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(Systematic Review) Boullosa Et Al., 2018 - European Journal of Sports Science - Post-Activation Potentiation (PAP) in Endurance Sports A Review PDF
(Systematic Review) Boullosa Et Al., 2018 - European Journal of Sports Science - Post-Activation Potentiation (PAP) in Endurance Sports A Review PDF
Daniel Boullosa, Sebastian del Rosso, David G. Behm & Carl Foster
To cite this article: Daniel Boullosa, Sebastian del Rosso, David G. Behm & Carl Foster (2018):
Post-activation potentiation (PAP) in endurance sports: A review, European Journal of Sport
Science, DOI: 10.1080/17461391.2018.1438519
REVIEW
Abstract
While there is strong support of the usefulness of post-activation potentiation (PAP) phenomenon in power demanding
sports, the role that PAP could play in endurance sports has received less attention. The aim of this review is to present
evidence for a better understanding of PAP in endurance athletes; and to discuss the physiological basis and
methodological aspects necessary for better practices and designing further studies. A search for relevant articles on PAP
and endurance trained athletes was carried out using Medline and ISI Web of Knowledge databases. Twenty-two studies
were included in the review. The current evidence suggests the possible influence of PAP for performance enhancement
after appropriate conditioning activities during warm up. Evaluation of PAP responses during testing, training and
competition may be also important for athletes monitoring. There are many unresolved questions about the optimum load
parameters for benefiting from PAP in both training and competition; and the role that PAP may exert for optimal
performance while interacting with central and peripheral factors associated with muscle fatigue. Further studies should
elucidate the association between PAP responses and long-term adaptations in endurance athletes.
Highlights
. Appropriate warm up exercises should be identified in every sport for performance enhacement during subsequent short
endurance events via PAP.
. It seems that endurance athletes exhibit greater PAP responses after submaximal conditioning activities as a consequence of
a better PAP/fatigue balance.
. Monitoring PAP, perceptual and muscle fatigue, during training and testing, could be very useful for a better understaning
of acute and chronic adaptations of endurance athletes.
Introduction
(MVCs) (Hamada, Sale, & Macdougall, 2000). In
Post-activation potentiation (PAP) has been defined addition, some recent studies have reported jump
as the phenomena by which muscular performance potentiation after different endurance running exer-
characteristics are acutely enhanced as a result of cises in endurance athletes (Boullosa & Tuimil,
their contractile history (Tillin & Bishop, 2009). 2009; Boullosa, Tuimil, Alegre, Iglesias, & Lusqui-
The applicability of PAP to sport performance has nos, 2011; Vuorimaa, Virlander, Kurkilahti, Vasan-
traditionally focused on power exercises, because kari, & Hakkinen, 2006). Furthermore, Del Rosso
PAP after maximum efforts could be utilized as an et al. (2016) have recently shown the possible influ-
intervention that lasts several minutes after an acute ence of jump potentiation on pacing in a 30-km
conditioning stimulus, thus increasing muscle trial. Meanwhile, scientists and practitioners in
power output (Seitz & Haff, 2016). However, PAP endurance sports are often unaware of the great
responses have also been observed in endurance potential of PAP for both training and competition
trained athletes, after maximal voluntary contractions probably as a consequence of the dominant paradigm
Correspondence: Daniel A. Boullosa Physical Education, Catholic University of Brasilia, Brasilia, Brazil. E-mail: daniel.boullosa@gmail.com
in PAP practices that associates maximum brief the presence of adrenaline (Decostre, Gillis, &
efforts to PAP in subsequent power exercises (Seitz Gailly, 2000) and estradiol concentrations (Lai,
& Haff, 2016). Collins, Colson, Kararigas, & Lowe, 2016) has
Therefore, given the absence of a review approach- been proposed to influence RLC phosphorylation
ing this important topic, this article aims to present in the mouse. Meanwhile, the translational value of
the current evidence of PAP in endurance athletes; this knowledge from rodents to humans and, more
and to discuss the physiological basis and methodo- specifically, to endurance athletes, should be taken
logical aspects of this ergogenic mechanism for with caution. In fact, the few experiments with
better practice during evaluation, training and com- humans that performed muscle biopsies, reported
petition; and for designing further studies. We will similar levels of RLC phosphorylation between
consider endurance activities as those lasting > fast- and slow-twitch fibres (Houston & Grange,
1 min (Chamari & Padulo, 2015). Additionally, and 1991; Houston, Lingley, Stuart, & Grange, 1987;
following the most accepted definition of PAP Stuart, Lingley, Grange, & Houston, 1988), an
(Tillin & Bishop, 2009), we will consider as PAP adaptation that may be speculated to be an evol-
any increment in muscle performance, assessed utionary consequence of the physical demands of
with different methods, after exercises of different our Homo ancestors (Boullosa, Abreu, Varela-
intensity and duration. Given the co-existence of Sanz, & Mujika, 2013).
