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Metric Spaces
Joseph Muscat 2003
(Last revised May 2009)
(A revised and expanded version of these notes are now published by
Springer.)
1 Distance
A metric space can be thought of as a very basic space having a geometry,
with only a few axioms. Metric spaces are generalizations of the real line, in
which some of the theorems that hold for R remain valid. Some of the main
results in real analysis are
(i) Cauchy sequences converge,
(ii) for continuous functions f (limn→∞ xn ) = limn→∞ f (xn ),
(iii) continuous real functions are bounded on intervals of type [a, b] and
satisfy the intermediate value theorem, etc.
At first sight, it is difficult to generalize these theorems, say to sequences
and continuous functions of several variables such as f (x, y). That is the aim
of this abstract course: to show how these theorems apply in a much more
general setting than R. The fundamental ingredient that is needed is that of
a distance or metric. This is not enough, however, to get the best results and
we need to specify later that the distance be of a nice type, called a complete
metric.
In what follows the metric space X will denote an abstract set, not neces-
sarily R or Rn , although these are of the most immediate interest. When we
refer to “points” we do not necessarily refer to geometrical points, although
this is how most of us visualize them. They may in fact be sequences, func-
tions, images, sounds, signals, etc.
1.0.1 Example
On N, Q, R, C, and RN , one can take the standard Euclidean distance
d(x, y) := |x − y|. Check that the three axioms for a distance are satisfied
n
qP|a + b| 6 |a| + |b|). Note that for R , the Euclidean
(make use of the fact that
i=n 2
distance is d(x, y) := i=1 |xi − yi | .
One can define distances on other more general spaces, e.g. the space of
continuous functions f (x) with x ∈ [0, 1] has a distance defined by d(f, g) :=
maxx∈[0,1] |f (x) − g(x)|. The space of shapes (roughly speaking, subsets of
R2 having an area) have a metric d(A, B) := area of (A ∪ B rA ∩ B). In all
these cases we get an idea of which elements are close together by looking at
their distance.
1.0.2 Exercises
1. Show that if x1 , . . . , xn are n points, then
2. Verify that the metric defined on R2 does indeed satisfy the metric
axioms.
7. Show that in fact the axioms (i) and (iii) imply both d(x, y) > 0 and
axiom (ii).
8. Show that
d(x, y) > |d(x, z) − d(y, z)|.
1.1 Balls
∃ > 0 B (x) ⊆ A.
Definition A set A is open in X when all its points are interior points.
1.1.1 Example
Show that (a, b) is open in R, but that [a, b] and { a } are not.
Theorem A
Proof Let x ∈ Br (a) be any point in the given ball. This means that
d(x, a) < r. Let := r − d(x, a) which is positive. Then B (x) ⊆ Br (a) since
for any y ∈ B (x),
Therefore y ∈ Br (a).
Theorem B
∀x ∈ A ∃ > 0 x ∈ B (x) ⊆ A
One can study open sets without reference to balls or metrics in the
subject of topology. The basic properties of open sets are:
Theorem C
S S
Proof Consider i Ai where Ai are all open. Given any x ∈ i Ai , it
must lie in at least one of these sets Ai which is open. Therefore
[
x ∈ Br (x) ⊆ Ai ⊆ Ai
i
1.1.2 Example
In R the intersection of two open intervals is either empty or else another
open interval, both of which are open. Any collection of open intervals is
open.
Note that an infinite intersection of open sets need not be open. For
example, in R, consider the open intervals (−1/2n , 1/2n ) which are nested
one inside another. Their intersection is just the set { 0 } (prove this!) which
is not open in R.
Theorem D
1.1.3 Exercises
1. If r1 < r2 , show that Br1 (x) ⊂ Br2 (x).
2. Show that in R, the sets (a, ∞) and (−∞, a) are open sets.
4. Show that the interval (a, b) on the x-axis, is open in R but not open
in R2 .
