GS1

(Important Personalities in News)

Veer Savarkar

Introduction:

Vinayak Damodar Savarkar (Veer Savarkar) occupies a unique place in the history of Indian
freedom struggle. His name evokes controversy. While some consider him as one of the greatest
revolutionaries in the Indian freedom struggle, others consider him a communalist and right-wing
leader.

Body:

Contributions made by Vinayak Damodar Savarkar:

 In Pune, Savarkar founded the “Abhinav Bharat Society”. He was also involved in the
Swadeshi movement and later joined Tilak’s Swaraj Party. His instigating patriotic
speeches and activities incensed the British Government. As a result the British
Government withdrew his B.A. degree.
 In June 1906, Veer Savarkar, left for London to become Barrister. However, once in
London, he united and inflamed the Indian students in England against British rule in
India. He founded the Free India Society.
 The Society celebrated important dates on the Indian calendar including festivals,
freedom movement landmarks, and was dedicated to furthering discussion about Indian
freedom. He believed and advocated the use of arms to free India from the British and
created a network of Indians in England, equipped with weapons.
 In 1908, brought out an authentic informative researched work on The Great Indian
Revolt, which the British termed as “Sepoy Mutiny” of 1857. The book was called “The
Indian War of Independence 1857”.
 The British government immediately enforced a ban on the publication in both Britain and
India. Later, it was published by Madame Bhikaiji Cama in Holland, and was smuggled into
India to reach revolutionaries working across the country against British rule.

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  When the then British Collector of Nasik, A.M.T. Jackson was shot by a youth, Veer
Savarkar finally fell under the net of the British authorities. He was implicated in the
murder citing his connections with India House. Savarkar was arrested in London on
March 13, 1910 and sent to India.
 In 1920, many prominent freedom fighters including Vithalbhai Patel, Mahatma Gandhi
and Bal Gangadhar Tilak demanded the release of Savarkar. On May 2, 1921, Savarkar
was moved to Ratnagiri jail, and from there to the Yeravada jail. In Ratnagiri jail Savarkar
wrote the book ‘Hindutva: who is hindu?’.
 Savarkar began describing a “Hindu” as a patriotic inhabitant of Bharatavarsha, venturing
beyond a religious identity. While emphasising the need for patriotic and social unity of
all Hindu communities, he described Hinduism, Jainism, Sikhism and Buddhism as one and
the same.
 He outlined his vision of a “Hindu Rashtra” (Hindu Nation) as “Akhand Bharat” (United
India),purportedly stretching across the entire Indian subcontinent. He defined Hindus as
being neither Aryan nor Dravidian but as “People who live as children of a common
motherland, adoring a common holy land.”
 Although staunch anti-British in his early years, he supported British efforts in India
seeking military efforts to Hindus during World War 2 and opposed the Quit India
Movement.
 Hindu Mahasabha activists protested Gandhi’s initiative to hold talks with Jinnah in 1944,
which Savarkar denounced as “appeasement.” He assailed the British proposals for
transfer of power, attacking both the Congress and the British for making concessions to
Muslim separatists.
 Vinayak Savarkar was a president of Hindu Mahasabha from 1937 to 1943. When
congress ministries offered resignation on 22nd Oct 1939, Hindu mahasabha under his
leadership cooperated with Muslim league to form government in provinces like Sindh,
Bengal and NWFP.
 His strong views on Hindutva though secular in broader outlook, led to rise in radicalism
among his followers. This also led to rise in tension between two communities.
Conclusion:

Many of Savarkar’s ideas on social and religious reforms, embrace of science, and building a
stronger state continue to be relevant for India. His controversial position on Hindutva also
continues to inform current political debates. It is time that a wider set of scholars began to
engage with Savarkar’s ideas—including controversial ones.

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 Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar

Introduction:

Ishwar Chandra Vidya Sagar became a legendary figure for his simple living, fearlessness, spirit of
self-sacrifice, his devotion to education, to the cause of the downtrodden. The grammarist,
polymath, scholar, educationist, reformer and doyen of the Bengal Renaissance has been a ready
reference for millions of Bengalis to not only encourage their children to study but also to strive
for excellence in the face of adversity..

Body:

His contributions to the social reform movements:

Widow Remarriage:

 The focus of his social reform was women — and he spent his life’s energies trying to
ensure an end to the practice of child marriage and initiate widow remarriage.
 He followed in the great reformist tradition of Raja Ram Mohun Roy (1772-1833), and
argued, on the basis of scriptures and old commentaries, in favour of the remarriage of
widows in the same way as Roy did for the abolition of Sati.
 Vidyasagar wrote two volumes on the mistreatment of widows, which set the tone for
major social reform in the state.
 His earliest effort at social reform, however, came in the second half of 1850 when, in a
paper on the evils of child marriage.
 He launched a powerful attack on the practice of marrying off girls aged 10 or even
younger, pointing to social, ethical, and hygiene issues, and rejecting the validity of the
Dharma Shastras that advocated it.
 He showed that there was no prohibition on widows remarrying in the entire body of
‘Smriti’ literature (the Sutras and the Shastras).

Campaign against polygamy:

 Alongside the campaign for widow remarriage, he campaigned against polygamy.

 In 1857, a petition for the prohibition of polygamy among Kulin Brahmins was presented
to the government with 25,000 signatures, led by the Maharaja of Burdwan.
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  The mutiny of the sepoys resulted in the postponement of action on this petition, but in
1866, Vidyasagar inspired another petition, this time with 21,000 signatures.
 In the 1870s, the great rationalist, wrote two brilliant critiques of polygamy, arguing to
the government that since polygamy was not sanctioned by the sacred texts, there could
be no objection to suppressing it by legislation.
Women’s education:

 He was a keen advocate of education for women. He rightly viewed education as the
primary way for women to emancipate themselves from all the social oppression they
had to face at the time.
 He went door to door, asking family heads to allow their daughters to be enrolled in
schools. Across Bengal, he opened 35 women’s schools and succeeded in enrolling 1300
students.
 To support women education, he organized a fund called Nari Shiksha Bhandar.
 He supported Drinkwater Bethune to establish the first permanent girls’ school in India,
the Bethune School.
 Vidyasagar spent the last 18 years of his life living among Santhal tribals in present day
Jharkhand, where he started what is possibly India’s first school for Santhal girls.
 He expressed his ideas through regular articles he wrote for periodicals and newspapers.
He was associated with prestigious journalistic publications like ‘Tattwabodhini Patrika’,
‘Somprakash’, ‘Sarbashubhankari Patrika’ and ‘Hindu Patriot’.
Other literary works:

