Geodynamics Lecture 2: Plate Tectonics: Observa7ons and The Role of Geodynamics

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Geodynamics

 Lecture  2  

Plate  tectonics:  observa7ons  and  the  


role  of  geodynamics  
World  topography  and  bathymetry  
World  seismicity  and  volcano  map  
Topography  of  S.  America  
Volcano  map  of  South  America  
Pre-­‐plate  tectonic  view  of  the  Earth  
…  STATIC!  
5-­‐65  km  
2900  km  

2400  km  

1100  km  

Core:  
 -­‐  mainly  iron,  +  impuri7es  (Ni,  Si…)  
 -­‐liquid  outer  region  
 -­‐solid  inner  region  

Mantle:  iron,  mg  silicate  


Crust:  “skin”  of  the  Earth  –  high  in  Si  

(based  on  seismological  observa7ons  –  e.g.  Gutenberg,  1959)  


History  of  plate  tectonics  
As  early  as  16th  century,  some  suspected  that  the  Earth  was  not  sta7c  (Dutch  mapmaker  
 Abraham  Ortelius  no7ced  how  well  South  America  and  Africa  seemed  to  “fit”  

But  the  idea  of  “con7nental  dri[”  wasn’t  seriously  considered  as  a  scien7fic  theory  
   un7l  1912  (Wegener)  
Alfred  Wegener  (1912):    
•    Con7nents  on  either  side  of  Atlan7c  seem  to  fit  
together  
•  Geologic  structures  and  plant  and  animal  fossils  found  
on  matching  coastlines  on  opposite  sides  of  the  ocean  
•  Discovery  of  fossils  of  tropical  plants  (coal  deposits)  in  
Antarc7ca  
-­‐-­‐-­‐-­‐-­‐-­‐-­‐>  con7nents  must  have  “dri[ed”  

   
Wegener’s  con7nental  dri[  theory  

“supercon7nent”  Pangea  
began  to  break  up  around  
225-­‐200  million  years  ago  
•  Wegener’s  theory  was  not  well-­‐received  
despite  all  the  suppor7ng  evidence  
 
•  Problems  raised  by  cri7cs:  
–  What  kinds  of  forces  could  be  strong  enough  to  
move  con7nents  around?  
–  Con7nents  could  not  “plow  through  the  solid  
ocean  floor”  without  breaking  up  
 
•  Hotly  debated  for  decades  a[er  Wegener’s  
death  (and  we’re  s7ll  arguing  over  the  driving  
mechanisms)  
 
The  post-­‐Wegener  debate  
Some  arguments  regarding  a  driving  mechanism  
for  con7nental  dri[:  
•    Holmes  (1928):  C.D.  supported  by  convec7on  
currents  driven  by  radioac7ve  heat  genera7on  
 
•  Pekeris  (1935):  did  a  mathema7cal  study  of  
convec7on  and  showed  veloci7es  similar  to  
es7mates  of  rates  of  C.D.  (~1  cm/year)  
More  evidence  for  con7nental  dri[…  
1)  Evidence  of  glacia7on  during  Permian  (260  
Myr)  and  Carboniferous  (300  Myr)  in  equatorial  
regions  
(recognized  because  
 of  erosion  of  rocks)  
 
•  2)  Early  paleomagne7c  work  (Blackeg  –  
analysis  of  the  Deccan  Traps  in  India:  basalt  
erup7on  “freezes”  magne7c  field  vector  as  it  
cools  –  looks  like  India  was  travelling  south  as  
you  go  back  in  7me.  Did  Earth’s  magne7c  pole  
wander,  or  did  India  wander??  
3)  Himalayan  gravity  survey  

Actual  deflec:on  (low-­‐density  root  


below  the  mountain)  

Expected  deflec:on  of  plumb  line  


(gravita7onal  agrac7on  from  mass  of  
mountain  

Light  crust  “floa7ng”  over  heavy    


Substratum?  So  it  can  “dri[”  over  it  
BUT…..  
•  Some  remaining  problems:  
–  Light  con7nental  crust  s7ll  has  to  “plow”  through  the  
solid  mantle  lithosphere?  
–  Driving  mechanisms  forcing  the  con7nent  to  move??  
–  Why  don’t  we  see  ocean  floor  “gouges”  where  the  
con7nents  plowed  through?  
–  What  about  trenches?  So  far  none  of  this  explains  the  
trenches  
–  Why  aren’t  some  oceans  old?  They’re  all  younger  than  
150  Myr  
 
•  1928:  Holmes  proposed  driving  mechanism  
–  Basalt  layer  like  a  conveyor  belt  carrying  the  con7nents  
–  Conveyor  belt  driven  by  convec7on  cells,  basalt  layer  
consumed  as  it  enters  the  underlying  mantle  