1.1 Balls J Muscat 7
8. Show that if { x } are open sets in X for all points x ∈ X, then all
subsets of X are also open in X. In particular, all subsets of N are
open in N.
Show that d is a metric (it is called the discrete metric), for which the
open balls are just the sets { x } and X. Deduce that all the subsets of
X with this metric are open in X.
10. * Show that the set of interior points of A is the largest open set inside
A, i.e., if A◦ denotes the set of interior points of A, and V ⊆ A is an
open set, then V ⊆ U ◦ .
2 Closed Sets and Convergence J Muscat 8
2.1.1 Example
On R the set [a, b] is closed, since Rr[a, b] = (−∞, a) ∪ (b, ∞) is the union
of two open sets, hence itself open. Similarly [a, ∞) and (−∞, a] are closed
in R.
N is closed in R, but Q is not.
On any metric space X, the sets X and ∅ are closed since X r∅ = X
and X rX = ∅ are open in X.
Proposition 2.1
Proof. Exercise.
Theorem A
Proof
X r(F ∪ G) = (X rF ) ∩ (X rG)
which is the intersection of two open sets, hence open.
\ [
X r Fi = (X rFi )
i i
2.1.2 Exercises
1. Let U be an open set. Show that X rU is closed in X.
5. Find a set in R which is (i) neither open nor closed; (ii) both open and
closed.
6. Find an example in which the infinite union of closed sets (i) is not
closed; (ii) is closed.
8. * Let the Cantor set be defined as follows. Start with the closed interval
[0, 1]; remove the middle interval (1/3, 2/3) to end up with two closed
intervals [0, 1/3]∪[2/3, 1]. For each of these intervals remove the middle
interval of each to end up with four closed intervals [0, 1/9]∪[2/9, 1/3]∪
[2/3, 7/9] ∪ [8/9, 1]. Show that if we continue this process indefinitely
we end up with a closed set.
In other words, a limit point is one that cannot be ‘separated’ from its
set — it can be an interior point or part of the boundary. Every point of A
is either a limit point or an isolated point.
Theorem B
x∈
/ F ⇒ x ∈ X rF ⇒ x ∈ B (x) ⊆ X rF
∃ > 0 ∀y 6= x y ∈
/ F ∩ B (x)
i.e., F ∩ B (x) ⊆ { x } ⊆ X rF
∴ x ∈ B (x) ⊆ X rF
which means that x can be surrounded by a ball inside X rF . Therefore
X rF is open, which by definition means that F is closed.
Definition Any set A can be closed by adding its limit points to form
the closure of A
A = A ∪ {limit points of A}
Note: the set of limit points of a set is sometimes called its derived set.
2.1.3 Exercises
1. Find the limit points and closure of Z and Q in R.
3. Can a set not have limit points? Can an infinite set not have limit
points?
2.2 Convergence
Definition A sequence (xn ) in the metric space X converges to x, written
xn → x as n → ∞, or lim xn = x,
n→∞
when
∀ > 0 ∃N n > N ⇒ xn ∈ B (x).
Proposition 2.2
and
∃N2 n > N2 ⇒ xn ∈ Br (y).
Therefore for n > N1 , N2 we have that xn ∈ Br (x) ∩ Br (y) = ∅ which is a
contradiction.
Theorem C
If xn ∈ F converges to x, then x ∈ F̄ .
If (xn ) is a convergent sequence in a closed set F ,
then lim xn ∈ F .
n→∞
2.2.1 Exercises
1. Show that if x is a limit point of the set A then there is a sequence
(an ) in A which converges to x. (Hint: take balls around x, with radii
decreasing to 0)
2. Show that if xn → x then d(xn , xm ) → 0 as n, m → ∞.
xn x
3. Show that a sequence in X × Y converges to if, and only
yn y
if, xn → x and yn → y. (Recall the distance defined on X × Y .)