 Vidyasagar’s Barna Parichay (an introduction to the Bengali alphabet) is still the first book
a Bengali child is handed more than 160 years after it was written.
 His contribution to the alphabet, translation of several Sanskrit books, including Kalidas’s
Shankuntala, has helped Bengali literature.
 He wrote two books which interpreted complex notions of Sanskrit Grammar in Bengali
language viz. Upakaramonika and Byakaran Koumudi.
 He established the Sanskrit Press with an aim to produce printed books at affordable
prices so that common people could buy them.
Conclusion:

He was a man of bold spirit, but was very simple and sincere. Therefore, even the great European
officers deeply admired and respected him. He was very plain in dress and habit. The kindness of
Vidyasagar’s mother, Bhagabati Devi was boundless. Vidyasagar followed the principle of his

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mother all through his life. Therefore, people called him DayaSagar Vidyasagar, the Ocean of
kindness and learning.

Rabindranath Tagore

Rabindranath Tagore (1861-1941) was a Romantic poet, novelist, and songwriter who
contributed many political ideas to the Indian Independence Movement. Rabindranath Tagore
denounced British imperialism, yet he did not fully support or agree with Gandhi and his
Noncooperation Movement. He viewed British rule as a symptom of the overall “sickness” of the
social “disease” of the public.

Body:

Tagore’s contribution to the progress of Indian national movement:

 Tagore generally denounced British imperialism and spoke out against it in some of his
writings. In his writings, he also voiced his support of Indian nationalists.
 Tagore was outraged by the British proposal to partition Bengal and argued that instead
of partitioning Bengal, what was needed was a self-help based reorganization of Bengal.
 Rabindranath Tagore wrote the song Banglar Mati Banglar Jol (Soil of Bengal, Water of
Bengal) to unite the Bengali population after Bengal partition in 1905. He also wrote the
famed ‘Amar Sonar Bangla’ which helped ignite a feeling of nationalism amongst people.
 He started the Rakhi Utsav where people from Hindu and Muslim communities tied
colourful threads on each other’s wrists. In 1911, the two parts of Bengal were reunited.
 Although he supported nationalism, Tagore did not support the element in Gandhi’s
Noncooperation Movement called the Swadeshi movement which was an economic
strategy that aimed to remove the British from power in India by using principles of
Swadeshi such as boycotting British products, and improving production in India.
 He wrote many pieces and delivered lectures over his beliefs about nationalism and
especially the examples of nationalism that he saw in his extensive travels and the
growing nationalism he observed in Germany prior to World War II.
 His critique of nationalism was that of a wholesome and holistic thinker arguing against
discourses couched in essentialism and one-sidedness that champion power and wealth

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 but not soul and conscience, greed but not goodness, possessing but not giving, self-
aggrandisement but not self-sacrifice, becoming but not being.
 Despite voicing his negative opinions about the nature of nationalism, Tagore wrote many
songs praising the Indian independence movement.
 While Tagore had greater sympathy with the Extremists led by Balgangadhar Tilak,
Aurobindo Ghosh and others, he was looking for an alternative leadership under the
younger generation.
 He, however, could not reconcile with terrorist extremism as in spite of all his trenchant
criticism of imperialist rule he never approved of two things—namely, romantic
adventurism and violence born of intolerance.
 Tagore rejected violence from the British as well and renounced the knighthood that had
been given to him in by Lord Hardinge in 1915 in protest of the violent Amritsar massacre
in which the British killed at least 1526 unarmed Indian citizens.
 The cornerstone of Tagore’s beliefs and work is the idea that anti-colonialism cannot
simply be achieved by rejecting all things British, but should consist of incorporating all
the best aspects of western culture into the best of Indian culture.
 One of the most important ideas that Tagore contributed is that “freedom” does not
simply mean political freedom from the British; True freedom means the ability to be
truthful and honest with oneself otherwise autonomy loses all of its worth.
 Tagore was essentially a universal humanist who believed in the essence of human unity.
He saw no contradiction between this universalism and India’s nation-hood and the
fulfilment of its own destiny. Tagore’s Shantiniketan was an effort in bringing about a
confluence of his universal dream.
Conclusion:

The basic thrust of Tagore’s approach to India’s nationhood and freedom from British rule was
his all-pervasive emphasis on root and branch social reform and removal of the gross inequities
India’s society suffered from. Tagore’s alternative vision of peace, harmony and the spiritual
unity of humankind seems more relevant now than ever

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 Gopal Krishna Gokhale

Introduction:

Gopal Krishna Gokhale was an Indian political leader, a social reformer during the Indian
Independence Movement and Mahatma Gandhi’s political mentor. He was born on May 9th, 1866.
Gokhale campaigned for Indian self-rule and also social reform. He was the leader of the moderate
faction of the Congress party that advocated reforms by working with existing government
institutions

Body:

Contributions of GK Gokhale in freedom movement of India:

 The year 1886 saw the entry of Gopal Krishna Gokhale into public life. At only 20 years
of age, he delivered a public address concerning “India under the British Rule” and was
applauded for his expression and command of the English language.
 Gokhale’s grasp of economics was evident in his famous budget speeches as a member of
the Imperial Legislative Council, when he took the colonial government to task because its
policies were damaging India; no less a person than John Maynard Keynes praised his
mastery of economic logic.
 While contributing articles to the English weekly Mahratta, he was seduced by the idea of
using education as a means to awaken patriotism among the people of India.
 Just as this idea was enveloping Gokhale was promoted to Secretary of the Deccan
Education Society.
 After being given charge of the Bombay Provincial Conference in 1893, he was elected
to the Senate of the Bombay University.
 He visited Ireland and arranged for Irish nationalist Alfred Webb to serve as the President
of the Indian National Congress in 1894
 In time, Gokhale came to devote all his spare time to the causes of the common man:
famine, plague relief measures, local self- government, land reform, and communal
harmony.
 As a member of the Pune Municipality, twice elected its president, Gokhale continued
to strive to solve the problems of the poor, and those who came to him with grievances
concerning water supply, drainage, etc. were pleased with the practical manner in which
he dealt with the problem.
 Gokhale also published a daily newspaper entitled Jnanaprakash, which allowed him to
voice his reformist views on politics and society.
 He was later elected to the Council of India of the Governor-General of India in 1903.