both muscle fatigue and potentiation after a number Other suggested mechanisms at the neuromuscular
of muscle contractions (Behm, Button, Barbour, level have been proposed after maximum or near
Butt, & Young, 2004; Rassier & Macintosh, 2000), maximum conditioning activities mainly in power-
the definitions of Gandevia (2001) for ‘muscle trained athletes. These mechanisms may include
fatigue’ (i.e. decrease in force production capacity), increased recruitment of higher order motor units
‘peripheral fatigue’ (i.e. decrease in evoked force), (Hodgson, Docherty, & Robbins, 2005), and
and ‘central fatigue’ (i.e. decrease in maximal volun- changes in muscle fascicle pennation angles (Tillin
tary activation), should be considered onwards for & Bishop, 2009). Moreover, the correlation reported
clarification. (r = −0.74) between the increase in twitch force after
a submaximal (75%) voluntary contraction and the
decline in discharge rate during submaximal volun-
Understanding PAP in the endurance
tary contractions (10–30%) of the biceps brachii,
phenotype
may suggest a link between PAP responses and a
Before the specific literature review, it is important reduced central drive for maintenance of a constant
to address some physiological aspects for a better force output (Klein, Ivanova, Rice, & Garland,
understanding and contextualization of the evidence 2001). However, there are recent individual studies
of PAP in endurance athletes. Thus, the main mech- that do not support a contribution of an increased
anism for explaining PAP has been proposed to be motor neuron excitability through the reflex
myosin RLC phosphorylation (Grange et al., pathway (Xenofondos et al., 2015); and voluntary
1993). This transient adaptation at the molecular activation, corticospinal excitability, intracortical
level increases Ca2+ sensitivity in striated muscle, inhibition and facilitation (Thomas, Toward, West,
thus enhancing force production for a given Ca2+ Howatson, & Goodall, 2017), to PAP. Given that,
concentration (MacIntosh, 2010). Prior knowledge it could be concluded that RLC phosphorylation
of this mechanism was mostly obtained with single could be considered the primary mechanism for
muscles and isolated muscle fascicles or fibres, PAP, while other influences at the neuromuscular
after voluntary (i.e. PAP) or electrical stimulations level cannot be supported with the current evidence.
(i.e. staircase or post-tetanic potentiation) in The use of the term PAP has been suggested to
animal models (Vandenboom, Gittings, Smith, be inappropriate without evaluation of the enhanced
Grange, & Stull, 2013). From these previous response with a twitch to verify that the potentiation
studies, it seems that a greater potentiation could occurs for the same stimulation as that used prior
be expected in fast-twitch fibres, at physiological to voluntary contractions (MacIntosh, 2010). It is
temperatures, with alkalosis, during concentric con- worth noting, however, that twitch verification is
tractions, and at shorter muscle lengths (MacIntosh, also an indirect surrogate of the effect of RLC phos-
2010; Vandenboom et al., 2013). It has been also phorylation on muscle force production. It is
suggested, in disuse and knockout animal models, assumed that RLC phosphorylation favours an
that there is an independent mechanism to RLC increase in the rate of force development (RFD)
phosphorylation related to the elevation of resting and peak tension because of the increase in the
Ca2+ levels, but only after successive low-frequency number of cross-bridges formed (MacIntosh,
twitches (Vandenboom et al., 2013). Additionally, 2010). This is an important consideration as an
Post-Activation Potentiation (PAP) in Endurance Sports 3
increase in RFD and peak tension could be indirectly the force–time integral produced by the stimulation
evaluated with any voluntary exercise requiring rapid train (r = 0.70), suggesting a dose-response relation-
or maximal force production. Therefore, we may ship between conditioning activity volume and the
suggest the use of voluntary maximal explosive degree of potentiation. The same authors (Mettler
evaluations as their relationships with PAP responses & Griffin, 2012) showed that the time to achieve
has been extensively described (Seitz & Haff, 2016). maximal potentiation decreased with increased inten-
Furthermore, previous studies have reported the sity. Thus, force-time integral matched conditioning
relationship between potentiated twitch responses contraction tests (5 s at 100% vs. 10 s at 50% vs.
and jump potentiation in different populations 20 s at 25%) did not differ in the amount of poten-
(Mitchell & Sale, 2011; Nibali, Chapman, Robergs, tiation produced. Of note, these previous studies
& Drinkwater, 2013; Requena, Sáez-Sáez de were performed in the adductor pollicies human
Villareal, Gapeyava, García, & Pääsuke, 2011). muscle, which is predominantly a slow-twitch
Nevertheless, caution should be also taken as jump muscle (Mettler & Griffin, 2010, 2012), therefore
performances are highly variable among individuals suggesting that, for the endurance phenotype, pro-
(Chaouachi et al., 2011), the instructions provided longed activities at submaximal intensities would
to athletes could influence RFD (Sahaly, Vandewalle, induce a greater force production capacity as a conse-
Driss, & Monod, 2001), and improvements of jump quence of a better PAP/fatigue relationship.
performance after conditioning activities are not Given all the aforementioned evidence, it would,
always evident depending on the performance par- therefore, be suggested that: (1) the main mechanism
ameter evaluated (Boullosa, Abreu, Beltrame, & behind PAP is myosin RLC phosphorylation, with
Behm, 2013; Pearson & Hussain, 2014). In fact, humans exhibiting similar levels between slow- and
not all performance improvements after conditioning fast-twitch fibres; (2) PAP evaluation could be per-
activities can be attributed to PAP. Positive acute formed with twitch responses and indirectly with
adaptations of warm-up activities such as elevation voluntary explosive exercises although with limit-
of muscle temperature and increased metabolic ations; (3) for the endurance phenotype, prolonged
responses should be differentiated from potentiation submaximal exercises, at least until durations that
of contractile capacity per se (McGowan, Pyne, do not promote significant levels of peripheral
Thompson, & Rattray, 2015). Moreover, the possible fatigue, could favour a better PAP/fatigue balance.
influence of a central command during voluntary A hypothetical model for understanding the role of
movements should not be disregarded. Thus, assum- PAP in endurance activities is presented in Figure 1.
ing that a true PAP effect could be solely verified with
the twitch interpolation technique, it could be
suggested the use of maximal explosive exercises as Review of literature
jumps as a surrogate of PAP responses but with the Search methods
aforementioned limitations.