*Mistakes??          1)  both  con7nents  and  oceans  sink;    2)  ocean  floor  created  when  con7nents  
split  –  so  that  MOR’s  are  fragments  of  broken  con7nent  
4)  Later  paleomagne7c  
 
w ork   ( 1950’s-­‐1960’s)  
Review:  magne7c  field  of  Earth  
Magnitude  of  dipole  field  at  Earth’s  surface  
Non-­‐dipole  field  
 
defini7on:    Magne7c  field  vector  B  
B  =  H  +  Z  
 
 
Geographic   North   Horizontal  (H  )  
i  
  B  
Z  

φ   H    
i  =  inclina7on  

East  

Φ  =  declina7on  
By  measuring  inclina7on  i  at  any  loca7on,  
 we  can  calculate  our  la7tude  (exercise)  
•  As  rocks  cool,  the  ambient  magne7c  field  direc7on  is  
“locked  in”  
•  Rock  sample  in  the  field:  measure  inclina7on  i,  can  
calculate  the  loca7on  of  the  magne7c  north  pole  (all  
rocks  of  the  same  age  on  the  same  con7nent  should  
show  the  same  pole  loca7on)  
•  Looking  at  rocks  of  different  ages  –  magne7c  pole  
appears  to  “wander”    

Assume  the  con7nents  are  


sta7onary:    
Plot  posi7on  of  magne7c  pole  vs  
7me  
-­‐>  apparent  polar  wander  (apw)  
curve  for  con7nents  
What  moved??  The  con7nent  or  
the  dipole  axis?  
Apparent  polar  wander  
•  Calculate  loca7on  of  magne7c  North  based  on  
the  inclina7on  i  of  the  remnant  magne7za7on  
of  the  rock  
•  Do  this  with  rocks  of  varying  ages  on  the  same  
con7nent  
•  Get  a  path  showing  the  apparent  loca7on  of  
magne7c  North  as  it  wanders.  
•  Back  to  the  ques7on:  how  do  we  know  that  
the  con7nent  moved,  and  not  the  magne7c  
north?  
Key:  look  at  other  con7nents!  
•  Rocks  from  all  con7nents  showed    
evidence  of  polar  wander  

•  BUT:  APW  paths  were  different    for  


EVERY  con7nent!!  

•  Assuming  there  is  only  one  


magne7c  north  pole  on  earth…  the  
con7nents  must  have  moved  
rela7ve  to  each  other.    
 

•  First  quan:ta:ve  evidence  for  C.D.  


•  Allows  us  to  map  past  con:nent  movements  
•  Paleo-­‐reconstruc:ons  
 
Further  quan7ta7ve  observa7ons  
•  Seismology  and  studies  of  the  ocean  (1940’s-­‐1950’s)  
•  Ship  survey  observa7ons:    
–  Uniform  composi7on  of  oceanic  basalts  
–  No  ocean  sediments  older  than  180  Myr  
–  Fossil  evidence  showing  age  increases  with  distance  from  
MOR  
–  Thin  or  no  sediment  near  MOR  (increase  as  you  move  
away)  
–  Worldwide  system  of  MOR  and  trenches:  mean  depth  of  
ridge  (2500  m),  and  mean  depth  of  oceans  (4500  m)  
–  BUT:  depth  of  trenches:  6-­‐10  km!!  
–  Heat  flow  high  near  ridge,  decreasing  as  you  move  away  
 
Topography of the Atlantic

Also,  in  the  1950s,  it  was  discovered  


that  an  underwater  mountain  range  
ran  north-­‐south  in  the  middle  of  the  
Atlan7c  Ocean  
The  Mid-­‐Atlan7c  Ridge  rises  as  high  
as  2  kilometers  above  the  abyssal  
plain  
Harry  Hess:  history  of  ocean  basins  
•  1962  –  paper  presen7ng  theory  of  mid-­‐ocean  
ridges  

•  Morley,  Vine,  and  Maghews:  linked  this  idea  


with  the  the  discovery  of  magne7c  reversals  –  
suggested  that  the  seafloor  should  show  
stripes  of  remnant  magne7za7on  
Magnetic Reversals
About  a  century  ago,  a  sequence  of  lava  flows  were  found  in  France  
where  some  of  the  flows  had  the  north  and  south  poles  reversed  
 
 
 
 
 
Magnetic Reversals

Occur  on  an  irregular  basis  ranging  in  7me  from  


tens  of  thousands  of  years  to  millions  of  years  
Magnetic Striping on Seafloor

