Coordinate Measuring Machines

CMM: https: //www.youtube.com/watch?v=844UiRBVxlY

CMM Probe: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vDK43eAq3Yc

1. Coordinate metrology is concerned with the measurement of the

actual shape and dimensions of an object and comparing these
with the desired shape and dimensions, as might be specified on a
part drawing.

2. In this connection, coordinate metrology consists of the evaluation

of the location, orientation, dimensions, and geometry of the part
or object.

3. A coordinate measuring machine (CMM) is an electromechanical

system designed to perform coordinate metrology.

4. A CMM consists of a contact probe that can be positioned in three-

dimensional (3-D) space relative to the surfaces of a workpart; and
the x , y, and z coordinates of the probe can be accurately and
precisely recorded to obtain dimensional data concerning the part 721
Sec. 23.4 i Coordinate Measuring Machines
geometry. The technology of CMMs dates from the mid-1950s .

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Figure Fig.: Coordinate

23.3 Coordinate measuring
measuring Machine.
machine

Historical Note 23.2 C o o r d i n a te m e a s u r in g m a c h in e s [2 J

In the mld-1950s. applications of numerical control (NC) technology were growing (Hisrori-
cal Note 6.1t A part that took hours to produce by conventional machining methods could be
machined in minutes on an I'iC machine. The problem was that it still required hours to inspect
the part by traditional measuring techniques. Among those who recogni7ed this problem was
Harty Ogden, chief engineer at Ferranti, Ltd.. a company producing NC machines in Scotland
 5. To accomplish measurements in 3-D, a basic CMM is composed of
the following components:

i. Probe head and probe to contact the workpart surfaces

ii. Mechanical structure that provides motion of the probe in

three Cartesian axes and

iii. Displacement transducers to measure the coordinate values

of each axis

6. In addition, many CMMs have the following components:

 Drive system and control unit to move eaeh of the three axes

 Digital computer system with application software

CMM Construction

In the construction of a CMM, the probe is fastened to a mechanical

structure that allows movement of the probe relative to the part. The
part is usually located on a worktable that is connected to the structure.

The two basic components of the CMM:

 Probe

 Mechanical structure.

Probe:

The contact probe is a key component of a CMM. lt indicates when

contact has been made with the part surface during measurement. The
tip of the probe is usually a ruby ball. Ruby is a formot corundum
(aluminum oxide), whose desirable properties in this application include
high hardness for wear resistance and low density for minimum inertia.
Probes can have either a single tip or multiple tips (as shown in fig.)
Sec. 23.4 I Coordinate Measuring Machines

r P m " " ..,

.S " m
..---
r
Tip (ruby ball)
-c.,

F i g u r e 2 3 .4 Contact probe configurations: (a) single tip and (b) mul-

Fig.: Contact
tiple tipsprobe
. configuration, single tip & multiple tips.

Most probes todayuses

• The trigger area piezoelectric
touch-trigger sensorprobes, whicha actuate
that generates signal basedwhen the orprobe
on tension
compression loading of the probe.
makes contact with the part surface. Commercially available touch-
trigger probes utilize
Immediately any ofis made
after contact various
betweentriggering
the probe andmechanisms,
the surface of the including
object,
the coordinate positions of the probe are accurately measured by displacement transduc-
the following:
ers associated with each of the three linear axes and recorded by the CMM controller.
Common displacement transducers used on CMMs include optical scales, rotary encoders,
i. Themagnetic
and trigger is [2].
scales based on a highly
Compensation sensitive
is made for the radius electrical contact
of the probe tip,as switch
indicat-
ed in our Example 23.1, and any limited overtravel of the probe quill due to momentum is
that emits a signal when the tip of the probe is deflected from its
neglected. After the probe has been separated from the contact surface, it returns 10 its
neutral
neutral position.
position.

ii. EThe
X A M P trigger
LE 2 3 .1 D i m e n s i o n a l when
actuates M e a s u r eelectrical
m en t w i t h Pcontact
r o b e T I p C is
o m pestablished
e n sa tio n between
The part dimension L in Figure 23.5 is to be measured. The dimension is aligned
the probe and the (metallic) part surface.
with the x-axis, so it can be measured using only x-coordinate locations. When
the probe is moved toward the part from the left, contact made at x = 68.93 is
iii. The trigger
recorded uses a piezoelectric
(mm). When sensor
the probe is moved that
toward the generates
opposite side of the a
partsignal
based on tension or compression loading of the probe.