Any athlete could benefit from this mechanism after A search for relevant articles on PAP in endurance
any conditioning activity since the levels of muscle athletes and sports was carried out using Medline
fatigue were smaller than the levels of PAP. Moreover, and ISI Web of Knowledge databases. To be
PAP should be maximized with low firing rates, which included in this review, each article must have met
occur during endurance activities, since increased sen- the following criteria: (1) participants should be
sitivity to Ca2+ is maximized at low Ca2+ levels and endurance trained athletes, (2) an endurance exercise
limited at saturated Ca2+ levels (Sale, 2002). This should be present, and (3) pre- and post-exercise
phenomenon should be considered concurrently measures of muscle or motor performance.
with fatigue development with expected lower levels
of muscle fatigue at submaximal intensities (MacIn-
Results
tosh, 2010). Given the greater fatigue resistance of
slow-twitch fibres, a better PAP/fatigue balance A total of 126 records were obtained from the search,
would be expected with endurance trained muscles from which 86 were eliminated as duplicates or
during and after appropriate conditioning activities. unspecific to the topic. The remaining 40 full-text
Further, differences in PAP/fatigue balance between articles were analysed for inclusion and subsequently
muscle phenotypes could be even more evident as 18 articles were eliminated as they did not meet all
only slow-twitch fibres can maintain Ca2+ sensitivity inclusion criteria. Of the 22 articles included in the
after prolonged endurance activities (i.e. 4 hrs.) as literature review, two used MVC as a conditioning
seen in elite cyclists (Hvid et al., 2013). activity (Hamada et al., 2000; Paasuke et al., 2007),
Mettler and Griffin (2010) revealed a significant one used submaximal intermittent contractions
positive correlation between force potentiation and (Morana & Perrey, 2009), one compared different
4 D. Boullosa et al.
Figure 1. Hypothetical model of post-activation potentiation for endurance sports. RLC, regulatory myosin light chain, MLC-K, myosin light
chain kinase; MLC-P = myosin light chain phosphatase; AUC = area under the curve.
warm-up protocols (Skof & Strojnik, 2007), two manifestation varied among studies. A summary of
assessed the effects of warm-up on subsequent simu- the main characteristics for the articles included in
lated trial (Feros, Young, Rice, & Talpey, 2012; Silva the literature review is provided in Table I.
et al., 2014), 10 studied PAP using different exercise
set-ups (Boullosa et al., 2011; Boullosa & Tuimil,
2009; Garcia-Pinillos, Molina-Molina, & Latorre- Discussion
Roman, 2016; Garcia-Pinillos, Soto-Hermoso, &
Latorre-Roman, 2015; Latorre-Román, García- After analysis of the included studies, there are two
Pinillos, Martínez-López, & Soto-Hermoso, 2014; main issues to be considered regarding PAP in
McIntyre, Mawston, & Cairns, 2012; Pageaux, endurance athletes: (1) the effect of PAP after
Theurel, & Lepers, 2017; Skof & Strojnik, 2006a, warm-up activities, and (2) the evaluation of PAP
2006b; Vuorimaa et al., 2006), and eight studies with different methods, during testing, training, or
looked at race simulations and competitions (Del following endurance tests and competitions.
Rosso et al., 2016; Feros et al., 2012; Millet et al.,
2002; Millet, Martin, Maffiuletti, & Martin, 2003;
Millet, Millet, Lattier, Maffiuletti, & Candau, 2003; PAP for warm-up
Place, Lepers, Deley, & Millet, 2004; Rousanoglou PAP has been proposed as one of the most important
et al., 2016; Silva et al., 2014). objectives of warm-up (McGowan et al., 2015). Fol-
The most generalized output measures for asses- lowing the traditional approach of PAP practices, the
sing PAP were voluntary peak torque or evoked most intuitive application of PAP is the acute
twitch peak torque and the countermovement jump enhancement of contractile potential after warm-up
(CMJ). In all cases there were increases between activities for training or competitive purposes.
pre- and post-conditioning activity in the aforemen- However, very few studies in endurance sports have
tioned variables. However, due to the different demonstrated an improvement in muscle perform-
research designs, the timing and degree of PAP ance after different warm-up activities via PAP
Table I. Summary of the main characteristics for the articles included in the literature review.
Boullosa and n = 12♂ Maximal Run (UMTT) CMJ (non-fatigued state, An increase in post-exercise CMJB >Tlim vs. UMTT
Tuimil (2009) Trained distance runners Tlim (Constant running CMJB) CMJ height ↑CMJ at 2 (3.53%) min post Tlim
(from regional to elite, pace at 100% MAS) Post-tests CMJ height (2 and ↑CMJ at 2 (12.6%) and 7 (6.76%) min post
competing at least 2 7 min) UMTT
consecutive years) ΔCMJ CMJ at 2 min post Tlim > CMJ at 2 min post
UMTT
Boullosa et al. n = 22♂(14) ♀(8) Maximal run (UMTT) Pre and post Ex. CMJ An increase in post exercise ↑CMJ 3.6% post vs. pre Ex.
(2011) Experienced endurance CMJ height 20 m sprint ↑peak power 3.4% Post vs. Pre Ex.
athletes (8 ♀and 8 ↓peak force 10.8% Post vs. pre Ex.
♂endurance runners, Cluster analysis (responders vs. non-responders):
6 ♂ triathletes) ↑ΔCMJ (4.9%), vs. Pre Ex. in responders
↑Δpeak power (5.8%) vs. pre Ex. in responders
↓ΔCM vertical path (9.7%) vs. pre Ex. in non-
responders
↓peak force (29.9%) vs. Pre Ex. in non-
responders
Del Rosso et al. n = 11♂ 30-km self-paced multistage Pre vs. post stages CMJ An increase in CMJ height ↔Speed at 5, 10, 15 and 20 km
(2016) Well trained half-marathon trial (6 × 5-km stages) height, stage speed ↓Speed at 25, 30 km vs. 5, 10, 15 and 20 km
runners ↑CMJ at 5, 10, 15, 20, 25 and 30 km vs. Pre
(Continued)
5
6
Table I. Continued.