In  the  1950s,  the  Atlan7c  Ocean  seafloor  


was  found  to  consist  of  alterna7ng  
stripes  of  normal  and  reversely  
magne7zed  rocks  
Morley,  Vine  and  Maghews  
hypothesis:  

magne7c  striping  =>    


seafloor  spreading  
Morley,  Vine  and  Maghews  
hypothesis  
•  From  da7ng  lava  flows  we  can  calculate  7ming  
between  reversals  
•  Knowing  7me  between  reversals…  width  of  
seafloor  “bands”  tell  you  seafloor  spreading  
rates  (found  to  be  different  on  the  different  
ridges).  Vine  and  Maghews  es7mate:  1-­‐8  cm/
year  
Seafloor  spreading  hypothesis  
explained…  
•  The  uniform  composi7on  of  oceanic  basalts  
(because  they  came  from  the  same  source)  
•  Why  ocean  age  increases  with  distance  from  
ridge  
•  Why  thin  or  no  sediment  near  ridge,  increasing  
with  distance  from  ridge  
•  Why  no  sediments  older  than  180  Myr  on  the  
ocean  (they  all  eventually  get  subducted)  
•  Explains  heat  and  topography  profile  of  ocean  
floor  (will  cover  in  detail  later)  
•  Explains  shallow,  moderate  seismicity  at  ridges  
 
Accumula7ng  Evidence  

Fossil  record  
 
 
Magne7sm  and  the  Earth s  magne7c  field  
Paleomagne7sm  
 
Magne7c  reversals  
The  topography  of  the  seafloor  
 
Age  of  the  seafloor  
Seafloor  spreading  
+  deep  trenches,  wide  belts  of  seismic  ac7vity  –  consump7on  zones  
-­‐  Fracture  zones  in  the  sea  floor?  
Plate  tectonics:  a  synthesis  of  ideas  
•  Once  the  theory  was  in  place,  other  phenomena  could  
be  explained:  e.g.  forma7on  of  Hawaii  
•  Extrapola7ng  back  in  7me:  mul7ple  cycles  of  opening  
and  closing  of  the  oceans  and  forma7on  of  
supercon7nents:  The  “Wilson  Cycle”  
 
Tuzo  Wilson  (1965)  
“those  features  (mountain  belts,  MORS,  fracture  zones,  
island  arcs,  trenches,  etc…)  are  not  isolated,  that  few  
come  to  dead  eonds,  but  they  are  connected  into  a  
con7nuous  network  of  mobile  belts  about  the  Earth  
which  devide  the  surface  into  several  large  rigid  plates”  
Post  plate-­‐tectonic  view  of  the  earth  
…  A  DYNAMIC  PLANET!  
Phase  boundary  
Density  increases  
Upper  mantle:  0-­‐670  km  depth:  
 -­‐lithosphere  0-­‐100  km   {  

{  
Cold,  rigid  (olivine)  
 -­‐450  km-­‐670:  transi7on  zone    
(phase  change  olivine-­‐>spinel)  
   

Lower  mantle:  
-­‐670-­‐2900  km  depth  
-­‐Another  phase  change:  
 “post-­‐spinel”  
Region  of  plate  crea7on   Region  of  plate
destruc7on  
 

Lithosphere:  cold,  rigid,  broken  into  many  pieces  which  move.  Defined  by  T~1600K  
The  lithosphere  in  detail  
•  ~  top  100  km  of  Earth  
•  Can  have  different  characteris7cs    
in  con7nental  and  ocean  environments.   Ocean  layer  (2-­‐7  km)  
 

Thin  crust  (2-­‐3  km)  

Oceanic  lithosphere    
(young,  thin)  

1) Oceanic    system  
 

Sub-­‐lithospheric  mantle    
(only  difference  is  temperature)  
The  lithosphere  in  detail  
2)  Con7nental    system  
 

Con:nental  crust:  old,  thick  (10-­‐50  km),  high  Si  content  

Con:nental  lithosphere:  old,  thick  (200  km)  

-­‐Plate  tectonics  explains  why  these  


2  environments  are  so  different!!!!  
No7ce  the  “root”  

Mohorovičić    discon7nuity  (MOHO):  boundary  between  crust  and  lithosphere  


Plate  boundaries  
1)  Subduc7on  zones  (oceanic-­‐oceanic):  plates  
are  destroyed  (one  plate  descends  into  mantle)  
Oceanic  lithosphere  

One  “plate”  may  contain  


both  oceanic  and  
con7nental  lithosphere!   (con7nental)  
Don’t  need  to  equate  
each  plate  with  only  one  
of  these  
Plate  boundaries  

1)  Subduc7on  zone:  ocean-­‐con7nent  

Q:  why  does  the  


oceanic  lithosphere  
always  descend  
below  the  
con7nent  
(and  not  the  other  
way  around?)  
Plate  boundaries  
2)  Mid  ocean  ridges:  oceanic  lithosphere  created  
at  a  “spreading  centre”  

Q:  what  causes  this  


topography    
(i.e.  why  lower  topography   Plate  2   Plate  1  
as  you  move  away  from  
the  ridge?  
Plate  boundaries  
•  3)  Transform  fault  (neutral  boundary):  plate  
neither  created  nor  destroyed  
Plate  mo7on  is  parallel  to  the  plate  boundary  
What  happens  when  con7nent  meets  con7nent?  
The  plate-­‐tectonic  system  

Far  from  the  plate  boundaries  the  lithosphere  is  rigid  

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