AC-DC NETWORK THEOREM

Mesh Analysis:
Steps are
1. Identify the total meshes
2. Assume some mesh current in each mesh (clockwise or anticlockwise)
3. Apply KVL in each mesh.
4. Solve the above equations.

Node Analysis:
Steps are
1. Identify the total Principal Nodes
2. Assume one node as reference node (Voltage of this node = 0 Volts)
3. Assume some node voltages for other remaining nodes w.r.to
reference node. (V1, V2, V3 etc).
4. Assume some branch currents in different branches.
5. Apply KCL at different nodes and make the equations in terms of node
voltages and circuit elements.
6. Solve the above equations.

Superposition theorem:
“In a linear circuit, containing more then one independent
energy sources, the overall response (Voltage or current) in any branch of the circuit is
equal to sum of the response due to each independent source acting one at a time while
making other source in-operative.”

I I’ I”
R1 R1 + R1
I1 ⇒
R2 R2 R2
I1
V1 V1

(a) (b) (c)

Fig.1

So according to superposition theorem I=I’+I”

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Thevenin’s theorem:
“Any linear two terminal circuits can be replaced by an
equivalent network consisting of a voltage source (VTh) in series with impedance ZTh (or
RTh for DC network).”

A A
Any Linear
IL ⇒ IL
Two ZTh
terminals ZL ZL
Network VTh

(a) B B
(b) Thevenin’s Equivalent
Fig.2 Circuit
Where
VTh = Open circuit voltage at load terminals
ZTh (or RTh) = Equivalent Impedance (Resistance) of the network at load
terminals when the sources are made in-operative.
VTh
And IL =
ZTh + Z L
Steps to find out Thevenin’s equivalent circuit
Steps are
1. Remove the load.
2. Find out the open circuit voltage at load terminals.
3. Find out ZTh (or RTh).

Case I: Circuit with independent sources only
o Make the source in-operative
o Find out the equivalent impedance (or resistance) between the load
terminals

Case II: Circuit with independent + dependent sources
o Short circuit the load terminals and find out short circuit current Isc.
V
o ZTh (or RTh ) = Th
I sc

Case III: Circuit with dependent sources only
o In this case VTh =0 & Isc =0.
o Apply 1 A current source at load terminals and find out voltage (V) across
V V
load terminals then ZTh (or RTh ) = = = V .
I 1
OR
o Apply 1 V voltage source at load terminals and find out current (I)
V 1
provided by this source then ZTh (or RTh ) = = .
I I

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Norton’s theorem:
“Any linear two terminal circuits can be replaced by an
equivalent network consisting of a current source (IN) in series with impedance ZN (or RN
for DC network).”

A A
Any Linear
IL ⇒ IL
Two
terminals ZL IN ZN ZL
Network
B Fig.3 B
(b) Norton’s Equivalent
(a)
Where Circuit
IN = Short circuit current at load terminals
ZN (or RN) = Equivalent Impedance (or Resistance) of the network at load
terminals when the sources are made in-operative = ZTh (or RTh)
Z Th
And IL = IN
Z Th + Z L
Steps to find out Thevenin’s equivalent circuit
Steps are
4. Remove the load and short circuit the load terminals.
5. Find out the short circuit current Isc (= IN) at load terminals.

6. Find out ZN (or RN).

Case I: Circuit with independent sources only
o Make the source in-operative
o Find out the equivalent impedance (or resistance) between the load
terminals

Case II: Circuit with independent + dependent sources
o Open circuit the load terminals and find out open circuit voltage Voc
(=VTh).
V
o Z N (or R N ) = Th
I sc

Case III: Circuit with dependent sources only
o In this case VTh =0 & Isc =0.
o Apply 1 A current source at load terminals and find out voltage (V) across
V V
load terminals then Z N (or R N ) = = = V .
I 1
OR
o Apply 1 V voltage source at load terminals and find out current (I)
V 1
provided by this source then Z N (or R N ) = = .
I I

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Maximum Power Transfer Theorem:
For DC Netwrok:
“Maximum power is transferred by a circuit to a load resistance (RL) when RL is
equal to Thevenin’s equivalent resistance (RTh) of the network.”