4. Show that if d1 (x, y) 6 λd2 (x, y) (λ > 0) and the sequence (xn ) con-
verges with respect to d2 , then it converges with respect to d1 .
5. Try to generalize the definition of limx→x0 f (x) from the case of real
functions to the case of functions f : X → Y on metric spaces.
2.3 Completeness J Muscat 13
2.3 Completeness
When does a sequence converge/diverge? Let us take some examples of
divergent sequences:
(n) diverges in R because the set { n } seems to be too large;
(1/n) diverges in the set (0, 1) because the point it’s trying to converge
to, 0, is not in the set;
((−1)n ) diverges because it keeps alternating between two points;
(xn ) where xn+1 = x2n + x1n in Q diverges because were it to converge then
the limit would satisfy x = x/2 + 1/x which implies that x2 = 2 which we
know cannot be satisfied by any rational number.
We seem to be able to make an intuitive distinction between sequences
that do not converge at all (truly divergent), and those that seem to converge
‘outside’ the set — if we restrict ourselves to X however, it fails to converge
because the metric space does not contain the ‘limit’.
The same phenomenon can occur for other more general spaces e.g. a
sequence of continuous functions can ‘converge’ to a discontinuous function.
It is possible to distinguish between the two ideas rigorously as follows:
Definition A Cauchy sequence is one such that
Proposition 2.3
2.3 Completeness J Muscat 14
Corollary
Theorem D
The middle sum is increasing but bounded above, and so must converge. By
comparison, the first sum must converge to, say, y; set x := y0 − y. Then
yK → y0 − y = x as K → ∞. That is, we have shown that the subsequence
yK converges to x; it is left as an exercise to show that the full sequence xn
converges to x.
Theorem E
xn
Proof Let be a Cauchy sequence in X × Y . This means that
yn
x x
d( n , m ) = dX (xn , xm ) + dY (yn , ym ) → 0 as n, m → ∞. In particular
yn ym
d(xn , xm ) → 0, so that the sequence (xn ) is a Cauchy sequence in X, which
is
complete.
We therefore get xn → x ∈ X, and similarly, yn → y ∈ Y . Now
xn x
d( , ) = dX (xn , x) + dY (yn , y) → 0 as n → ∞, so that the Cauchy
yn y
xn
sequence converges in X × Y .
yn
Corollary
2.3.1 Exercises
1. Show that the interval (a, b] is incomplete, but [a, b] is complete.
3. A set A is called bounded when all the distances between points in A are
bounded i.e., d(x, y) 6 R for x, y ∈ A. Show that Cauchy sequences are
bounded. Hence we get the following set inclusions: {set of convergent
sequences}⊆{set of Cauchy sequences}⊆{set of bounded sequences}.
3 Continuity
Definition A function f : X → Y is continuous when
or even as
Proposition 3.1
A function f : X → Y is continuous ⇔
f (x) ∈ B (f (x)) ⊆ V,
and so
∃δ > 0 f Bδ (x) ⊆ B (f (x)) ⊆ V.
In other words,
∃δ > 0 Bδ (x) ⊆ f −1 V = U.
Conversely, assume the second statement holds for all open sets V . In
particular apply it to the open set B (f (x)). Then f −1 B (f (x)) is open in
X, that is,
∃δ > 0 x ∈ Bδ (x) ⊆ f −1 B (f (x))
3 Continuity J Muscat 18
which implies
∃δ > 0 f Bδ (x) ⊆ B (f (x)),
as required.
Proposition 3.2
Theorem A
f is continuous ⇔
But xn → x means
3.0.2 Exercises
1. Show that the constant functions f (x) := y0 ∈ Y are continuous.
3. Let (
1 x∈A
χA (x) =
0 x∈
/A
When is χA continuous?
4. Show that if F is a closed set in Y and f : X → Y is a continuous
function, then f −1 F is closed in X.