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  He was appointed as the Companion of the Order of the Indian Empire in 1904 New
Year’s Honours List.
 In 1905, he founded the Servants of India Society, which trained people to be selfless
workers so they could work for the common good of the people. He was also elected as the
President of the Indian National Congress.
 So strong was the desire to make a difference, that these kindred spirits vowed a simple
life of dedication to these causes.
 Among the many things the organization did, there were the commendable services of
helping victims of floods and famines, and taking the time to educate women in society, so
that they too may have a voice.
 Many people influenced Gokhale and gave him the strength and discipline to bring his
ideas to the realm of reality, but none more than Mahadev Govind Ranade, to whom he
was apprenticed in 1887.
 Ranade trained him for 15 years in all spheres of public life, and taught him sincerity,
devotion to public service, and tolerance.
 Gokhale visited England and voiced his concerns relating to the unfair treatment of the
Indian people by the British government. In one span of 49 days, he spoke in front of 47
different audiences, captivating every one of them.
 Before long, he was touted as the most effective pleader for India’s cause. While
Gokhale pleaded for gradual reform to ultimately attain Swaraj, or self-government, in
India, some of his contemporaries, comprising a radical element, wished to use force as a
means of persuasion. Gokhale maintained his moderate political views and worked out
some reforms for the betterment of India.
 He was instrumental in the formation of the Minto-Morley Reforms of 1909, which
eventually became law. Unfortunately, the Reforms Act became law in 1909 and it was
disappointing to see that the people were not given a proper democratic system despite
Gokhale’s efforts.
 The communal harmony he had longed for was shattered when he realized that the
Muslim community was steadfast in considering itself as a separate unit. On the bright side,
however, Gokhale’s efforts were clearly not in vain.
 Indians now had access to seats of the highest authority within the government, and
their voices were more audible in matters of public interest.
Conclusion:

The liberal constitutionalism that Gokhale stood for was swept aside by the rising tide of
agitational politics after 1920. Gokhale was a mentor to both Mohammed Jinnah and Mahatma
Gandhi. Mahatma Gandhi even wrote a book called, ‘Gokhale, My Political Guru’. His core
beliefs about the importance of political liberty, social reform and economic progress for all
Indians are still relevant to our times.

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 Vedanta Desikan

Introduction:

Sri Vedanta Desikan (1268–1369) was a Sri Vaishnava guru/philosopher and one of the most
brilliant stalwarts of Sri Vaishnavism in the post-Ramanuja period. He was a poet, devotee,
philosopher and master-teacher (desikan). He was the disciple of Kidambi Appullar, also known
as Aathreya Ramanujachariar, who himself was of a master-disciple lineage that began with
Ramanuja. He is considered to be avatar (incarnation) of the divine bell of Venkateswara of
Tirumalai by the Vadakalai sect of Sri Vaishnavite.

Body:

His Philosophy:

 The Sri Vaishnava philosophy that Saint Ramanuja initially propounded got a much wider
audience with Vedanta Desikan’s writings and preaching.
 One of the essential features of this philosophy was the aspect of inclusion. Anyone,
irrespective of caste and creed could join the Sri Vaishnava fold. This is a truly
democratizing movement that obliterated caste distinctions.
 he has been an extraordinary individual who has shown a new path towards human
fulfilment and spiritual upliftment

Contributions of Sri Vedanta Desikan:

 Vedanta Desikan was much more than a spiritual teacher. He was a multi-faceted
personality– a scientist, a logician, a mathematician, a sculptor, a civil engineer, a poet, a
literary genius, a linguist, a geologist, a dietician, a behavioural scientist, a military
strategist and much more.
 He wrote poems, prose, drama, epics, commentaries, scientific texts and philosophical
treatises in Sanskrit, Tamil, Prakrit and Manipravalam.
 His magnum opus, the Rahasya Traya Sara, is a masterly treatise on Prapatti or
surrendering oneself to the divine.
 His masterpiece, Paduka Sahasram, reveals his poetic eloquence and his mathematical
ingenuity. In two verses in this collection, Sri Vedanta Desikan gave a solution to a
mathematical problem that was solved five centuries later by another mathematician,
Leonard Euler.

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  Desikan showed his knowledge of the arts and sciences through other works such
as Silparthasaram, a treatise on sculpture, and Bhugola-nirnayam – a research text on
geography.
 Taking cues from the Vedic scriptures, Vedanta Desikan authored Aahaara Niyamam that
detailed how different food items help in maintaining a healthy mind and a disease-free
life.
 His ‘Subhashita Neevi’ contains a fund of moral and ethical advice which is relevant and
practical.
 Desikan’s Works in Tamil are numerous, out of which two need special
mention: Paramathabhangam, where he describes and refutes 15 schools of philosophy.
 Desikan’s talent as a military strategist came to the fore during the repeated invasions of
the holy city of Srirangam by the forces of the Delhi Sultanate. Before the forces of
marauding invaders like Mallik Kafur and Ulugh Khan arrived at Srirangam in 1327,
Desikan hid the main Deity of the temple behind a newly built wall, and escaped with rare
manuscripts that would otherwise have been destroyed by the invaders.

Achievements:

 He was celebrated as ‘sarva-tantra-svatantra’or master of all arts and crafts;

 He was awarded the title ‘kavi tarkika-kesari’, the lion amongst poets and logicians;
 He was glorified as ‘ramanuja-daya-patram’, the recipient of Ramanuja’s blessings.

Conclusion:

Leading a very active life and achieving success in diverse fields, he scaled the greatest spiritual
heights as well as other fields of knowledge and human welfare. His versatile intellectual and
creative output did not make him vain or pompous. He remained a humble devotee of the Lord he
believed in. Humility was his hallmark, simplicity his strength.

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 Dakshayani Velayudhan

Introduction:

Dakshayani Velayudhan was an Indian parliamentarian and leader of the Depressed Classes.
Belonging to the Pulaya community, she was among the first generation of people to be educated
from the community. She holds several distinctions including becoming the first woman from her
community to wear an upper cloth, the first Scheduled Caste woman graduate in India, a science
graduate, a member of the Cochin Legislative Council and of being one of nine female members
of the Constituent Assembly of India.

