollution of surface or groundwaters
Air and climate Landfill gas, odour, dust and particulates, pollutants from
incomplete combustion
Cultural heritage Loss of heritage features
Landscape Change or loss of valued landscape

11
 Step 3: Baseline Studies

A baseline study is the study of the original status of the

environment in the area before the development work of the
project is started. This study serves the purpose of a base
reference against which the changes due to implementation of
the project are measured. Baseline studies are based on the
experience with respect to environmental aspects and cover
everything important about the environmental impacts of the
project. On the other hand, a proper scoping highlights the
significant environmental issues of the project with respect to its
locality and regional environment. Hence, scoping and baseline
studies often run into each other.

12
Step 4: Environment Impact Evaluation

Environmental impact evaluation actually grows out of scoping and

baseline study of the project. In principle, EIA assigns various
quantified values to different levels of all the impacts affecting the
project. This step is generally considered as the most technical and
controversial part of the EIA. It is difficult because not every impact,
especially natural and social impacts, can be quantified. Occasionally, it
is possible to use surrogate measures, such as the amount of money
required to mitigate the damage or the amount of money local
inhabitants are willing to pay to clean up the river. However, the
accuracy and appropriateness of such techniques can be questioned.

Impact evaluation actually calls for very careful considerations of the

most important impacts and their accurate numerical representation.
This has to be done not only for the proposed project but also for all
possible alternatives, so that a well-balanced final decision can be
reached regarding the fate of the project.

13
 Step 5: Mitigation Measures

Mitigation measures are taken after the impact evaluation.

These measures are taken to reduce the magnitude or intensity
of the impacts affecting the environment. This of course will
incur some costs, but it is expected that such measures will, in
the long run, mitigate the impacts so as to make the project both
economically and environmentally viable. The EIA team has to
decide between two alternatives, either having a high cost and
low pollution program or having a low cost but a high pollution
situation.

14
Step 6: Assessment of alternative measures

The proposed project and all other relevant versions have been
examined for environmental impacts by now. They have also been
corrected by applying the mitigation measures to minimize the adverse
effects on the environment. The next step is to assess the alternative
measures by measuring environmental degradation and improvement
in terms of economic losses and gains. In standard EIAs, a summary
for each version of the project is given together with the comparative
assessment using benefit-cost analysis (BCA); a method for evaluating
development projects. However, there is a difficulty in the assessment
as not everything is quantifiable. Although attempts have been made to
describe such situations numerically. Therefore, not all assessments
use net benefit criteria. The benefit-cost analysis, when used, is equally
applied to all options to make the comparative assessment easy. For
instance, it is more desirable to put up with limited pollution at a lower
cost of mitigation than to remove the pollution completely at a much
higher cost.

15
 Step 7: Preparation of the final document

Preparation of the final document should meet the following two objectives:

The detailed document is usually called as the reference document.

This document is used by the technical personnel that is associated
with the project. It is also referred for preparing future EIAs in the same
geographical area, or for the same type of project in a different area.
The referred part usually contains the technical calculations, graphs,
and the results of field and laboratory measurements.

The summarized non-technical account is usually called as the working

document, which is written clearly without using technical language to
communicate to the decision-maker the findings of the EIA team. Main
objective of this document is that the non-technical decision-makers
must properly understand the findings and recommendations of the EIA
team so that they can take a well-informed and correct decision
promptly

16
 Step 8: Decision Making

Decision-making is the process which starts after the above-

mentioned steps of EIA are completed. Usually the decision is
taken by a manager or a committee, or personnel from the
concerned ministry who had not been associated with the EIA
during its preparation. Technical and economic aspects of
project alternatives are thoroughly considered. In general, a
decision-maker has three choices: i) accepting one of the
project alternatives, ii) returning the EIA with a request for
further study in certain specific areas, iii) totally rejecting the
proposed project along with alternative versions.

17
 Step 9: Monitoring

Monitoring of project implementation and its environmental

impacts is usually carried out while the selected project is under
actual implementation. The monitoring is basically the process
of inspection to make sure that the proper guidelines and
recommendations stated in the EIA are faithfully followed. Such
inspections may also be carried out after the completion of the
project to determine as to what accuracy the environmental
impacts have been predicted by the EIA. This could be a very
valuable exercise for the environmental impact assessors.