5. Show that if f, g : X → R are continuous functions, then so are the
functions f + g and λf .
6. Show that { x ∈ X : f (x) > 0 } is open in X when f : X → R is a
continuous function.
7. Reprove the proposition that g ◦ f is continuous using distances rather
than open sets.
8. Show that if xn → x and yn → y then d(xn , y) → d(x, y) and d(xn , yn ) →
d(x, y).
9. Show that continuous functions need not map Cauchy sequences to
Cauchy sequences.
10. Find an example where f is continuous and bijective but f −1 is not.
11. Show that “X is homeomorphic to Y ” is an equivalence relation on
metric spaces, so that we can partition metric spaces into equivalence
classes.
12. Show that (0, 1) is homeomorphic to (a, b).
13. Let f : Q → Q be a continuous function. Show that there is only one
way of extending it to the reals as a continuous function f˜ : R → R.
Show further that the only function f : Q → Q satisfying f (x + y) =
f (x) + f (y) is f (x) = λx. Deduce that there is only one continuous
function f˜ : R → R with this property.
14. * Let f : A → Y and g : B → Y be continuous functions with A, B ⊆
X. Suppose that the two functions agree on A ∩ B, i.e., x ∈ A ∩ B ⇒
f (x) = g(x). Show that the function
(
f (x) x ∈ A
h(x) =
g(x) x ∈ B
is well-defined and continuous on A ∪ B.
3.1 Applications J Muscat 21
3.1 Applications
Definition A function is called a contraction when there is a constant
0 6 k < 1 such that
Theorem B
k n
Moreover, the rate of convergence is given by d(xn , x) 6 1−k d(x, x0 ).
Suppose there are two fixed points x = f (x) and y = f (y); then
4 Connectedness
Definition A set A is disconnected when it can be divided into (at least)
two disjoint non-empty subsets A = B ∪ C and each subset can be covered
exclusively by an open set (U , V respectively) i.e.,
B ⊆ U, C ∩ U = ∅,
C ⊆ V, B ∩ V = ∅.
A set is called connected otherwise.
4.0.1 Example
Two distinct points are disconnected by Theorem 1D.
Single points are always connected because they cannot be separated into
two non-empty sets. Similarly the empty set is connected.
Any subset of the natural numbers is disconnected except the single points
{n} and the empty set. √
√ The set of rational numbers Q is disconnected e.g. Q ⊆ (−∞, 2) ∪
( 2, ∞).
Theorem A
Theorem B
Proof We have proved that [a, b] is a connected set and hence f [a, b]
is also connected in R. But connected subsets of R are just the intervals.
Now f (a), f (b) ∈ f [a, b] and so c ∈ f [a, b] i.e., c = f (x) for some x ∈ [a, b].
4.0.2 Exercises
1. Show that the only connected subsets of Q are the single points or the
empty set.
2. Let y be a positive real number. Use the intermediate value theorem
√
to show that n y exists.
3. Generalize the last proposition to T
the case when there are an infinite
number of connected sets Ai with i Ai 6= ∅.
4. Show that R2 is connected by considering the radial lines and applying
the previous exercise. More generally show that any vector space over
the real numbers is connected.
5. Similarly show that (a, ∞)×R is connected. Show further that R2 r{ x }
is connected but that Rr{ x } is not. Deduce that R and R2 are not
homeomorphic.
6. Use the same idea to show that [a, b] is not homeomorphic to [a, b).
4 Connectedness J Muscat 26
10. Suppose that there is an x0 ∈ X and an r > 0 such that d(x0 , y) 6= r ∀y.
Moreover there is another point x1 such that d(x0 , x1 ) > r. Show that
X must be disconnected.
5 Compactness
Definition A set B is bounded when
∃R > 0 ∀x, y ∈ B d(x, y) < R.
That is, a set is bounded when the distances between any two points
in the set have an upperbound. The least such upperbound is called the
diameter of the set:
diamB = sup{d(x, y) : x, y ∈ B}.