D. Boullosa et al.
Reference Subjects Exercise protocol Measurements Potentiation definition Main results
Garcia-Pinillos n = 33 Maximal run (Léger Pre and post test CMJ height An increase in CMJ height ↑CMJ vs. Pre test
et al. (2016) Recreationally trained multistage test) and kinematic variables Cluster analysis (responders and non-
endurance runners (20♂ (video analysis) responders)
and 13♀) ↑CMJ in responders (∼8%) vs. Pre test
↑angular position of the ankle in non-responders
↔In any other kinematic variable
Hamada et al. n = 40 ♂ 10-s MVC of the elbow MVC post 5 min of exercise. % change in peak twitch ↑ PT in all groups (triathletes and runners >
(2000) 10 triathletes, 10 distance extensor and ankle PT, TPT, HRT. torque post-MVC active controls and sedentary)
runners, 10 active control plantar-flexor muscles ↓ TPT in all groups
subjects, 10 sedentary ↓ HRT in all groups
Significant
negative correlations between PAP and pre-MVC
twitch TPT and HRT
Latorre-Román n = 16♂ 4 × 3 × 400 m runs, 85– Pre vs. Post Sets: Time for An increase in CMJ ↑CMJ height (∼ 2–6%)
et al. (2014) Experienced sub-elite long- 100% of MAS; 1 min 400 m (T400), CMJ height, performance (height or ↔Peak velocity vs. Pre
distance runners passive recovery between peak velocity, flight time, mechanical parameters) ↑Peak Force (∼8–15%) vs. Pre
(six years of training and runs and 3 min between peak force, peak power, ↑Peak Power (∼10–13%) vs. Pre
competition) sets eccentric work and
concentric work
McIntyre et al. n = 10♂ Prolonged submaximal cycle Time to exhaustion, PPO, Increase in peak isokinetic Six cyclists completed two exercise and four
(2012) ten competitive or test to exhaustion while Peak isometric MVC, torque completed four to six stages
recreationally active (4 × 20 min at 70% isokinetic torque, DJ At stage 2 or 3 ↑PPO (∼140% vs. initial) in 5 of
cyclists VOpeak) + 30 s all-out height, ground contact and the 10 cyclists
sprint at the 17th min of reactivity coefficient (all At stage 2 ↓PPO (∼ 56–95% vs. initial) in the
each bout measured throughout the other 5 cyclists peak isometric
trial) ↓MVC torque (14%) at exhaustion.
At exhaustion:
↓PPO (81 ± 25% vs. Pretest)
↓Peak isometric torque (MVC) of quadriceps (86
± 11% vs. pretest)
↓peak concentric torque (quadriceps) (83 ± 10%
vs. pretest)
↓peak concentric torque (hamstrings) (93 ± 7%
vs. Pretest)
↓DJ height 92% vs. Pretest
↔Ground-contact time
Millet et al. n = 9♂ 65 km ultra-marathon Non fatigued (one week ND ↑PT, Average RFD, MRFDt, and MRFRt of PF
(2002) Trained triathletes and (altitude 2500 m) before) vs. Fatigued (∼ and KE vs. Non-Fatigued condition
endurance runners 2 min after the race), PT, ↓CT, HRT and MRFRt of PF and KE vs. non-
CT, MRFDt, HRT, fatigued condition
average RFD, MRFRt, and ↔M-Wave duration and amplitude except for
M-Wave (amplitude and muscle soleus (↑ M-Wave amplitude vs. non-
duration) of plantar flexors fatigued condition)
(PF) and knee extensor
(KE) muscles
Millet, Martin n = 11♂ 140 km road race Non fatigued vs. fatigued (Pre An increase in peak twitch ↓MVC (∼9%) vs. Pre
et al. (2003) Trained cyclists (regional vs. Post 15–30 min) trial, tension ↔VA vs. Pre
level) MVC, VA, Peak twitch ↑Peak twitch tension (∼12%) vs. Pre
tension, CT, Average RFD, ↑RFD (∼11%) vs. Pre
MRFDt, MRFRt ↔CT, MRFDt, MRFRt
Millet, Millet n = 11♂ Ski Skating Marathon Non-fatigued (2 days before) The post-tetanic ↓MVC (8.4%)
et al. (2003) Trained cross-country (∼159.7 ± 17.9 min) vs. Fatigued (5 min after potentiation (PTP) was ↑PT, MRFDt, HRT and MRFRt
skiers the race), MVC plus PT, calculated as Pt of tw2 ↔ P020, P080 and MRFD80
CT, MRFDt, HRT, divided by Pt of tw1 ↑MRFD20
average RFD, MRFRt ↑ P020/P080 ratio
(From evoked twitch), ↓PTP
P020, P080, MRFD80 and ↓RMS (∼30%) and M-wave amplitude
MRFD20 (from evoked ↔ M-Wave duration
tetanus) and M-wave (All vs. Non-fatigued condition)
(amplitude and duration)
plus RMS of KE muscles.
Morana and n = 15♂ Intermittent submaximal Pre and Post Ex. Increase in PT during the At 1 min of exercise, ↑PT (53%) for
Perrey (2009) (8 endurance athletes; exercise: 10-minute, 5 s × PT, TPT, HRT, VA, MRFD submaximal exercise POW vs. (52%) for END
distance 5 s cycles, of submaximal and MRFR protocol ↑PT in END still increased at 1.5 min
runners and triathletes, knee extensor (PT was monitored (56%) and remained high until the end of
training 7 h·wk−1 during contractions (50% of throughout the exercise exercise
the previous six months, MVC) protocol) At 5.5 min of exercise ↓PT in POW (30%)
END) In END ↓TPT throughout
7
↔CT and HRT
(Continued)
8
D. Boullosa et al.
Table I. Continued.
