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Geodynamics Lecture 2: Plate Tectonics: Observa7ons and The Role of Geodynamics
Geodynamics Lecture 2: Plate Tectonics: Observa7ons and The Role of Geodynamics
Geodynamics Lecture 2: Plate Tectonics: Observa7ons and The Role of Geodynamics
Lecture 2
2400 km
1100 km
Core:
-‐
mainly
iron,
+
impuri7es
(Ni,
Si…)
-‐liquid
outer
region
-‐solid
inner
region
But
the
idea
of
“con7nental
dri[”
wasn’t
seriously
considered
as
a
scien7fic
theory
un7l
1912
(Wegener)
Alfred
Wegener
(1912):
•
Con7nents
on
either
side
of
Atlan7c
seem
to
fit
together
• Geologic
structures
and
plant
and
animal
fossils
found
on
matching
coastlines
on
opposite
sides
of
the
ocean
• Discovery
of
fossils
of
tropical
plants
(coal
deposits)
in
Antarc7ca
-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐>
con7nents
must
have
“dri[ed”
Wegener’s
con7nental
dri[
theory
“supercon7nent”
Pangea
began
to
break
up
around
225-‐200
million
years
ago
• Wegener’s
theory
was
not
well-‐received
despite
all
the
suppor7ng
evidence
• Problems
raised
by
cri7cs:
– What
kinds
of
forces
could
be
strong
enough
to
move
con7nents
around?
– Con7nents
could
not
“plow
through
the
solid
ocean
floor”
without
breaking
up
• Hotly
debated
for
decades
a[er
Wegener’s
death
(and
we’re
s7ll
arguing
over
the
driving
mechanisms)
The
post-‐Wegener
debate
Some
arguments
regarding
a
driving
mechanism
for
con7nental
dri[:
•
Holmes
(1928):
C.D.
supported
by
convec7on
currents
driven
by
radioac7ve
heat
genera7on
• Pekeris
(1935):
did
a
mathema7cal
study
of
convec7on
and
showed
veloci7es
similar
to
es7mates
of
rates
of
C.D.
(~1
cm/year)
More
evidence
for
con7nental
dri[…
1)
Evidence
of
glacia7on
during
Permian
(260
Myr)
and
Carboniferous
(300
Myr)
in
equatorial
regions
(recognized
because
of
erosion
of
rocks)
• 2)
Early
paleomagne7c
work
(Blackeg
–
analysis
of
the
Deccan
Traps
in
India:
basalt
erup7on
“freezes”
magne7c
field
vector
as
it
cools
–
looks
like
India
was
travelling
south
as
you
go
back
in
7me.
Did
Earth’s
magne7c
pole
wander,
or
did
India
wander??
3)
Himalayan
gravity
survey
*Mistakes??
1)
both
con7nents
and
oceans
sink;
2)
ocean
floor
created
when
con7nents
split
–
so
that
MOR’s
are
fragments
of
broken
con7nent
4)
Later
paleomagne7c
w ork
( 1950’s-‐1960’s)
Review:
magne7c
field
of
Earth
Magnitude
of
dipole
field
at
Earth’s
surface
Non-‐dipole
field
defini7on:
Magne7c
field
vector
B
B
=
H
+
Z
Geographic
North
Horizontal
(H
)
i
B
Z
φ
H
i
=
inclina7on
East
Φ
=
declina7on
By
measuring
inclina7on
i
at
any
loca7on,
we
can
calculate
our
la7tude
(exercise)
• As
rocks
cool,
the
ambient
magne7c
field
direc7on
is
“locked
in”
• Rock
sample
in
the
field:
measure
inclina7on
i,
can
calculate
the
loca7on
of
the
magne7c
north
pole
(all
rocks
of
the
same
age
on
the
same
con7nent
should
show
the
same
pole
loca7on)
• Looking
at
rocks
of
different
ages
–
magne7c
pole
appears
to
“wander”
Fossil
record
Magne7sm
and
the
Earth s
magne7c
field
Paleomagne7sm
Magne7c
reversals
The
topography
of
the
seafloor
Age
of
the
seafloor
Seafloor
spreading
+
deep
trenches,
wide
belts
of
seismic
ac7vity
–
consump7on
zones
-‐
Fracture
zones
in
the
sea
floor?
Plate
tectonics:
a
synthesis
of
ideas
• Once
the
theory
was
in
place,
other
phenomena
could
be
explained:
e.g.
forma7on
of
Hawaii
• Extrapola7ng
back
in
7me:
mul7ple
cycles
of
opening
and
closing
of
the
oceans
and
forma7on
of
supercon7nents:
The
“Wilson
Cycle”
Tuzo
Wilson
(1965)
“those
features
(mountain
belts,
MORS,
fracture
zones,
island
arcs,
trenches,
etc…)
are
not
isolated,
that
few
come
to
dead
eonds,
but
they
are
connected
into
a
con7nuous
network
of
mobile
belts
about
the
Earth
which
devide
the
surface
into
several
large
rigid
plates”
Post
plate-‐tectonic
view
of
the
earth
…
A
DYNAMIC
PLANET!
Phase
boundary
Density
increases
Upper
mantle:
0-‐670
km
depth:
-‐lithosphere
0-‐100
km
{
{
Cold,
rigid
(olivine)
-‐450
km-‐670:
transi7on
zone
(phase
change
olivine-‐>spinel)
Lower
mantle:
-‐670-‐2900
km
depth
-‐Another
phase
change:
“post-‐spinel”
Region
of
plate
crea7on
Region
of
plate
destruc7on
Lithosphere:
cold,
rigid,
broken
into
many
pieces
which
move.
Defined
by
T~1600K
The
lithosphere
in
detail
• ~
top
100
km
of
Earth
• Can
have
different
characteris7cs
in
con7nental
and
ocean
environments.
Ocean
layer
(2-‐7
km)
Oceanic
lithosphere
(young,
thin)
1) Oceanic
system
Sub-‐lithospheric
mantle
(only
difference
is
temperature)
The
lithosphere
in
detail
2)
Con7nental
system