Body:

Contributions:

 Dakshayani forged her own path and stood up for the rights of women and people from
oppressed castes.
 Dakshayani strongly opposed reservation or separate electorates and worked towards a
vision of India free of caste or community barriers.
 Her two main objectives in constituent assembly was to make the assembly go beyond
framing a constitution and offer people “a new framework of life”, and two, to use the
opportunity to make untouchability illegal, unlawful, and ensure a “moral safeguard that
gives real protection to the underdogs”.
 She held that the assembly should offer the people a “new framework of life”.
 Although a Gandhian, she agreed with Babasaheb Ambedkar on many issues. She also
argued against appointment of governors anticipating friction between a state government
and a governor appointed by another party at the Centre.
 She spoke against excessive centralisation of power in the Constitution and argued for
greater decentralisation.
 She also suggested that the final draft of the Constitution be adopted following a ratification
through a general election.
 She again intervened during a discussion on draft Article 11 (Art 17 of the Constitution)
which aimed at abolishing discrimination based on caste and making it punishable by law.
 An unwavering supporter of a strong, common national identity for all residents of an
independent India, she did not support separate electorates or reservations. Her main goal
was creating an India free of caste or community barriers.
 Her idea of moral safeguards rested on the idea that only an independent socialist republic
could uplift, remove social disabilities.

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Pulaya Mahajana Sabha:

 Some of her own awareness was drawn from her household and family which played a role
in founding the Pulaya Mahajana Sabha (1913).
 It was formed to offer resistance to the day to day life of a Dalit, and which later became a
platform of bringing Dalit life to the public.
 The organisation found an ingenious way to defy the king’s order that proclaimed that no
Dalit group could have a meeting in his land — they held their meeting on a row of
catamarans anchored to an iron pole in the middle of the Vembanad lake.
 By conducting the meeting on water, the group sent out a message of protest without
actually disobeying the royal proclamation.
 It was this historic Kayal Sammelanam (Meeting on the Backwaters) that later formed the
basis for the name of Dakshayani’s memoirs, “The Sea Has No Caste”.
 The idea of PMS spread to other states too over a period of time.
Conclusion:

Dakshayani was part of movements that called for the democratization of public spaces, education,
work security, equality and abolition of caste slavery. Her work was an inspiration for her first
cousin, K.R. Narayanan, who would become India’s first Dalit president.

Balgangadhar Tilak

Introduction:

Bal Gangadhar Tilak was an Indian social reformer and freedom activist. He was one of the prime
architects of modern India and probably the strongest advocates of Swaraj or Self Rule for India.
His famous declaration “Swaraj is my birthright, and I shall have it” served as an inspiration for
future revolutionaries during India’s struggle for freedom. The British Government termed him
as the “Father of Indian Unrest” and his followersbequeathed upon him the title of
‘Lokmanya’ meaning he who is revered by the people.

Body:

Tilak’s contribution towards India’s freedom struggle:

 Ideology:

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 o Tilak joined the Indian National Congress in 1890. He soon started vocalizing his
strong opposition to the moderate views of the party on self-rule.
o He maintained that simple constitutional agitation in itself was futile against the
British. This subsequently made him stand against the prominent Congress leader,
Gopal Krishna Gokhale.
o He wanted an armed revolt to broom-away the British. Following the partition of
Bengal by Lord Curzon, Tilak wholeheartedly supported the Swadeshi
(Indigenous) movement and Boycott of British goods.
o Due to this fundamental difference in outlook, Tilak and his supporters came to be
known as the extremist wing of INC.
o Tilak’s endeavours were supported by fellow nationalists Bipin Chandra Pal of
Bengal and Lala Lajpat Raiof Punjab.
 Protests and Imprisonment:
o Under directives from Pune Commissioner W. C. Rand, the police and the army
invaded private residences, violated personal sanctity of individuals, burned
personal possessions and prevented individuals to move in and out of the city.
o Tilak protested against the oppressive nature of the British efforts and wrote
provocative articles on it in his newspapers on the epidemic of Plague in Pune and
adjacent regions
o His article inspired the Chapekar brothers and they carried out assassination of
Commissioner Rand and Lt. Ayerst on June 22, 1897. As a result of this, Tilak was
imprisoned for 18 months on Sedition charges for inciting murder.
o During 1908-1914, Bal Gangadhar Tilak spent had to undergo six years of rigorous
imprisonment in Mandalay Jail, Burma.
o He openly supported the revolutionaries Khudiram Bose and Prafulla Chaki’s
efforts to assassinate Chief Presidency Magistrate in 1908. He continued to write
during his years of imprisonment and the most prominent of which is Gita
Rahasya.
 Tilak and All India Home Rule League:
o Tilak returned to India in 1915 when the political situation was fast changing under
the shadow of the World War I.
o He then returned to politics with a mellowed down outlook. Deciding to re-unite
with his fellow nationalists, Tilak founded the All India Home Rule
League in 1916 with Joseph Baptista, Annie Besant and Muhammad Ali Jinnah.
o By April 1916, the league had 1400 members that increased to 32,000 by 1917.
o He rejoined the INC but could not bring about reconciliation between the two
opposite-minded factions.
 Newspapers:

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 o Towards his nationalistic goals, Bal Gangadhar Tilak published two newspapers –
‘Mahratta’ (English) and ‘Kesari’ (Marathi).
o Both the newspapers stressed on making the Indians aware of the glorious
past and encouraged the masses to be self reliant. The newspaper actively
propagated the cause of national freedom.
o Tilak fearlessly published reports about the havoc caused by famine and plague and
the government’s utter irresponsibility and indifference about ‘Famine Relief
fund’.
 Social Reforms:
o After completing his education, Tilak spurned the lucrative offers of government
service and decided to devote himself to the larger cause of national awakening.
o He was a great reformer and throughout his life he advocated the cause of women
education and women empowerment.
o Tilak proposed Grand celebrations on ‘Ganesh Chaturthi’ and ‘Shivaji Jayanti’. He
envisioned these celebrations inciting a sense of unity and inspiring nationalist
sentiment among Indians.
Conclusion:

Tilak had a long political career agitating for Indian autonomy from the British rule. Before
Gandhi, he was the most widely known Indian political leader. Unlike his fellow Maharashtrian
contemporary, Gokhale, Tilak was considered a radical Nationalist but a Social conservative.

Binod Bihari Mukherjee

Introduction:

Benode Behari Mukherjee is one of the first students of Kala Bhavan at Shantiniketan who
transformed the institution into a seminal centre in India. Born into a highly literate family, a
childhood illness had left him blind in one eye and myopic in the other. Unable to pursue formal
education, Shantiniketan is where Mukherjee gave new life to the close association he had built
with nature. He was awarded Padma Vibhushan in 1974, Rabindra Puraskar and Bharatiya
Bhasha Parishad award in 1980.