Pageaux et al. n = 9♂ Three conditions: Post Warm-Up (baseline) vs. An increase in TTW and ↓MVC Torque at Pre Run and Post Run vs.
(2017) Endurance Athletes Warm Up = 5 min at 33% of Pre run (after 1-h cycling / RFD of the KE Baseline (only in condition “A”)
(Triathlon or duathlon from MAP + 5 min 50% of uphill walking) ↓MVC Torque at Post Run vs. Pre Run (in
regional to national level) MAP vs. Post-15 min of rest (in the condition “C”)
A. 1-h cycling + 10 km 10 km only condition) vs. Post ↑MVC Torque at Post Run vs. Pre Run (in
running time trial 10 km running, MVC, TTW, conditions “A”)
B. 1-h uphill walking (at DT, tRFD, MMA, M-Wave >MVC Torque in conditions “C” and “D” vs.
the same HR than the condition “B” at Pre run
1-h cycling exercise) + ↓TTW at Pre run vs. Baseline (only in condition
10 km running time “A”)
trial (at the same ↑TTW at Pre run vs. Baseline (in condition “B”);
running velocity as at Post run vs. Baseline (in conditions “A” and
condition “A”) “B”) and at Post Run vs. Pre Run (in condition
C. 10 km running time “A”)
trial (at the same >TTW at Pre Run in conditions “B” and “C” vs.
running velocity as condition “A”
condition “A”) ↓DT at Pre Run vs. Baseline (in condition “A”)
and at Post Run vs. Baseline (in condition “C”)
↑DT at Post Run vs. Pre Run (in condition “A”)
>DT at pre run in conditions “B” and “C” vs.
condition “A”
↑tRFD at pre run vs. baseline (in condition “B”),
at post run vs. baseline (in conditions “A”, “B”
and “C”) and at post run vs. pre run (in
condition “A”)
>tRFD at pre run in conditions “B” and “C” vs.
condition “A”
>tRFD at post run in condition “A” vs. condition
“B”
↔M-wave (between time points and conditions).
↓MMA at pre and post run vs. baseline in
conditions “A” and “B”
Place et al. n=9 Treadmill running Pre vs. intra-trial (1 to 5 h) vs. An increase in doublet ↓MVC at 4 h (26 ± 23%) and 5 h (28 ± 27%) vs.
(2004) Well-trained triathletes and (300 min at 55% MAS) Post-Trial (30 min) MVC, torque Pre
endurance runners RMS, RMS/RMSM, VA, ↓RMS/RMSM at 4 h (50 ± 21%), 5 h (45 ± 27%)
PT, CT, HRT, MRFDt, and Post-30 min (50 ± 30%) vs. Pre
MRFRt, doublet maximal ↔VA during the first 3 h
torque (DMT), P020, P080, ↓VA at 4 h (12 ± 17%), 5 h (16 ± 21%) and Post-
M-Wave amplitude and 30 min (21 ± 28%) vs. Pre
duration ↑PT at 5 h (18 ± 18%) vs. pre-trial
↑DMT at 2 h (12 ± 5%), 4 h (15 ± 15%) and 5 h
(14 ± 14%) vs. pre-trial
↔CT, HRT, MRFDt and MRFRt in any time.
↓M-Wave amplitude at 4 h (33 ± 21%) and 5 h
(34 ± 21%) vs. pre
↑M-wave duration at Post-30 min (20 ± 25%) vs.
Pre
↔P20, P80 or P20/P80 at any time
Rousanoglou n = 27, 23 km-Mountain race Pre-Race (Pre Warm-Up) and ND ↓CMJ height at Pots 5 vs. Pre (∼8%)
et al. (2016) Recreationally trained ultra- (Altitude = 554 m, initial post race (1 and 5 min) ↔TECC and TCON displacements and durations
marathon runners 5.2 km uphill, followed by CMJ (mechanical variables) (both relative and absolute)
10.5 km of alternating ↓Anterior-posterior force during CMJ in TECC
downhill and uphill trails (Pre vs. Post 5) and in TCON (Pre vs. Post 1
and a final downhill of and Pre vs. Post 5)
8 km) ↓TCON Power (Post 1 vs. Post 5)
↓Vertical Force at Post 1 vs. Pre in TECC and at
(Continued)
9
10
D. Boullosa et al.
Table I. Continued.
Skof and Strojnik n=7 ♂ 6 km Continuous running at Pre (after the warm up) vs. An increase in Twitch ↓TTW (5.1%) Post 1–3 min vs. Pre Ex.
(2006b) Well-trained middle- and VOBLA (∼ 56% of Smax) Post torque (Post-tetanic ↓EMD (6.1%) Post 1–3 min vs. Pre Ex.
long-distance runners on an athletic track. 1, 3, 10, 20, 30, 40, 60, and potentiation) ↓CT (8.0%) Post 1–3 min vs. Pre Ex.
120 min of recovery TTW, ↔HRT
EMD, CT, HRT, TF20, ↓TF20 (20.3%) Post 1–3 min vs. Pre Ex.
TF100, TMVC, AL ↔TF100
At Post 10 min ↑ TTW (10%) vs. Pre Ex.
↑ TTW (5–14%) was maintained for 120 min
after the exercise.