18
Impacts studied under
EIA Development

19
 Air Quality Impacts
Discuss the types, sources and rates of emissions expected for
construction and operation of the project. This may include:

Emissions, road and construction dust, as well as: Visible and smelly
substances from the project
Greenhouse gases (GHG) expected from the project (include all
stages).
Determine the nature and quantity of Criteria Air Contaminants
(which cause health hazards, smog or acid rain) to be released.
How much acidifying substances will be emitted?
What technologies will be used to control air emissions?
How will leaks be detected, measured and repaired? These leaks
can lead to significant odors if left unchecked.

20
 Air Quality Impact
Looking for
 Oxides of nitrogen (NOx)

 Oxides of sulphur (SOx)

 Ozone O3

 Particulates PM10 and

PM2.5
 Odour

21
 Water Quality Impact

Contamination of rivers & streams

Hazard assessment from spills etc

During the course of the construction works, monitoring shall be

undertaken of the following parameters, their frequencies, and
duration

DO/pH/Temperature/Turbidity/SS/ pollution causing chemical

compounds

22
 Heritage and
construction Impact

Improperly designed development

projects can damage cultural
heritage and diminish its value.

Traffic movements

Dust

Spoil heaps

Noise

23
 Geology and Soils
Impact
Assessment of geological value

Soil characterisation

Site protection

24
HEALTH, SAFETY & ENVIRONMENT

Lecture # 15
SOME OF US HAVE RISKIER JOBS THAN
OTHER.
NOT EVERYONE HAS THE SAME IDEA ABOUT
WHAT IS SAFE.
SOME PRACTICES ARE NO LONGER
DEFENDABLE.
EXTERNAL PRESSURE ARISE FROM INDUSTRIAL
ACCIDENTS AFFECTING PUBLIC HEALTH.
BIG ACCIDENTS CAN AFFECT THE ENVIRONMENT
AND CAN HAVE AN IMPACT ON PUBLIC
PERCEPTION.
HSE ISSUES ARISE DUE TO…
• Growing external and internal pressure regarding:
• Health.
• Safety.
• Environment.
• Social Responsibility.
• “Big Bangs”
Bhopal gas tragedy [3800 people died]
Chernobyl Disaster [4000 deaths]
Kyshtym disaster [8015 people died]
NUCLEAR DISASTERS

8
9
THE BHOPAL GAS TRAGEDY

10
THE BHOPAL GAS TRAGEDY

11
MINAMATA DISEASE

12
MINOR INJURIES
HSE ISSUES AND CHALLENGES

• Companies that consider environmental protection, occupational health and safety at

work as important as providing quality products usually have managers and
departments responsible for these issues. They are called Health, Safety &
Environment (HSE) departments, also SHE or EHS departments. HSE management
has two general objectives:
o Prevention of incidents or accidents that might result from abnormal operating
conditions
o Reduction of adverse effects that result from normal operating conditions
• Improving trust and communication with stakeholders, applying technology to
improve health, safety, and environmental (HSE) performance, and dealing with
global climate change are the most important sustainable development issues the
industry faces.
HSE ISSUES
• Health Concerns
• Back Safety
• Fire Safety
• Field Safety
• Hand Safety
• Emergency Planning and Evacuation
• Personal Protective Equipment
HEALTH CONCERNS

• To reduce industrial accidents.

• To prevent occupational hazards/ diseases.

• To achieve maximum human efficiency and machine efficiency.

• To reduce sick absenteeism.

BACK SAFETY
CAUSES

• Heavy Lifting
• Repetitive Lifting over a long period of time
• Twisting at the waist while lifting or holding load
• Reaching and lifting over your head
• Working in uncomfortable positions
• Being in a same posture for a long time
• Slipping
PREVENTION

• Use cranes, hoists, lift tables, and other lift-assist devices whenever you can.

• Test the weight of an object before lifting by picking up a corner.

• Get help if it’s too heavy for you to lift it alone.

• Use proper lift procedures.

FIELD SAFETY
• Proper handling of material
• Work area well illuminated
• Adequate ventilation
• PPE
• Sensors for leaks & hazardous material detection (e.g. H2S)
• First Aid Kits, medical support
• Proper Alarm System
SAFETY SYMBOLS
FIRE SAFETY
There are 4 classes of fire!
Class A
Ordinary combustibles or fibrous material, such as wood,
paper, cloth, rubber, and some plastics.
Class B
Flammable or combustible liquids such as gasoline,
kerosene, paint, paint thinners and propane.
Class C
Energized electrical equipment, such as appliances,
switches, panel boxes and power tools.
Class D
Certain combustible metals, such as magnesium,
titanium, potassium, and sodium.
WHEN YOU HEAR THE FIRE ALARM!