Body:

The works of B.B Mukherjee towards Indian art and culture are

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  He was involved in exploring the rationale underlying different pictorial conventions
finally bringing together the skeins of folk and Indian classical styles, Far Eastern
calligraphic painting and early Renaissance conventions with post-cubist idiom.
 Mukherjee was painting his surroundings and the self, known as quasi-autobiographical
paintings.
 His visit to Japan made him learn various techniques from the Japanese masters like
Sesshu and Sotatsu, are visible in the manner in which he painted scrolls and flowers.
 In 1946-47, Mukherjee designed what has been described as “perhaps the single most
important work painted in modern India” — his mural Life of the Medieval Saints which
featured the numerous saint-poets of India.
 With its conceptual breadth and synthesis of elements from Giotto and Tawaraya
Sotatsu, as well as from the art of such ancient Indian sites as Ajanta and
Mamallapuram, it is among the greatest achievements in contemporary Indian painting.
 The landscape changes in the ’50s, when he moved to Mussoorie after travelling to Banaras
and Banasthali. With further deterioration in his eyesight, there is a visible change in the
line detailing of his landscapes. Appointed educational adviser at the Art School of Patna
in 1954, he begins to draw more from memory.
 Post 1958, apart from drawings, he produced several collages and paper cuts, some of
which were later turned into coloured lithographs.
 In 1979, he wrote Chitrakar, a collection of writings in Bengali.
Contributions to Art and Culture:

 He was an art teacher at Kala Bhavan, Santiniketan from 1925 to 1949.

 In1951, he established Banasthali Vidyapith, a women’s educational center in Rajasthan.
 The very next year he set up an Art Center along with his wife Leela to impart training to
both artists and art teachers, Mussourie.
 Two years after losing his eyesight completely, in 1958 he joined as a professor in the Art
Theory Faculty at Kala Bhavan, Santiniketan.
Conclusion:

A tribute came from his student Satyajit Ray. In the 1973 biographical film, The Inner Eye, Ray
painted a picture of the life story of the modernist, ending with Mukherjee’s now famous
observation: “Blindness is a new feeling, a new experience, a new state of being”

15
 Lala Lajpat Rai

Introduction:

One of the legendary triumvirate – Lal-Bal-Pal ( Lala Lajpat Rai, Bal Gangadhar Tilak
and Bipin Chandra Pal) of India’s freedom movement against the British colonial rule, Lala
Lajpat Rai was a multi-faceted personality and led a life of ceaseless activity dedicated to a
self-less service to the nation. He realized that “the British people were indifferent to Indian
affairs and the British press was not willing to champion Indian aspirations” as some Moderates
believed.

Body:

Rai has been seen as “a champion of moral courage than of physical courage” and was aware of
the basic problems of the society. The evolution of his views with respect to diversity in India are

 Rai was an advocate of an assertive Hindu politics, exemplified by his participation in

the Punjab Hindu Sabha in 1909 and Hindu Mahasabha in the mid-1920s.
 However, his vision of Hindu politics was very different from the exclusivist Hindu
nationalism that demanded that either India’s religious minorities be forcefully assimilated
into Hindu culture or be excluded from the nation.
 Before 1915, Rai conceived of Hindus and Muslims as separate “religious nationalities”.
 But post 1915, he proclaimed that “religious nationalism” was a “false idea”, embodying a
“narrow sectarianism” which could never be “truly national”.
 He became a staunch supporter of the idea that Religion was a matter of individual faith
which “must not interfere with the common civil life of the country.
 He also believed that every person must transcend their religious community to realise
their larger common interest as Indians.
 Lajpat Rai argued that India’s natural geography brilliantly marked it off from the rest
of the world, endowing its people with a common nationhood.
 He argued that Indian Muslims were descendants of the Aryan race who had merely
converted to Islam.
 He sometimes ceased speaking of a common Hindu culture to talk of a larger
distinctive Indian culturethat bound India’s diverse peoples.
 His embrace of diversity as a crucial ingredient of national culture was evident in his
strong aversion to the imposition of a homogenous culture on the Indian nation.
The significance of his views for the freedom struggle are as follows

16
  His views helped recognize the importance of a united front against British.
 The British efforts to divide India on communal lines as seen in the Acts of 1909 and 1919
was made clear to Indian leadership .
 His thoughts of cultural diversity were given post independence by Nehru as ‘Unity in
Diversity’.
 His idea of people of all religions as true citizens of India, combined with Gandhiji’s ideas
of inclusive fight against British led to Non- Cooperative movement linked with
the Khilafat movement.
 Rai’s understanding of the societal issues led him to form various social organizations like
All India Trade Union Congress, Punjab National Bank which are still flourishing in India.
Conclusion:

Lala Lajpat Rai dismissed the idea that nations of the world comprised of single pure races to
proudly proclaim that the Hindus, Muslims and Christians of India were a “racial mix-up. His
notions of respect of diversity are very vital in today’s Indian society which is being polarized on
simple issues. There is a need of tolerance and fraternity among the people for a Vibrant and
Resurgent India.

Bhagat Singh

Background:-

 Bhagat Singh is one of the only national heroes, perhaps after Gandhi, who is venerated
across India. This could be attributed to his appeal as a martyr, which cuts across political
ideologies.
Contribution of Bhagat Singh:-

 Political ideology:-
o His azaadi freedom was not limited to the expelling of the British; instead he
desired azaadi from poverty, azaadi from untouchability, azaadi from
communal strife, and azaadi from every form of discrimination and
exploitation
o The struggle in India would continue so long as a handful of exploiters go on
exploiting the labour of the common people for their own ends. It matters little
whether these exploiters are purely British capitalists, or British and Indians in
alliance, or even purely Indians.

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 o Naujawan Bharat Sabhawas a public platform of the revolutionaries founded by
Singh, and had a categorical position on the slogans to be used. They raised two
slogans: “Inquilab Zindabad” and “Hindustan Zindabad,” hailing the revolution and
the country.
 Committed to inquilab (revolution), but not merely a political revolution.
He wanted a social revolution to break age-old discriminatory practices
such as untouchability, communalism and gender discrimination.
o He was also associated with Hindustan Republican Association, Kirti Kisan Party,
Kranti Dal.

o Bhagat Singh and Sukhdev also organized the Lahore Students Union for open,
legal work among the students.