Immediately after contact is made between the probe and the surface of
the object, the coordinate positions of the probe are accurately measured
by displacement transducers associated with each of the three linear
axes and recorded by the CMM controller. After the probe has been
separated from the contact surface, it returns to its neutral position.

Mechanical Structure:
Figure 23.5 Setup for CMM measurement. in Example 2:.U
There are various physical configurations for achieving the motion of
the probe. Each with its relative advantages and disadvantages. Nearly
all CMMs have a mechanical configuration that fits into one of the
following six types. illustrated in Fig. below.
 Mechanical Structure There are various physical configurations for achieving the
motion of the probe.each with its relative advantages and disadvantages. Nearly all CMMs
have a mechanical configuration that fit~ into one of the following six types. illustrated in
Figure 23.6:

Id l le i In
F i g u r e 23.6 ,SiXtypes of C M M construction: (a) cantilever, (b) moving bridge,
Fig.: Six types
(c) of
fixedCMM
bridge, construction:
(d) horizontal arm (a) cantilever,
(moving ram type), (b) moving
(e) gantry, and ( bridge,
f)
column.
(c) fixed bridge, (d) horizontal arm (moving ram type), (e) gantry, and
(f) column.

(a). Cantilever:

In the cantilever configuration, illustrated in Fig.(a), the probe is

attached to a vertical quill that moves in the z-axis direction relative
to a horizontal arm that overhangs a fixed work table. The quill can
also be moved along the length of the arm to achieve y-axis motion,
and the arm can be moved relative to the work- table to achieve x-axis
motion.

The advantages of this construction are:

(1) convenient access to the worktable.

(2) high throughput-the rate at which parts can be mounted and

measured on the CMM.

(3) capacity to measure large workparts (on large CMM,). and

 (4) relatvely small floor space requirements. Its disadvantage is lower
rigidity than most other CMM constructions.

(b) Moving bridge:

In the moving bridge design. Fig.(b), the probe is monnted on a

bridge structure that is moved relative to a stationary table on which
is positioned the part to be measured. This provides a more rigid
structure than the cantilever design and its advocates claim that this
makes the moving bridge CMM more accurate. However, one of the
problems encountered with the moving bridge design is yawing (also
known as walking), in which the two legs of the bridge move at
slightly different speeds, resulting in twisting of the bridge. This
phenomenon degrades the accuracy of the measurements. Yawing is
reduced on moving bridge CMMs when dual drives and position
feedback controls are installed for both legs. The moving bridge
design is the most widely used inindustry. It is well suited to the size
range of parts commonly encountered in production machine shops.

(c) Fixed bridge:

In this configuration, Fig. (c), the bridge is attached to the CMM bed
and the worktable is moved in the x-direction beneath the bridge. This
con- struction eliminates the possibility of yawing, hence increasing
rigidity and accuracy. However, throughput is adversely affected
because of the additional mass involved to move the heavy worktable
with part mounted on it.