Skof and Strojnik n = 7♂ Two warm-up protocols: Pre vs. post Ex. TTW, EMD, An increase in torque of ↑TTW (∼4) in WU1 vs. Pre
(2007) Well-trained middle- WU1: 10-min continuous CT, HRT, torque during voluntary and electrically ↓CT (∼9%) in WU1 vs. Pre
distance runners (On run at 80% VLT, 5-min maximum isometric knee stimulated muscle ↔EMD and HRT with both warm-up protocols
average they competed for stretching, 6 × 50 m extension torque (TMVC), contraction ↑TMCV (∼11%) in WU1 vs. Pre and > WU2
9 ± 3 years) bounding exercises (2 × AL, torque during MVC ↑AL (∼8) in WU1 vs. Pre and > WU2
skipping, 2 × hopping, with added electrical
2 × strides), and 5 × 80 m stimulation (TMVC + ES)
acceleration runs
WU2: 10-min continuous
run at 80% VLT and 5-
min stretching
Vuorimaa et al. n = 22 ♂ MR = Maximal run until Pre vs. Post Ex. ND ↓EMGrms vs. Pre Ex. in all three conditions
(2006) Long-distance runners (> 5 exhaustion CMJ height (post 5–15 s) (−7.5% MR vs. −17.1 TR vs. −12.2% IR, NS
years of experience) TR = 40-min tempo run at Mechanical power (½ Squat, between trials)
80% vVO2max 35% 1RM, 10 reps, 3 s of ↑ Mechanical power (2.3% MR vs. 4.1% TR vs.
IR = 40-min intermittent rec. between reps.) 3.3% IR, NS between trials)
run (2 min × 2 min) at and EMGrms ↑CMJ vs. Pre Ex. in all three conditions (8.9%
100% vVO2max MR vs. 14.5% TR vs. 10.7% IR; NS between
trials)
Notes: NS, non-significant; ↑, significant increase; ↓, significant reduction; ↔, no change; ND, not defined; PAP, post-activation potentiation; KE, knee extensors; EMG, electromyography;
EMGrms, EMG root mean-square; ES, electrical stimulation; MVC, maximal voluntary contraction; PT, peak torque, TPT, time to peak torque; HRT, half-relaxation time; TTW, twitch peak
torque; CT, contraction time; EMD, elecromechanical delay; TF20, torque during 20-Hz ES; TF100, torque during 100-Hz ES; AL, Activation level; VA, voluntary activation; MMA, maximal
muscle activation; t RFD, twitch rate of force development; MRFD, twitch maximal rate of torque development; MRFR, twitch maximal rate of torque relaxation; DT, Doublet Torque; HRmax,
maximum heart rate; VOBLA, speed at anaerobic threshold; MAP, maximum aerobic power; MAS, maximum aerobic speed; Smax, maximal speed, 1RM, one repetition maximum; UMTT,
Université of Montreal Track Test, CM, centre of mass; MPO, mean power output; PPO , peak power output; SR, stroke rate; TECC, Eccentric Phase of CMJ, TCON, Concentric Phase of CMJ
Post-Activation Potentiation (PAP) in Endurance Sports 11
(Feros et al., 2012; Silva et al., 2014; Skof & Strojnik, 2007). This acute effect would be more important
2007). in efforts of short duration as the duration of PAP
In a study with well-trained middle-distance represents a significant percentage during such brief
runners (Skof & Strojnik, 2007), it was suggested events. PAP eliciting warm-up strategies may also
that incorporating bouncing and sprinting exercises have a potential for performance enhancement in
into a standardized warm-up would enhance neuro- events longer than sprints (Kilduff et al., 2011)
muscular efficiency via PAP, although the authors when added to PAP elicited by muscle activity itself
did not exclude an increase in muscle activation via during endurance competition, considering that any
improved central input and enhanced excitation of little advantage in elite sport could be decisive for
the α-motor neuron. While the results of this study success. Further studies should elucidate in every
(Skof & Strojnik, 2007) are promising, it presents a sport, the mode, duration and intensity of different
number of limitations including the absence of a exercises and their combinations for the enhance-
control condition, and no verification whether differ- ment of muscle force production while avoiding the
ences in neuromuscular function after the two differ- deleterious effect of fatigue of different origin
ent warm-up protocols would effectively influence (Tomaras & MacIntosh, 2011). Given that previous
running performance as only neuromuscular func- studies have used brief high-intensity exercises to
tion after the warm-up protocols were evaluated. induce PAP, it is still to be resolved if a more specific
Subsequently, Feros et al. (2012) reported with stimuli for endurance athletes (e.g. continuous
national level rowers that the addition of 5 × 5 s iso- specific exercise below the lactate threshold over >
metric contractions to individualized warm-up rou- 20 min), or a combination of both stimuli would
tines significantly improved mean power and induce a greater acute PAP effect than a standard
performance time over the first 500 m of a 1000 m warm up. Importantly, it would be recommended
rowing ergometer time trial. However, performance to differentiate with appropriate experimental
time did not significantly improve over the whole designs the influence of PAP from other warm-up
trial while stroke rate was significantly increased. objectives as muscle temperature elevation and meta-
Although not significant, the effect size in perform- bolic activation (McGowan et al., 2015). This issue
ance improvement (ES = 0.21, small) along with could be solved with the use of a standardized
the observation of a high variability in individual warm-up with known exercises for athletes, while
responses, may suggest that a more controlled study controlling both muscle temperature and cardiome-
with a standardized warm-up would provide a signifi- tabolic responses. In addition, while a recent study
cant improvement in performance time. Thus, it is (Stoter et al., 2016) has suggested that an intended
unknown if the individualized warm up plus the iso- fast start does not induce an improvement in
metric exercises did effectively promote PAP in the short endurance performances, it could be speculated
musculature of all athletes or if it induced more that the increments in power output via PAP could
fatigue than PAP in some of them. be advantageous as they are not consciously regulated
Silva et al. (2014) found a ∼6% time reduction in a and, therefore, would not consume any cognitive
20-km cycling time trial after adding 4 sets of 5RM resources that could influence on perceived exertion.
leg press to a 5 min submaximal cycling warm-up.