 Bhagat Singh’s nationalism:-

o He grew up to appreciate nationalism and crave a British-free independent
India. Extensive reading of European literature propelled him towards
forming a socialist outlook strongly desiring a democratic future for India.
 Atheism:-
o Bhagat Singh veered towards Atheism after witnessing several Hindu-Muslim riots
and other religious outbreaks.
 Armed revolution:-
o Singh believed that something as precious as Independence can only be achieved
by a thorough cleansing of the exploitative nature of imperialism.
o He opined that such change can only be brought forward by means of an armed
revolution, in similar lines to the Bolshevik Revolution in Russia. He introduced
the slogan “Inquilab Zindabad” which sort of transformed into the war cry of the
Indian Independence movement.
 Bhagat Singh differed from most other revolutionaries on two important aspects:
 He had a vision of the Indian society that he envisaged post-independence and could
articulate its essential characteristics.
 He found fulfillment through serving humanity and liberating it from sufferings and
distress. He equated that cause to that of India’s freedom.
 Working towards building an India where poverty, socio-economic disparity and
exploitation did not exist, rather than achieving freedom from the British alone, was his
goal.
 He even favoured untouchables that they must have their own elected representatives .They
must demand greater rights for themselves.
 Bhagat Singh, his intense patriotism coupled with cultivated idealism, made him an ideal
icon for the youth of his generation. Through his written and vocal admonition of the
British Imperial Government, he became the voice of his generation.

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Conclusion:-

 Bhagat Singh and his comrades made an abiding contribution to the national freedom
movement. Their deep patriotism, courage and determination, and sense of sacrifice stirred
the Indian people. They helped spread nationalist consciousness in the land.

Sri Narayana Guru

Background:-

 Narayana Guru is a saint, prophet and social reformer from Kerala. His words and deeds
ignited sparks of revolution that led to a remarkable cultural renaissance in the
profligate/corrupt society of Kerala.
Contribution:-

 Temple entry:-
o Aravipuram Movement was launched by Sri Narayana Guru in1888. On that day,
Sri Narayana Guru defied the religious restrictions traditionally placed on the
Ezhava community, and consecrated an idol of Shiva at Aravipuram.
o In 1925 Guru supported the famous Vaikom Satyagraha movement, which
demanded entry for lower caste people in the Shiva temple at Vaikom and all
temples in Kerala.
 He redeemed the downtrodden human from the curse of casteism. ‘Oneness of
Humanity’ was his dream.
o His famous message “One Caste, One Religion and One God to Mankind”,
which was a clarion call to the mankind to unite, instead of breaking down in the
name of caste and religion.
 He believed that other than the freedom from the curse of untouchability, the downtrodden
classes needed education and wealth. They needed opportunities to improve like others.
o Sri Narayana Guru articulated a doctrine aimed at improving the Ezhavas’ social
position. He urged them to abandon the occupation of toddy-tapping and to abstain
from liquor.
 He formed a programme of action known as the Sri Narayana Dharma Paripalana
Yogam
o The Yogam took up several issues, including the right of admission to public
schools, recruitment to government employment, entry into temples, on roads and
political representation.
 Guru did not approve polygamy and polyandry. He discouraged some unnecessary
traditions in marriage.

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  Religion:-
o He considered all religions to be a way for man’s goodness and welfare and thus
are equal.
o He held that the essence of all religions is one and the same, and advocated the
comparative study of all faiths.
 Literature:-
o Sree Narayana Guru had proficiency in Sanskrit, Malayalam and Tamil and had
written by way of hymns of prayer to different gods in all three languages,
translations, philosophy and teachings.
o Some of the notable ones are “Atmopadesa Sathakam” and “Darsanamala”
which give in condensed way the moral and spiritual principles.

Conclusion

Sree Narayana Guru has made a silent revolution,without any blood shed or hatred, but with
evoking respect and cooperation from all concerned.

Acharya J B Kripalani
Background:-

 Acharya J. B. Kripalani was an accomplished politician and socialist, who contributed

much, both before and after Indian independence. An ardent follower of Gandhi, he was
an exponent of the Gandhian philosophy and ideology.
Contribution:-

 While Kripalani contributed much in the freedom struggle and afterwards, he is best known
for holding the chair of the President of the Indian National Congress during the
turbulent phase of 1947.
 Non cooperation:-
o During the early 1920s, he committed himself to the Non-Cooperation Movement.
 He worked on the ideology of social reforms and principles of education that Gandhi
promoted in his various ashrams across Gujarat and Bombay. Later he started teaching
and organizing new ashrams dedicated to the Gandhian principles and beliefs in Bihar and
United Province.
 He actively took part in the Salt Satyagraha, Civil Disobedience Movement and Quit
India Movement, for which he was arrested and imprisoned a multitude times. His
publication of seditious comments against British government also resulted in his
incarceration.

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  His active involvement in the national freedom movement helped him rise dramatically
upwards towards the higher ranks in the Indian National Congress. For almost a decade,
from 1934 to 1945, he served as the General Secretary of the Indian National Congress.
He steered congress party through the crucial phase of partition and independence.
 He took an active role in the interim government of India from 1946 to 1947 and in the
Constituent Assembly of India.
 Kisan Mazdoor Praja Party :-
o He resigned as a member of the Congress party and instead became a founding
member of a new political party called Kisan Mazdoor Praja Party. It was later that
the party merged with the Socialist Party of India to form the Praja Socialist Party.
 Spirituality:-
o Following his defeat in the 1971 parliamentary elections, he eventually ended his
parliamentary career and switched to being a spiritual leader.
o He spent the decade of 1970s working for the preservation and conservation of
natural surroundings.

Kamaladevi Chattopadhyay
Background:-

 Kamaladevi was an Indian social reformer and freedom fighter. She was most remembered
for her contribution to the Indian independence movement for being the driving force
behind the renaissance of Indian handicrafts, hand looms, and theater in independent
India; and for upliftment of the socio-economic standard of Indian women by pioneering
the co-operation.

Contribution:-

 Crafts:-
o Kamaladevi Chattopadhyay has long been recognised in India as the person chiefly
responsible, after Independence, for the revival of the country’s variegated crafts
traditions and for drawing critical attention to ‘tribal art’.
o She is generally viewed as an authority on Indian handicrafts, but Chattopadhyay
played no less a role in nurturing craftspersons and shaping the cultural institutions
that in independent India would be charged with promoting dance, drama, theatre
crafts, music, puppetry, pottery and textiles.
o She stressed the significant role which handicrafts and cooperative grassroot
movements play in the social and economic upliftment of the Indian people.