So for maximum power

RL = RTh A
And maximum power will be RTh IL
V2 RL
Pmax = Th VTh
4 RL
B
Proof: Fig.4a Thevenin’s Equivalent
Load current will be Circuit
VTh
IL = − − − − − (1)
RTh + R L
Power
P = I L2 RL
2
 VTh 
=   RL
 RTh + RL 
RL
= VTh2 − − − − − ( 2)
( RTh + RL ) 2
Differentiating equation equa (2) w. r. t. RL and put dP/dRL = 0

dP  ( R + RL ) 2 × 1 − RL × ( RTh + RL ) 
= VTh2  Th  − − − − − (3)
dRL  ( RTh + RL ) 4 
RL-RTh = 0
Or RL = RTh Put this in equation (2)
2
V
Pmax = Th
4 RL
For AC Network:
“Maximum power is transferred by a circuit to load impedance (ZL) when ZL is
equal to complex conjugate of Thevenin’s equivalent impedance (ZTh) of the network.”
So for maximum power
A
Z L = Z Th IL
And maximum power will be ZTh
ZL
VTh2 VTh
Pmax =
4 RL
B
Fig.4b Thevenin’s Equivalent
Circuit

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Proof:
Z Th = RTh + jX Th
Z L = RL + jX L
Load current will be
VTh VTh
IL = = − − − − − ( 4)
Z Th + Z L ( RTh + RL ) + j ( X Th + X L )

Power
2
P = I L RL
2
 VTh 
=  R
 (R + R ) 2 + j( X + X ) 2  L
 Th L Th L 
R
= VTh2 L
− − − − − (5)
( RTh + RL ) + j ( X Th + X L ) 2
2

Differentiating equation equa (5) w. r. t. XL and put dP/dXL = 0

dP  0 − RL × 2( X Th + X L ) 
= VTh2  2
− − − − − ( 6)
dRL [
 ( RTh + RL ) 2 + j ( X Th + X L ) 2 ] 
XL+XTh = 0
Or XL = -XTh Put this in equation (5)
R
P = VTh2 L
− − − − − − ( 6)
( RTh + RL ) 2

Differentiating equation equa (6) w. r. t. RL and put dP/dRL = 0

dP  ( R + RL ) 2 × 1 − RL × ( RTh + RL ) 
= VTh2  Th =0
dRL  ( RTh + RL ) 4 

RL-RTh = 0
VTh2
Or RL = RTh Put this in equation (6) Pmax =
4 RL
So for maximum power transfer to a load ZL
V2
Z L = Z Th and Pmax = Th
4 RL

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Tellegen’s Theorem:
“In any liner/non linear, active/passive, time variant/invariant network, the
summation of power of each branch (instantaneous power in case of AC network) is
equal to zero”
So for a circuit having “n” no of branches
n

∑v
K =1
i =0
K K

Proof:
Consider Kth branch of a network ipq= iK
vK iK = v pqi pq vp vq
vpq= vK
Or vK iK = (v p − vq )i pq − − − − − −(1)
And vK iK = (vq − v p )iqp − − − − − −(2) (∴ i pq = −iqp ) Fig.5
Adding equations (1) & (2)
2vK iK = (v p − vq )i pq + (vq − v p )iqp

vK iK =
1
2
[
(v p − vq )i pq + (vq − v p )iqp ]
(v − v )
= p q (i pq − iqp )
2
For “n” braches
1 n n 
vK iK = ∑ ∑ (v p − vq )i pq 
n

∑ 2  p =1 q =1
K =1 
n n n n
1 1
= ∑ v p ∑ i pq − ∑ vq ∑ i pq
2 p =1 q =1 2 q =1 p =1
According to KCL at any node
n n

∑ i pq = 0 &
p =1
∑i
q =1
pq =0

Hence
n

∑v
K =1
i =0
K K

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 Millman’s Theorem:

Statement 1: For Voltage sources in parallel

“If V1, V2, V3……… Vn voltage sources with internal impedances Z1, Z2,
Z3 ….Zn are connected in parallel; they can be replaced by an equivalent circuit
consisting of a voltage source Veq in series with impedance Zeq.”

IL IL
Z1 Z2 Z3 Zn Zeq
+ + + + ZL + ZL
V1 ~ V 2 ~ V 3 ~ Vn ~ Veq ~
- - - - -
(a) Fig.6 (b)
Where
n
V1 V2 V3 V Vi
+ +
Z Z 2 Z3
+ ........ n
Zn
∑Z
i =1
Veq = 1 = n
i
1 1 1 1 1
+ +
Z1 Z 2 Z 3
+ ........
Zn ∑Z
i =1 i

1 1
Z eq = = n
1 1 1 1 1
+ +
Z1 Z 2 Z 3
+ ........
Zn ∑Z
i =1 i

Proof:
Apply source transformation to fig.6a

IL

I1 I2 I3 In ZL
Y1 Y2 Y3 Yn

(c)
Where
V1 V2 V3 Vn
I1 = I2 = I3 = ……. I n =
Z1 Z2 Z3 Zn
1 1 1 1
Y1 = Y2 = Y3 = ……. Yn =
Z1 Z2 Z3 Zn