 Leave at once, taking direction from

the emergency warden.

 Do not delay yourself by gathering

personal items. Your safety always comes first.

 Before you open any door, feel the door with the back of your hand. If the door is cold,
slowly open it.

 If there is no smoke in hallways, follow your building’s evacuation plan. Get out quickly
using designated fire exits.
If you are trapped in smoke or heat!
 Before you open any door, feel the door with the back of your hand. If the door is warm to the
touch, DO NOT attempt to open the door.

 Stuff the cracks around doors with towels, rags, clothing or tape, and cover vents to keep out
smoke.

 Stay low to the floor, and if possible, cover your mouth and nose with a damp cloth or dust
mask to help you breathe.

 If there is a phone in the room where

you are trapped, call the fire department
to tell them exactly where you are located.
Do this even if you see fire apparatus
on the street below.
HAND SAFETY
• Typical Hand Injuries:

• Cuts
• Puncture Wounds
• Burns
• Broken and/or Severed Fingers
HAND SAFETY
To avoid hand injuries:

• Know the hazards and dangers in the job to be done

• Be aware of pinch points
• Be aware of hot areas
• Be aware of rotating or moving surfaces
• Automated machinery may be controlled by remote control, or delayed timing
devices that cause the machine to start automatically
• Loose clothing and jewelry may be caught up in moving machinery
• Never remove machine safeguards or operate machinery with safeguards
removed
HAND HAZARDS

Bee stings Blood-borne

Chemicals Punctures
pathogen Insect bites

Rotating Extreme Pinch points

equipment temperatures
Cuts
Vibrating
equipment
PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT
HEAD PROTECTION
• Hard hats must be worn in areas, where there is a
potential for falling objects or there are low-hanging
obstructions.

• Helmets designed to reduce electrical shock hazards

must be worn when your head is exposed to
electricity.

• Some tasks require both head & face protection.

EYE AND FACE PROTECTION

• Eye and face protection must be used when exposed to hazards from:
• Flying particles
• Liquid chemicals
• Acids or caustic liquids
• Chemical vapors or gases
• Welding
• Potentially injurious light radiation (from welding or lasers)
EYE AND FACE PROTECTION

• Safety Glasses

• Full Face Shield

• Safety Goggles

• Welding Helmets
HEARING PROTECTION

• If you are exposed to noise levels over 85 decibels, you must wear hearing
protection.

• 85 decibels is approximately the noise made by a large truck.

HEARING PROTECTION

• Ear Muffs

• Ear Bands

• Ear Plugs
FOOT PROTECTION
• Metal guard shoe must be worn
when you are around objects that
may fall or roll.

• Shoes with puncture resistant soles

must be worn when there is a danger
of objects piercing the sole of your
work shoe.
FOOT PROTECTION
Shoes or boots with electrical protection must be
worn when there is a danger of electrical hazards to
your feet.

Rubber boots or shoes must be worn when

you work in or around water or where there is a
slip hazard.
GLOVES

• Gloves are the most important and common part of hand protection. There are
many different types of gloves that protect you from different hazards.

• If you are working with chemicals, always check what type of glove you should
wear.
CHOOSE THE CORRECT GLOVE FOR THE
JOB

Snow
PVC glove Kevlar

Coated

Chore Full Welders

Blue glove leather
latex palm
dipped

Heavy Leather Jersey

leather driver
palm

Gardening Nitrite
with PVC disposable
coating
APRONS AND COVERALLS

• Fire-proof coveralls for the workers

• To be used in the lab.

• Used during mixing and loading

• Aprons can get caught in machine

EMERGENCY PLANNING AND EVACUATION
• Well-drafted plan known to all

• Proper way of exit

• First aid kit at different sites

• Sensors & Automatic Corrective Action taking equipment

• Alarms
HSE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
CONCLUSION

• Should be preferred to other benefits

• Major cause: Human error (Around 90% of the time)
• Best solution: Education & Awareness about everyone's roles in HSE
• Need to remind everyone that HSE is an integral part of everyone’s job
• Team-work required as everyone is affected by the actions of the other individuals