21
  It was her abiding interest in creating solidarity among the colonised people which
makes her an especially inspirational figure.
o She continued not only to represent India as an emissary but also offered a prescient
articulation of the idea of the Global South.
o Chattopadhyay’s writings on Asia, Africa and the Global South in the 1940s point
to different facets of her interest in the people of Asia and Africa and their histories.
‘The Struggle of Viet Nam against French Imperialism’ shows her grasp over the
history of colonialism in Vietnam.
o Chattopadhyay is clear in its critique of the failure of the Left in France to ally itself
with Vietnamese nationalists agitating for independence.
o She was equally unsparing towards the Japanese. ‘The Awakening of Asia’ warns
against Japan’s attempts to position itself as the vanguard of pan-Asianism.

Raja Ramohan Roy

Background:-

 Raja Ram Mohan Roy is considered as the pioneer of modern Indian Renaissance for the
remarkable reforms he brought in the 18th and 19th century India. The elements of
modernity in him and the break with tradition are of help to discover Rammohan Roy’s
image as the ‘Father of Modern lndia’.
Contribution of Raja Ram Mohan Roy:-

 Social reforms:-
o The abolition of the brutal and inhuman Sati Pratha was the most prominent.
o His efforts were also instrumental in eradicating the purdah system and child
marriage.
o Raja Ram Mohan Roy’s name is thus etched forever as a true benefactor of women
not just for helping abolish the custom of Sati, but also raising his voice against
child marriage and polygamy, while demanding equal inheritance rights for
women.
o He was also a great opponent of the rigid caste divisions of his time.
o He worked for the improvement in the position of women. He advocated widow
remarriage and education of women.
 Educational:-
o He paved the way to revolutionizing education system in India by establishing
Hindu College in 1817 along with David Hare which later went on to become one
of the best educational institutions in the country producing some of the best minds
in India.
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 o His efforts to combine true to the roots theological doctrines along with modern
rational lessons saw him establish the Anglo-Vedic School in 1822 followed by
the Vedanta College in 1826.
 Philosophical:-
o In 1828, Ram Mohan Roy formed the Brahmo Samaj, uniting the Bhramos in
Calcutta, a group of people, who had no faith in idol-worship and were against the
caste restrictions.
o He looked back to a tradition in search of monotheism, and looked forward to a
sort of Protestant reformation within the Hindu milieu.
o He implied that every religion has a philosophical core, and as for Hinduism
it was Vedanta .The Vedanta provided him with the cultural category while
his interpretation of it as monotheistic yielded a comprehensive, holistic
theory, which provided a comprehensive critique of culture, society and ideology.
o Raja’s monotheistic Vedanta provided people with an idea of the paradigms of
social change e.., why one paradigm is better than another. It enabled people
to consider the comparative adequacy of ways of life that might claim people’s
allegiance. In such humanitarian vision lies Raja’s lure and his share in India’s
modernity.

o He stressed on rationalism and modern scientific approach.

 Journalistic Contributions
o Ram Mohan Roy was a staunch supporter of free speech and expression. He
fought for the rights of vernacular press.
o He also brought out a newspaper in Persian called ‘Miratul- Akhbar’ (the Mirror
of News) and a Bengali weekly called ‘Sambad Kaumudi’ (the Moon of
Intelligence).
Conclusion:-

 Raja Ram Mohan Roy and his Brahmo Samaj played a vital role in awakening Indian
society to the pressing issues plaguing society at that time and also was the forerunner of
all social, religious and political movements that happened in the country since.

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 Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel
Background :-

 Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, the Iron Man of India, also considered to be the architect of
modern India, has been in news recently with the recent inauguration of his statue named
“statue of unity” in Gujarat.
 Modern Indian history is incomplete without Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel. His vision, his
work, and his principles were highly remarkable in Independent India
Contribution of Sardar patel:

 Integrating India:

o When India became independent in 1947, Sardar Patel took over the role as a deputy
PM at a time when Indian history was in a very critical stage.
o In a truly masterful display of statesmanship, Sardar Patel ensured a smooth
integration of the troubled domains by not allowing the situation to deteriorate
into civil unrest. There was neither bloodshed nor any kind of rebellion as he went
about the task of building a strong India with a missionary zeal.
o He played an important role in bringing the 565 self-governing princely states and
territories into the Indian federation.
o Adopting different approaches as warranted by the situation, he gave friendly
advice in some cases, persuaded the rulers to see reason in others and even used
force as in the case of Hyderabad
o He drew a new map of India with every princely State being a part of the Indian
union and thus, paved the way for cultural unity and harmony.
o Sardar Patel worked with astonishing speed to dismantle the history of imperialism
and create the geography of unity with the spirit of nationalism. He saved India
from Balkanization and integrated even the weakest of limbs into the national
framework.

 Civil services in Independent India:

o According to many, the actual acknowledgment for the formation of the Indian
Civil Service in free India goes to Sardar Patel. His argument led to form a
groundwork for Unified National Administration. Patel had the vision to create a
strong and vibrant administrative system

 Concern about border security:

o Patel conceptualized some of the greatest policies to keep India secured from
border countries’ attack. He wanted India to focus on :-

24
  The need for strengthening defense force.
 Examining and reshuffling the military position in various borders.
 Strengthening Northern and North-Eastern frontier.
 Improvement of transport and communication in these border areas.

 The roots of Amul can be traced back to his vision for empowering local communities,
particularly women. It was Sardar Patel who also popularized the idea of cooperative
housing societies, thus ensuring dignity and shelter for man
 Patel’s lasting contribution was protecting the Indian constitution from the ogre of
communal electorates.
 He was a major driving force behind the liberal industrial policy resolution of 1948.
 Patel was among the few to see the dangers from China’s imminent takeover of Tibet.
Conclusion:-

 With this it can be safely concluded that, Sardar Vallabhai Patel’s contribution to the
Integration of India, his vision of a newly born state was unmatched and none of the
contemporaries could have lived up to the requirements of the time better than him.