This improvement in performance was associated
PAP during testing, training and
with an improved cycling economy. While the PAP
competitions
effect did not affect pacing strategy, a trend (p
= .06) for a higher mean power output during the Enhancement of contractile activity during and after
first 10% of the trial was observed. A noticeable limit- testing, training and competition has been described
ation of this study is that the control condition in the literature. Previous studies have observed sim-
included a very short warm-up, which was likely ultaneously the presence of potentiation and muscle
insufficient for an optimum activation of the aerobic fatigue of different origin in single muscles or whole
metabolism. body measures. Collectively, these previous findings
The application of PAP responses after specific may be suggesting that exercise load and athletes’
warm-up protocols for endurance performance has training background could be the main modulators
been an under-explored area. However, caution of the PAP/fatigue relationship.
should be taken given that the PAP effect of con- The current evidence would confirm that endur-
ditioning activities during warm-up lasts < 12 min ance athletes exhibit greater PAP responses after pro-
(Seitz & Haff, 2016). Therefore, its positive influence longed submaximal conditioning activities, contrary
could be expected only during the first minutes of the to power athletes who benefit more from brief
subsequent exercise, with potentially limited applica- maximal or near maximal conditioning activities, fol-
bility in competitive settings (Docherty & Hodgson, lowing the principle of training specificity. For
12 D. Boullosa et al.
instance, Morana and Perrey (2009) showed a pro- at 80% of velocity associated with maximum oxygen
longed prevalence of potentiation over muscle consumption (vVO2max) (∼14.5%), that was greater
fatigue by means of percutaneous stimulation in compared to 40 min of 2 min intervals at vVO2max
endurance trained (n = 8) compared to power- interspersed with 2 min of recovery (∼10.7%), and
trained athletes (n = 7) during 10 min of submaximal after a treadmill incremental test (∼8.9%). In
(50% of MVC) intermittent contractions of knee another study with endurance runners, Skof and
extensors. Interestingly, in this study (Morana & Strojnik (2006b) observed concurrent evidence of
Perrey, 2009), the maximal rate of torque develop- fatigue and potentiation after a non-exhausting 6-
ment during evoked contractions in the endurance km run at anaerobic threshold. In this study (Skof
group at the end of the conditioning activity increased & Strojnik, 2006b), muscle activation level, (i.e. %
(from 966 ± 245 to 1580 ± 632 Nm·s−1) until levels change in knee extension torque assessed with and
similar to those observed in the power group at the without a superimposed twitch of 100 Hz, during a
start of the conditioning activity (1544 ± MVC) was similar before and after the run, while
352 Nm·s−1). Furthermore, the peak torque of the maximum twitch torque was enhanced 10 min after
endurance group was significantly elevated during the run and remained elevated over 60 min of recov-
the whole protocol (from 30.0 ± 5.9 to 38.3 ± ery. In another study, the same authors (Skof & Stroj-
11.0 N·m), while the power group was significantly nik, 2006a) reported that, 10 min after 5 × 300 m
depressed from the second half of the protocol until intervals at ∼24 km·h−1 (i.e. 5% lower than the best
the end (from 43.4 ± 9.5 to 31.1 ± 10.4 N·m). On 400 m run), the twitch torque exceeded the pre-
the other hand, another study reported greater PAP workload value by 11% (p < .01) and that the poten-
after 10 s MVCs of knee extensors in power-trained tiation lasted 40 min, despite evidence of low-fre-
compared to endurance-trained female athletes who quency fatigue (i.e. a more pronounced reduction
also exhibited a more rapid decline in PAP after in torque at low-frequency stimulation vs. high fre-
MVCs (Paasuke et al., 2007). Meanwhile, the quency stimulation) and a high blood lactate concen-
classic study of Hamada et al. (2000) showed that tration. Collectively, this evidence would suggest that
endurance athletes exhibited PAP in trained higher exercise intensities could induce a worse
muscles after 10 s MVCs compared to active and potentiation/fatigue balance than prolonged endur-
sedentary controls. Thus, although it seems that ance activities, with metabolic fatigue symptoms (e.g.
endurance athletes could benefit from both elevated lactate) being not related to PAP responses.
maximal and submaximal contractions in trained Other recent studies in the field (Boullosa et al.,
muscles, it seems that they could benefit more from 2011; Boullosa & Tuimil, 2009; Garcia-Pinillos
specific submaximal contractions when testing PAP et al., 2015, 2016) have confirmed the acute effect
responses with the twitch interpolation technique. of different endurance running exercises on jump
The results of previous findings in laboratory con- potentiation of endurance athletes. For instance, it
ditions with different neuromuscular evaluations has been previously reported a greater (∼12.7 vs.