(d) Horizontal arm:

The horizontal arm configuration consists of a cantilevered horizontal

arm mounted to a vertical column. The arm moves vertically and in and
out to achieve y-axis and z-axis motions. To achieve x-axis motion, either
the column is moved horizontally past the worktable (called the moving
ram design), or the work- table is moved past the column (called the
moving table design). The moving ram design is illustrated in Fig.(d).
The cantilever design of the horizontal arm configuration makes it less
rigid and therefore less accurate than other CMM structures. On the
positive side, it allows good accessibility to the work area. Large
horizontal arm machines are suited to the measurement of automobile
bodies, and some CMMS are equipped with dual arms so that
independent measurements can be taken on both sides of the car body at
the same time

(e) Gantry:

This construction, illustrated in Fig.(e), is generally intended for in-

specting large objects. The probe quill (z-axis) moves relative to the
horizontal arm extending between the two rails of the gantry. The
workspace in a large gantry type CMM can be as great as 25 m (82 ft) in
the x-direction by 8m (26 ft) in the y-direction by 6 m (20 ft) in the z-
direction.

(f). Column:

This configuration, in Fig.(f), is similar to the construction of a machine

tool. The x- and y-axis movements are achieved by moving the
worktable, while the probe quill is moved vertically along a rigid
colnmn to achieve z-axis motion.

Machine vision:

Machine vision can be defined as the acquisition of image data, followed

by the processing and interpretation of these data by computer for some
useful application. Machine vision (also called computer vision, since a
digital computer is required to process the image data) is a rapidly
growing technology, with its principal applications in industrial
inspection.

Vision systems are classified as being either 2-D or 3-D. Two-

dimensional systems view the scene as a 2-D image. This is quite
adequate for most industrial applications, since many situations involve
a 2-D scene, Examples include dimensional measuring and gaging,
verifying the presence of components, and checking for features on a flat
(or semiflat) surface. Other applications require 3-D analysis of the
scene, and 3-D vision systems are required for this purpose.
a c h in e V is io n 739

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a n d d ig L llz a llo n a n d a n a ty s i,

Camera

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F i g u r e Fig.:
2 3 .1 G Basic
Basicfunctions
functions of
ofaamachine
machine vision
vision system.

The operation of a machine vision system can be divided into the

following
more than ten to three functions:
one [7). Our discussion will emphasize the simpler 2-D systems, although
many of the techniques used fur 2-D are also applicable in 3-D vision work
(1) image acquisition and digitization.
The operation of a machine vision system can be divided into the following three
functions: ( 1 ) image
(2) image acquisition
processing and and digitization.
analysis, and (2) image processing and analysis, and
(3) interpretation. These functions and their relationships are illustrated schematically in
Figure (3) interpretation.
23.10

Image Acquisition and Digitization:

23.6.1 Image Acquisition and Digitization
Image acquisition and digitizanon is accomplished using a video camera
Image andacquisition and digitizanon
a digitizing system toisstore
accomplished
the image using
dataa video camera andanalysis.
for subsequent a digitizing sys-
tem to Thestore camera
the image is data tor subsequent
focused analysis.ofThe
on the subject camera and
interest. is focused
an Image on theis subject
of interest.
obtained and an byImage is obtained
dividing by dividing
the viewing the viewing
area into a matrix area of into a matrix
discrete of discrete
picture
picture elements
elements (called(called pixelsj.fn
pixels) inwhichwhicheacheach
element has a has
element valuea that
valueis proportional
that is to
the light tntersity 01 that
proportional portion
to the 01 intensity
light the scene. The intensity
of that value toforthe
portion eachscene.
pixel isThe
converted
into itsintensity
equiv alentvalue digitalfor
value
eachhy pixel
an ADC (Section 5.3).
is converted Theitsoperation
into equivalent of viewing
digital a scene
consisting
value of abysimple
an ADC.object The
that operation
contrasts suhstantially
of viewing with its background,
a scene consisting and of adividing
the scene into aobject
simple corresponding matrix of
that contrasts picture elements.
substantially with isitsdepicted in Figureand
background, 23.11
The flg u n ;
dividing illustrates
the scene intothe likely Image obtainedmatrix
a corresponding from ofthepicture
simplestelements.
type of vision
is sys
tern. called
depicted a bmarj- vision
in Fig. system.In binary v i s i o n . the light intensity of each pixel,~ ulti-
below.
mately reduced to either of two values. white or black. depending on whether the light
intensity exceeds a given threshold level.A mort sophisticated vision system is capable ot
distinguishing and storing different shades of gray I I I the image. This is called a g r a y - s c a l e
system. This type of system can dercrrnme not only an object's outline and area charac-
teristics, but also it~ surface characteristics such as texture and color. Gray-seale vision sys-
tcms typically use 4. 6. or R hits of rneruury, Fight bits corresponds to 2~ = 256 intensity
levels, which ts generally marl' levels than the video camera can really distinguish and cer-
 Chap, 23 I Inspection Technologies