5.0.3 Example.
The set [a, b) is bounded in R because d(x, y) 6 b − a for any two elements
x, y ∈ [a, b); in fact diam[a, b) = b − a. The set R is unbounded because
d(0, x) = |x| can be made as large as needed.
Note: Boundedness is a property of how large a set is. However it is not
a good “metric” property: if B is bounded and f is a continuous function,
then f B need not be bounded (see Ex. 4). Thus a set may be bounded in
one metric space X, but not remain so when X is deformed continuously to
another.
Proposition 5.1
∃R > 0, a ∈ X, B ⊆ BR (a).
That is, a set is totally bounded when it can be covered by a finite number
of -balls, however small their radii .
5 Compactness J Muscat 28
5.0.4 Example.
The set [0, 1] is totally bounded because it can be covered by the balls B (n)
for n = 0, . . . , N where N > 1/.
Proposition 5.2
Since there are only a finite number of these balls, we can find the maximum
distance between their centers.
D := max{d(ai , aj )}.
Now, given any two points x, y ∈ B, they must be covered by two of these
balls B1 (aI ) and B1 (aJ ), say. Therefore, using the triangle inequality twice,
In one of the exercises, you are asked to show that, in R, bounded sets
are totally bounded (i.e., boundedness and totally boundedness coincide for
the real line). So a totally bounded set also need not be preserved by a
continuous function.
Definition A set K is said to be compactif
[ N
[
K⊆ Bi (ai ) ⇒ ∃i = i1 , . . . , iN : K⊆ Bik (aik ).
i k=1
In plain English, a set is compact when given any cover of balls of varying
sizes, we can find a finite subcollection of them that still cover the set. This
is a stronger property than totally-boundedness.
5 Compactness J Muscat 29
5.0.5 Example.
The set [0, 1) is not compact. For example, the cover of balls B1−1/n (0) for
n = 2, . . . has no finite subcover. Similarly the sets R and N are not compact.
On the other hand we will soon see that the sets [a, b] are compact in R.
Theorem A
Proof
S Let K be the compact set and let the open sets Ai cover it i.e.,
K ⊆ i Ai . Now, by theorem 1B, the open sets Ai are composed of balls.
Therefore it follows that K is inside a union of (a large number of) balls, i.e.,
it is covered by these balls. Therefore there is a finite number of these balls
B1 (a1 ), . . . , BN (aN ) which still cover the set K. Each of these balls is inside
one of the open sets Ai . Therefore there is a finite number of these open sets
(those which contain these balls) that still cover the compact set K.
Conversely, suppose K is such that any open cover of it has a finite
subcover. In particular if we can cover it with (open) balls, then we can find
a finite subcollection of them which still cover K.
Theorem B
From [
fK ⊆ Ai
i
we can deduce [ [
K ⊆ f −1 Ai = f −1 Ai .
i i
But f −1 Ai are open sets since f is continuous (Prop. 3.0.1). Therefore the
right-hand side is an open cover of K, which is compact. Therefore, by
Theorem 5A, a finite number of these open sets will do to cover K.
N
[
K⊆ f −1 Ai .
i=1
It follows that
N
[
fK ⊆ Ai .
i=1
That is, a finite number of the original open sets Ai will cover the set f K,
which is therefore compact.
Theorem C
Proof Compact sets are bounded. Let K be a compact set. For any
fixed point a ∈ X, consider the balls Bn (a) for n = 1, 2, . . .. These balls cover
the set K (in fact they cover the whole space X). Therefore a finite number
of these balls will cover K. But these balls are nested in each other, so that
it follows that the largest of these finite number of balls, say BN (a), contains
all the others. Hence BN (a) contains K, which is therefore bounded.