Above figure can be replaced by fig.6d, see bellow

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 IL IL
Zeq
Ieq ZL + ZL
Yeq Veq ~
-
(d) (e)
Where
I eq = I1 + I 2 + I 3 + .......I n
V1 V2 V3 V
= + + + ..... n
Z1 Z 2 Z 3 Zn
Yeq = Y1 + Y2 + Y3 + .....Yn
1 1 1 1
+= + + ......
Z1 Z 2 Z 3 Zn
Apply source transformation to fig.6d, it will be converted to fig.6e, see above.
Where
n
V1 V2 V3 V V
+ + + ........ n ∑ i
I Z Z2 Z3 Zn Z
Veq = eq = 1 = i =n1 i
Yeq 1 1 1 1 1
+
Z1 Z 2 Z 3
+ + ........
Zn ∑
i =1 Z i

1 1 1
Z eq = = = n Proved
Yeq 1 1 1 1 1
Zn ∑
+ + + ........
Z1 Z 2 Z 3 i =1 Z i

Statement 1: For current sources in series

“If I1, I2, I3……… In voltage sources with internal impedances Y1, Y2, Y3
….Yn are connected in series; they can be replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of
a current source Ieq in parallel with admittance Yeq.”

I1 I2 I3 In Ieq

Y1 Y2 Y3 Yn Yeq
(a) (b)
Where Fig.7
n
I1 I 2 I 3 I Ii
+ + + ........ n
Y Y2 Y3 Yn
∑
i =1 Yi
I eq = 1 = n
1 1 1 1 1
+ + + ........
Y1 Y2 Y3 Yn ∑
i =1 Yi

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 1 1
Yeq = = n
1 1 1 1 1
+ + + ........
Y1 Y2 Y3 Yn ∑Y
i =1 i
Proof:
Apply source transformation to fig.7a, see fig.7c
V1 Z1 V2 Z2 V3 Z3 Vn Zn
- ~ - ~ - ~ - ~
(c)
Where
I1 I2 I3 In
V1 = V2 = V3 = …… Vn =
Y1 Y2 Y3 Yn
1 1 1 1
Z1 = Z2 = Z3 = …… Z n =
Y1 Y2 Y3 Yn

Above figure can be replaced by fig.7d, see bellow

Veq Ieq
Zeq
- ~
(d)
Where Yeq
Veq = V1 + V2 + V3 + ......Vn (e)

I1 I 2 I 3 I
= + + + ...... n
Y1 Y2 Y3 Yn
Z eq = Z1 + Z 2 + Z 3 + ....Z n
1 1 1 1
= + + + ......
Y1 Y2 Y3 Yn

Apply source transformation to fig.7d, it will be converted to fig.7e, see above.

Where
n
I1 I 2 I 3 I Ii
Veq
+ + + ........ n
Y Y2 Y3 Yn
∑Y
i =1
I eq = = 1 = n
i
Z eq 1 1 1 1 1
+ + + ........
Y1 Y2 Y3 ∑Yn
i =1 Yi

1 1 1
Yeq = = = n Proved
Z eq 1 1 1 1 1
+ + + ........
Y1 Y2 Y3 Yn ∑i =1 Yi

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Reciprocity Theorem:
“The ration of voltage and current remains same with respective to an interchange
between the point of application of source and the measurement of response.”

→ If excitation is a voltage source

V1 ± Network I2 I1 Network ± V1

(a) (b)
Above network is reciprocal if
V1 V2
=
I 2 I1
→ If excitation is a current source

Network Network
I1 V2 V1 I2

(c) Fig.8 (d)

Above network is reciprocal if

V2 V1
=
I1 I 2
Compensation Theorem:
Consider a linear circuit with a voltage source “V” and its internal impedance ZTh
(Thevenin’s Equivalent impedance) delivering a current “I” to an impedance “Z” as
shown in following figure.
ZTh

+
V ~ I Z
-

(a)

If “Z” changes to " Z + ∆Z " , the current I will change to I’ as shown in following figure.

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 ZTh

+
V ~ I’ Z + ∆Z
-

(b)

( )
Now change in current ∆I ∆I = I − I ' can be find out by replacing the voltage source
with its internal impedance (ZTh) and placing a compensating voltage VC (Vc = I × ∆Z ) in
series with impedance Z + ∆Z such that polarity of VC opposes the flow of current.
ZTH
+
~ VC
-
∆I
Z + ∆Z VC
∆I = −
( ZTh + Z + ∆Z )
(c)
Fig.9
Proof:
From fig.9a
V
I= − − − − − −(1)
ZTh + Z
From fig.9b
V
I' = − − − − − − ( 2)
ZTh + Z + ∆Z
∆I = I ' − I
− V × ∆Z
=
( ZTh + Z + ∆Z ) × ( ZTh + Z )

V ∆Z
=− ×
( ZTh + Z ) ( ZTh + Z + ∆Z )

I × ∆Z
=−
( Z Th + Z + ∆Z )
Use equation (1)
Vc
=−
( Z Th + Z + ∆Z )
Where
VC = I × ∆Z
VC
So ∆I = −
( ZTh + Z + ∆Z )

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