Fig. Dividing the image into a matrix of picture elements, where each
F i g u r e 23.11 Dividing the image into a matrix of picture elements,
element has a light intensity value corresponding to that portion of the
where each element has a light intensity value corresponding to that
image: (a) portion
the scene; of the (b) 12 (a)
image: x 12 the matrix
scene; (b)superimposedon
12 x 12matrixsuperimposed the scene; and
(c) pixel intensity
o n t h e s c e n values,
e ; a n d ( c ) either
p i x e l i n black
t e n s i t y or
v a l uwhite,
e s , e i t h e r for
b l a the
c k o scene.
r w h ite , [o r
the scene.
Image Processing and Analysis:
in a frame is performed with a frequency of 30 times per second (typical in the United
The second function in the operation of a machine vision system is
S ta te s , 2 5 tim e s p e r s e c o n d in E u r o p e a n v is io n s y s te m s ),
image processing and analysis. The data for each frame must be
analyzed Typeswithin of Cameras. the time Tho required
types of cameras to complete are used in one machine scan (1/30
vision sec). A
applications:
number
vidicon cameras of techniques (the type used haveforbeen television)developed for analyzing
and solid-state cameras. the Vidicon image data
cameros
o p e r a t e b y f o c u s i n g t h e i m a g e o
in a machine vision system. One category of techniques in image n t o a p h o t o c o n d u c t i v e s u r f a c e a n d s c a n n i n g t h e s u r f a c e w ith
an electron beam to obtain the relative pixel values, Different areas on the photoconduc-
processing and analysis is called segmentation. Segmentation technique
tive surface have different voltage levels corresponding to the light intensities striking the
are
areas. intended
The electron to define
beam follows and separatea well-defined regions scanningof interestpattern, in within the image.
effect dividing the
Two
surfaceofinto thea common large numbersegmentation of horizontal lines, techniques and readingare theThresholding
lines from top-to-bottom. and edge
detection. Thresholding involves the conversion of each pixel intensity
Each line is in turn divided into a series of points. The number of points on each line, mul-
tiplied by the number of lines, gives the dimensions of the pixel matrix shown in Figure
level into a binary value, representing either white or black. This is done
23.11. During the scanning process, the electron beam reads the voltage level of each pixel.
by com- paring the intensity value at each pixel with a defined threshold
Solid-state cameros operate by focusing the image onto a 2-D array of very small,
value.
finely spaced If the pixel value
photosensitive is greater
elements. than the eJementsfonn
The photosensitive threshold, ittheismatrix given the
of pix-
binary
els shownbitin value Figure of white,
23.11. say 1; if
An electrical less ISgenerated
charge than the defined by each element threshold, according thentoit
is given the bit value of black, say 0. Reducing the image to binary form
by means of thresholding usually simplifies the subsequent problem of
defining and identifying objects in the image. Edge detection is
concerned with determining the location of boundaries between an
object and its surroundings in an image. This is accomplished by
identifying the contrast in light intensity that exists between adjacent
pixels at the borders of the object. A number of software algorithms have
been developed for following the border around the object.