Bankim Chandra Chatterjee

Background:-

 Bankim Chandra Chatterjeewas an Indian writer, poet and journalist. He is widely

regarded as a key figure in literary renaissance of Bengal as well as the broader Indian
subcontinent.
 Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay was more than just the father of the Indian national
song. He was a celebrated writer, poet and journalist. He’s considered to be the father of
the Bengali novel.
Contribution:-

 Chattopadhyay’s earliest publications were in Ishwar Chandra Gupta’s weekly newspaper

Sangbad Prabhakar. His first fiction to appear in print was Rajmohan’s Wife. It was
written in English and is regarded as the first Indian novel to be written in English
 The most noteworthy contribution Bankim made to the nationalistic imagination was
the political novel Anandamath which was based on the ‘sannyasi rebellion’ of the late
18th century.

25
 o It was in Anandamath, that Bankim wrote the poem ‘Vande Mataram’. The novel
made Bankim an influential figure on the Bengali renaissance who kept the people
of Bengal intellectually stimulated through his literary campaign.
o The novel became synonymous with India’s struggle for freedom from the British.
o Vandemataram song:-
 The song became popular when the British tried to divide Bengal on
religious lines. It was the song for a nation seeking to free itself from the
shackles of imperialism.
 Addressed to Mother Bengal, the song in a sense represents a stage in the
transition from regional patriotism to a nationalism more broadly
conceived.
o He raised nationalism to the level of religion by identifying the Motherland with
the Mother-Goddess.
o He also founded a monthly literary magazine, Bangadarshan, in 1872, through
which Bankim is credited with influencing the emergence of a Bengali identity and
nationalism.
 Bankim Chandra wanted the magazine to work as the medium of
communication between the educated and the uneducated classes at a time
English had become the language of communication between the educated
class, widening the gulf between the higher and lower ranks of society.
o Partly from a feeling of nationalism, he crossed over to Bengali and embarked on
the project of creating the first modern corpus of Bengali. He also wrote
Kapalkundala, Mrinalini,
o The problem of culture was the main preoccupation of Bankim for he believed that
the proper cultivation of all the faculties resulting in action and knowledge was the
natural function of man
Conclusion:-

The fact that Vandemataram song and Bankim’s works continue to be referred to even today and
controverted and defended shows that his impact on our historical imagination was great and he
continues to be relevant in our times.

26
 Indian soldiers 1st world war

Background:-

 The First World War (1914–18) was a momentous event in world history. It also left a
deep impact on India, which was then under the British rule.
Contribution of Indian soldiers to world war 1:-

Volunteering:-

 India made a huge contribution to Britain’s war effort. It sent staggering numbers of
volunteers to fight and die on behalf of the allied forces.
 Almost 1.5 million Muslim, Sikh and Hindu men from regions such as the Punjab, Uttar
Pradesh, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu and Bihar volunteered in the Indian Expeditionary
Force , which saw fighting on the Western Front, in East Africa, Mesopotamia, Egypt and
Gallipoli.
 Volunteering offered a chance to break through the caste system, because becoming a
soldier paid well and meant becoming part of the ‘warrior’ caste, which gave high status.

 Military:-
o India contributed with more soldiers than Australia, Canada, New Zealand and
South Africa combined. In fact, every sixth soldier fighting for the Biritsh Empire
was from the Indian subcontinent. Nearly 800,000 combatants took part in the war.
o Indian troops of the 15th Cavalry Brigade formed the largest component of allied
forces that fought and liberated Palestine from four centuries of despotic Turkish
rule.
o It was Indian jawans(junior soldiers) who stopped the German advance at Ypres in
the autumn of 1914, soon after the war broke out, while the British were still
recruiting and training their own forces. At the First Battle of Ypres, Khudadad
Khan became the first Indian to be awarded a Victoria Cross.
o While India remains wary of ‘treaty alliances’ and steers clear of combat
involvement in third-party conflicts, it is the third-largest contributor of military
and police personnel to UN peacekeeping missions.
o Over one million Indian troops served overseas, of whom 62,000 died and
another 67,000 were wounded. In total at least 74,187 Indian soldiers died during
the war.
o In World War I the Indian Army fought against the German Empire in German
East Africa and on the Western Front.

27
 o Indian divisions were also sent to Egypt, Gallipoli and nearly 700,000 served in
Mesopotamia against the Ottoman Empire.
o While some divisions were sent overseas others had to remain in India guarding
the North West Frontier and on internal security and training duties.
o In addition to the regular Indian Army, the armies of the Princely States and
regiments of the Auxiliary Force (European volunteers) could also be called upon
to assist in an emergency.
Role of princely states:-

o The Maharaja of Mysore gave Rs 50 lakh towards the Indian war fund.
o The Maharaja of Scindia gave to the government an interest-free loan of Rs
50 lakh. There were numerous other contributions in cash and kind made
by the Indian princes.

o The end of World War I did not see the end of fighting for the Indian Army as they
were involved in the Third Afghan War in 1919,and then the Waziristan
Campaign in 1919–1920 and again in 1920–1924. Operations against
the Afridis in 1930–1931 and finally just before the outbreak of World War II
operations in Waziristan again in 1936–1939.
 Lives lost:-
o 53,486 Indian soldiers lost their lives, 64,350 were wounded and 3,762 went
missing or were imprisoned
 Labor:-
o Not just combatants, there were 43,737 men who worked in the Indian Labour
Corps

 Ammunition:-

o Within weeks of the war being declared, India also supplied 70,000,000 rounds
of small arms ammunition, 600,000 rifles, motors and machine guns.

 Financial help:-

o India provided Rs 457 crore or about ₤305 million to the war effort at the time.
The contributions made were in the nature of military expenditure for five
years, financial contribution to the British treasury, including Indian war
loans, payment of interest on war loans, and contributions to various war
funds, etc.

 Awards won:-
o Indian soldiers won 11 Victoria Cross honors, Britain’s highest military honor.
Overall 13,000 medals were won by the Indian Corps.

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Conclusion:-The British Cabinet in 1917, made a historic declaration setting out the goal
of British government in India, and the subsequent proposals were contained in Montague–
Chelmsford report. However India was not mentioned a single time as a top-of-mind association
with the First World War among the 1,215 UK survey respondents. Having made huge sacrifices
and demonstrated military valor equal to that of European soldiers, Indians widely expected a
transition to self-government but were dashed by the extension of martial law at the end of the
conflict. British belied Indian expectations of self-rule. The oppressors remained oppressors, as
demonstrated by the Jallianwala Bagh massacre which was committed by a British official in 1919,
a few months after the war was over.

29