(Millet et al., 2002; Millet, Martin et al., 2003; ∼3.5%) and more prolonged (7 min vs. 2 min)
Millet, Millet et al., 2003; Skof & Strojnik, 2006a, jump potentiation after the Université de Montréal
2006b; Vuorimaa et al., 2006) have confirmed an Track Test (UMTT) (∼30 min) compared to a
enhanced contractile capacity in endurance athletes time limit at vVO2max test (∼5 min) (Boullosa &
after endurance exercises of different duration. Pre- Tuimil, 2009). Subsequently, another study (Boul-
viously, Millet et al. (2002) reported a severely losa et al., 2011) with runners and triathletes revealed
depressed maximal voluntary force capacity and a jump potentiation, 2 min after the UMTT. Athletes
potentiated twitch mechanical response after an with lower peak force loss during the eccentric
ultra-marathon. Subsequently, the only study with phase of the CMJ exhibited a greater peak power in
cyclists (Millet, Millet et al., 2003) evaluated the the concentric phase and subsequently a greater
twitch responses after a prolonged 140-km race and jump potentiation after exhaustion. Moreover, the
reported an enhancement of the rate of twitch force increment in peak power was related to the increment
development despite a decrease in MVC, although in sprint velocity after exhaustion (Boullosa et al.,
some caution should be taken given the low number 2011) in those athletes who exhibited more jump
(n = 4) of participants evaluated. Similarly, Millet, potentiation. The jump potentiation after incremen-
Martin et al. (2003) showed greater peak mechanical tal tests and interval training sessions were also con-
response during electrically evoked single twitches, firmed by Garcia-Pinillos et al. (2016) who
faster RFD, and shorter contraction time in the fati- observed jump potentiation after an incremental
gued state after a ski skating marathon. More shuttle run test, and over an extended interval train-
recently, (Vuorimaa et al., 2006) showed a jump ing session (4 × 3 × 400 m) (Garcia-Pinillos et al.,
potentiation, after constant pace running of 40 min 2015). Interestingly, the recorded jump potentiation
Post-Activation Potentiation (PAP) in Endurance Sports 13
at the end of the interval training session showed a existence of concurrent PAP and muscle fatigue,
correlation with the enhancement in handgrip probably because of the greater eccentric demands
strength in the responders group (Garcia-Pinillos of the last downhill part of the race. More recently,
et al., 2015), maybe suggesting a possible central Pageaux et al. (2017) evaluated the influence of per-
origin of this improvement in contractile capacity. forming different exercise modes during 1 h on a
Overall, these studies in the field do confirm how 10 km running race in a group of triathletes, and
potentiation responses could be monitored with found that both running and uphill walking induced
simple exercises as jumps for a better understanding PAP whereas cycling did not. Thus, these studies
of the effect of different training and evaluation exer- (Del Rosso et al., 2016; McIntyre et al., 2012;
cises on acute neuromuscular adaptations of endur- Pageaux et al., 2017; Place et al., 2004; Rousanoglou
ance runners. However, it is still unknown if the et al., 2016) would confirm that PAP could be
jump potentiation does effectively correspond to observed in competitive settings, with multistage
PAP responses assessed with the twitch interpolation trials demonstrating to be a valid paradigm to evaluate
technique. In addition, it would be necessary to PAP in relation to endurance performance. However,
understand how these responses could vary, not studies analysing the kinetics of PAP and fatigue of
only after different exercises, but also during different different origins during continuous prolonged endur-
moments of the season when examining the appropri- ance exercises are still lacking (Millet & Lepers, 2004).
ate PAP/fatigue responses during training sessions to From the current evidence, it is clear that PAP
illustrate the best chronic adaptations. responses can be assessed during and after intermittent
There are five studies (Del Rosso et al., 2016; and continuous endurance exercises for training moni-
McIntyre et al., 2012; Pageaux et al., 2017; Place toring in different settings. In practical terms, simple
et al., 2004; Rousanoglou et al., 2016) evaluating measures such as jump height could be very useful to
the neuromuscular function during and after endur- monitor PAP responses and their interaction with
ance multistage trials that, in some cases, observed fatigue of different origin, although the sensitivity of
PAP or jump potentiation during the course of the different instruments and the selection of performance
endurance activity. Place et al. (2004) were the first measures should be taken into account (Boullosa et al.,
to describe a depression of maximal voluntary force 2011; Boullosa, Abreu, Beltrame, et al., 2013). Studies
generating capability in the final stages of a submax- verifying PAP during jumping with twitch verification
imal (i.e. 55% of maximum aerobic speed) 5-h are still lacking in endurance athletes, with squat
running exercise, but with a simultaneous peak jump being a potentially valid test in this context
twitch potentiation. More recently, McIntyre et al. (Nibali et al., 2013). Additionally, well controlled
(2012) evaluated cycling peak power output, drop studies are needed to identify the optimal intensity
jump performance, and isokinetic strength during and duration of work and relief intervals in intermittent
and after 20-min stages at 70% of VO2peak until exercises for the best PAP/fatigue balance when
exhaustion. They found that peak power output looking for the best chronic adaptations. Further
during cycling was potentiated in some athletes at studies should also verify the influence of PAP during
the end of the first stages, and that the decline of and after different modes of exercise (e.g. cycling vs.
this measure after exhaustion was strongly correlated running) and their combinations, given the variable
to the change in drop jump height (McIntyre et al., PAP responses during different muscular actions
2012). Interestingly, a jump potentiation was (MacIntosh, 2010). Thus, while jumping could be
observed over a 30-km trial in half-marathon very useful for evaluation of endurance runners, it
runners (i.e. after every 5-km stage) with its could be recommended that specific ergometers be
maximum at 25 km when the athletes exhibited the used for evaluation of PAP in sports with other neuro-
greatest rise in rating of perceived exertion (RPE) muscular demands (e.g. skiers, skaters). Recording of
and decline in speed (Del Rosso et al., 2016). The different neuromuscular, metabolic, and perceptual
results of this study (Del Rosso et al., 2016) may measures, could be very useful for better understand-
suggest that PAP may be a mechanism by which the ing the true significance of PAP responses in endur-
neuromuscular system counteracts the deleterious ance performance.
effect of fatigue of different origins. In another
recent study (Rousanoglou et al., 2016), it was
Future perspectives
found that jump height was maintained immediately
after a mountain half-marathon race but was sub- Determination of the best warm-up routines for max-
sequently reduced at 5 min of recovery. The imizing the PAP effects on endurance efforts of differ-
authors of this study observed several changes in ent duration is warranted in every sport. Further
the timing kinetics during jumping, and suggested studies should elaborate on the role of PAP for per-
that these responses could be attributable to the formance and pacing in endurance events of different
14 D. Boullosa et al.