Interpretation:

For any given application, the image must be interpreted based on the
extracted features. The interpretation function is usually concerned with
recognizing the object, a task termed object recognition or pattern
recognition. The objective in these tasks is to identify the object in the
image by comparing it with predefined models or standard values. Two
commonly used interpretation techniques are template matching and
feature weighting. Template matching is the name given to various
methods that attempt to compare one or more features of an image with
the corresponding features of a model or template stored in computer
memory. The most basic template matching technique is one in which
the image is compared pixel by pixel with a corresponding computer
model. Within certain statistical tolerances, the computer determines
whether the image matches the template. One of the technical difficulties
with this method is the problem of aligning the part in the same position
and orientation in front of the camera to allow the comparison to be
made without complications in image processing.

Feature weighting is a technique in which several features (e.g., area,

length, and perimeter] are combined into a single measure by assigning
a weight to each feature according to its relative importance in
identifying the object. The score of the object in the image is compared
with the score of an ideal object residing in computer memory to achieve
proper identification.
 Laser Scanning Systems.

Video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EWge9zhOZRU

Concept Notes:
https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/f566/c9d2c90f471c63a4ac8802c49de9e9

1 ~ t
e4577b.pdf

746 Chap. 23 I Inspection Technologies

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Laser Output

(par1size)

Figure
Fig.: 23.13 Diagram
Diagram of scanning laser
of scanning laser device.
device

are used for welding and cutting of materials, and low-energy lasers are utilized in various
measuring and gaging situations.
The unique The scanningfeature of a falls
laser device laserinto (laser stands
the latter category.for As light
shown in amplification
the diagram of by
Figure 23.13. the scanning laser uses a laser beam
stimulated emission of radiation) is that it uses a coherent beam that is deflected by a rotating mirroroftolight
produce a beam of light that can be focused to sweep past an object. A photodetector on
that can be projected with minimum diffusion. Because of this feature,
the far side of the object senses the light beam except for the time period during the sweep
lasers
when i have been byused
t is interrupted in This
the object. a number
time period of can beindustrial
measured with processing
great accura- and
measuring applications. High-energy laser beams are used for
cy and related tu the size of the object in the path of the laser beam. The scanning laser welding
beam
device can complete its measurement in a very short time cycle. Hence, the scheme can be
and cutting of materials,
applied in high-production
and low-energy
on-line/post-process
lasers are utilized in various
inspection or gaging. A microprocessor
measuring
counts the time andinterruption
gaging situations.
of the scanning laser beam as it sweeps past the object.makes
the conversion from time to a linear dimension, and signals other equipment 10 make ad-
The scanning
justments in the laser deviceprocess
manufacturing falls into
and/or the latter
activate category.
a sortation deviceAs on shown
the produc-in the
tion line. The appltcatiuns of the scanning laser technique include rolling mill operations,
diagram of Fig. the scanning laser uses a laser beam that is deflected by
wire extrusion, and machining and grinding processes.
a rotating mirror to produce a beam of light that can be focused to
sweep Linear
past Array Devices. The operation of a linear array for automated inspection is
an object. A photo detector on the far side of the object
similar in some respects to machine vision, except that the pixels are arranged in only one
senses the rather
dimension light than
beam two. except for diagram
A schematic the time period
showing one during the sweepof when
possible arrangement a
it is interrupted by the object. This time period can be measured with
linear array device is presented in Figure 23.l4.The device consists of a light source that
emits a planar sheet of light directed at an object. On the opposite side of the object is a
great accuracy and related to the size of the object in the path of the laser

-" \, iT h
beam. The scanning laser beam device can complete its measurement in
Linear
a very short time cycle. Hence, the scheme can be applied in high-

li" "
'o u r " "
,~ !
F i g u r e 2 3 .1 4 Operation of a linear array
production on-line/post-process inspection or gaging. A microprocessor
counts the time interruption of the scanning laser beam as it sweeps past
the object, makes the conversion from time to a linear dimension, and
signals other equipment to make adjustments in the manufacturing
process and/or activate a sortation device on the production line.