Compact sets are closed in X. Let x ∈ X rK. We would like to surround
it by a ball outside K. From Theorem 1D, x can be separated from y ∈ K
by open balls Bry (x) and Bry (y). Since y ∈ Bry (y), these latter balls cover
K. But K is compact, so that a finite subcollection of these balls still cover
K,
K ⊆ Br1 (y1 ) ∪ . . . ∪ BrN (yN ).
5 Compactness J Muscat 31
Now let U := Br1 (x) ∩ . . . ∩ BrN (x). Since this involves a finite intersection
of open sets, then U is also an open set. Moreover U ∩ K = ∅ since
z ∈ U ⇒ z ∈ Bri (x) for i = 1, . . . , N
⇒ z∈
/ Br1 (y1 ) ∪ . . . ∪ BrN (yN ) ⊇ K.
Therefore,
x ∈ U ⊆ X rK.
Theorem D
The right-hand side is the union of open sets since X rF is open when F is
closed. But K is compact and therefore a finite number of these open sets
will do to cover it i.e.,
[N
K⊆ Ai ∪ (X rF ).
i=1
Hence
N
[
F ⊆ Ai ,
i=1
since X rF is outside F and doesn’t cover it.
5.0.6 Exercises
1. Show that B is bounded if and only if ∃R > 0, a ∈ X, B ⊆ BR (a).
2. Show that any subset of a bounded set is bounded; the union of two
(or finite number of) bounded sets is bounded; repeat the exercise with
totally bounded sets.
5 Compactness J Muscat 32
8. Show that R is not compact by finding an open cover that does not
have a finite subcover.
10. Let X be a space with the discrete metric of Ex. 1.1.3.9. Show that a
subset K is compact ⇔ K consists of a finite number of points.
11. Show that compact sets behave like closed sets i.e., any intersection
and any finite union of compact sets are compact. (Hint: use theorem
1D)
13. * Show that for a metric space with the distance function D2 of Ex.1.0.2.3,
any set is bounded. Show that not all sets are totally bounded and de-
duce that a bounded set need not be totally bounded.
14. * Let K precompact mean that K is compact. Show that any sub-
set of a precompact set is precompact, and that continuous images of
precompact sets are precompact.
5.1 Compactness in R J Muscat 33
5.1 Compactness in R
Theorem E
(Heine-Borel)
The closed interval [a, b] is compact in R.
S
Proof Let [a, b] ⊆ i Ai be an open cover of the set. Suppose there
is no finite subcover, and we seek to obtain a contradiction. Divide the set
[a, b] in two [a, (a + b)/2] and [(a + b)/2, b]. One of the two (and possibly
both) does not admit a finite subcover: call it [a1 , b1 ]. Repeat this process
of dividing to get nested intervals [an , bn ] of length (b − a)/2n which do not
admit finite subcovers.
Now (an ) is an increasing real sequence bounded above by b, while (bn ) is
decreasing bounded below by a. They therefore both converge, say, an → x
and bn → y with x 6 y since an 6 bn . In fact x = y since
an 6 x 6 y 6 bn and bn − an → 0.
This limit x is in the set [a, b] and is therefore covered by some open set
Ai0 . This implies that we can surround x with an -ball
x ∈ B (x) ⊆ Ai0 .
Corollary
Exercise: Generalize this to show that any closed and bounded subset of
R2 , R3 etc. is compact.
Corollary
Theorem F
If each of these balls had a finite subcover from the open cover { Vi }, then so
would K. So at least one of these balls cannot be covered by a finite number
of Vi ’s; let us call this ball B1 (x1 ).
Now consider B1 (x1 ) ∩ K, also totally bounded. We can again cover it
with a finite number of balls of radius 1/2, one of which does not have a
finite subcover, say B1/2 (x2 ). Repeat this process to get a nested sequence
of balls B1/2n (xn ), none of which have a finite subcover. The sequence (xn )
is Cauchy since d(xn , xm ) < 1/2n (for m > n), and K is complete, hence
xn → x in K.
But x is covered by some open set Vi . Hence
x ∈ B (x) ⊆ Vi .
Moreover since 1/2n → 0 and xn → x, we can find an N such that 1/2N < /2
and d(xN , x) < /2, so that
which contradicts the way that the balls B1/2n (xn ) were chosen.
Note that complete subsets are always closed, and totally bounded sets
are always bounded. Hence the statement K compact ⇒ K closed and
bounded is really just a special case of this theorem. In general, however,
closed and bounded sets are not complete and totally bounded, although we
have seen that this is true in RN .
Theorem G
for a2 , either B (a1 ) ∪ B (a2 ) cover K or else they omit some point, say a3 .
Continuing like this we get a sequence of points an each covered by B (an )
satisfying d(an , am ) > .
Suppose this process does not stop and we end up with an infinite set
{ an }. This has a limit point x since K is BW-compact, which implies that
some of these an are close to x within /2. But by the choice of the an ,
d(an , am ) > . This leads to a contradiction unless the process actually stops
in a finite number of steps and the B (an ) cover the whole of K.
5.2.1 Exercises
1. Show that a finite set of points is BW-compact.
A Answers
Ex. 1.0.1
(7)
Ex. 1.1.3
(4) There are points in R2 , such as (x, ) (a < x < b), which are arbitrarily
close to points in theTinterval (x, 0).
(5) For example, n (−1/n, 1/n) = { 0 }.
Ex. 2.1.2
(5) For example, (i) S [0, 1[ and (ii) R.
(6) For example, (i) ∞
S∞
n=1 [0, 1 − 1/n] = [0, 1), (ii) n=0 { n } = N.
(7) (i) open, (ii) closed, (iii) neither, (iv) both, (v) neither, (vi) closed.
Ex. 2.1.3
(1) Z = Z, Q = R.
(3) Yes to both, e.g. N in R.
Ex. 3.0.2
(2) For example, f (x) := x2 with U = (−1, 1), then f U = [0, 1).
(3) For R (or RN ), never. But on “disconnected” spaces, such as Z, χA
may be continuous (e.g. A = { n }). (
x x60
(10) For example, take X := Rr(0, 1] and f (x) := ; then
x−1 x>1
f : X → R is bijective and continuous but f −1 is discontinuous at 0.
Ex. 4.0.2
(8) For example, B4 (2).
Ex. 5.0.6
(4) For example, f (x) := 1/x maps (0, 1) → (1, ∞).
Ex. 5.2.1
(4) For example, any spiral curve, such as γ(x) := e−1/x (cos(1/x), sin(1/x)),
approaches but never reaches the origin, so has no minimum distance.
B Summary J Muscat 39
B Summary
B.1 Definitions
1. A distance (or metric) on a metric space X is a function
d : X 2 7→ R+
(x, y) 7→ d(x, y)
with the properties
i d(x, y) = 0 ⇔ x = y
ii d(y, x) = d(x, y)
iii d(x, y) 6 d(x, z) + d(y, z)
∀x ∈ A ∃ > 0 B (x) ⊆ A.
∀ > 0 ∃a 6= b a ∈ A ∩ B (b)
11. Two metric spaces X and Y are homeomorphic when there is a map
φ : X → Y which is bijective (1-1 and onto), continuous, and its inverse
is continuous.
13. A bounded set B is one for which ∃R > 0 ∀x, y ∈ B d(x, y) < R.
It can be covered by a single ball.
[ N
[
K⊆ Ai ⇒ ∃i = i1 , . . . , iN : K⊆ Aik .
i k=1
16. A BW-compact set K is one for which every infinite subset of K has
a limit point in K.
B.2 Main Theorems J Muscat 41
12. (Heine-Borel theorem) The compact sets of Rn are the closed and
bounded sets. (In particular [a, b] is compact.)
C Miscellaneous Exercises
Each question should take less than 3/4 hours to answer.